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PRIVATE  LIBRAR 
RICHARD  C.  HAL'. 


MflMMl 


CYCLOP.4  blA 

V 


OF 


THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL 


-^•. 


LITERATURE. 


PREPARED   BY 


THE  REV.  JOHN  M'CLINTOCK,  D.D., 

AND 

JAMES  STRONG,  S.T.D. 
Vol.  V^— K,  L,  Mc. 


PRIVATE  UBRARY 
f^'CHARD  C  kALVERSOK 

NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN    SQUARE. 

*  18  8  2, 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1873,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the   Librarian   of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE    TO    VOL.  V. 


Op  this  volume,  as  of  that  which  immediately  preceded  it,  the  editorial  responsi- 
bility and  general  supervision  have  rested  upon  Dr.  Strong.  He  has,  however,  been 
greatly  aided  by  Professor  Wormax,  who  has  continued  to  assist  in  the  department 
left  incomplete  by  the  late  Dr.  McClintock.  Professor  Schem  has  likewise  rendered 
important  aid,  chiefly  in  national  history  and  statistics.  The  comprehensive  scope 
and  detailed  character  of  the  work,  as  a  trustworthy  book  of  reference  on  all  relig- 
ious topics,  have  been  maintained  Avithout  change,  except  such  improvements  as  ex- 
perience in  its  progress  has  suggested.  Increased  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
non-Christian  religions  and  nationalities,  as  the  advance  of  missionary,  scientific,  and 
mercantile  exploration  has  made  them  more  and  more  the  subjects  of  public  notice 
and  interest.  The  vocabulary,  in  the  branches  of  philosophy,  ethics,  and  memoirs, 
will  also  be  found  to  be  somewhat  more  full,  and,  we  trust,  not  less  satisfactory,  than 
heretofore. 

The  contributions  of  the  numerous  assistants  and  special  collaborators  are  indicated 
by  their  initials  appended  to  their  respective  articles.  The  following  is  a  complete 
list  of  contributors  to  this  volume  only.  Other  eminent  names,  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad,  have  been  secured  for  the  future  volumes,  and  will  be  announced  in  due 
time. 

S.  L.  B.— The  Kev.  S.  L.  Baldwin,  A.M.,  missionary  to  China. 
C.  R.  B.— The  Rev.  C.  R.  Barnes,  A.M.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

C.  B. — Charles  Bruchhausen,  IVLD.,  Ph.D.,  Norwich,  N.  Y. 
J.  K.  B.— The  Rev.  J.  K.  Burr,  D.D.,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

H.  A.  B. — Professor  H.  A.  Buttz,  A.jNI.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

T.  W.  C— The  Rev.  T.  W.  Chambers,  D.D.,  New  York  City. 

G.  R.  C— The  Rev.  George  R.  Crooks,  D.D.,  editor  of  the  Methodist,  New  York. 

D.  D. — The  Rev.  Daniel  Devinne,  Morrisania,  New  York. 

E.  H.  G.— Professor  E.  H.  Gillett,  D.D.,  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

D.  R.  G.— The  Rev.  D.  R.  Godwin,  D.D.,  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Divinity  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

J.  T.  G. — The  Rev.  J.  T.  Gracey,  A.M.,  missionary  editor  of  the  Northern  Christian  Advocate. 

J.  D.  H.— J.  D.  Hammond,  A.B.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

G.  F.  H.— Professor  George  F.  Holjies,  LL.D.,  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 

R.  II.— The  Rev.  R.  Hutcheson,  A.M.,  Washington,  Iowa. 

D.  P.  K. — Professor  D.  P.  Kidder,  D.D.,  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 

C.  P.  K. — Professor  Charles  P.  Krautii,  D.D.,  of  the  Lutheran  Divinity  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

J.  F.  M.— The  Rev.  J.  F.  Marlay,  Dayton,  Ohio. 

G.  M.— The  Rev.  George  Miller,  B.D.,  Wallpack  Centre,  N.  J. 

E.  B.  O.— The  Rev.  E.  B.  Otheman,  A.M.,  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y. 
N.  P.— President  Noah  Porter,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  of  Yale  College. 
J.  N.  P. — Mr.  Jules  N.  Proeschel,  late  of  Paris,  France, 

E.  de  P.— The  Rev.  E.  de  Puy,  AM.,  New  York  City. 

J.  D.  R.— The  Rev.  J.  D.  Rose,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  Summit,  N.  J. 

A.  J.  S. — Professor  A.  J.  Schem,  editor  of  the  Dmtsch-amerikanisches  Conversalions-Lexikon. 

E.  de  S. — The  Right  Rev.  E.  de  Schweinitz,  D.D.,  bishop  of  the  Moravian  Church,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

L.  E.  S. — Professor  L.  E.  Smith,  D.D.,  of  the  Exmniner  and  Chronicle,  New  York. 

J.  L.  S.— The  Rev.  J.  L.  Sooy,  A.B.,  Titusville,  N.  J. 

M.  L.  S.— The  late  Professor  M.  L.  Stoever,  D.D.,  of  Pennsylvania  College. 

G.  L.  T.— The  Rev.  George  L.  Taylor,  A.M.,  Hempstead,  L.  L 

W.  J.  R.  T.— The  Rev.  W.  J.  R.  Taylor,  D.D.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

N.  v.— The  Rev.  N.  Vansant,  of  the  Newark  Conference. 

C.  W. — Professor  C.  Walker,  D.D.,  of  the  Theological  Seminary,  Alexandria,  Va. 

T.  D.  W.— The  Rev.  Theodore  D.  Woolsey,  D.D.,  late  president  of  Yale  College. 

J.  H.  W. — Professor  J.  H.  Worjian,  A.M.,  late  librarian  of  the  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 


LIST  OF  WOOD-CUTS  IN  VOL.V. 


The  Kaaba  nt  Mecca Page     1 

Figniea  on  Rocks  at  Kanah 11 

Ancient  Egyptian  Key 59 

Interior  of  Khan  at  Aleppo 09 

Month  of  the  Kishon Ill 

English  Merlin 113 

Red  Kite 113 

Fignre  of  Kneph 1'25 

Ancient  Etruscan  Knife 126 

Ancient  Egyptian  Knives 126 

Varions  Ancient  Knives 126 

Egyptian  Flint  Knives 127 

Egyptian  Slanghtering-knives 127 

Ancient  Assyrian  Knives 127 

Border  of  Assyrian  Slab 135 

Krishna  trampling  on  the  Serpent.  161 

Serpent  biting  Krishna's  Heel 165 

Roman  Labarum 177 

Monogram  of  Christ 177 

Attack  of  Lachish  by  Assyrians. . .  ISl 
Assyrian  Ground-plan  of  Lachish.  ISl 
Jewish  Captives  from  Lachish. . ..  1S2 

Ancient  Egyptian  Ladder 190 

Ancient  Assyrian  Ladders 191 

Figure  of  the  Dalai  Lama 202 

Agnus  Dei 206^ 

AncientEgyptian  Cylindrical  Lamp  220 

Bronze  Lamp  and  Stand 221 

Various  Ancient  Egyptian  Lamps.  221 

Ancient  Assyrian  Lamps 221 

Classical  Hand-lamps 221 

Classical  Hanging  Lamps 221 

Oriental  Wedding  Lantern 222 

Oriental  Hanging  Lamps 222 

Enlarged  View  of  the  Kandll 222 

Egyptian  Knives  and  Lancets 225 

Lancet-window 225 

Ancient  Roman  Lantern 235 

Modern  Oriental  Lantern 235j 

Ancient  Egyptian  Lantern 235' 

Ordinary  Eastern  Lantern 235 

Architectural  Lantern  of  St.  Helen's  235 

Copper  Coin  of  Laodicea 237 

The  Hoopoe 240, 


The  Pewit Page  246 

Lattice  Window  at  Cairo 26S 

Lattice-work  at  Cairo 269 

Specimen  of  the  Laudian  MS 275 

Lavatory  at  Selby 2S0 

The  Laver,  after  Theuius 2S1 

The  Laver,  according  to  Paine 282 

Costume  of  a  Lazarist 300 

Ancient    Egyptians    working    in 

Leather. .' SOS 

View  of  Lebanon 310 

A  suppliant  Native  of  Lebanon...  314 

Felling  Trees  on  Lebanon 314 

Lectern  at  Ramsay  Church 317 

The  Leek 324 

Trigonella  Fcenuvi-Grcecum 324 

Ancient  Legionary  Soldiers 329 

Ancient  Egyptians  cooking  Len- 

tiles 347 

The  Lentile 34S 

Syrian  Panther 370 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  I,  a 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  I,  6 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  II 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  III 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  IV 394 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  V 395 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  VI,  ot 395 

Levitical  City,  Diagram  VI,  b 395 

Egyptian  Gnat  magnified 422 

Aquilaria  Aijallochum 428 

The  Water-lily 432 

White  Lily 433 

Scarlet  Martagou 434 

African  Lion 446 

Claw  in  Lion's  Tail 446 

Persian  Lion 447 

Lion  at  Arban 447 

Lion  let  out  of  a  Cage 447 

Egyptian  Hunting  with  a  Lion  —  448 

A  Lion  devouring  a  Man 448 

Ancient  Egyptian  Palanquin 455 

Modern  Persian  Palanquin 455 

Syrian  Double  Palanquin 455 


Camel  bearing  the  Hodaj Page  4.55 

Chamceleo  Vulgaris 469 

Lacerta  Stellio 470 

Ancient  Roman  Bread 472 

Ancient  Egyptian  Bread 472 

Modern  Egyptian  wooden  Lock. . .  477 

(Edipoda  Migrator ia 484 

Acridiuvi  Lineola 485 

Acridiuvi  Peregrinum 485 

Locust  flying 485 

Dried  Locusts 486 

Locust-eating  Bird 486 

"Lot's  Wife" 521 

Coin  of  Lycia 584 

Lych-gate  at  Blackford  Church.. . .  584 
Persepolitau  Emblem  of  Macedon.  617 

Coins  of  Macedonia 61S 

Mosque  at  Hebron 021 

Ancient  Egyptian  Cuirass 059 

Jews'  Mallow 684 

Sea-purslane 684 

Vicinity  of  Abraham's  Cemeterv..  6ST 

Map  of  Mauasseh— East 090 

Map  of  Manasseh— West 691 

A  tro])a  Mandragora  Ojjicinarum. . .  700 

Tamarix  Gallica 712 

A  Ihagi  Maurorum 712 

Modern  Egyptian  Mantle 718 

Specimen  of  Odessa  MS 722 

Specimens  of  Greek  MSS 72S 

Maronite  Sheik  and  Wife 769 

Table  of  Prohibited  Marriages 779 

Mohammedan  Bridal  Procession, .  79T 

Figure  of  Mars 812 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots 849 

Rock  of  Massada 850 

Mask  Corbel 853 

Masonry  at  Hebron 858 

Pistacia  Lentisciis 871 

Mater  Dolorosa ( 872 

Ancient  Egyptian  Hoes 902 

Ancient  Throw-sticks 903 

Coin  of  Masimin  1 916 

Coin  of  Masimin  II 917 


i^ 


C  YC  L  0  P^  D I  A 


OF 


BIBLICAL,  THEOLOGICAL,  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATUKE. 


K. 


Kaab,  a  celebrated  Arabian  poet,  author  of  one  of 
the  seven  poems  which  were  suspended  in  tlie  temple 
of  IMecca,  was  originally  a  strenuous  opponent  of  Mo- 
hammed, whose  doctrines  and  person  he  satirized.  He, 
however,  recanted  by  writing  a  poem  in  honor  of  the 
prophet.  As  a  reward,  the  prophet  gave  him  his  green 
mantle,  which  one  of  the  descendants  of  Kaab  sold  for 
ten  thousand  pieces  of  silver.     He  died  in  602. 

Kaaba  (Arabic  Al-Kaahah,  "Square  House,"  or, 
more  properly,  now  Beit-Alluh,  "House  of  God")  is 
the  name  of  an  oblong  stone  building  inclosed  in  the 
great  mosque  at  Mecca.  From  time  immemorial  tra- 
dition makes  Mecca  to  have  been  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
from  all  parts  of  Arabia  "  within  a  circuit  of  a  thousand 
miles,  interrupted  only  by  the  sea.  The  Kaaba,  the 
Black  Stone,  and  other  concomitants  of  worship  at  !Mec- 
ca  have  a  similar  antiquity"  (Muir,  Mahomet,  i,  211). 
There  are  intimations  of  the  Kaaba  to  be  found  in  He- 
rodotus and  Diodorus  Sicidus.  It  certainly  existed  be- 
fore the  Christian  rera  (Sir  W.  Jones,  Works,  x,  35G ;  BI. 
C.  de  Percival,  i,  74 ;  ii,  532).     See  Mecca. 

Oriffin  ami  Histoi-y. — IMr.  Muir  (ii,  34)  thinks  the 
,  Kaaba  to  be  of  Yemen  origin,  and  to  have  been  connect- 
\'l  with  the  systems  of  idolatry  prevalent  in  the  south- 
eX'  jiortion  of  the  Arabian  ])eninsiUa.  The  Mussulmans 
say  that  Adam  first  worshipped  on  this  spot,  after  his 
expulsion  from  Paradise,  in  a  tent  sent  down  from  heav- 
en for  this  purpose.  Seth  substituted  for  the  tcift  a 
structure  of  clay  and  stone,  which  was,  however,  de- 
stroyed by  the  Deluge,  but  afterwards  rebuilt  by  Abra- 
ham and  Ishmael.  But  this  tradition  may  have  arisen 
in  connection  with  a  traditional  Jewish  inscription  found 
on  a  stone  in  the  Kaaba  about  forty  years  before  Jloham- 
med,  and  which  would  suggest  the  possibility  that  some 
remote  Abrahamic  tribe  acquainted  Avith  SjTiac  may 
have  been  at  an  early  period  associated  with  aboriginal 
Ai-abs  in  the  erection  of  the  Kaaba.  Some  have  sup- 
posed it  to  have  been  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Saturn 
(Zohal).  Certain  it  is  that  it  has  been  the  holy  em- 
blem at  different  periods  of  four  different  faiths.  Sa- 
bxan,  Hindu,  Gueber,  and  Moslem  have  all  held  it  ia 
veneration  (Burton,  iii,  IGO).  According  to  tlie  Koran, 
it  is  "  tliC  ancient  house,"  the  first  house  built  and  ap- 
pointecl  for  God's  worship  (Sale's  Koi-an,  p.  276),  and  the 
guardianship  of  it  was  by  express  revelation  given  to 
Othman  (Sale,  p.  167). 

It  was  originally  without  a  roof,  and,  having  suffered 
material  damage  by  a  flood,  was  considered  to  be  in 
danger  of  falling.  The  treasures  it  contained  were  con- 
sidered insecure,  and  some  of  them  were  alleged  to  have 
been  stolen.  In  A.D.  605  Mohammed  rebuilt  the  edi- 
fice, but  in  A.D.  1626  it  was  again  destroyed  by  a  great 
torrent,  and  in  A.D.  1627  was  rebuilt  substantially  after 
its  present  form. 

Slructwe. — It  stands  now  on  a  base  about  two  feet  in 
v.— A 


height,  which  is  a  sharp  inclined  plane ;  and,  as  the  roof 
is  fiat,  the  buililing  becomes  an  irregular  cube,  the  sides 
of  which  vary  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  height,  and 
eighteen  by  fourteen  paces  in  extent.  It  is  inclosed  by 
a  wall  some  two  hundred  and  fifty  paces  on  two  sides, 
and  two  hundred  paces  on  the  others. 

The  Kaaba  has  but  one  door,  which  is  raised  some 
four  or  five  feet  from  the  ground,  and  is  reached  hv  a 
ladder.  It  is  allowed  to  be  entered  only  two  or  three 
times  a  year,  though  it  is  reputed  to  be  susceptible  of  a 
money  influence,  and  to  be  opened  clandestinely  much 
more  frequently.  The  door  is  wholly  coated  with  sil- 
ver, and  has  gilt  ornaments.  Wax  candles  are  Ijurned 
before  it  nightly,  together  with  perfuming-pans  contain- 
ing musk,  aloes,  etc.,  and  other  odorous  substances. 


The  Kaaba  at  Mecca. 

Black  Stone. — The  most  important  feature  of  the  Ka- 
aba is  the  "  Black  Stone,"  which  is  inserted  in  the  north- 


KAABA 


KADESH 


east  comer  oi  the  building,  at  the  height  of  four  or  five 
feet  from  the  ground.  It  is  in  shape  an  irregular  oval, 
about  seven  inches  in  diameter.  Tliere  are  various 
opinions  as  to  the  nature  of  this  stone.  Burckhardt 
supposes  it  to  be  a  "  lava"  stone.  Others  suggest  that 
it  is  an  aerolite.  Muir  calls  it  "  a  fragment  of  volcanic 
salts  sprinkled  with  colored  crj^stals,  and  varied  red 
feldspatli  upon  a  dark  black  ground  like  a  coal,  one  pro- 
tuberance being  reddish."  IJurckhardt  thinks  it  looks 
as  if  it  had  been  broken  into  several  pieces  and  cement- 
ed. He  says,  howe\'er,  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
the  quality  of  it,  because  it  is  so  worn  by  the  millions 
of  kisses  and  touches  of  the  pilgrims.  Muir  says  it  is 
worn  '•  until  it  is  uneven,  and  has  a  muscular  appear- 
ance." It  is  bordered  all  round  with  a  large  plate  of 
silver  about  a  foot  broad.  The  part  or  angle  exposed  is 
semicircular.  So  much  of  the  merit  of  the  Kaaba  de- 
pends on  this  stone  that  at  the  time  of  the  rebuilding 
of  the  edifice  by  Mohammed  a  great  contest  arose  be- 
tween the  families  of  the  Koreish  for  the  honor  of  plac- 
ing it  in  the  new  structure.  Mohammed  settled  this 
dispute  by  placing  it  on  his  own  mantle,  and  causing  a 
chief  of  each  tribe  to  lift  it,  and  then  put  it  himself  in 
its  position  in  the  Kaaba.  See  Kokeish.  Pilgrims, 
on  arrival  at  IVIecca,  proceeding  to  the  Kaaba  and  mak- 
ing the  circuit  of  it,  start  at  the  corner  where  the  black 
stone  is  inserted. 

Fabulous  stories  abound  relative  to  the  black  stone, 
such  as  that  it  was  originally  white,  but  became  black 
because  of  the  silent  and  unseen  tears  which  it  wept  on 
account  of  the  sins  ofwien.  This,  however,  only  affect- 
ed its  exterior.  Others  attribute  its  change  of  color  to 
the  innum(*rable  touches  and  kisses  of  the  pilgrims.  It 
is  one  of  the  precious  stones  of  Paradise,  which  came  to 
earth  with  Adam,  and  was  miraculously  preserved  diu-- 
ing  the  flood,  and  brought  back  to  INIecca  by  the  angel 
Gabriel,  and  given  to  Abraham  to  build  originally  in 
the  Kaaba.  It  was  taken  at  one  time  by  the  Karma- 
thians  (q.  v.),  who  refused  to  release  it  for  five  thousand 
pieces  of  gold,  but  they  finally  restored  it. 

Veilinrj. — There  is  a  custom,  very  remote  in  its  origin, 
of  covering  the  outside  of  the  Kaaba  with  a  veil,  which 
has  at  various  times  been  made  of  Yemen  cloth,  of 
Egyptian  linen,  of  red  brocade,  and  of  black  silk.  To 
supply  it  became  at  one  time  a  sign  of  royalty,  and  it 
was  accordingly  furnished  by  the  caliph  of  Egypt,  and 
later  by  the  Turkish  sultan.  There  seems  to  be  some 
conflict  of  authorities  about  some  things  pertaining  to 
the  custom  of  veiling.  About  one  third  from  the  top 
of  the  veil  is  a  band  about  two  feet  in  width,  embroi- 
dered with  texts  from  the  Koran  in  gilt  letters  (see 
Muir,  ii,  32 ;  Burton,  iii,  295,  300). 

Admission. — Since  the  ninth  year  of  the  Hegira  an 
order  has  obtained  that  none  but  Islamites  shall  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  Kaaba.  Formerly  the  General  Assembly 
of  Ocadh  convened  at  Mecca.  In  it  poets  contested  for 
a.  whole  month  for  prizes,  and  those  poems  to  which 
prizes  were  from  time  to  time  a^\'arded  were  by  public 
order  written  in  letters  of  gold  on  Egj^itian  silk,  and 
hung  up  in  the  Kaaba  (Sale,  p.  20). 

Other  Fetiinres. — In  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Ka- 
aba is  a  smaller  stone,  less  venerated  than  the  above, 
being  touched  only,  and  not  kissed,  by  those  walking 
round  the  Kaaba.  On  the  north  side  of  the  Kaaba  is 
a  slight  hollow,  large  enough  to  admit  three  persons, 
where  it  is  specially  meritorious  to  pray,  it  being  the 
place  where  Abraham  and  Ishmael  kneaded  chalk  and 
mud  for  tlie  original  structure.  From  the  west  side  of 
the  Kaaba  a  water-spout  carries  rain  from  the  roof  and 
pours  it  on  the  reputed  grave  of  Ishmael,  and  pilgrims 
are  not  unfrequently  seen  "  fighting  to  catch  it."  This 
water-spout  is  said  to  be  of  i)ure  gold,  and  is  four  feet 
in  length  and  about  six  inches  in  width.  It  is  declared 
to  have  lieen  taken  to  the  Kaaba  A.II.  981.  The  pave- 
ment round  the  Kaaba  is  a  mosaic  of  many  colored  stones, 
and  was  laid  in  A.H.  ^ii\.  Tliere  is  on  one  side  of  tlie 
Kaaba  a  semicircidar  wall,  which  is  scarcely  less  sacred 


than  the  Kaaba  itself.  The  walk  round  the  Kaaba  is 
outside  this  wall,  but  the  closer  to  it  the  better.  This 
wall  is  entitled  El  Ilattim,  and  is  of  solid  stone,  five  teet 
in  height  and  four  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  incased  in 
wliite  marble,  and  inscribed  with  prayers.  The  Kaaba 
has  a  double  roof,  supported  by  pillars  of  aloe-wood,  and 
it  is  said  that  no  bird  ever  rests  upon  it.  The  whole 
building  is  surrounded  by  an  inclosure  of  columns,  out- 
side which  there  are  found  three  oratories,  or  places  of 
devotion  for  different  sects;  also  the  eilifice  containing 
the  well  Zem-Zem,  the  cupola  of  Abbas,  and  the  Treas- 
ury. All  these  are  further  inclosed  by  a  splendid  colon- 
nade, surmounted  by  cupolas,  steeples,  spires,  crescents, 
all  gilded  and  adorned  with  lamps,  which  shed  a  briUiant 
lustre  at  night.  These  surroundings,  between  M-hich 
and  the  Kaaba  run  seven  paved  causeways,  were  first 
devised  by  Omar  for  the  better  preservation  of  the  Ka- 
aba itself.  According  to  Burckhardt,  the  same  holy 
Kaaba  is  the  scene  of  such  indecencies  as  cannot  with 
propriety  be  particularized ;  indecencies  wliich  are  prac- 
ticed not  only  with  impunity,  but  publicly  and  without 
a  blush.     See  Mohajimedaxisji. 

Since  the  second  year  of  the  Hegira  the  Kaaba  has 
been  for  the  Mussidman  world  the  Kebluh.  or  place  to- 
wards which  all  Moslems  turn  in  prayer.    See  Keblah. 

See  Nari-ative  of  a  nigrimarje  io  El  Medinah  and 
J1/ecc«,byRichardF.  Burton,  vol.  iii  (Loud.  1855)-;  Sale's 
Koran  ;  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet,\o\.  ii  and  iii  (London, 
1858);  Sprenger, /v//e  q/jl/o/iome^,  ii,  7;  'Lay .  De  iempli 
Meccani  orifjine  (Berlin,  1840, 4to).     (J.  T.  G.) 

Kaath.     See  Pelicax. 

Kabbala.     See  Cabala. 

Kabiler  is  the  name  of  a  nephew  of  Brahma,  and 
one  of  India's  greatest  saints.  His  father  was  Karta- 
men,  the  ancestor  of  the  Brahmin  race.  It  is  in.  the 
person  of  this  Hindu  that  Vishnu  took  the  form  of  man 
some  twenty-four  different  times.  See  YoUmer,  Wor- 
tevhuch  der  Mytholofjie,  p.  987. 

Kab'zeel  (Ileb.  Kuhtseel',  ?NS^p,  yaihering  of 
God.  i.  e.  perhaps  confluence  of  waters;  Sept.  Kfl/jiT€)jX 
in  Joshua,  elsewhere  KajSaamjX  v.  r.  Ko/3f  irt /;\,  etc.),  a 
town  on  the  extreme  south  of  Judah,  near  Idunii^a,  and 
therefore  probably  included  witliin  the  territory  of  Sim- 
eon (.Josh.  XV,  21) ;  the  native  place  of  Benaiah  (son  of 
Jehoiada),  one  of  David's  chief  warriors  (2  Sam.  xxiii, 
20:  1  Chron.  xi,  22).  It  was  inhabited  after  the  cap- 
tivit}'  under  the  similar  name  of  Jekabzeel  (Neh.  xi, 
25).  Its  locality  can  only  be  conjectured  as  being  near 
the  edge  of  the  Ghor,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea  (see  Ma- 
sius.  Comment,  on  Josh,  ad  loc).  The  name  and  vicin- 
ity are  probably  stiU  represented  by  the  wady  El-Ku- 
seib,  a  small  winter  torrent  running  into  the  Dead  Sea 
from  the  south  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  497).  Here 
the  boundaries  of  Palestine,  Edom,  and  Moab  would  con- 
verge, as  is  implied  in  the  above  Scripture  references, 
and  the  region  is  still  the  resort  of  wild  animals  (Lynch, 
Jordan,  p.  319;  De  Saulcy,  Dead  Sea,  i,  298),  and  char- 
acterized by  a  deep  fall  of  snow  in  winter  (Burckhardt, 
Sjiria,  p.  402),  as  is  stated  in  the  account  of  Beuaiah's 
adventure  with  the  lion. 

Ka'des.(Kf(c/;c\  a  town  of  Palestine,  apparently  in 
the  south  (Judith  i,9) ;  probably  the  same  as  Kadesh- 
BAKNEA  (q.  v.). 

Ka'desh  (Heb.  Kadesh',  'iJ'y^^,  holy,  perhaps  as  be- 
ing the  site  of  some  ancient  oracle  [compare  the  early 
equivalent  name  "fount  of  judgment"],  Gen.  xiv,  7; 
xvi,  14;  XX,  1 ;  Numb,  xiii,  2(i ;  xx,  1, 14,  IG,  22;  xxvii, 
14;  xxxiii,  36,  37;  Deut.  i,46;  xxxii,  51;  Judg.  xi,  16, 
17;  Psa.  xxix,8;  Ezek.  xlvii,  19 ;  xlviii,28;  Sept.  Ko- 
C)]i:,  but  in  Ezek.  xlvii,  19,  Kaclic  v.  r.  Koo////)  or,  more 
fully,  K  A'DESH-BAK'NEA  (Hebrew  Kadesh  '-Barne'd, 
"3"ia  w"|1p,  the  latter  portion  of  the  name  being  re- 
garded by  Simonis^  Lex.  s.  v.,  as  compounded  of  "i3,  open 
country,  and  i"_3,  icandering ;  Numb,  xxxii,  8;  xxiv,  4; 


KADESH 


KADI 


Deut.  i,2,19;  ii,14;  ix,23;  Josh,  x, 41;  xiv,(;,7;  xv,3; 
Sept.  K-dSi]Q  [roi)]  Booj'//),  a  site  on  the  south-eastern 
border  of  the  Promised  Land,  towards  Edora,  of  much  in- 
terest as  being  the  point  at  whicli  the  Israelites  twice 
encamped  (their  nineteentli  and  thirty-seventh  stations) 
Avith  the  intention  of  entering  Palestine,  and  from  which 
they  were  twice  sent  back ;  the  tirst  time  in  pursuance 
of  their  sentence  to  wander  forty  years  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  tlie  second  time  from  the  refusal  of  the  king 
of  Edom  to  permit  a  passage  through  his  territories.  It 
is  proliable  that  the  term  "  Kadesh,"  though  applied  to 
signify  a  "city,"  yet  had  also  a  wider  application  to  a 
region,  in  which  Kadesh -meribah  certainly,  and  Ka- 
desh-barnea  probably,  indicate  a  precise  spot.  Thus 
Kadesli  appears  as  a  limit  eastward  of  the  same  tract 
which  was  limited  westward  by  Shur  (Gen.  xx,  1).  Shur 
is  possibly  the  same  as  Sihor,  "  which  is  before  Egypt" 
(xxv,  18 ;  Josh,  xiii,  3 ;  Jer.  ii,  18),  and  was  the  first 
jiortion  of  the  wilderness  on  wliich  the  people  emerged 
from  the  passage  of  the  Ked  Sea.  See  Shur.  "Be- 
tween Kadesh  and  Bered"  is  another  indication  of  the 
site  of  Kadesh  as  an  eastern  limit  (Gen.  xvi,  14),  for  the 
point  so  fixed  is  "  the  fountain  on  the  way  to  Shur"  (v, 
7),  and  the  range  of  limits  is  narrowed  by  selecting  the 
western  one  not  so  far  to  the  west,  while  the  eastern 
one,  Kadesh,  is  unchanged.  Again,  we  have  Kadesh  as 
the  point  to  which  the  foray  of  Chedorlaomer  "  return- 
ed"— a  word  which  does  not  imply  that  they  had  previ- 
ously visited  it,  but  that  it  lay  in  the  direction,  as  view- 
ed from  Mount  Seir  and  Paran,  mentioned  next  before 
it,  which  was  that  of  the  point  from  which  Chedorlao- 
mer had  come,  viz.  the  north.  Chedorlaomer,  it  seems, 
coming  down  by  tlie  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
smote  the  Zuzims  (Amnion,  Gen.  xiv,  5;  Deut.  ii,  20), 
and  the  Emims  (Moab,  Deut.  ii,  11),  and  the  Horites  in 
Mount  Seir,  to  the  south  of  that  sea,  luito  "  El-Paran 
that  is  by  the  wilderness."  He  drove  these  Horites 
over  the  Arabah  into  the  Et-Tlh  region.  Then  "  re- 
turned," i.  e.  went  northward  to  Kadesh  and  Ilazezon 
Tamar,  or  Engedi  (comp.  Gen.  xiv,  7 ;  2  Chron.  xx,  2). 
It  was  from  Kadesh  that  the  spies  entered  Palestine  bj' 
ascending  the  mountains :  and  the  murmuring  Israelites, 
afterwards  attempting  to  do  the  same,  \vere  driven  back 
by  the  Amalekites  and  Canaanites,  and  afterwards  ap- 
parently by  the  king  of  Arad,  as  far  as  Ilormah,  then 
called  Zephath  (Numb,  xiii,  17  ;  xiv,  40-45 ;  xxi,  1-3  ; 
Deut.  i,  41-44 ;  compare  Judg.  i,  7).  There  was  also  at 
Kadesh  a  fountain  (Ex-jiishpat)  mentioned  long  be- 
fore the  exode  of  the  Israelites  (Gen.  xiv,  7)  ;  and  the 
miraculous  supply  of  water  took  place  only  on  the  sec- 
ond visit,  which  implies  that  at  the  first  there  was  no 
lack  of  this  necessary  article.  In  memory  of  the  mur- 
murs of  the  Israelites,  this  fountain  afterwards  bore  the 
name  of  "  the  Waters  of  Meribah"  (Deut.  xxxii,  51). 
The  adjacent  desert  was  called  the  "Wilderness  of  Ka- 
desh" (Psa.  xxix,  8).  On  the  second  visit  to  this  place 
iMiriam  died  there,  and  jMoses  sent  messengers  to  the 
king  of  Edom,  informing  him  that  they  were  in  Kadesh, 
a  city  in  the  uttermost  part  of  his  border,  and  asking 
leave  to  pass  through  his  country,  so  as  to  continue 
their  course  round  jMoal),  and  approach  Palestine  from 
the  east.  This  Edom  rei'used,  and  the  Israelites  accord- 
ingly marched  to  Mount  Ilor,  where  Aaron  died;  and 
then  along  the  Arabah  (desert  of  Zin)  to  the  Red  Sea 
(Numb.  XX,  14-29).  The  name  of  Kadesh  again  occurs 
in  describing  the  southern  quarter  of  Judah,  tlie  line  de- 
fining which  is  drawn  "from  the  shore  of  the  Salt  Sea, 
from  the  bay  that  looked  southward;  and  it  went  out 
to  the  south  side  of  Akrabbim,  and  passed  along  to  Zin, 
and  ascended  up  on  the  south  side  to  Kadesh-barnea" 
(Josh.  XV,  1-3 ;  compare  Numb,  xxxiv,  3,  4).  In  Gen. 
xiv,  7  Kadesh  is  connected  with  Tamar,  or  Hazezon  Ta- 
mar, just  as  we  find  these  two  in  the  cf)mparativcly  late 
book  of  Ezeldel,  as  designed  to  mark  the  southern  bor- 
der of  Judah,  drawn  through  them  and  terminating  sea- 
ward at  the  "  river  to,"  or  "  towards  the  great  sea" 
(Ezek.  xlvii,  19;  xlviii,  28).     There  is  one  objection  to 


this  view.  The  Kadesh  from  which  the  spies  were  sent 
was  in  t/ie  wilderness  of  Paran  (Numb,  xiii,  26);  Ka- 
desh-barnea was  in  the  wilderness  of  Zin  (xx,  1).  This 
is  easily  removed.  Paran  was  the  general  name  for  the 
whole  desert  west  of  the  Arabah,  extending  from  Pales- 
tine to  Sinai  (Gen.  xxi,  21 ;  Numb,  x,  12 ;  xii,  10 ;  1 
Sam.  xxv,  1).  It  even  seems  to  have  included  the  Ar- 
abah, reaching  to  the  very  base  of  Mount  Seir  (Gen. 
xiv,  G).  Zin  was  a  specific  name  for  that  part  of  the 
Arabah  which  bordered  on  Edom  and  Palestine  (Numb, 
xiii,  21 ;  xxxiv,  3,  4 ;  Josh,  xv,  1-3).  If  Kadesh  was  sit- 
uated on  the  western  side  of  the  Arabah,  then  it  might 
be  reckoned  either  to  Paran  or  to  Zin ;  or,  if  we  agree 
with  Keil,  Delitzsch,  and  others  (Keil  on  Josh,  x),  that 
Paran  was  the  general  name  for  the  whole,  and  Zin  the 
specific  name  of  a  portion,  the  objection  is  removed  at 
once. — Kitto;  Smith.     Compare  Kedesii,  1. 

To  meet  these  various  indications,  two  places  by  the 
name  of  Kadesh  were  formerly  supposed  to  exist :  but 
the  editor  of  the  Pictorial  Bible  has  shown  (note  on 
Numb.  XX,  1)  that  a  single  Kadesh  would  answer  all 
the  conditions,  if  placed  on  the  western  border  of  the 
Arabah,  opposite  Mt.  Hon  Accordingly,  Dr.  Robinson 
locates  it  ^t  Ain  el-Weheh,  which  he  argues  coincides 
with  all  the  circumstances  mentioned  (^Researches,  ii, 
168).  But  this  is  somewhat  too  distant  from  the  pass 
es-Sufa,  v/hich  is  probably  the  Zephath  where  the  Isra- 
elites encountered  the  Canaanites,  and  on  this  account 
Raumer  has  with  greater  plausibility  fixed  Kadesh  at 
Ain  es-IIasb  (Der  Zug  der  Israeliten,  Leipz.  1843,  p.  9 
sq.).  See  Exode.  Mr.  Rowlands,  who  travelled  through 
this  region  in  1842,  thinks  he  discovered  Kadesh  (as  weU 
as  numerous  other  ancient  localities  in  this  vicinity)  at 
a  place  which  he  calls  Ain  Kudes  (Williams's  Holy  City, 
2d  edit.,  i,  407).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionary  ar- 
gues at  length  in  favor  of  this  position  at  Ain  Gades, 
but  all  his  reasoning  partakes  of  the  character  of  special 
pleading,  and  rests  upon  inconclusive  grounds.  His  only 
real  argument  is  that  Kadesh  appears  to  have  lain  be- 
tween wady  Feiran  (Paran)  and  Engedi  (Hazezon-ta- 
niar),  on  Chedorlaomer's  route  (Gen.  xiv,  7);  but  that 
route  is  given  so  vaguely  that  we  can  lay  no  particular 
stress  upon  it.  The  other  arguments  even  tell  the  other 
way;  especially  do  the  passages  adduced  go  to  show  that 
Kadesh  was  at  the  extreme  east  from  Shur  (Gen.  xx,  1) 
and  el-Arish  (Numb,  xxxiv,  5 ;  Josh,  xv,  5),  and  the  same 
was  the  case  with  Zin  (Numb,  xiii,  21 ;  xxxiii,30).  This 
position  also  is  avowedly  not  only  inconsistent  with  the 
location  of  Huzeroth  at  Ain  Iludheirah,  but  even  re- 
quires us  to  enlarge  the  borders  of  Edom  far  to  the  west 
(Numb.  XX,  10),  and  actually  to  remove  Mt.  Hor  from 
its  well-defined  traditionary  situation  (Deut.  i,  2).  Capt. 
Palmer  has  more  lately  visited  the  site  thus  assumed  for 
Kadesh,  and  particularly  describes  it  {Quart.  Statement 
of  the  "Palestine  Exploration  Fund,"  Jan.  1871,  p.  20 
sq.)  as  "consisting  of  three  springs,  or  rather  shallow- 
pools,  one  of  them  overflowing  in  the  rainy  season ;"  but 
his  advocacy  for  the  identity  adds  no  additional  argu- 
ment. In  fact,  the  agreement  in  the  name  is  the  only 
plea  of  any  force.  This  is  counterbalanced  by  the  scrip- 
tural notices  of  the  position  of  the  place.  See  Dr.  Rob- 
inson, in  the  Bihliotheca  Sacra,  1840,  p.  377  sq. ;  also 
Palmer,  Desert  of  Exodus, ^i.  280;  comp.  Kitto's  Scrip- 
ture Lands,  p.  78-82;  Ritter.  Krdkunde,  xiv,  1077-10S9. 
Schwarz  {Palestine,  p.  23)  endeavors,  from  Rabbinical  au- 
thority, to  locate  Kadesh  at  a  place  named  by  him  wady 
Bierin,  about  forty-five  miles  south  of  Gaza ;  but  his 
whole  theory  is  imaginary,  besides  indicating  a  posi- 
tion too  far  west  for  this  Kadesh,  and  requiring  anotli- 
er  for  En-]\Iishpat  (p.  214),  which  is  stated  by  Euscbius 
and  Jerome  {Onomast.  s.  v.  K(th]c,  B«pi'»';,  Cades)  to 
have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  Mt.  Hor.  From  this  last 
statement  Stanley  (Sinai  and  Palestine,  p.  95)  unwar- 
rantably infers  that  Kadesh  was  identical  with  Petra. 

Kadi  (Arabic)  is  among  the  Mohammedans  the  title 
of  an  assistant  judge  of  civil  law,  and,  like  the  judge 
himself  (niolla),  is  classed  among  the  higher  clergy,  be- 


KADKOD 


KAFFRES 


cause  all  civil  law  of  the  Mussulman  is  based  on  the  Ko- 
ran.    8ee  Koran. 

Kadkod.     See  Agate. 

Kad'miel  (Heb.  Kadmiel',  SX'^^a'll?)  ^''fore  God,  i. 
c.  his  servant;  Sept.  Kai'fiu'jX),  one  of  the  Levites  who 
returned  with  Zerubbabel  from  the  captivity  (Neh.  xii, 
81,  and  assisted  in  the  various  reibrms  of  that  period, 
being  always  named  in  connection  with  Jcshua  (Ezra 
iii,  9 ;  Neh.  vii,  43:  corap.  Ezra  iii,  9) ;  sometimes  only  as 
a  descendant  in  common  of  Hodaviah  (Ezra  ii,40 ;  Neh. 
vii,  43 ;  comp.  Ezra  iii,  9),  but  once  as  a  son  (Neh.  xii, 
24).  The  length  of  time  over  which  these  notices  seem 
to  extend  (B.C.  53G-410)  leads  to  the  suspicion  that 
they  relate  to  two  individuals  (perhaps  a  brother  and 
also  a  sun  of  the  Levite  Jeshua),  one  of  whom  may  liave 
been  concerned  in  the  earlier  events,  and  the  other  in 
the  later. 

I^ad'monite  (Heb.  Kadmoni',  '^3b'7|2,  eastern,  as 
in  Ezek.  x,  19,  etc.,  or  J'ormei-,  as  in  Ezek.  xxxviii,  17, 
etc. ;  only  once  of  a  nation,  collect,  in  the  sing..  Gen.  xv, 
19;  Sept.  K£t)/uiij'oIoi,A"ulg.  Cedmoncei,  A.  V.  '"Kadmon- 
ites"),  the  name  of  a  Canaanitish  tribe,  who  appear  to 
I'.avc  tlwelt  in  the  north-east  part  of  Palestine,  under 
JMount  Hermon,  at  the  time  that  Abraham  sojourned  in 
the  land,  and  are  mentioned  in  a  more  than  ordinaril|r 
full  list  of  the  aborigines  of  Canaan  (Gen.  xv,  19).  As 
the  name  is  derived  from  D'lJ?,  Icedem,  "  east,"  it  is  sup- 
posed by  Dr.AVells  and  others  to  denote  a  people  situ- 
ated to  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  or,  rather,  that  it  was  a 
term  applied  collectively,  like  "Orientals,"  to  all  the 
people  living  in  the  countries  beyond  that  river.  At 
least  it  may  be  a  term  of  contrast  with  the  more  western 
Zidonians.  As  the  term  lik-ewise  signifies  ancient,  it 
may  designate  the  older  or  aboriginal  races  of  that  re- 
gion in'  general,  who  were  recognized  as  the  earliest  in 
origin.  Both  these  explanations  may  be  correct,  as  the 
Kadmonites  are  not  elsewhere  mentioned  as  a  distinct 
nation  ;  and  the  subsequent  discontinuance  of  the  term, 
in  the  assigned  acceptation,  may  easily  be  accounted  for 
by  the  nations  beyond  the  river  having  afterwards  be- 
come more  distinctly  kno\^^^,  so  as  to  be  mentioned  by 
their  several  distinctive  names.  See  Hivite.  The 
reader  may  see  much  ingenious  trifling  respecting  this 
name  in  Bochart  (Canaan,  i,  19) ;  the  substance  of  which 
is  that  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Thebes,  in  Bceotia,  was 
originallj'  a  Kadmonite,  and  that  the  name  of  his  wife, 
Hermione,  was  derived  from  jNIount  Hermon.  By  oth- 
ers the  name  Kadmonites  has  been  extended  as  equiva- 
lent to  "  the  children  of  the  East"  C^lp,  '^.?2),  i.  c.  those 
living  beyond  fhe  Euphrates  (Ewald,  Isr.  Gcsch.  i,  300) 
[see  Bene-Kedem],  and  Keland  {Piih'.<:tiiia,j\  94)  has 
sought  to  identify  them  with  the  Nabatlireans  of  Ara- 
bia; but  these  were  Ishmaelites.  It  was  probably  ap- 
plied collectively  to  various  tribes,  like  the  Saracens  of 
the  jNIiddle  Ages  or  the  Bedouins  of  modern  times  (Bit- 
ter, Erdkunde,  xv,  138).  According  to  Dr.  Thomson, 
the  name  is  still  preserved  among  the  Nusariyeh  north 
of  Tripoli,  who  have  a  tradition  that  their  ancestors 
were  expelled  from  Palestine  by  Joshua,  and  who  seem 
in  physiognomy  and  manners  to  belong  to  the  most  an- 
cient inhabitants  of  the  country  (Land  and  Bool;  i,  24:2'). 
See  Caxaamte. 

Kadroma  is  the  name  of  a  Thibetian  Jewish  divin- 
ity. Strangely  enough,  the  Darwinian  theory  seems  to 
have  been  entertained  at  a  date  considerably  anterior 
to  our  century,  for  this  goddess  the  Thibetians  claim  to 
have  belonged  to  the  ape  race,  and,  after  marriage  to  an 
ape,  to  have  become  the  mother  of  tlie  entire  popidation 
of  Thibet.     See  "\'ollmer,  Wortei-b.  d.  Mythol.  p.  990. 

Kaffres  (from  the  Arabic  Kafir,  infidel,  i.  e.  non-Mo- 
hammedan), a  people  in  south-eastern  Africa,  who  re- 
ceived tliis  name  from  the  Moorish  navigators  of  the  In- 
dian Ocean.  AV'hen  the  Dutch  colonists  came  in  contact 
with  the  most  southern  tribe  of  the  Kaffres,  the  Koosas, 
or  Amalvosa,  the  Moorish  name  was  given  to  them  exclu- 


sively, and  in  this  restricted  sense  it  is  commonly  used 
by  the  Dutch  and  English  colonists.  It  is,  however, 
well  ascertained  that  not  onlj'  the  tribes  now  commonly 
called  Kaffres,  but  the  Tambookies,  Mam  bookies,  Zulus, 
Damaras,  the  inhabitants  of  Delagoa  Bay,  Mozambique, 
and  the  numerous  Bechuana  tribes  who  occupy  the  inte- 
rior of  the  continent  to  an  extent  as  yet  unexplored,  are 
but  subdivisions  of  one  great  family,  allied  in  language, 
customs,  and  mode  of  life.  The  Kaffre  languages  (in 
the  wider  sense  of  the  word)  are  divided  (bj'  Pr.  Mtiller) 
into  an  Eastern,  Middle,  and  Western  group.  The  for- 
mer comprises,  1.  the  Kaft're  languages  (in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  word),  embracing,  besides  the  Kaffre  proper, 
also  the  Zulu  dialect;  2.  the  Zambesi  languages,  em- 
bracing the  languages  of  the  Barotse,  Bayeye,  and  Ma- 
shona;  3.  the  languages  of  Zanzibar,  embracing  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Kisuahih,  Kinika,  Kikamba,  and  the  Ki- 
hian.  The  Middle  group  contains,  1.  the  Sechuana 
languages  (Sesuto,  Serolong,  and  Shlapi);  2.  the  Te- 
keza  languages,  embracing  the  languages  of  the  Manco- 
losi,  Matonga,  and  JIaloenga.  The  AVestern  group  con- 
tains, 1.  the  Bunda,  Ilerero,  and  Londa  languages;  2. 
the  languages  of  Congo,  Mpongwe,  Dikele,  Isuba,  and 
Pernando  Po.  The  Kaffre  languages  are  sonorous,  flexi- 
ble, and  definite.  The  southern  tribes  have  adopted  the 
peculiar  smacking  sounds  of  the  Hottentots,  which  fre- 
quently change  the  meaning  of  words.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  Kaffre  tribes  is  feudal — an  aristocracy  of 
chiefs,  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  sovereign, 
but,  except  on  extraordinary  occasions,  acting  inde- 
pendently of  him.  The  general  chief  is  the  sovereign 
of  the  nation,  and  in  a  council  of  chiefs  is  very  power- 
fid,  and  is  looked  upon  by  all  the  nobles  and  people 
with  luibounded  respect.  The  kraals  (hamlets)  gener- 
ally consist  of  a  dozen  low,  conical  huts,  the  diameter 
of  which  is  no  more  than  about  ten  feet,  into  which  one 
has  to  creep  through  a  low  opening,  closed  during  the 
night  by  trees.  In  the  middle  of  the  hut  is  a  room  for 
the  cattle.  Wars  generallj^  arise  out  of  the  stealing  of 
cattle.  In  personal  appearance  the  Kaffres  are  a  re- 
markably fine  race  of  men.  They  are  of  dark  brown 
color,  have  a  beautiful  and  vigorous  constitution,  dark 
woolly  hair,  a  lofty  front,  and  bent  nose  like  the  Eu- 
ropeans, projecting  cheek-bones  like  the  Hottentots, 
thick  lips  like  the  negroes.  Their  beard  is  thin.  The 
women  are  handsome  and  modest ;  their  clothing  con- 
sists of  cloaks  of  skin,  while  the  men  are  almost  naked. 
They  have  no  national  religion;  tliere  are  some  traces 
of  a  belief  in  a  supreme  being  and  in  subordinate  spir- 
its, but  no  kind  of  religious  worship  and  no  priests. 
They  are  very  superstitious,  and  pay  a  high  tribute  to 
sorcerers.  "  They  have  no  idea,"  says  I'hilip  {South 
Africa,  i,  118),  "of  any  man's  dying  except  from  hun- 
ger, violence,  or  witclicraft."  Like  many  other  savage 
tribes,  they  practice  the  worship  of  their  ancestry, 
"  They  sacrifice  and  pray  to  their  deceased  relatives, 
although  it  woivld  be  asserting  too  much  to  say  abso- 
lutely that  they  believe  in  the  existence  and  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul.  In  fact,  their  belief  seems  to  go 
no  further  than  this,  that  the  ghosts  of  the  dead  haunt 
for  a  certain  time  their  previous  dwelling-places,  and 
either  assist  or  ])lague  the  living.  No  special  powers 
are  attributed  to  them,  and  it  Avould  be  a  misnomer  to 
call  them  deities"  (comp.  Lubbock,  Primilice  Condition 
of  Man,  N.  Y.  1871,  8vo,  ch.  iv  sq.).  They  practice  cir- 
cumcision, but  only  as  a  custon),  not  as  a  religious  rite. 
Polygamy  is  allowed,  and  as  the  heavy  work  is  chiefly 
performed  by  the  women,  it  has  proved  a  great  obstacle 
to  the  introduction  of  Christianity. 

The  various  tribes  of  the  Kaffre  family  are  estimated 
by  Rev.  J.  J.  Preeman,  secretary  of  the  London  Mis- 
sionary Society,  at  2,000,000,  spread  from  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Cajie  Colony  beyond  Delagoa  Bay,  and  then 
across  the  whole  continent,  without  break,  to  the  Atlan- 
tic in  latitude  20^.  A  part  of  the  territory  of  the  Kaf- 
fres, from  which,  ia  particidar,  constant  raids  were  made 
into  English  territorv,  was  annexed  to  the  British  do- 


KAGBOSSUM 


KALDEROX 


minions  under  the  name  of  Queen  Adelaide  province. 
It  was  subsequently  restored  to  the  chiefs  of  the  Kaffres; 
in  1847  it  again  became  an  Enfflish  province,  under  the 
name  of  British  Kaffraria,  and  King  William's  Town,  on 
the  Buffalo  River,  was  made  the  capital  and  the  mili- 
tary head-quarters.  The  capital  has  a  popidation  of 
2760,  the  sea-port,  East  London,  of  2510.  The  population 
of  the  towns  consists  chiefly  of  English  and  German  S3t- 
tlers,  while  the  country  people  are  Kaffres.  In  1857  the 
province  numbered  3942  kraals,  and  had  a  population  of 
101,721,  but  a  terrible  famine,  which  was  caused  by  a  false 
prophet  of  the  name  of  Umhlakasa,  reduced  it  in  1858 
to  1291  kraals,  and  a  population  of  5-^,186.  In  1871  the 
province  embraced  about  3900  sq.  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  90,000.  The  British  influence  more  and 
more  extends  over  Kaffraria  jiroper,  which  is  situated 
between  British  Kaffraria  and  Natal,  and  embraces  about 
14,457  sq.  miles  and  100,000  inhabitants.  North  of  Na- 
tal and  the  Transvaal  republic  extends  the  land  of  oth- 
er Kaffre  tribes,  the  territory  of  which  is  estimated  at 
62,930  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  about  440,000. 
Cape  Colony,  according  to  the  census  of  1865,  had  a  Kaf- 
fre population  of  100,536. 

As  the  Dutch  government  of  Cape  Colony  was  hos- 
tile to  all  Christian  missions,  the  missions  among  the 
Kaffres  did  not  begin  until  tlie  government  had  passed 
under  British  rule.  The  Moravians,  who  then  for  the 
first  time  found  the  necessary  protection  for  their  re-es- 
tablished missions  among  the  Hottentots  [see  Hottex- 
TOTs],  extended  in  1818  their  labors  also  to  the  Kaffres, 
in  particular  to  the  tribes  of  the  Fongus  and  Tambakis, 
whence  in  1862  a  station  was  established  among  tlie 
last  named  tribe  of  Independent  Kaffraria.  The  mis- 
sionary Yon  der  Kemp,  who  in  1798  was  sent  out  by  the 
London  Missionary  Society,  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
missions  of  this  society  among  the  Kaffres.  The  Wes- 
leyan  missionaries  have  (since  1820)  numerous  stations 
in  all  parts  of  the  Kaffre  territory.  Their  missionaries 
have  for  a  long  time  been  almost  the  only  ones  who  ven- 
tured to  penetrate  into  tlio  uncultivated  districts  of  the 
free  KafTres.  The  Free  Church  and  the  United  Presby- 
terians of  Scotland  have  a  number  of  stations  in  British 
Kaffraria,  and  have  begun  to  extend  their  labors  to  (in- 
dependent) Kaffraria,  among  the  natives  whom  the  Brit- 
ish government  has  induced  to  settle  there.  The  Ber- 
lin missions  have  also,  since  1834,  established  a  number 
of  stations  in  British  Kaffraria.  Tlie  Anglican  Church, 
which  has  bishops  at  Capetown  (1847),  (irahamstown 
(1853),  and  in  the  Orange  Free  State  (1863),  has  sta- 
tions both  in  British  and  in  Free  Kaffraria,  and  is  eager- 
ly intent  upon  extending  its  work.  The  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  had  done  nothing  for  the  Kaffres  until 
the  establishment  of  a  special  missionary  board  in  1863 
(Synodale  Zendings  Comissiii  in  Zuyd  Africa),  which 
displays  a  great  zeal  in  the  establishment  of  missions 
among  the  pagan  population.  More  recently  the  Ger- 
man Baptists  have  sent  out  missionaries  to  British  Kaf- 
fraria. The  Roman  Catholic  Church  has  also  a  few  sta- 
tions in  British  Kaffraria.  See  Grundemann,  Missions- 
atlas  (2d  number,  Gotha,  1867);  Newcomb,  C/ycfo/iferfm 
of  Missions;  MoffaVs  Soutke7-n  Africa  (Lond.  1842);  T. 
B.  Freeman's  Tour  in  South  Africa  (Lond.  1857) ;  Lich- 
tenstein.  Travels  in  South  Africa ;  BurcheU,  Travels  in 
Southern  Africa.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Kagbossum  is  the  name  of  a  crow  which  the  Hin- 
dus assert  embodies  the  soul  of  one  of  their  celebrated 
sages ;  some  of  them  say  even  of  Brahma  himself.  See 
Vollmer,  WOrterb.  d.  Mythol.  p.  991. 

Kahanbarha,  the  Persian  name  for  the  period  in 
which  the  world  was  created,  and  wliich  in  their  cos- 
mogony, as  in  that  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  covers 
six  days ;  but,  like  some»  of  our  theorists,  they  say  that 
each  day  of  creation  corresponds  in  length  to  a  period 
of  one  month.     See  Zoroastuianism. 

Kahler,  Johannes,  a  Lutheran  theologian  of  some 
note,  was  born  at  Wolmar,  Hesse  Cassel,  Jan.  20,  1649, 


and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Giessen.  He 
began  his  lectures  at  that  university  in  1673  on  the  Car- 
tesian philosopiiy,  and  became  one  of  its  ablest  expo- 
nents. In  1677  he  was  called  as  extraordinary  professor 
of  metaphysics  to  Rintein,  and  shortly  after  was  pro- 
moted to  the  fidl  or  ordinary  professorship.  In  1683  he 
became  also  professor  of  theology.  He  died  IMay  17, 
1729.  Kahler  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  contempo- 
raries, and  enjoyed  the  confidence  and  good  will  of  his 
colleagues  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  chosen  rector  at 
six  different  elections.  His  writings,  consisting  mainly 
of  dissertations  on  theology  and  philosophy,  were  col- 
lected and  printed  in  2  vols.  12mo.  See  Allgem.  Hist. 
Lex.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. ;  Jocher,  Gelehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s.  v., 
gives  a  complete  list  of  Kahler's  productions. 

Kaisersberg.     See  Geiler. 

KaisersvT^erth.     See  Fliedner. 

Klajoniort.s,  the  Persian  name  for  the  first  man, 
who  they  say  was  a  direct  descendant  of  a  bull  (Abu- 
dad),  and  was  botli  man  and  wife  at  the  same  time.  So 
sacred  was  his  person  tliat  even  angels  worshipped  him. 
Ahriman,  however,  was  bent  upon  his  destruction,  and 
for  thirty  years  he  persecuted  Kajomorts.  until  success- 
fid  in  slaying  him.  But  the  seed  of  Kajomorts  fructified 
the  earth,  tlie  sun  purified  it,  and  after  forty  years  a 
plant  sprang  up,  whicli  became  a  mighty  tree,  bearing, 
instead  of  fruit,  ten  human  pairs,  one  of  which,  Meshia 
and  Meshiane,  became  the  ancestors  of  the  human  race 
(see  Vollmer,  Worterb.  d.3Iythol.  p.  992).    See  Ormuzd  ; 

ZOROASTRIAXISM. 

Kakusandu  is  the  name  of  the  third  Buddha  who 
preceded  Gotama  (q.  v.),  and,  according  to  Major  Forbes's 
(Journ.  Asiatic  Societj/,  June,  1836)  calcidation  of  Hin- 
du chronology,  must  have  lived  on  the  earth  B.C.  3101 
(see  Hard}',  Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  87, 96,  et  al.).  See 
Buddha. 

Kalasutra,  the  Hindu  name  for  a  place  in  heU  to 
which  the  trespassers  of  Hindu  tradition  are  consigned, 
particidarly  those  who,  after  offering  a  sacrifice  for  their 
ancestors,  d^re  to  remove  from  the  altar  any  portion  of 
the  offering  which  the  flames  might,  have  left  uncon- 
sumed.     See  Vollmer,  \Voi-te?-b.  d.  Mythol.  p.  993. 

Kalderon  (more  accurately  Calderon),  the  most 
celebrated  poet  of  Spain,  born  of  a  noble  familj'-  at  Mad- 
rid Jan.  1, 1601,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca, but  at  length  went  into  the  army,  and  fought  in 
Milan  and  Flanders,  until  in  1651  he  entered  the  priest- 
hood. Already,  as  a  soldier,  he  had  devoted  much  time 
to  the  cultivation  of  his  poetical  talents ;  now,  as  a  priest, 
he  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  it,  and  it  is  for  his  influ- 
ence on  the  religious  poetry  of  Spain,  for  his  relation  to 
the  history  of  Roman  Catholic  poetry,  that  we  make 
room  for  a  short  sketch  of  this  religious  (Roman  Catho- 
lic) Shakespeare.  Shortly  after  his  admission  to  the 
priesthood  he  took  a  chaplaincj'  at  Toledo,  but  the  king, 
with  whom  Kalderon  was  in  special  favor,  soon  gained 
the  poet  for  his  court  by  assigning  Kalderon  a  lucrative 
position  in  the  royal  chapel.  He  died  about  1681,  per- 
haps somewhat  later.  He  WTOte  no  less  than  five  hun- 
dred dramas,  many  of  which  have  a  religious  tendency, 
and  display  most  accurately  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  his  time  and  people.  Those  of  his  produc- 
tions wdiich  have  been  preserved  are  divided  into  three 
different  groups.  The  first  contains  his  comedies  of  fa- 
miliar life ;  the  second,  the  heroic ;  and  the  third  em- 
braces his  religious  pieces,  or  "Sacramental  Acts"  {Au- 
tos Sacramentales),  and  these  only  concern  us  here. 
They  are  compositions  which  bear  a  strong  resem- 
blance to  the  miracle-plays  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  are, 
like  them,  deformed  by  fantastic  extravagances  of  re- 
ligious opinion  anil  feeling.  Some  of  them,  however, 
are  beautifully  poetical.  One  of  the  most  character- 
istic, held  also  by  some  critics  to  be  the  best,  is  "  The 
Devotion  of  the  Cross,"  a  strange  farrago  of  tlie  wildest 
supernatural  inventions,  and  the  most  impracticaUy-mo- 
tived  exhibitions  of  human  conduct,  but  breathing  a  po- 


KALDI 


KALI 


etic  spirit  which  is  wonderfully  impressive.  One  of  its 
main  incidents  is  the  legend  of  one  dead  man  shriving 
another,  which  had  been  used  by  another  poet.  An- 
other successful  effort  of  his  is  "The  steadfast  Prince." 
Both  of  these  have  frequently  been  translated  into  En- 
glish and  other  languages.  See,  however,  Ticknor,  Ilis- 
lorij  of  Spanish  Literature  (new  edition,  1871,  with  In- 
dex). One  of  the  ablest  Koman  Catholic  critics,  pro- 
fessor Frederick  Schlegel,  thus  speaks  of  Kalderon's  po- 
sition as  a  Christian  poet:  "The  Christianity  of  this 
poet,  however,  does  not  consist  so  much  in  the  external 
circumstances  which  he  has  selected,  as  in  his  peculiar 
feeling,  and  the  method  of  treating  his  subject,  which  is 
most  common  with  him.  Even  where  his  materials  fur- 
nish him  with  no  opportunity  of  drawing  the  perfect 
development  of  a  new  life  out  of  death  and  suffering, 
yet  everything  is  conceived  in  the  spirit  of  this  Chris- 
tian love  and  purification,  everything  seen  in  its  light, 
and  clothed  in  the  splendor  of  its  heavenly  coloring.  In 
every  situation  and  circumstance,  Kalderon  is,  of  all 
dramatic  poets,  the  most  Christian,  and  for  that  very 
reason  the  most  romantic"  {IIistoi-y  of  Literature,  p.  280, 
281).  Se.e  also  Eichendorff,  GeistlicJie  Schauspiele  von 
Don  Pedro  Kalderon  de  la  Barca ;  Schmidt,  Schauspiele 
Calderom  (Eberfeld,  1857) ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii, 
218  sq.     (.J.H.W.) 

Kaldi,  Georg,  a  celebrated  Hungarian  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Tyrnau  (Hungary)  in  1570.  After  filling  vari- 
ous positions  in  the  Jesuitical  order,  preaching  at  Vienna, 
and  teaching  theology  at  Olmutz,  he  became  at  last  rec- 
tor of  the  college  at  Presburg,  and  remained  there  until 
his  death  in  16o4.  He  was  the  first  Roman  Catholic  to 
furnish  Ids  co-religionists  a  Hmigarian  translation  of 
the  Bible.  It  was  published  at  Vienna  in  1G2G,  folio  (the 
Protestant  translation,  by  Visoli,  was  made  in  1589).  A 
portion  of  Kaldi's  sermons  were  published  at  Presburg 
in  1G31. 

Kalendar.     See  Calendar. 

Xali  (or  Kalee)  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  many 
forms  of  Doorgd,  so  popularly  and  variously  worshipped 
in  Hindustan.       • 

Names  and  History. — Doorgfi  is  the  female  principle 
in  the  production  of  the  world  who  appears  throughout 
the  Hindu  Shastras  as  Prakriti  or  Bhagwati.  She  is 
said  to  have  had  a  thousand  names,  and  to  have  appear- 
ed in  a  vast  number  of  forms  in  different  periods:  thus, 
as  Sati,  she  first  became  the  wife  of  Siva,  but  renounced 
her  life  on  hearing  her  father  reproach  her  husband. 
She  again  appeared  as  "  the  mountain-born  goddess" 
under  the  name  of  Parirati,  and  again  married  Siva. 
After  giving  birth  to  her  sons  Ganesh  and  Katik,  she 
became  renowned  for  her  achievements  in  war  agamst 
the  giant  enemies  of  the  gods. 

Tins  goddess  assumed  the  name  of  Kali  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  battle  with  a  thousand-headed  giant  demigod 
whom  she  slew.  In  her  excessive  delight  over  her  vic- 
tor}-,  she  danced  till  she  shook  the  foundation  of  the 
earth,  and  the  gods  were  compelled  to  induce  her  hus- 
band Siva  to  influence  her  to  stop,  which,  however,  he 
found  no  means  of  doing  till  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  throwing  himself  among  the  bodies  of  the  slain. 
Kali,  observing  herself  dancing  on  the  body  of  her  hus- 
band, was  shocked,  and,  protruding  her  tongue  in  her 
surprise,  stood  still.  In  this  attitude  she  is  re^^resented 
in  the  images  of  her  now  made,  and  sold,  and  worship- 
ped tlirougliout  Bengak 

Lnages. — In  allusion  to  the  above  contest  with  the 
giant.  Kali  is  often  represented  as  "  a  ten-armed  god- 
ilcss."  Her  image  in  this  aspect  is  that  of  a  yeUow 
woman  with  ten  arms,  richly  dressed  and  ornamented, 
standing  erect,  resting  lier  left  foot  on  the  back  of  a 
prostrate  buffalo,  and  her  right  on  that  of  a  couchant 
lion,  holding  in  her  hands  a  spear,  an  axe,  a  discus,  a 
trident,  a  club,  an  arrow,  and  a  shield. 

Her  most  common  image,  however,  is  that  of  a  black 
or  very  dark  blue-colored  woman  with  four  arms ;  the 


upper  left  arm  holding  a  cimeter,  the  louver  left  a  hu- 
man head  by  the  hair.  The  other  right  arm  is  held  up 
to  indicate  either  that  she  is  bestowing  a  blessing  or  the 
restoration  of  nature  from  the  devastation  which  she  has 
caused,  and  to  which  her  lower  right  hand  is  pointing. 
iVll  her  hands  are  bloody.  In  this  form  she  is  standing 
on  the  body  of  her  husband,  who  is  a  white  man,  stretch- 
ed at  fidl  length  upon  his  back.'  Around  her  waist,  as 
a  covering,  she  wears  a  string  of  bloody  human  hands. 
She  wears  an  immense  neclvlace,  reaching  below  her 
knees,  which  is  composed  of  human  skulls.  In  some 
images  a  pair  of  dead  human  bodies  hang  by  the  hair 
from  her  ears.  Her  tongue,  as  above  set  forth,  protrudes 
from  her  mouth  upon  her  chin. 

She  appears,  moreover,  under  other  forms :  sitting  on 
a  dead  body,  with  two  giants'  heads  in  her  arms ;  as  a 
black  female  sitting  on  a  throne,  etc. 

Character. — Kali,  in  Hindu  mj'thology,  is  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  a,  female  Satan.  She  is  a  very  san- 
guinary goddess;  her  eyebrows  are  bloody,  and  blood 
falls  in  a  stream  down  her  breast.  Her  eyes  are  red, 
like  those  of  a  drunkard. 

Sacrifices. — ]Mr.  Ward  makes  a  summary  from  one  of 
the  Puranas  to  the  effect  that  a  tiger's  blood  offered  to 
her  in  sacrifice  will  please  her  for  a  hundred  years ;  that 
of  a  lion,  a  reindeer,  or  a  man,  a  thousand  years ;  and 
that  of  three  men  for  ten  hundred  thousand  years.  In 
the  event  of  a  human  person  being  offered  in  sacrifice,  it 
must  be  performed  in  a  cemetery,  or  at  a  temple,  or  in  a 
mountain.  Only  a  person  of  good  appearance  should  be 
offered.  The  victim  should  be  adorned  with  chaplets 
and  besmeared  with  sandal-wood,  after  various  ablu- 
tions. The  deformed,  timid,  leprous,  or  crippled  must 
not  be  offered ;  nor  must  a  priest,  nor  a  childless  broth- 
er. The  victim  must  be  prepared  the  day  before  the 
offering,  his  neck  being  besmeared  with  blood  from  the 
axe  with  which  he  is  to  be  sacrificed.  Besides  this, 
however,  persons  may  draw  blood  from  their  own  bod- 
ies, or  cut  off  their  flesh,  to  be  presented  to  this  goddess 
as  a  burnt-offering,  or  burn  the  body  by  the  flame  of  a 
lamp. 

Worshippers.  —  Many  Hindus  adopt  the  ten-armed 
Doorgfi  as  their  guardian  deity,  and  she  is  considered  as 
the  image  of  the  divine  energy.  Her  worship  in  Lower 
Bengal  is  so  popidar  that  on  the  occasion  of  a  great  an- 
nual festival  all  business  is  suspended,  and  even  the  Eu- 
ropean courts,  custom-house,  and  other  public  offices  are 
closed. 

The  professional  robbers  and  murderers  so  long  known 
and  dreaded  throughout  India,  and  notorious  elsewhere 
as  Thugs,  are  the  special  devotees  of  the  four-armed 
Kali.  In  the  hope  of  greater  success  in  their  work, 
they  consecrate  to  her  their  instruments  of  death,  and. 
their  victims  are  held  to  be  immolated  in  her  honor. 
These  men  will  join  travellers,  and  accompany  them  for 
days,  gaining  their  confidence  if  possible,  xmder  some 
disguise,  until,  watching  their  opportunity,  they  can  ad- 
minister drugs,or  choke  them  with  a  small  cord, and  then 
rob  them  of  all  they  possess.  Formerly,  it  is  supposed, 
the  goddess  rendered  them  much  more  assistance  than 
of  late,  by  putting  out  of  the  way  the  corpses  of  those 
slain  ;  but,  in  consequence  of  one  of  their  number  look- 
ing behind  him  after  a  murder,  she  ceased  to  render 
them  so  certainly  this  assistance,  as  this  was  a  violation 
of  the  express  condition  on  which  she  kept  secret  all 
traces  of  their  deeds.  The  accounts  of  the  occasion  of 
their  losing  her  assistance  in  this  particular  arc  cc  in- 
flicting, and  scarcely  worthy  of  reproduction.  I'ersons 
wishing  to  trace  the  matter  may  refer  to  Illustrations 
of  the  History  a lul  Practices  of  the  Thugs  (Lond.  1837). 
See  Thugs. 

Cti-emonies. — Distinct  from  the  great  festival  alluded 
to  above  in  honor  of  Doorgfi  as  tlie  "ten-armed  goddess" 
is  a  famous  and  popular  festival  held  in  her  service  un- 
der the  special  form  of  Kali.  It  is  observed  with  much 
the  same  form  as  tlie  other.  Annual  sacrifices  of  sweet- 
meats, sugar,  garments,  rice,  plantains,  and  pease  are  of- 


KALI 


KALMUCKS 


fered  in  great  abundance.  The  first  day  ends  with 
singing,  dancing,  and  feasting,  and  with  the  lower  class- 
es in  great  debauchery  and  shameless  licentiousness,  the 
arak,  an  intoxicating  liquor,  being  consecrated  to  the 
idol  goddess.  On  the  second  morning  images  of  all 
sizes  representative  of  the  goddess  are  made,  and,  after 
consecration  by  the  Brahmaus,  are  carried  through  the 
streets  in  procession  to  the  Hooghly  Eiver,  and  there, 
carried  out  in  boats,  are  thrown  into  it,  and  with  this 
act  terminate  these  wild  and  terrible  orgies.  Immense 
sums  are  expended  by  many  of  these  devotees  during 
these  festivals.  Mr.  Ward  estimates  as  much  as  £9000 
sterling  to  have  been  expended  annually  at  the  single 
shrine  in  Calcutta,  and  narrates  cases  of  individual  offer- 
ings, at  one  time,  of  £10,000,  comprising  rich  beds,  sil- 
ver plate,  and  food  for  the  entertainment  of  a  thousand 
persons. 

Temples. — There  arc  many  buildings  devoted  to  her 
worship.  The  greatest  and  most  popular  of  these  is 
that  of  Kali-Ghat,  about  three  miles  to  the  south  of 
Calcutta.  There  are  fifty  other  edifices  in  various  parts 
of  India  devoted  to  Doorga  under  her  variety  of  forms 
and  names.  All  these  are  said  to  have  originated  in  an 
incident  connected  with  her  history  previous  to  her 
having  assumed  the  shape  of  Parwati,  when  Vishnu  sev- 
ered her  body  into  fifty-one  separate  pieces,  which  were 
strewn  over  the  earth,  and  conferred  a  peculiar  sanctity 
on  the  places  where  they  happened  to  fall.  All  of  these 
became  sites  of  temples,  in  which  an  image'  of  some  one 
of  her  thousand  forms  was  set  up.  The  whole  of  the 
country  to  the  south  of  Calcutta,  including  the  spot 
known  as  Kali-Ghat,  was  thus  rendered  sacred,  the  toes 
of  the  right  foot  being  deposited  at  the  latter  place. 
The  temple  at  Kali-Ghat  consists  of  one  room,  with  a 
large  pavement  around  it.  The  image  of  Kali  is  in  this 
temple  (Ward,  ii,  157). 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  fabled  impersonation  in  all  the 
Hindu  mj^thology  exerting  a  greater  or  more  gloomy 
influence  over  millions  of  men  than  Doorga,  under  the 
title  of  Kali. 

Literature. — Journ.  of  the  Asiatic  Society's  Research- 
es, vol.  V. ;  Coleman,  Mytholor/y  of  the  Hindoos  ;  Moor, 
Hindoo  Pantheon ;  Ward,  Hindoo  Mi/tholof/t/ ;  account 
of  temple  at  Kali-Ghat  in  the  Calcutta  Christian  Ob- 
server, Sept.  1833  ;  Col.  Sleeman,  Journey  through  Oudh. 
(J.T.G.) 

Kali.     See  Parched  Coex. 

Kallghi  is  the  name  of  one  (the  tenth)  impersona- 
tion of  the  Hindu  god  Vishnu.     See  Kiusiina. 

EZaliph  (more  generally  Caliph),  originally  a  depu- 
ty or  lieutenant,  but  afterwards  applied  chiefly  to  the  suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed.  As  a  representative  of  the  proph- 
et and  Islam,  the  caliph  exercised  a  power  which  was 
primarily  spiritual,  and  in  theory,  therefore,  he  claimed 
the  obedience  of  aU  Mohammedans.  In  practice  the 
claim  was  soon  disregarded,  and  the  Fatimite  caliphs  of 
Africa  and  the  sovereigns  of  the  Ommiad  dynasty  of 
Spain  each  professed  to  be  the  only  legitimate  represent- 
atives of  Jlohammed,  in  opposition  to  the  Abasside  ca- 
liphs of  Bagdad.  The  latter  caliphat  reached  its  high- 
est splendor  under  Haroun  al-Eascliid,  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury; but  his  division  of  the  empire  among  his  sons 
showed  how  completely  the  caliph  had  lost  sight  of  the 
spiritual  theorj'  of  his  office.  For  the  last  two  hundred 
years  the  appellation  of  caliph  has  been  swallowed  up  in 
shah,  sultan,  emir,  and  other  titles  peculiar  to  the  East. 
See  Brande  and  Cox,  Dictionary  of  iSciencej  Literature, 
and  A  rt,  i,  350. 

Kalir,  Eleasar  Ha-,  one  of  the  oldest  Jewish  poets 
of  Italy,  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  syna- 
gogual  poetry  of  the  non-Se]Aardite  Jews  in  Europe, 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  8th  centurj'.  Of 
his  personal  history  nothing  further  is  known.  He  wrote 
some  one  hundred  and  fifty  different  sacred  poems,  many 
of  which  were  inserted  in  the  liturgies  of  the  Babylonian, 
Italian,  German,  and  French  Jews.    He  was  a  disciple  of 


Jannai,  and  was  greatly  admired  by  his  contemporaries. 
See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.Juden,  v,  181  sq. ;  Sachs,  Religiose 
Poesie  d.  Juden  in  Spanien,  p.  180  sq. ;  Zunz,  Synagogale 
Poesie  d.  Jifittelalters,  p.  128  sq.  See  also  Liturgy,  Jew- 
ish; Machsor;  Synagogual  Poetry. 

Kaliyuga,  or  the  Kali  Age,  is  the  fourth  or  last 
age  of  the  Malta,  or  great  age  [see  Yuga],  and  bears 
some  resemblance  to  the  Iron  Age  of  classical  mythol- 
ogy. The  Hindus,  recognising,  like  all  religionists  of 
antiquity,  that  man  by  sin  has  fallen  from  las  high  es- 
tate, have  divided  the  world's  existence  into  four  pe- 
riods, which  arc  marked  by  successive  physical  and  mor- 
al decrements  of  created  beings.  They  hold  that  the 
present  period  is  the  last  one,  that  it  consists  of  432,000 
solar  sidereal  years,  and  tliat  the  Kali  Age  began  B.C. 
3102.  "In  the  Krita  (or  first)  age,"  Manu  says,  "the 
(genius  of)  Truth  and  Right  (in  the  form  of  a  bull) 
stands  firm  on  his  four  feet,  nor  docs  any  a<lvantage  ac- 
crue to  men  from  iniquity.  But  in  the  following  ages, 
by  reason  of  unjust  gains,  he  is  deprived  successive V 
of  one  foot;  and  even  just  emoluments,  through  the 
prevalence  of  theft,  falsehood,  and  fraud,  are  gradually 
diminished  by  one  foot  (i.  e.  by  a  fourth  part)."  The 
estimate  in  which  Kaliyuga,  our  present  age,  is  held  by 
the  modern  Hindus  may  be  gathered  from  one  of  their 
most  celebrated  Puranas,  the  Padma-Purana.  In  the 
last  chapter  of  one  of  the  books  (Kriyayogasara)  of 
this  Purana,  the  following  account,  which  we  take  from 
Chambers,  Cycloptedia  (s.  v.  Kaliyuga),  is  given  of  it: 
"  In  the  Kaliyuga  (the  genius  of)  Right  will  have  but 
one  foot ;  every  one  will  delight  in  e\-il.  The  four  castes 
will  be  devotea  to  wickedness,  and  deprived  of  the  nour- 
ishment which  is  fit  for  them.  The  Brahmans  will  neg- 
lect the  Vcdas,  hanker  after  presents,  be  lustful  and 
cruel.  They  will  despise  the  Scriptures,  gamble,  steal, 
and  desire  intercourse  with  widows.  .  •  .  For  the  sake 
of  a  livelihood,  some  Brahmans  will  become  arrant 
rogues.  .  .  .  The  Sudras  Avill  endeavor  to  lead  the  life 
of  the  Brahmans,  and,  out  of  friendship,  people  will 
bear  false  witness  .  .  .  they  will  injure  the  wives  of 
others,  and  their  speech  will  be  that  of  falsehood. 
Greedy  of  the  wealth  of  others,  they  will  entertain  a 
guest  according  to  the  behest  of  the  Scriptures,  but  af- 
terwards kill  him  out  of  covetousness ;  they  are  indeed 
worthy  of  hell.  The  twice-born  (i.  e.  the  first;  three 
castes)  will  live  upon  debts,  sell  the  produce  of  cows, 
and  even  their  daughters.  In  this  Yuga  men  will  be 
under  the  sway  of  women,  and  women  will  be  exces- 
sively fickle.  ...  In  the  Kaliyuga  the  earth  will  bear 
but  little  corn ;  the  clouds  will  shed  but  little  rain,  and 
that,  too,  out  of  season.  The  cows  will  feed  on  ordure,, 
and  give  little  milk,  and  the  milk  will  yield  no  butter ;. 
there  is  no  doubt  of  that.  .  .  .  Trees,  even,  ^vilI  wither 
in  twelve  j'ears,  and  the  age-  of  mankind  will  not  exceed 
sixteen  years ;  people,  moreover,  wiU  become  gray- 
haired  in  their  youth ;  women  will  bear  childrM  in 
their  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  men  will  become  troubled 
with  a  great  number  of  children.  In  the  Kaliyuga  the 
foreigners  will  become  kings,  bent  upon  evil;  and  those 
living  in  foreign  countries  will  be  all  of  one  caste,  and 
out  of  lust  take  to  themselves  many  wives.  In  the  first 
twilight  of  the  Kaliyuga  people  wiU  disregard  Vishnu, 
and  in  the  midtUe  of  it  no  one  will  even  mention  his 
name."  Tliere  is  a  remarkable  identity  of  the  Hin- 
du belief  with  that  of  the  Hebrew  as  to  redemption 
from  this  sinful  state  by  a  Messiah.  See  Hardwick, 
Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  303  sq.,  329  sq. ;  Weber,. 
Indische  Sludien,  ii,  411 ;  Wilson,  Asiatic  Researches,  x, 
27  sq. ;  Alger,  History  of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life^ 
p.  Ill  sq. 

Kallah.     See  Talmud. 

Kal'lai  (Heb.  Kallay',  i^p,  runner;  Serft.  Ka\- 
X«i),  a  chief  priest,  son  of  Sallai,  contemporary  with  the 
high-priest  Joiakim  (Neh.  xii,  20).     B.C.  post  53G. 

Kalmucks  (Tatar  KhaKmik,  i.  c.  apostates),  also- 
called  OlOk  or  Ekutes,  a  Jlongolian  tribe  of  nomads, 


KALONYMUS 


KAMA 


a  portion  of  whom  live  under  Chinese  rule,  while  the 
cjreater  number,  during  the  last  two  centuries,  have  set- 
tled in  or  belong  to  Russia.  They  are  similar  to  the 
Mongols  proper,  but  inferior  to  them  in  point  of  civiliza- 
tion. They  are  divided  into  nobles,  people  (serfs),  and 
priests ;  the  last  have,  in  i»articular,  a  very  great  in- 
fluence among  the  Buddhistic  Kalmucks.  They  are 
divided  into  tribes  (IHuss),  at  the  head  of  which  are 
Tchaidas;  and  the  tribes  are  subdivided  into  Aimaiis 
(of  from  150  to  300  families  each),  at  the  head  of  which 
are  the  Saisans.  They  call  themselves  Derhen  Eret 
(Uorbon-Oirat),  i.  e.  the  four  allies,  because,  from  time 
immemorial,  they  have  been  divided  into  four  chief 
tribes  :  1.  The  Dsongars,  after  whom  Dsongaria  is  called, 
formerly  the  most  powerful  of  the  tribes,  but  subse- 
quently subdued  by  the  Chinese,  and  now  extant  onlj^ 
in  small  number.  2.  The  Koshotes  (i.  e.  warriors),  un- 
der princes  from  the  family  of  Jenghis  Khan,  num- 
bering from  50,000  to  60,000;  they  voluntarily  placed 
themselves  under  the  sceptre  of  Russia,  and  are  loyal 
subjects;  their  favorite  drink  is  the  kumiss  (fermented 
horse  milk).  3.  The  Derbets,  living,  in  the  16th  and 
17tli  centuries,  on  the  Volga  and  Ural,  now  on  the  Don 
and  the  Hi.  4.  The  Torgots  (Ttirga-Uten),  or  Kalmucks 
of  the  Volga,  have,  for  the  most  part,  left  Russian  terri- 
tory; only  the  tribe  Zoochor,  under  the  prince  Dundu- 
kor,  a  grand-uncle  of  the  powerful  khan  Ayuka,  remain- 
ed. Dimdukor  himself  was  baptized,  and,  by  order  of 
Alexander  I,  the  title  passed  over  to  his  son-in-law  Xor- 
kasov.  Some  of  the  Kalmucks  live  scattered  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Simbirsk  (15,000  souls,  all  in  connection  with 
the  Greek  Church),  others  east  of  the  Ural,  on  the  Jhet 
River  (professing  Islamism),  and  in  several  commercial 
towns  of  Russia,  altogether  about  1 20,000  souls,  of  whom 
73  per  cent,  live  in  the  government  of  Astrachan.  The 
majority  of  the  Kalmucks  are  still  Buddhists.  They 
were  all  originaUy  adherents  of  that  form  of  Buddhism 
Imown  as  Lumaism,  which  the  IMongols  in  general  re- 
ceived from  Thibet.  In  Dsongaria  they  have  two  cel- 
ebrated temples;  the  one  is  situated  on  the  Tekes,  the 
other  on  the  Hi.  In  the  latter  resides  the  Tchamba 
Lama  in  the  winter,  and  with  him  a  number  of  priests, 
who  here  teach  reading  and  writing.  They  are  joined 
by  pious  pilgrims  and  numerous  Chinese  merchants, 
who  set  up  their  shops  around  the  temple.  The  chiefs 
of  the  Chinese  Kalmucks  used  to  receive  from  the  man- 
darin the  insignia  of  their  rank,  but  of  late  the  virtual 
independence  of  Dsongaria  has  severed  the  former  re- 
lation of  the  Kalmucks  to  the  Chinese  government; 
and,  after  the  occupation  of  Kultsha  by  the  Russians 
in  ^lay,  1871,  the  Chinese  Kalmucks  generally  declared 
their  submission  to  the  Russian  government.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Kalmucks  is  a  branch  of  the  jNIongolian 
language ;  grammars  of  the  language  have  been  pub- 
lished bj'  Bobrovnikov  (Kasan,  1849)  and  Zwieck  (Don- 
aue^iingen,  1857).  The  literature  consists  almost  ex- 
clusively of  translations  of  Buddhistic  writings  from 
India.  A  collection  of  legends  (Siddhi-Kiir),  with  Ger- 
man translation,  was  published  by  Julg  (Leipzig,  1866). 
(A.J.S.) 

Kalonymus  ben-Kalonymcs,  a  Jewish  writer 
of  some  note,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1287,  but  lived  for 
some  time  in  Southern  France,  and  was  there  picked  up 
by  king  Robert  of  Naples,  lie  returned  with  the  latter 
to  his  native  land,  and  filled  some  important  offices  in 
his  service.  Kalonymus  Avas  an  accomiilished  scholar, 
translated  into  Hebrew  medical,  astronomical,  and  phil- 
osophical works  of  the  Aral)ians,  wrote  a  number  of  sa- 
tirical treatises  on  the  low  moral  state  of  his  contempo- 
raries, and  labored  in  this  and  other  ways  to  ameliorate 
the  miserable  condition  of  his  countrymen.  lie  died 
about  1^37.  The  best  of  his  later  works  is  'n2  '"X, 
or  The  Stone  of  Wcepinfj  (Naples,  1489  ;  translated  into 
Jewish  German,  Frkft.  1746).  He  also  edited  with  great 
ability  a  part  of  the  Arabian  Encyclopaedia  of  the  Sci- 
ences (known  as  "Treatises  of  the  Honest  Brethren")  for 


the  use  of  the  Italian  Jews.  See  Gratz,  Gesck.  d.  Juden, 
vii,  305sq.;  Zimz,in  GeigeTsZeitsch7-iJ't,u,8l3;  iv,  200 
sq. ;  Fliigel,  Zeitschrift  der  deutsch.  Morgenldnd,  Gesdlsch, 
1859.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kalottinocracy  is  a  new  word  sometimes  used 
instead  of  hierarchij.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
French  cidotta  (cap,  such  as  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy 
wear),  and  the  Greek  Ktiartiv  (to  govern). 

Kalpa  designates  in  Hindu  chronology  the  Brah- 
minical  period  of  one  day  and  night,  and  corresponds 
to  a  period  of  4,320,000,000  solar  sidereal  years,  or  years 
of  mortals,  measuring  the  diu-ation  of  the  world,  and,  ac- 
cording to  many,  including  even  the  interval  of  its  anni- 
hilatioii.  The  Bhavishya-Purdna  admits  of  an  infinity 
of  kalpas;  other  Puranas  enumerate  tliirty.  A  great 
kalpa  comprises  not  a  day,  but  a  life  of  Brahma.  In 
Vedic  literature,  kalpa  is  a  Vedanga  ((j.  v.).  See  Hardy, 
Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  1  sq.,  7  sq.     See  Kalpa-Sltra. 

Kalpa-Sutra  is,  in  Vedic  literature,  the  name  of 
those  Sanscrit  works  which  treat  of  the  ceremonials 
usual  at  a  Vedic  sacritice.  See  Veda.  In  Jaina  litera- 
ture it  is  the  name  of  the  most  sacred  religious  work  of 
the  Jainas  (q.  v.).  It  chiefly  relates  the  legeudarj^  his- 
tory of  Slahavira,  the  last  of  their  twenty-four  deified 
saints,  or  Tirthankaras,  but  contains  also  an  account  of 
four  other  saints  of  the  same  class.  The  author  of  the 
work  was  Bhadra  Bahu,  and  it  was  composed,  Stevenson 
assumes,  in  the  year  A.D.  411,  It  is  held  in  high  respect 
by  the  Jainas,  who,  out  of  the  eight  days  which,  in  the 
middle  of  the  rains,  they  devote  to  the  reading  of  their 
most  sacred  writings,  allot  no  less  than  live  to  the  Kalpa- 
Sutra.  See  Stevenson,  The  Kuljxi-Sutra  and  Nava 
Tutva  (London,  1848). 

Kalteiseil,  Hejnrioh,  a  celebrated  Dominican  of 
the  15th  century,  was  born  near  Coblentz,  and  educated 
at  Vienna  and  Cologne.  In  the  latter  city  he  was  af- 
terwards professor  of  theology,  preaching  at  the  same 
time.  Later  he  removed  to  Mentz,  and  became  general 
inquisitor  of  Germany.  He  was  present  at  the  Council 
of  Basle,  and  took  quite  a  prominent  part  in  the  delib- 
erations against  the  Hussites.  He  was  one  of  the  four 
doctors  on  the  Roman  CathoUc  sitle  who  disputed  with 
the  Bohemians.  See  Hussites;  Basle,  Council  of. 
In  1443  pope  Eugenius  IV  made  him  Magister  sacri  Pa- 
latii,  and  in  1452  pope  Nicholas  V  created  him  arch- 
bishop of  Drontheim.  He  died  in  1465.  Kalteisen's 
literary  abilities  are  general!}^  spoken  of  as  moderate. 
He  wrote  much,  but  little  has  been  published.  See 
Basnage-Canisius,  Led.  Antiq.  iv,  628  sq. ;  Quetif  and 
Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Freed,  ii,  828 ;  Schrijchk,  Kirchen- 
rjesch.  xxxiv,  707  ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex. y'l,  15. 

Kama,  the  Hindu  dera  or  deity  of  Love,  one  of  the 
most  pleasing  creations  of  Hindu  fiction,  is,  in  the  San- 
scrit poetty  of  later  periods,  the  favorite  theme  of  de- 
scriptions and  allusions.  The  genealogy  of  this  deitA'  is 
quite  obscure ;  according  to  some  Puranas,  he  was  orig- 
inalh'  a  son  of  Brahma ;  according  t(S  others,  a  son  of 
Dharma  (the  genius  of  Virtue),  In'  Sraddha  (the  ge-r 
nius  of  Faith),  herself  a  daughter  of  Daksha,  who  was 
one  of  the  mind-born  sons  of  Brahma.  Tlie  god  Siva, 
being  on  one  occasion  greatly  incensed  at  Kama,  re- 
duced him  to  ashes;  but  ultimately,  moved  by  the  af- 
fliction of  Rati  (Voluptuousness),  the  wife  of  Kama,  he 
promised  her  that  her  husband  should  be  reborn  as  a 
son  of  Krishna,  and  he  was  accordingly  born  under  the 
name  of  Pradi/umna,  who  was  the  god  of  Love.  "  But 
when  the  infant  was  six  days  old  it  was  stolen  from 
the  lying-in  chamber  bj-  the  terrible  diemon  Sainbara ; 
for  the  latter  foreknew  that  Pradyumna,  if  he  lived, 
would  be  his  destroyer.  The  boy  was  thrown  into  the 
ocean,  and  swallowed  by  a  large  fish.  Yet  he  did  not 
die,  for  that  fish  was  caught  by  fishermen,  and  delivered 
to  Mayavati,  the  mistress  of  Sambara's  household ;  and, 
when  it  was  cut  open,  the  child  was  taken  from  it. 
While  INIayavati  wondered  who  this  coiUd  be,  the  di- 
vine sage  Narada  satisfied  her  curiosity,  and  counselled 


KAMA 


KAMI 


her  to  rear  tenderly  this  offspring  of  Krishna.  She  act- 
ed as  lie  advised  her;  and  when  Pradyumna  grew  up, 
and  learned  his  own  history,  he  slew  the  diemon  Sam- 
bara.  Mayavati,  however,  was  later  apprized  by  Krish- 
na that  she  was  not  the  wife  of  Sambara,  as  she  had 
fancied  herself  to  be,  but  tliat  of  Prad3'unma — in  fact, 
another  form  of  IJati,  who  was  the  wife  of  Kama  iu  his 
former  existence.  In  the  representations  of  Kama  we 
find  him  holding  in  one  hand  a  bow  made  of  sugar-cane, 
and  strung  with  bees,  in  the  other  an  arrow  tipped 
with  the  blossom  of  a  tlower  which  is  supposed  to  con- 
quer one  of  the  senses.  His  standard  is,  agreeably  to 
the  legend  above  mentioned,  a  fabulous  fish,  called  Ma- 
kara ;  and  he  rides  on  a  parrot  or  sparrow — the  sjtnbol 
of  voluptuousness.  His  epithets  are  numerous,  but  easi- 
ly accounted  for  from  the  circumstances  named,  and 
from  the  effects  of  love  on  the  mind  and  senses.  Thus 
he  is  called  MaJcaradhwaja,  *  the  one  who  has  Makara 
in  his  banner;'  Mada,  'the  maddener,'  etc.  His  wife, 
as  before  stated,  is  Rati;  she  is  also  called  Kajnakala, 
'  a  portion  of  Kama,'  or  Prifi,  '  affection.'  His  daugh- 
ter is  Trisha,  'thirst  or  desire;'  and  his  son  is  Anirud- 
dha,  '  the  irresistible.'  "  —  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.  See 
Midler,  Chips,  vol.  ii,  ch.  i,  especially  p.  127-135;  Voll- 
raer,  Mythol.  Worferbuck,  p.  1008. 

Kama.     See  T.VLJtuD. 

Kaniawachara,  the  Buddhist  name  of  one  of  the 
three  divisions  of  the  Sakwala  (q.  v.),  and  refers  to 
the  worlds  in  which  there  is  form,  with  sensual, enjoy- 
ment. The  Buddhist  affirms  that  there  are  iniumiera- 
ble  worlds,  but  only  three  kinds  of  them,  viz.  (1)  worlds 
in  which  there  is  no  perceptible  form ;  (2)  workls  in 
which  there  is  form,  but  no  sensual  enjoyment;  (3)  and 
lastly,  the  Kamcncachara  explained  above.  See  Hardy, 
Manual  of  Buddhism,  p.  3  sq. 

Kamenker.     See  Meir,  Mose. 

Kami  (or  Happy  Spirits)  is  the  name  given  in  Jap- 
anese mythology  to  certain  spirits  or  divinities  who 
founded  the  first  terrestrial  dynasty.  All  primitive  my- 
thologies are  coupled  with  and  made  to  rise  out  of  cos- 
mogony. Unfortunately,  however,  the  cosmogony  of 
the  Japanese  is  not  only  of  the  wildest  sort,  but  so  mixed 
with  that  of  the  Chinese  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
speak  with  any  certainty  of  this  ancient  religion.  From 
primieval  chaos,  say  the  Japanese,  there  sprung  a  self- 
created,  supreme  God,  who  fixed  his  abode  in  the  high- 
est heaven,  and  could  not  have  his  tranquillity  disturb- 
ed by  any  cares.  Next  there  arose  two  plastic,  creative 
gods,  who  framed  the  universe  out  of  chaos.  The  uni- 
verse was  then  governed  for  myriads  of  years  by  seven 
gods  in  succession.  They  are  called  the  Celestial  Gods. 
The  last  of  them  was  the  only  one  that  had  a  wife,  and 
to  him  the  earth  we  inhabit  owes  its  existence.  In 
what  may  be  called  the  Genesis  of  the  Japanese  Bible 
the  creation  of  the  world  is  thus  narrated : 

"  In  the  beginning  there  was  neither  heaven  nor  earth. 
The  elements  of  all  things  formed  a  liquid  and  troubled 
mass,  similar  to  the  contents  of  an  undeveloped  epfg.  iu 
which  the  white  and  the  yellow  are  still  mingled  together. 
Out  of  the  intiuite  space  which  this  chaos  filled  a  god 
arose,  called  the  divine  Supreme  Being,  whose  throne  is 
iu  the  centre  of  heaven.  Then  came  the  celestial  reason, 
exalted  above  the  creation  ;  linally,  the  terrestrial  reason, 
who  is  the  sublime  spirit.  Each  one  of  these  three  prim- 
itive gods  had  his  own  existence,  but  they  were  not  yet 
revealed  beyond  their  spiritual  natures.  Then,  by  de- 
grees, the  work  of  separation  went  on  in  chaos.  The 
fiuest  atoms,  moving  in  different  directions,  formed  the 
heavens.  The  grosser  atoms,  attaching  themselves  to 
each  other,  and  adhering,  produced  the  earth.  The  for- 
mer, moving  rapidly,  constructed  the  vault  of  the  firma- 
ment which  arches  above  our  heads;  the  latter,  being 
slowly  drrtwn  together  in  a  solid  body,  did  not  form  the 
earth  until  at  a  much  later  period.  When  the  earthly 
matter  still  floated  as  a  fish  that  comes  to  the  surface  of 
the  waters,  or  as  the  image  of  the  moon  that  trembles  on 
a  limpid  lake,  there  appeared  between  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  something  smiilar  to  a  piece  of  reed,  endowed 
with  movement,  and  capable  of  transformation.  It  was 
changed  into  three  gods,  which  are:  the  August  one, 
reiguing  perpetually  over  the  empire;  he  who  leigns  by 
Tirine  of  water ;  and  he  who  reigns  by  virtue  of  tire.'    All 


three  were  of  the  male  sex,  because  they  owed  their  origin 
to  the  action  of  the  divine  reason  alone.  After  the  first 
three  males  there  came  three  pairs  ofgods  and  goddesses, 
•reigning  over  the  elements  of  wood,  metal,  and  earth. 
This  second  dynasty  contained  as  many  goddesses  as 
gods, because  the  terrestrial  united  equally  with  the  celes- 
tial reason  iu  producing  them.  The  first  of  the  seven 
gods  commenced  the  creation  of  the  earth,  and  all  to- 
gether personify  the  elements  of  the  creation.  The  ^ra 
of  the  celestial  gods,  commencing  with  the  first  and  ter- 
minating with  the  last  male  and  female  pair,  who  were 
called  Izanaghi  and  Izauami,  coutinued  for  millions  on 
millions  of  years." 

But  the  world,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  empire 
of  Japan,  was  not  yet  created.  The  account  given, 
therefore,  is  very  circumstantial.  One  day,  when  the 
god  and  goddess  were  sitting  together  on  the  arch  of 
the  sky,  they  happened  to  talk  of  the  possible  existence 
of  an  inferior  world.  "There  should  be  somewhere," 
said  Izanaghi  at  length  to  his  wife, "  a  habitable  earth. 
Let  us  seek  it  under  the  waters  that  are  seething  beneath 
us."  He  plunged  his  spear  into  the  water,  and,  as  he 
withdrew  it,  some  turbid  drops  trickled  from  the  dia- 
mond point  of  his  javelin,  congealed,  and  formed  a  great 
island,  iqion  which  the  pair  descended,  determined  to 
make  it  the  beginning  of  a  grand  archipelago.  From 
out  the  waters  Izanaghi  raised  the  island  of  Av/adzi, 
then  the  mountainous  Oho-yamato,  rich  in  fruits  and 
with  fine  harbors;  then  the  others  in  succession,  until 
the  empire  of  the  eight  great  islands  was  completed. 
The  smaller  islands  were  then  made,  six  in  number; 
and  .the  islets  scattered  here  and  there  formed  them- 
selves afterwards  from  the  mixture  of  the  sea-foam  and 
the  deposits  of  the  rivers.  Eight  millions  ofgods  (ge- 
nii) were  then  called  into  existence,  and  ten  thousand 
kinds  of  things,  out  of  which  came  everything  that  can 
be  foimd  in  the  earth.  Upon  the  completion  of  this 
work,  Izanaghi  and  his  wife  made  the  earth  their  habi- 
tation, and  i)ecame  the  progenitors  of  the  five  dynasties 
of  terrestrial  deities,  who  in  turn  governed  the  earth 
during  two  million  and  odd  years.  The  last  of  these, 
having  married  a  terrestrial  wife,  left  a  mortal  son  upon 
earth  named  Linmou-tenwou,  the  ancestor  and  progen- 
itor of  the  races  of  men,  the  first  of  the  mikados.  See 
iMiK.VDO.  Born  upon  earth,  Linmou-tcn\vou  was  of 
course  mortal.  His  parents,  especially  the  tender  Iza- 
nami,  tremljled  .at  the  thought  that  she  must  one  day 
close  the  eyes  of  her  children,  and  yet  continue  to  enjoy 
immortality  herself.  They  therefore  conferred  upon 
their  terrestrial  offspring  the  gift  of  immortality,  the 
power  of  mediation  bet^veen  the  gods  and  man — made 
them  immortal  kamis,  happy  spirits,  worthy  of  divine 
honors.  This  is  the  point  where  the  Japanese  com- 
mence their  history,  and  hence  their  doctrine,  that  the 
spirits  of  human  beings  survive  the  body,  and,  accord- 
ing to  the  actions  of  the  individual  in  life,  receive  re- 
ward or  punishment.  When  a  man's  life  has  been  flis- 
tinguishcd  for  piety,  for  patriotism,  or  for  good  works, 
the  Japanese  deify  him,  after  death,  as  a  kami,  and 
thus  the  number  of  these  demigods  has  liecome  indefi- 
nite. Some  of  these  spirits  preside  specially  over  the 
elements  and  powers  of  nature. 

The  worship  of  these  demigods  or  Kami  is  called 
Kami-no-mitsi,  or  "  the  way  of  the  Kami."  It  pos- 
sesses some  features  which  are  found  in  the  religious 
observances  of  no  other  race.  There  are  chapels  dedi- 
cated to  the  several  Kamis  in  all  parts  of  the  empire, 
but  they  are  most  numerous  and  celebrated  in  the  .south- 
ern islands.  "  These  chapels  are  called  mias.  They  are 
always  built  in  the  most  picturesque  localities,  and  es- 
pecially where  there  is  a  grove  of  high  trees.  Some- 
times a  splendid  avenue  of  pines  or  cedars  conducts  to 
the  sacred  place,  which  is  always  approached  tlirough 
one  or  more  detached  portals,  called  toris,  like  the  jiylse 
of  the  Egyptian  temples.  The  chapel  is  usually  set 
upon  a  hill,  natural  or  artificial,  buttressed  with  Cyclo- 
pean walls,  and  with  a  massive  stone  stairway  leading 
to  the  top.  At  the  foot  of  the  stairs  there  is  a  small 
building  containing  a  tank  of  water  for  ablutions.  The 
chapel  itsellis  usually  small,  and  very  simple  in  its  plan. 


KAIVOION 


10 


KANAH 


much  resembling  the  native  dwelling -house.  Three 
sides  are  closed,  and  one  is  open  to  sun  and  air.  The 
woodwork  is  kcjit  scrupulously  clean,  and  the  floor  is 
covered  with  the  finest  matting.  The  altar,  which 
stands  alone  in  the  centre,  is  ornamented  with  a  jjlain 
disk  of  metal,  but  no  statues  or  sj'mbolical  figures  are  to 
be  seen,  and  very  rarely  emblems  of  any  kinil.  Never- 
theless, there  are  sometimes  stationed  at  the  head  of  the 
staircase,  outside  of  the  chapel,  sitting  figures  resembling 
dogs  ancl  unicorns,  which  are  said  to  represent  the  elc- 
'  ments  of  water  and  fire.  The  interior  is  generally  hung 
with  strijis  or  ribbons  of  colored  paper,  the  exact  signif- 
icance of  which  is  not  yet  clearly  understood.  The 
chapels  are  also  ornamented  by  their  pious  votaries  with 
colored  lanterns,  vases  of  perfume,  and  of  fiowers  or  ever- 
green branches,  which  are  renewed  as  fast  as  they  witli- 
er.  At  the  foot  of  the  altar  there  is  a  hea\'y  chest  with 
a  metal  grating,  through  which  fall  the  pieces  of  money 
contributed :  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  priest 
carries  a  key  to  the  box.  These  mias  were  originallj^ 
commemorative  chapels,  erected  in  honor  of  Jajianese 
heroes,  like  that  of  Tell  by  the  lake  of  the  Four  Forest 
Cantons.  The  prince  of  the  province  which  had  given 
birth  to  the  hero,  or  where  his  deeds  had  been  perform- 
ed, took  upon  himself  the  charge  of  keeping  the  chapel 
in  repair ;  there  was  no  priest  to  officiate  at  the  altar  of 
the  kami;  no  privileged  caste  interposed  between  the 
adorer  and  the  object  of  his  worship.  The  act  of  ado- 
ration, in  fact,  performed  before  the  mirror  (represent- 
ing that  bequeathed  by' the  goddess  Izanami  to  her  chil- 
dren\  passed  beyond  the  guardian  spirit  of  the  chapel, 
and  reached  the  supreme  god  above  him.  The  chapel, 
therefore,  was  open  to  all ;  the  worship  was  voluntary, 
and  offered  as  the  intUvidual  might  choose,  no  ceremo- 
nial being  prescribed.  With  the  introduction  of  Buddh- 
ism, however,  an  important  change  took  place.  The 
new  faith  was  sufficiently  incorporated  with  the  old  to 
transfer  the  chapels  to  the  special  charge  of  the  priests 
[called  Kami-nusi,  or  'ministers  of  the  spirits'],  and  to 
introduce,  in  place  of  the  voluntary,  formless  worship  of 
the  people,  a  system  of  processions,  litanies,  offerings,  and 
even  of  miracle-working  images.  Indeed,  almost  the 
only  difference  between  this  system  and  the  worship 
of  the  saints  in  Catholic  countries  lies  in  the  circum- 
stance tliat  the  priests  who  officiate  only  put  on  their 
surplices  for  the  occasion,  and  become  secular  again 
when  they  leave  the  chapel"  (Bayard  Taylor's  Japan,  p. 
255  sq.,  in  the  excellent  collection  of  Scribner's  Librurij 
of  Wonders,  Ti-avels,  etc.,  N.  Y.,  1872, 12mo).  Compare 
Humbert,  Sojourn  in  Japan,  transl.  in  Ladies'  Reposito- 
ry, JNIarch,  1870,  p.  184  sq. ;  Macfarlane,  Japan  (London, 
1852,  8vo),  p.  204  sq.;  Siebold,  Nippon,  i,  3  sq.;  ii,  51 ; 
K-impfer,  Japan,  in  Pinkerton,  vii,  672  sq. ;  Tylor,  Prim- 
itive Culture  (London,  1871,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii  (see  Li- 
dex).     (J.H.W.) 

Kammon.  ■  See  Cummin. 

Kanipanton,  Lsaac  ben-Jacob,  a  Jewish  rabbi  of 
some  note,  was  born  in  Castile  in  13(50.  Of  his  personal 
history  but  little  is  known.  He  was  gaon  of  Castile, 
and  is  particularly  looted  for  his  contributions  to  Tal- 
mudical  literature,  and  his  influence,  through  his  pupils, 
on  Jewish  Utcrature  of  the  15th  century  in  the  Sjianish 
pcninsida.  lie  died  at  Penjafiel  in  14G3.  One  of  his 
most  important  works  is  'll^pnn  "^w"!"  {Ways  of  the 
Talmud,  first  published  atlSIantua  in  1590),  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  Talmud  (really  a  methodology). 
See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Jttden,  viii,  152  ;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Ju- 
dentliiims,ui,87;  Yiirst, Biblioth.Jud.  \,U0.     (.LILW.) 

Kamsin.     See  Simoom. 

Kamtchatka,  a  peninsula  in  the  extreme  north- 
east of  Asia,  occupied  by  the  Kussians  from  lODG  to 
1706,  extends  Ijetween  the  seas  of  Kamtchatka  and 
Ochotzk,  fipm  latitude  51°  to  61°  N.,  and  contains  20,800 
square  miles,  and  about  4500  inhaliitants,  one  third  of 
whom  arc  Kussians.  The  fimner  principal  place,  Nish- 
nei  Kamtschatk,  on  the  mouth  of  the   Kamtchatka 


River,  has  hardly  200  inhabitants.  Petropaulovsk,  the 
present  capital,  is  the  seat  of  a  Kusso-American  trading 
company,  and  has  a  population  of  about  1000.  Until 
185G  Kamtchatka  was  a  separate  district ;  at  present  it 
constitutes  the  district  Petropaulovsk,  of  the  coast  dis- 
trict of  Eastern  Siberia.  The  Kamtchadales  inhabit, 
besides  Kamtchatka,  also  a  part  of  the  Kurilc  Islands. 
They  belong  to  the  IMongolian  race,  are  small, have  thick 
heads,  and  flat,  broad  faces,  and  small  e)'es,  which  are  fre- 
quently inflamed  by  the  snow.  Though  baptized,  the 
Kamtchadales  are  still  addicted  to  Shamanism  (q.  v.), 
and,  in  particular,  practice  sorcery.  They  are  fund  of 
hunting  and  fishing,  good-natured,  and  hospitable.  (A. 
J.  S.) 

Kaiia  (Heb.  ilSpn  "iS5),  the  name  of  one  of  the 
later  cabalistic  works  treating  of  the  religious  rites  of 
the  Jews,  has  attained  considerable  notoriety  on  account 
of  its  decided  opposition  not  only  to  all  the  Jewish  ritu- 
al, to  Talmudical  interpretation,  and  to  the  Talmud  itself, 
but  for  its  fierce  attacks  even  against  Biblical  Judaism. 
Its  authorship  is  undecided,  but  of  late  most  Jewish  crit- 
ics lean  to  the  opinion  that  Kana  and  another  cabalistic 
work  entitled  Felia  (fiS^bs,  pubUshed  at  Kores  in  1784, 
and  often),  an  interpretation  of  the  first  book  of  the  Law 
(Genesis),  were  written  by  one  and  tlie  same  person,  and 
belong  to  a  Spanish  Jewish  heretic  of  the  15th  century 
or  thereabout.  Dr.Jellinek  {Bet-Ha-Midrash,  iii;  Einl. 
p.  xxxviii  sq.)  thinks  both  the  production  of  an  Italian 
or  Greek  Jew.  See,  for  further  details,  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Juden,  viii,  230  sq.,  458  sq.    See  also  C.vbala,    (J.  H.W.) 

Ka'nah  (Heb.  Kanah',  njj^,  re'edy ;  Sept.  Kavu  v. 
r.  KavBav),  the  name  of  two  places  in  Palestine. 

1.  A  stream  (?n3,  torrent  or  wady,  q.  d.  "  the  brook 
of  reeds,"  as  in  the  marg.)  that  formed  the  boundary  be- 
tween Ephraim  and  jManasseh,  from  the  ^Mediterranean 
eastward  to  the  vicinity  of  Tappuah  (Josh,  xvi,  8) ;  ly- 
ing properly  within  the  territory  of  IManasseh,  although 
the  towns  on  its  southern  bank  were  assigned  to  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim  (Josh,  xvii,  0 ;  see  Keil,  Comment,  ad 
loc.  prior.).  See  Tribe.  Schwarz  says  it  is  to  be  still 
found  in  the  equivalent  Arabic  name  Wady  al-Kazah 
(valley  of  reeds),  that  rises  in  a  spring  of  the  same  name, 
Ain  al-Kazah,  one  mile  west  of  Shechem,  and,  after 
flowing  westerly,  acquiring  a  considerable  breadth,  and 
irrigating  fields  on  its  way,  finally  falls  into  the  jNIedi- 
terranean  south  of  Ciesarea  (Palestine,  p.  51).  Other 
travellers,  however,  do  not  speak  of  such  a  stream  unless 
it  be  the  Nahr  el-Kezih  (river  of  reeds)  spoken  of  in  the 
Life  of  Saladin  (p.  191, 193)  as  existing  between  Caesa- 
rea  and  Arroplo  (Arsuf),  and  supposed  to  be  represented 
by  the  Nahr-Arsuf  (otherwise  el-Kassah)  which  enters 
the  INIediterranean  due  west  of  Sebustieh  (Samaria). 
Dr.  Robinson,  in  his  last  visit  to  Palestine,  discovered  a 
Wady  Kanah,  south-west  of  Shechem,  which  he  de- 
scribes as  originating  in  a  spring  of  tlie  same  name  in 
the  plain  el-Mukhna  (south  of  Nablus),  and  running  be- 
tween deep  and  rugged  banks  westerly  to  the  jilaln  bor- 
dering the  ^Mediterranean,  near  Ilableh,  where  it  is  wide 
and  cultivated,  and  bears  a  different  name  (Reseai'ches, 
new  edit.,  iii,  135);  from  which  it  appears  that  it  joins 
the  Nahr  cl-Aujeh,  as  laid  down  on  his  map.  This, 
however,  is  too  southern  a  position  for  the  stream  in 
question ;  for  it  would  wholly  cut  off  Ephraim  from  the 
sea-coast,  and  confine  its  territory  within  verj'  narrow 
limits  (Thomson,  Land  and  Bool;  ii,  259).  In  the  ab- 
sence of  more  specific  infonnation  respecting  this  region, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  name  "  Brook  of  Kceds"  is  a 
designation  of  the  sedgy  streams  that  constitute  the 
Nahr  Falaik  (comp.  the  Arundinetis,  between  Ca^sarea 
and  Apollonia,  spoken  of  by  Schultens,  Vita  Saladini,  p. 
191,  193),  perhaps  including  its  middle  branch,  called 
Wady  Mussin  or  Slleh  {on  Van  de  Velde's  Map).  Dr. 
Thomson  {ui  sup.)  thinks  it  is  the  present  46m  Zabura; 
but  this,  again,  seems  rather  too  far  north. 

2.  A  town  in  the  northern  part  of  Asher,  not  very 


KANDEKUMARAIO 


11 


KANT 


far  from  its  eastern  border,  mentioned  in  connection 
with  llammon  and  Zidon  (Josh,  xix,  23).  Dr.  Kobinson 
identifies  it  witli  Kana,  a  large  village  on  the  brow  of  a 
valley  not  far  soutli-east  of  the  site  of  Tyre  (Research- 
es, iii,  384),  So  also  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  192),  Van  de 
Veldc  (Memoir,  p.  327),  and  Porter  (Handbook  for  Pal- 
estine, p.  325,  442).  About  a  mile  north  of  the  place  is 
a  very  ancient  site,  strewn  with  ruins,  some  of  them  of 
colossal  proportions ;  and  in  the  side  of  a  ravine  not 
very  far  distant  are  some  singular  figures  of  men,  wom- 
en, and  children  cut  on  the  face  of  a  cliff  (Thomson, 
Land  and  Book,  i,  298).  Tristram  (Land  of  Israel,  p. 
58)  regards  them  as  Phoenician.     See  Inscriptions. 


Ancient  Tigurea  on  Rockb  at  Kiunh 

Kandekumaraio,  another  name  for  the  Hindu 

deity  known  as  Kartiiceya  (q.  v.). 

Kaneh.     See  Eeed. 

Kanne,  Johann  Arnolh,  a  German  mystic,  was 
born  at  Detniold  in  1773,  and  educated  at  the  gymna- 
sium of  his  native  city.  While  but  a  youth  he  attempt- 
ed the  restoration  of  the  exceedingly  marred  text  of 
Varro,  De  Linr/ua  Latina.  He  studied  theology  at  the 
University  of  Gottingen,  where  the  rational  exegesis  of 
Eichhorn  nearly  stifled  all  his  religious  belief.  From 
Gottingen  he  went  to  Leipsic,  thence  as  a  teacher  to 
Hallo,  and  finally  to  Berlin.  In  1805  he  wrote  at  WUr- 
temberg  a  work  on  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks  (Wei- 
mar, 1805).  His  study  of  this  subject  led  him  to  read 
the  Old  Testament,  and  idtimately  resulted  in  the  pub- 
lication of  Die  erste  Urkunde  der  Geschichte,  with  a 
Preface  by  Jean  Paul  (1808,  2  vols.  8vo).  During  the 
war  with  the  French  he  joined  the  PrussfJin  army,  but 
Avas  captured  by  the  French,  from  whom  he  soon  es- 
caped, and  then  entered  the  Austrian  army.  But,  pros- 
trated by  disease,  he  was  several  times  confined  in  the 
hospital  at  Linz,  when,  through  the  efforts  of  Jean  Paul 
and  president  Jacobi,  he  was  dismissed  from  the  ser- 
vice. On  Jacobi's  recommendation,  in  1809  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  history  in  the  College  of  Science 
at  Nuremberg.  His  sufferings  in  the  army  seemed  to 
have  accelerated  his  previous  religious  decline,  and  his 
works  published  after  his  appointment  at  Nuremberg 
give  evidence  of  his  leaning  towards  extreme  rational- 
ism. He  wrote  in  this  period  Pantheon  der  dltesten 
Naturphilosophie  oder  die  Pelif/ion  der  Volker  (1811)  : — 
Si/stem  der  Indischen  Mythe  oder  Kronus  mid  die  Ge- 
schichte des  Gotimenschen  (1813).  He  was,  however, 
soon  afterwards  induced  to  renounce  his  antichristian 
views  laid  down  in  these  books.  He  made  an  attempt 
to  derive  all  languages  from  one  primitive  language  in 
his  TrayyXojCTOToi',  but  his  request  to  king  Alexander  to 
aid  his  jihilological  undertaking  received  no  hearing. 
In  Nuremberg  his  moral  and  spiritual  condition  was  for 
a  long  time  a  turmoil  of  conflicting  emotions,  but  the 
reading  of  religious  writings  and  elevated  conversation 
with  distinguished  Christians  brought  about  a  spiritual 
regeneration.  In  1818  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
Oriental  Utcrature  in  the  University  of  Erlangen.  Here 
he  withdrew  from  all  society,  and  lived  in  seclusion  from 
the  world,  v.holly  absorbed  in  contemplative  mysticism. 


other  significations. 


Doubtless  his  papers  would  have  afforded  a  clear  view 
of  the  state  of  his  soul,  but,  according  to  his  friends,  to- 
wards the  close  of  his  Ufe  he  destroyed  aU  documents 
relating  to  this  subject.  He  died  Dec.  17,  1824.  His 
other  rehgious  works  are:  Sammlung  wahrer  und  er- 
u-ecklicher  Geschichten  aus  deni  Reiche  Christi  und  fur 
dasselhe  (1815-17, 2  vols. ;  1822, 3  vols.)  -.—Leben,  und  aus 
dem  Leben  merkwiirdifjer  und  erweckter  Christen  (181G- 
17,  2  vols.) :  —  Fortsetzum/  (1824)  :  —  Romane  aus  der 
Christenwelt  aller  Zeiten  (1817) : — Christus  iin  A.T.,  or 
Unte7-suchungen  iiberdie  Vorbilder  undmessianischenStel- 
len  (1818,  2  vols.  8vo)  •.—Bihlische  Untersuchun/;en  oder 
Auslegungm  mit  und  ohm  Polemih  (1819-20,  2  vols. 
8vo).  He  edited  also  the  follow- 
ing: Auserlesene  christliche  Lieder 
(Erlang.  1818) : — Weissagungen  v. 
Verheissungen  der  Kirche  Christi 
avf  die  letzten  Zeiten  der  Ileiden, 
—  Katholische  Real  -  Enctjklop.  v, 
1036. 

Kanon  is  one  of  the  names  by 
which  the  official  list  or  register  of 
tlie  Church  is  known.  It  is  also 
frequently  spoken  of  as  KaraXoyoQ 
'itgaTiKoc,  list  of  the  priesthood,  and 
lence  spiritual  persons  were  denom- 
inated KavoviKoi,  canonici,  and  ol 
Tov  Kavui'ot;,  men  of  the  c««o»,  be- 
cause their  names  were  entered  in 
the  list.  The  word  kuviov  had  also 
The  assent  of  the  catechumens  to 
a  summary  of  the  leading  articles  of  the  Christian  faith 
was  required,  and  this  creed  was  variously  designated ; 
sometimes  Kavwv,  the  rule,  sometimes  TriariQ,  the  faith, 
and  sijmbolum,  a  badge  or  token  (see  Kiddie,  Christian 
Antiquities,  s.  v.).     See  Canon, 

Kanoiise,  Peter,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Boonton,  N.  J.,  August  20,  1784,  of  German  descent; 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  under  Drs.  Armstrong  and 
Kichards,  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1822.  H(j 
successively  preached  at  Suckasunna,  N.  J. ;  Ne^vark,  N. 
J. ;  Wantage,  N.  J. ;  Newark,  N.  J. ;  Poughkeepsie,  N. 
Y. ;  again  at  Wantage,  N.  J.,  and  then  as  a  home  mis- 
sionary in  Dane  Co.,  Wisconsin.  He  died  May  30, 1864. 
"  He  was  an  able  and  impressive  preacher  of  the  Gos- 
pel. .  .  .  bearing  the  '  fruits  of  the  Spirit,'  and  instru- 
mental in  the  conversion  of  many  souls." — AVilson,  Prc?- 
bijterian  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1866,  p.  216. 

Kansa,  in  Hindu  mytholog}^,  is  the  name  of  a  king 
of  the  race  of  Bhoja — considered  also  a  daemon  (Kiila- 
nemi)  in  human  shape,  and  notorious  for  his  enmity  to- 
wards the  god  Krishna  [see  Vishnu],  by  whom  he  was 
ultimately  slain. 

Kant,  Imjianuel,  designated  bj'  De  Maistre  "  the 
philosopher  of  nebulous  memory,"  acquired  enduring  re- 
nown as  the  author  of  the  Critical  Philosophy.,  as  the 
father  of  the  recent  German  or  transcendental  specula- 
tion, and  as  the  most  acute  and  profound  metaphysician 
of  the  closing  18th  century.  The  importance  of  his 
philosophical  career  is  evinced  by  his  furnishing  the 
link  of  connection  between  the  schools  of  Leibnitz, 
Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume,  and  those  of  Hegel,  Scliel- 
liiig,  and  Comtc.  He  closes  one  great  and  brilliant  era 
of  metaph}'sical  inquiry ;  he  commences  another  with 
singular  fulness  of  knowledge,  breadth  of  comprehen- 
sion, perspicacity  of  discernment,  and  logical  subtlety 
and  precision.  He  exposed  inveterate  errors  of  proced- 
ure ;  he  improved,  sharpened,  and  refined  the  methods 
of  investigation ;  he  surveyed  and  plotted  out  the  boun- 
daries of  metaphysical  research  ;  and  he  rendered  more 
distinct  and  precise  the  nature  of  the  inquiry,  the  sub- 
ject with  v.liich  it  is  concerned,  and  the  instruments  at 
our  command  for  its  investigation.  These  are  inestima- 
ble services,  the  benefits  of  which  are  experienced  even 
in  the  midst  of  the  errors  that  have  sprung  from  the 
svstem  bv  which  thev  were  rendered. 


KANT 


12 


KANT 


Life. — Kant  was  born  at  Kiinigsberg  April  22, 1724, 
and  spent  his  whole  lite  there  or  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
borhood, never  having  journeyed  more  than  forty  miles 
from  his  native  place.  He  ended  his  tranquil  life  in 
the  city  of  his  birth,  February  12,  1804.  He  was  of 
Scotch  origin.  His  father,  John  George  Cant,  removed 
from  Tilsit,  where  his  immigrant  grandfather  first  set- 
tled, to  Ktinigsberg,  and  followed  the  saddler's  trade  with 
little  worldly  success.  His  pinched  fortunes  were  enno- 
bled by  stern  and  unostentatious  integrity.  All  accounts 
commemorate  the  high  character,  intelligence,  and  au- 
stere piety  of  Anna  Kegina  Keuter,  the  philosopher's 
mother — virtues  affectionately  attested  by  her  illustrious 
son,  who  ascribes  all  that  was  best  in  himself  to  her  ex- 
ample and  instructions,  and  to  the  purifying  influences 
of  his  childhood's  home.  He  lost  his  mother  when  he 
was  eleven  years  of  age,  his  father  in  his  twenty-second 
year  (174G).  They  lived  long  enough  to  transmit  to 
him  the  memory  of  their  virtuous  example — 'twas  all 
they  had  to  bequeath.  After  receiving  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  education  at  the  charitable  schools  of  the  city, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Frederick  College  in  1734,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  his  uncle,  a  substantial  shoemaker.  Here  he 
remained  for  seven  years  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Schiiltz, 
an  eminent  adherent  of  Wolf,  at  the  time  when  the 
AVollian  philosophy  was  a  subject  of  acrimonious  contro- 
versy. He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  classics  and 
mathematics,  the  essential  foundation  of  all  thorough 
instruction,  and  had  Rulmken  for  his  fellow -student. 
From  the  Collef/ium  Fredericiumnn  he  passed  in  1740  to 
the  University  of  Kiinigsberg,  and  entered  upon  a  course 
of  theology;  but  his  ill  success  in  preaching  discouraged 
him,  and  he  attached  himself  to  the  matliematical  and 
physical  sciences,  in  the  former  of  which  his  first  dis- 
tinction was  gained.  During  the  latter  period  of  his 
university  career  he  supported  himself  by  teaching  in 
the  humblest  grades,  in  consequence  of  the  increasing 
penury  of  his  father,  whose  death  in  1746  compelled  him 
to  withdraw  from  the  university,  and  to  seek  a  living 
from  his  own  exertions  alone.  For  the  nine  following 
years  he  was  employed  as  a  private  teacher  in  or  near 
Kijnigsbcrg,  and  flnally  in  the  noljle  family  of  Kayscr- 
ling,  by  Avhom  his  merits  were  appi'eciated,  and  in  whose 
society  he  acquired  that  polish  of  manner  which  distin- 
guished him  through  life.  lie  changed  his  family  name 
of  Cant  to  the  more  Germanic  appellative  Kant,  but  he 
did  not  thus  divest  himself  of  the  Scotch  characteristics 
of  mind  and  morals.  In  the  second  year  of  his  engage- 
ment in  private  tuition  he  published  his  first  work, 
Gedcmken  von  dcr  walrren  Scliatziiiir/  de?'  lehendujcn  Krlifle 
{Thour/hts  on  the  true  Measure  of  Living  Forces,  1747), 
which  was  esteemed  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  fa- 
mous controversy  on  the  subject.  In  1754  he  discussed 
the  question  proposed  for  a  prize  by  the  Berlin  Acade- 
my, Whether  the  Earth  had  undergone  a>i;j  change  conse- 
quent upon  its  7-evolution  upon  its  Axis.  This  essay  fa- 
cilitated his  acquisition  of  the  master's  degree  in  the 
next  year.  At  this  time  he  returned  to  the  universitj- 
as  prirat-doceut,  and  maintained  an  uninterrupted  con- 
nection with  it  thenceforth  till  the  closing  years  of  his 
life  He  inaugurated  his  lectures  by  the  composition  of 
two  theses :  the  first,  Be  Igni ;  the  second,  IHssertatio  de 
Prina'piis  Primis  Cognitiouis  Ifumancr,  which  was  the 
first  manifestation  of  the  direction  of  his  mind  to  meta- 
physical inquiry,  and  also  showed  that  he  had  fixed  on 
the  central  point  of  all  philosoi)hy.  While  employed  in 
private  teaching  he  had  diligently  prosecuted  his  ency- 
clopxdical  stucUes,  and  had  acquired  the  English  lan- 
guage by  his  own  exertions,  in  order  to  master  the  spec- 
ulations of  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume.  Another  kin- 
dred treatise  belongs  to  this  year — Priiicipioriiiu  Primo- 
rum  Cognitionis  Metaphysical  Nova.  Dducidatio,  as  also 
liis  Allgemeine  Naturgeschiehte  nnd  Theorie  des  Ilimimls 
(^Univeisal  Natural  History  and  Theory  of  the,  Hea'r- 
eni).  The  last  work  was  issued  anonymously,  with  a 
dedication  to  Frederick  tlie  (ireat.  It  is  remarkable  for 
its  bold  views,  and  for  aimouncing  the  probable  resolu- 


tion of  the  nebula?  into  stars,  and  the  probable  discovery 
of  new  planets  —  scientific  predictions  fulfilled  in  much 
later  years  by  Ilerschel  and  Leverrier.  Tliis  production 
occasioned  a  correspondence  with  Lambert  (17G1),  the 
singularly  profound  president  of  the  Berlin  Academy, 
who  espoused  similar  opinions.  For  fifteen  years  (1755- 
1770)  Kant  lectured  to  private  classes  in  the  university. 
His  courses  treated  "panie  de  omni  scibili,"  but  were 
marked  by  a  special  addition  to  the  physical  sciences, 
and,  after  1757,  to  physical  geography,  a  novel  branch 
r)f  knowledge  which  he  continued  to  expound  annually 
till  the  close  of  his  academical  career.  A  life  so  retired 
as  Kant's,  and  so  exclusively  occupied  with  study  and 
the  duties  of  instruction,  scarcely  offers  any  events  for 
biography  beyond  the  development  of  opinions,  the  jjub- 
lication  of  the  treatises  in  which  such  opinions  are  set 
forth,  and  the  academic  distinctions  attained.  The 
chronicler  finds  little  to  report  more  exciting  than  Dr. 
Primrose's  migrations  "from  the  blue  chamber  to  the 
brown,"  and  hence  is  compelled  to  mark  the  critical  mo- 
ments of  his  career  by  the  notice  of  the  principal  wt)rks 
as  they  appeared.  Such  indications,  however,  have  a 
value  of  their  own,  as  they  reveal  the  growth  of  spec- 
ulations which  have  moulded  the  intelligence  of  the 
^^•orld,  and  mark  the  times  and  modes  in  wliich  the  rev- 
olutions of  thought  have  been  effected.  In  1762  ap- 
peared Kant's  criticism  of  the  Aristotelian  logic,  in  a  trea- 
tise entitled  Die  falsche  Spitzjindigkeit  der  vier  syllogis- 
tischen  Figuren  {False  Subtlety  of  the  Syllogistic  Figures'). 
The  censors  of  Aristotle  have  usually  misapprehended 
both  his  doctrines  and  his  aims,  and  have  imagined  to 
be  erroneous  dogmas  which  the  Stagyrite  had  medita- 
ted more  profoundly,  and  had  treated  with  a  juster  re- 
gard to  practical  convenience  than  themselves.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  year,  1763,  Kant  gave  to  the  public 
his  Der  einzig  mogliche  Beweissgrund  zu  einer  Demonstra- 
tion des  Daseyns  Gottes  {Ontological  Demonstration  of  the 
Being  of  God),  in  which  he  repudiated  alike  the  deduc- 
tions a  p)rion  of  Anselm,  Des  Cartes,  and  Clarke,  and 
the  inductions  a  posteriori  of  the  natural  theologians, 
and  regarded  the  conception  of  the  possibility  of  God  as 
attesting  the  reality  of  his  existence.  This  treatise  still 
bears  the  imjiress  of  the  dominant  Wolfian  philosophy, 
which  he  had  imbibed  from  his  early  teacher  Schultz. 
In  this  year  he  contended  for  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Berlin  Academy,  his  treatise  on  the  Principles  of  Nat- 
ural Theology  and  Morals  {Unteisuchung  iiher  die  Deut- 
lichkeit  der  Grundscitze  der  natiirlicheii  Theologie  vnd 
Morcd)  receiving  the  second  honors,  while  the  first  v.ere 
adjudged  to  IMoses  IMendelssohn.  Three  years  more 
elapsed  before  he  received  his  first  public  appointment 
as  underkeeper  of  the  Royal  Library,  with  the  scant  sal- 
ary of  fifty  dollars.  In  this  year  he  exposed  the  pre- 
tensions of  Swedenborgianism,  being  always  ready  to 
assail  new-fangled  delusions,  whether  stimulated  by  en- 
thusiasm or  by  imposture.  At  length,  when  ajiproach- 
ing  the  end  of  his  forty-seventh  year,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphj-sics  in  his  own  uni- 
versity, with  a  stipend  of  three  hundred  dollars.  He 
had  suffered  two  previous  disappointments.  He  had 
failed  to  obtain  the  professorship  extraordinary  of  logic 
in  1756,  and  the  ordinary  professorship  in  1758,  and  had 
declined  the  professorship  of  poetry  in  17G4,froin  distrust 
of  his  aptitudes  and  acquirements.  He  had  refused  in- 
vitations from  Erlangen  and  Jena,  from  reluctance  to 
abandon  his  people  and  his  native  home. 

Custom  demanded  an  inaugural  dissertation  from  the 
professor  elect.  Kant's  subject  was  De  3/undi  AS'ensibi/is 
atqne  Intelligibilis  Forma  et  Principiis.  This  essay  con- 
tained the  first  distinct  anticipations  of  his  characteristic 
system,  though  his  philosophj-  did  not  receive  form  or 
coherent  development  for  many  ensuing  years.  The  re- 
mainder of  his  life  was,  however,  consecrated  to  its  defi- 
nite constitution  and  exposition.  It  early  began  to  as- 
sume shape,  for  in  1772  he  smoothed  the  way  for  a  full- 
er discussion  by  his  Scheme  of  Transcendental  Philoso- 
phy.   No  desire  of  change,  no  temptation  of  worldly  ad- 


KANT 


13 


KANT 


vancement  and  honor  could  seduce  him  from  his  calm  lu- 
cubrations. He  refused  to  go  to  Halle,  though  a  double 
salary  was  offered  him.  After  eleven  years  of  patient 
meditation  he  produced  in  1781  his  Critique  oftkePure 
Reason  {Kritik  dev  reiiien  Vernunft),  which  proclaimed 
a  ne^v  philosophy,  and  ushered  in  a  new  cycle  of  specu- 
lation— norm  ordo  Sicclorum  metaphysicoruin.  The  work 
was  modified  in  a  second  edition  in  1787,  to  obviate  the 
imputation  of  idealism  and  idealistic  infidelity  objected 
to  it  as  to  the  previous  system  of  Wolf.  It  long  seemed 
as  if  this  remarkable  production — a  revolution  itself,  and 
the  parent  of  revolutions — woidd  never  reach  a  second 
edition.  For  six  years  it  lay  so  unheeded  on  the  jnib- 
lisher's  shelves  that  he  contemplated  disposing  of  it  as 
waste  paper,  when  a  sudden  demand  relieved  his  anxie- 
ties, and  rendered  a  republication  expedient.  This  time- 
ly uiterest  in  the  book  was  scarcely  due  to  Kant's  Pro- 
legomena to  Metaphysics  {Prolegomena  zu  eiiier  jeden 
kiinflvjen  Metaphysik,  die  als  Wissenschaft  wird  aiiflre- 
ten  Iconnen,  1783),  but  may  be  attributed  to  striking  no- 
tices of  the  doctrine  in  prominent  German  magazines. 
In  1785  the  practical  side  of  his  system  was  exposed  in 
his  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  {Grmidler/ung  zur  Metaphysik 
der  Sitten),  and  in  the  following  year  its  extension  to 
physical  speculation  was  attempted  in  his  Metaphysics 
of  Natural  Science  (^Metaphysische  A  ufanr/sgriiiule  der 
Naturwissenschaft).  In  1788  the  positive  aspect  of  his 
philosophy  was  presented  in  the  Critique  of  the  Practical 
Reason  {Kritik  der  praktischenVei-nunf),  which  treats 
of  the  principles  and  objects  of  the  moral  law,  and  con- 
structs ethics  on  the  formula,  Act  so  that  your  principle 
of  action  may  serve  as  a  universal  law.  The  foimdation 
is  narrow,  and  has  the  cold  rigidity  of  Stoical  pretension, 
but  it  was  a  stern  and  strict  rule  in  the  conception  of 
its  propounder,  and  was  borrowed  from  his  own  line  of 
conduct,  and  from  the  austere  virtues  of  his  parental 
home,  as  much  as  from  the  dictates  of  his  reason.  The 
defects  of  this  canon  will  be  indicated  hereafter.  The 
outline  of  the  new  philosophy  was  completed  in  1790  by 
the  Critique  of  the  Practical  Judgment  {Kritik  der  Ur- 
tkeikkraft),  which  is  in  some  respects  the  most  satis- 
factory work  of  the  series.  It  is  designed  to  unit  j  the 
practical  with  the  theoretical  reason,  the  freedom  of  the 
wUl  witii  the  law  of  existence,  by  regarding  the  whole 
order  of  creation  as  a  system  of  means  effectually  adapt- 
ed to  the  attainment  of  benelicent  aims.  It  is  thus  a 
tractate  of  teleology  or  of  final  causes.  It  is  principally 
occupied  with  the  theory  of  the  beautiful  and  the  sub- 
lime, and  is  in  great  measure  a  development  of  the  Ob- 
servations  on  the  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime  {Beobach- 
tunrjen  iiber  das  Gefiihl  des  Schonen  und Erhabenen,  17C4), 
and  the  Metaphysics  of  Ethics  (1785). 

Kant's  metaphysics  had  thus  been  exhibited  by  him- 
self in  all  its  principal  applications.  It  had  attracted 
general  notice;  it  had  gathered  around  it  numerous  and 
enthusiastic  disciples;  it  had  secured  for  its  author  pro- 
found respect  and  earnest  admiration.  Distinguished 
men  flocked  to  his  lectures ;  princes  and  sovereigns  com- 
missioned learned  scholars  to  hear  his  teacliings  and  to 
report  his  doctrines.  His  life  was  surroiuided  witli  case, 
and  his  days  were  crowned  with  honor.  His  salary  had 
been  increased,  and  had  given  what  was  wealth  to  one 
of  his  simple  tastes  and  frugal  habits.  He  liad  been 
twice  appointed  rector  of  the  university.  His  industri- 
ous and  meditative  career  had  passed  its  grand  climac- 
teric, and  was  stretching  serenely  to  its  close.  Just 
when  the  aims  of  life  appeared  to  have  been  won,  Kant 
was  plunged  into  the  only  serious  troubles  wliich  dis- 
turbed liis  tranquil  existence.  He  became  involved  in 
a  grave  religious  controversy  bj'^  some  articles  in  a  Ber- 
lin magazine,  afterwards  reproduced  in  a  volume  under 
the  title  of  Religion  within  the  Limits  of  Pure  Reason 
Sfiie  Religion  inner  halb  der  Grenzen  der  blossen  Vernunft, 
1793).  There  was  a  ferment  in  the  religious  circles  of 
Germany  at  this  time,  and  Kant's  philosophy  had  early 
excited  alarms  which  appeared  now  to  be  justified.  A 
doctrine  which  rejected  the  accepted  arguments  for  the 


being  of  God,  the  validity  of  revelation,  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  and  the  creation  of  the  world,  offended  too 
many  convictions,  unsettled  too  many  inveterate  habits 
of  thought,  and  substituted  too  shadowy  and  too  ab- 
stract si)eculations  for  accredited  precepts  and  dogmas, 
not  to  produce  discontent  and  censure.  Nor  were  the 
alarms  entertained  unreasonable,  as  was  shown  by  the 
subsequent  developments  of  the  transcendental  philoso- 
phy. The  agitation  excited  by  Kant's  theological  in- 
novations was  partially  allayed  by  a  royal  mandate  di- 
recting him  to  observe  silence  on  religious  topics.  The 
king's  interference  is  supposed  to  have  been  induced  by 
Kant's  sympathies  with  the  French  Revolution,  despite 
of  the  Reign  of  Terror.  On  the  death  of  the  king  in 
1797  he  resumed  his  expositions,  considering  his  engage- 
ment as  a  personal  one  with  that  monarch.  But  before 
this  time  he  had  narrowed  the  sphere  of  his  activity. 
In  179i  he  withdrew  from  general  society;  in  1795  he 
discontinued  aU  his  instructions  except  in  logic  and  met- 
aphysics, and  he  closed  his  ifcademic  labors  altogether 
two  years  afterwards.  In  1798  he  composed  his  Strife 
of  the  Faculties  {Der  Sireit  der  Facultdten),  reviving  the 
religious  dispute  in  which  he  had  been  entangled ;  and 
he  bade  farewell  to  the  public  in  his  Pragmatical  View 
of  Anthropology  {Anthropologic  in  pragmatischer  Hin- 
sicht).  The  last  work  from  his  o\vn  pen  was  a  protest 
against  Fichte's  doctrine,  which  gave  to  the  new  philos- 
ophy the  subjective  or  idealistic  cast,  against  which  his 
own  -efforts  had  always  been  strenuously  directed.  In 
this  paper  were  manifested  his  own  failing  powers,  and 
his  incapacity  to  appreciate  other  systems  than  his  own 
— a  natural  consequence  of  his  habitual  disregard  of  the 
history  of  speculation.  His  pupils  published  several 
other  works  from  his  notes  and  papers  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life.  Tliat  life  was  not  long  extended  after 
his  retirement.  His  constitution  gradually  broke  up; 
his  health,  so  remarkably  maintained,  began  to  decline; 
appetite,  teeth,  strength,  sight,  voice,  memory,  all  failed, 
and  his  pure,  laborious,  and  honorable  existence  was  ter- 
minated by  an  apopleetic  attack,  Feb.  12, 180i,  vvdicn  he 
had  nearly  completed  his  eightieth  year.  His  death 
produced  profound  emotion  throughout  Germany.  The 
whole  city  of  Kiinigsbcrg  put  on  mourning;  multitudes 
flocked  to  liis  funeral,  and  his  remains  were  escorted 
to  the  grave  by  a  solemn  procession.  A  characteristic 
medal  was  struck  to  commemorate  his  fame.  It  liore  an 
emblem  and  a  motto  appropriate  to  his  doctrine,  "  Altius 
volantem  coercuit."  He  was  worthy  of  such  honor.  He 
left  to  his  countrs'men  the  example  of  a  career  rich  in 
wholesome  fruits  —  simple,  sincere,  upright,  laborious; 
devoted  singly  to  the  promotion  of  tnith,  and  to  tlie  re- 
moval of  error  in  the  highest  and  most  perDous  regions 
of  speculation,  illustrated  by  seventy  years  of  unbroken 
industry,  and  by  half  a  century  faithfully  given  to  tjie 
instruction  of  successive  generations  of  the  young  in  va- 
rious branches  of  learning,  from  the  humblest  rudiments 
of  knowledge  to  tlio  mostrccondite  metaphysical  research. 
Humble,  modest,  and  true,  his  life  was  a  nobler  crown  to 
his  memory  than  all  the  honors  that  men  could  bestow. 
In  person,  Kant  was  small  and  delicately  built.  His 
blue  eyes  expressed  benevolence,  but  his  features  were 
rugged,  and  seamed  with  the  lines  of  habitual  thought. 
Lavater  mistook  his  portrait  for  that  of  a  noted  high- 
wajTiian.  His  manners  were  kindly  and  courteous.  He 
was  very  genial  in  company,  full  of  mirth  and  innocent 
wit,  and  scrupulously  abstinent  of  learned  or  metajihys- 
ical  discourse.  As  a  lecturer  he  was  easy  and  attrac- 
tive, displaying  nothing  of  the  repulsive  aridity  and 
elaborate  awkwardness  of  his  philosophical  treatises. 
He  was  a  reverential  observer  of  all  truth,  and  rigid  in 
the  practice  of  all  justice.  The  like  precise  projiriety 
regulated  all  his  habits.  He  was  plain  in  his  tastes,  ab- 
stemious in  eating  and  drinking,  chary  of  indulgences, 
frugal  in  his  expenditures,  methodical  in  every  arrange- 
ment. "  Early  to  bed  anil  early  to  rise"  was  the  rule  of 
his  hfe.  His  hour  for  rising  was  four  in  summer  and 
live  in  winter;  fur  bed,  ten  in  summer  and  nine  in  win- 


KANT 


14 


KANT 


ter.  By  tliis  regularity  and  moderation  he  reached  ful- 
ness of  years  with  liealth,  cheerfulness,  and  perfect  se- 
renity. He  seems  to  have  been  deficient  in  i)oetic  sen- 
sibihty  and  poetic  imajjinatiou.  To  this  defect  may  be 
ascribed  several  imperfections  in  the  exposition  of  his 
philosophy,  and  his  total  want  of  religious  sentiment. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  declared  that  he  had  no  de- 
terminate notion  of  a  future  state,  but  was  inclined  to 
believe  in  metempsychosis.  This  was  the  Haw  in  his 
mental  and  moral  constitution  which  produced  many 
flaws  in  his  speculation. 

Like  his  illustrious  contemporary  Hume,  whom  he 
sur\ived  nearly  thirty  years,  Kant  Avas  never  married. 
He  gave  no  ''  hostages  to  fortune,"  but  illustrated  Ba- 
con's dictum,  that "  the  best  works,  and  of  greatest  merit 
for  the  public,  have  proceeded  from  unmarried  or  child- 
less men."  Of  the  works  constituting  Kant's  bequest  to 
posterity,  the  most  noted  and  important  are  those  that 
expountl  the  "  Critical  Philosophy,"  and  of  this  philoso- 
phy a  brief  notice  remain.*  to  be  given. 

Philosophy — Kant's  scheme  of  speculation  is  so  com- 
prehensive, so  extensive,  so  intricate,  so  systematic,  so 
full  of  divisions  and  subdivisions,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
attempt  any  complete  summary  of  it  within  the  limits  al- 
lowed by  this  article.  Not  the  fullest,  but  the  most  com- 
pact mode  of  exposition  is  required.  Hence  the  notice 
of  tlie  numerous  treatises  not  directly  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  "  Critical  Philosophy"  has  been  in- 
troduced into  the  biographical  sketch.  Hence,  too,  the 
reader  wlio  desires  a  formal  outline  of  the  system  must 
be  referred  to  some  of  the  numerous  synoptical  views 
presented  in  German,  French,  English,  and  Latin.  All 
that  can  be  aimed  at  here  will  be  to  give  a  cursory  ac- 
count of  the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  Kant's  scheme. 
To  do  this,  it  may  suffice  to  explain  his  relation  to  pre- 
vious philosophy,  to  point  out  his  characteristic  method, 
and  to  note  the  cliief  developments  and  applications  of 
that  method. 

To  show  the  exact  relation  of  Kant  to  antecedent 
and  contemporary  modes  of  spocidation  woidd  require  a 
detailed  account  of  the  fortunes  of  philosophy  from  Ba- 
con, and  Gassondi,  and  Des  Cartes.  This  is'more  than 
has  been  attempted  by  Rosenkranz.  It  must  suffice  to 
state  that  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  Wolfian 
deyeloiiment  and  systematization  of  the  philosophy  of 
Leibnitz  was  predominant  in  Germany;  the  scepticism 
of  Hume  perplexed  and  alarmed  Britain ;  and  the  mate- 
rialism of  D'Alembert,  Diderot,  and  Condillac  was  fash- 
ionable in  France.  The  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  was  an 
effort  to  escape  the  pantheistic  tendencies  of  Cartesian- 
ism  as  evolved  in  the  idealism  of  Spinoza  and  the  the- 
osophism  of  JNLalebranche.  Hume's  philosophy  was  the 
sceptical  evolution  of  the  sensationalism  of  Locke,  gener- 
ated by  the  collision  between  the  mechanicism  of  Hartley 
and  the  Pyrrhonism  of  Berkeley.  The  infidel  doctrine  of 
the  school  of  the  French  Eiicyclopnsdia  was  the  superfi- 
cial deduction  of  the  French  intellectual  anarchists  from 
the  partial  appreciation  of  the  tenets  of  Locke,  whose 
own  princii>les  were  vague  and  incoherent.  The  prob- 
lem presented  for  solution  was  to  find  some  ground  of 
conciliation  between  all  these  divergent  opinions,  to  de- 
tect and  expose  the  fallacies  on  which  they  rested,  to 
avoid  the  mischiefs  caused  or  portended  by  them,  and  to 
discover  a  trustworthy  and  intelligible  basis  for  human 
knowleilge.  The  situation  was  in  many  respects  anal- 
ogous to  that  which  characterized  the  Hellenic  world  at 
the  time  of  Socrates.  Kant  undertook  the  investiga- 
tion of  this  arduous  and  urgent  problem,  and,  like  Soc- 
rates, he  proceeded  by  the  critical  investigation  of  the 
nature  of  knowledge  and  of  the  intellectual  faculties  of 
man.  By  this  procedure  he  was  gradually  led  to  the 
determination  of  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  and  to 
the  discovery  of  a  solution  partially  true,  and  which  ap- 
peared to  himself  complete  and  irrefragable.  In  meta- 
physics the  method  is  the  philosophy,  and  Kant's  jneth- 
od  gave  to  his  system  the  appropriate  name  of  the  Crit- 
ical I'hilosophy. 


It  must  be  remembered  that  Kant's  early  guide  was 
Schultz,  an  earnest  partisan  of  "Wolf;  that  Kant  pro- 
ceeils  from  the  Wolfian,  that  is,  from  the  methodical 
LeibniJ;zian  School;  that  he  slowly  emerges  from  the 
Wolfian  circle,  and  that  Wolfian  characteristics  may  be 
traced  throughout  the  whole  construction  of  his  scheme. 

The  response  made  by  Leibnitz  to  the  thesis  of  Locke 

— "  Nihil  est  in  intellectu  (juod  non  prius  in  sensu" a 

dogma  by  no  means  Aristotle's,  and  only  virtually  Locke's 
—furnishes  the  key-note  to  the  whole  philosophy  of 
Kant.  "  Nisi  intellectus  ipse,"  replied  Leibnitz ;  "thus 
distinguishing  the  faculty  of  thought  from  the  impres- 
sions it  receives,  and  offering  a  refutation  at  once  of 
both  the  sceptical  and  the  materialistic  followers  of 
Locke.  The  same  just  discernment  may  be  found  in 
Aristotle,  though  it  has  been  little  noticed  (.1  nul/jt.  Post. 
ii,  xix).  What  was  required  was  the  discovery  of  some 
principle  of  intelligence,  some  interjiretation  of  the  pro- 
cess of  human  thought,  which  woidd  withdraw  the  mind 
of  man  from  the  arbitrary  government  of  a  ProA-idential 
compulsion,  a  blind  necessity,  or  a  mechanical  regula- 
tion by  material  constitution  or  by  external  chance. 
Kant  sought  this  principle  in  the  constitution  and  limi- 
tations of  the  human  mind.  He  analyzed  the  products 
and  the  processes  of  thought.  He  found  that  in  every 
pcrcejition,  in  every  judgment,  in  every  generalization, 
the  mind  communicated  something  of  its  own  to  what 
was  presented  as  the  object  of  knowledge ;  that  in  every 
apprehension,  what  was  apprehended  was  moulded  and 
determined  by  the  intelligence  which  apprehended  it. 
To  use  the  language  of  the  school,  the  form  of  knowl- 
edge was  necessarily  imposed  by  the  constitution  of  the 
cognizant  mind.  This*  seems  to  have  been  the  doctrine 
of  Aristotle  (jriv  ■ipi'XJjv  tlvai  totzov  tlSuv,  Be  Anhn, 
iii,  iv),  and  was  deduced  from  his  teachings  by  his  scho- 
liast, Asclepius. 

It  was  slowly  that  Kant  reached  this  conclusion, 
which  became  very  prolific  in  his  hands.  He  tells  us 
that  it  was  due  to  the  examination  of  Hume's  denial  of 
any  nexus  between  cause  and  effect,  which  of  course  re- 
duced the  universe  to  a  disconnected  dream,  and  ren- 
dered all  knowledge  the  mere  aggregate  of  impressions 
fortuitously  succeeding  each  other.  He  found  that  the 
same  difficidty  which  had  been  exposed  by  Hume  in  re- 
gard to  cause  and  effect  existed  in  the  case  of  all  syn- 
thetic judgments  «  priori,  or  those  which  unite  two  un- 
connected conceptions  in  one  proposition.  Truth  was 
thus  deprived  of  all  valiility,  and  experience  became 
fallacy.  How  could  a  firm  fomidation  be  attained? 
Was  experience  as  hollow,  and  spectral,  and  delusive  as 
it  had  been  represented  by  Hume  ?  Three  questions 
presented  themselves  for  solution,  each  corresponding  to 
a  distinct  branch  of  metaphysical  inquiry :  "  What  can  I 
know?"  "What  ought  I  to  do?"  "What  may  I  hope 
for?"  The  answer  to  the  first  question,  which  was  the 
investigation  of  the  nature  of  knowledge  and  of  the  na- 
ture of  the  mind,  was  given  in  the  Critique  of  the  Pure 
Reason.  The  answer  to  the  second,  wdiich  embraced  the 
theory  of  duty,  was  propounded  in  the  Critique  of  the 
Practical  Reason.  The  answer  to  the  third,  which  con- 
templated the  summum  honum  under  a  jieculiar  aspect, 
was  presented  in  the  Critique  of  the  Judf/mcnt — a  very 
ambiguous  designation.  This  distinction  of  subjects  and 
division  of  treatises  sprung  from  the  distribution  of  the 
matter  of  philosophy  then  prevalent  in  Gemiany.  The 
distribution  had  itself  descended  from  Aristotle  {^tioiu]- 
TiKi)  yap  Ktti  TrpaKrtK})  Kai  7ron)TiK})  Xiyirai  scil.  t—i- 
a-rjf^tt]. — Top.  vi,  C ;  comp.  Metaph.  v,  1 ;  xi,  7 ;  xii,  9). 

(1)  The  Critique  of  the  Pure  Reason  contains  the  es- 
sence of  Kant's  philosophy.  It  exhibits  his  method, 
illustrates  his  procedure,  and  presents  his  fundamentid 
conchisions.  The  conception  of  the  Pure  IJcason  is  in 
great  measure  his  own,  though  both  the  name  and  what 
is  denoted  by  the  name  are  found  in  previous  systems 
(Plotinus,  Ennead.  v,  3,  3;  Leibnitz,  Theod.  §  1 ;  Nouv. 
Ess.  ii,  iv,  §  3).  The  pure  reason  is  reason  in  its  essential 
constitution — iv  Cvvafiu,  not  iv  ivtpyiia — the  think- 


KANT 


15 


KANT 


ing  faculty  in  its  adaptation  to  thought — erapty  of  the 
matter  of  thought,  and  distinct  from  its  experiences.  It 
is  the  mill  witliout  the  grain  which  is  to  be  ground  by 
it.  In  analyzing  the  principle  of  thought,  Kant  detects 
an  active  as  well  as  a  passive  factor.  In  every  act  of 
thought  there  is  the  reception  of  the  impression  from 
the  object  of  thought,  and  the  subjective  reaction  there- 
by excited,  which  reaction  communicates  the  rational 
form  to  the  conclusum,  and  differentiates  to  vovf^itvov, 
the  subject  of  thought,  from  ro  ^atvuyu£vo»',  the  object 
of  thought. 

Kant  cUstinguishes  the  agencies  which  supply  the 
materials  of  knowledge  into  three — sense,  understand- 
ing, reason.  The  distribution  of  the  faculties  of  the 
mind  is  always  hazardous,  and  often  beguiling.  The 
mind  is  one  and  comjilcte.  In  the  perceptions  of  sensa- 
tion, the  elements  derived  from  the  mind,  and  not  from 
the  impression,  are  space  and  time.  Such  elements  are 
called  transcendental  because  they  transcend,  precede, 
and  formulate  the  experience.  They  are  consequently 
the  forms  or  conditions  of  sensations.  They  are  not 
supplied  by  the  sensation,  but  they  are  added  to  it  by 
the  mind  in  the  act  of  perception.  There  arc  indica- 
tions of  this  doctrine  in  Plotiuus  (^/mear?.  ii,  7, 9),  Leib- 
nitz (Nouv.  Ess.  liv.  ii,  chap,  v),  and  in  other  writers. 
It  is  intimated,  indeed,  by  Aristotle,  and  is  a  natural  de- 
duction from  the  Ideas  of  Plato.  It  is  singularly  cor- 
roborated by  recent  expositions  of  the  physiology  of 
nervous  action.  In  Kant's  theory  the  phenomena  of 
the  external  world  are  all  sulyect  to  the  conception  of 
space,  the  phenomena  of  the  mind  to  the  conception  of 
time.  The  sensationalist  is  thus  refuted,  as  space  and 
time  are  not  obtained  from  sensation.  The  dogmatic 
idealist  is  refuted,  as  the  matter  of  knowledge  must  be 
supplied  by  external  impressions. 

The  understanding  co-ordinates  the  perceptions  of 
sense,  and  forms  them  into  judgments  by  giving  to 
them  unity  and  interdependence.  The  transcendental 
elements  supplied  in  this  action  of  tlie  understanding 
are  arranged  by  Kant  in  twelve  categories.  The  name 
of  categories  is  taken  from  the  Organon  of  Aristotle,  but 
Kant's  categories  are  entirely  diverse  from  Aristotle's. 
Kant  observed  that  metaphysical  science  pursued  a  de- 
lusive round,  without  making  progress  or  securing  sta- 
bility, while  logic  had  received  full,  complete,  and  defi- 
nite form  from  its  great  founder.  He  ascribed  this  dif- 
ference of  fortune  to  the  fact  that  logic  was  simply  the 
exposition  of  tlie  procedure  of  the  mind  in  reasoning, 
and  he  concluded  that  equal  validity  would  be  conferred 
on  metaphysics,  if  it  were  reduced  to  an  accurate  repre- 
sentation of  the  procedure  of  the  mind  in  the  acquisition 
and  employment  of  the  materials  of  knowledge.  Hence 
he  invented  a  forced  analogy  between  the  two  branches 
of  speculation,  and  rendered  his  theory  intricate,  arbi- 
trary, and  obscure  by  compelling  it  to  assume  a  form 
fantastically  corresponding  with  logical  distinctions.  In 
this  spirit  he  devised  his  twelve  categories,  and  ar- 
ranged them  according  to  the  forms  of  propositions,  in 
the  manner  exhibited  in  the  following  table : 

I-op:ic.il.  Transcendental. 

^Universal.  Uuitj'. 

I.  Quantity -(Particular.  Plurality. 

(.Singular.  Totality. 

rAfflrmative.  Keality. 

II.  Quality <  Negative.  Negation. 

(indeterminate.  Limitation. 

^Categorical.  ^  Substance. 

III.  Relation J.  Hypothetical.  Cause. 

(Disjunctive.  Reciprocity. 

( Problematical.  Possibility. 

IV.  Modality ^  Assertory.  Existence. 

(Apodeictlc.  Necessity. 

All  judgments  are  framed  by  the  mind  under  the  in- 
fluence of  these  categories,  four  of  them — one  from  each 
class — being  inevitably  applied  in  every  instance.  As, 
however,  things  are  thus  seen,  not  as  they  are,  but  as  the 
intellectual  predispositions  make  them  appear  to  be — 
knowledge  is  purely  relative  to  the  human  mind — ob- 
jective truth  is  not  attainable,  and  all  oiu:  experiences 


or  knowledge  have  only  a  subjective  validity.  The 
mind  cannot  think  except  so  far  as  it  has  been  ])rovoked 
by  objective  stimulation,  therefore  there  is  a  real  objec- 
tive existence  of  things.  It  thinks  under  the  control 
of  the  categories  of  the  understanding,  therefore  knowl- 
edge is  subjective  in  form,  is  moulded  by  the  recipient 
mind,  and  cannot  be  known  to  correspond  to  the  reality 
of  things.  The  image  is  reflected  from  the  mirror,  but 
the  object  represented  may  be  magnified  or  diminished, 
or  strangely  distorted  by  the  character  of  the  mirror, 
without  being  altered  in  itself.  The  image  is  aU  that 
constitutes  knowledge ;  there  is,  accordingly,  no  assur- 
ance of  agreement  between  the  image  and  the  object. 
Thus  all  knowledge  is  conditional  only — conditioned  by 
the  forms  of  the  understanding,  which  mould  it  into  the 
form  in  which  it  is  received.  Some  principle  was  re- 
quired to  give  coherence,  vmity,  confidence  to  the  rela- 
tive knowledge  obtained  through  such  mental  experi- 
ences. This  was  supposed  to  be  given  by  the  conscious- 
ness of  personality  which  boimded,  adunated,  and  har- 
monized all  the  qualified  judgments  that  could  be  enter  ■ 
tained.  It  seems  a  misapprehension  on  the  part  of 
Kant,  and  at  variance  with  his  system,  to  claim  any 
necessary  truth  for  judgments  formed  in  this  manner. 
There  can  be  nothing  more  than  a  relative  or  contin- 
gent necessity — an  impossibility  of  thinking  otherwise 
than  tlie  constitution  of  the  mind  necessitates. 

In  the  higliest  region  of  the  mind — the  reason  or  the 
faculty  of  ideas — there  is  also  subjection  of  the  matter 
of  knowledge  to  transcendental  forms.  But  the  func- 
tions of  the  reason  pass  beyond  the  limits  of  experience, 
and  are  only  regulative.  In  this  branch  of  the  sulyect, 
which  is  designed  to  explain  the  combination  of  the 
judgments  of  the  understanding  into  ratiocinative  con- 
clusions, Kant  introduces  three  pure  ideas,  which  are 
deemed  to  be  analogous  to  the  three  forms  of  the  syllo- 
gism— categorical,  h j'pothetical,  and  disj  unctive.  These 
ideas  are,  1.  Absolute  unity,  or  simple  being,  the  soul, 
which  gives  origin  to  Rational  Psychology ;  2.  Absolute 
totality,  the  aggregate  of  phenomena  in  space  and  time, 
the  world,  which'is  the  basis  of  Cosmology  ;  and,  3.  Ab- 
solute reality,  supreme  existence,  the  First  Cause,  which 
is  the  subject  of  Theology.  From  this  point  the  later 
German  schools  diverge  by  ascribing  a  real  and  not 
simply  a  subjective  validity  to  the  forms  of  the  abso- 
lute. With  Kant  they  are  merely  postulates  of  reason, 
having  no  assured  objective  existence.  Rational  psy- 
chology only  exhibits  the  phenomena  of  mental  con- 
sciousness without  guaranteeing  anything  in  regard  to 
the  essential  nature  of  the  mind  or  to  the  immortality 
of  the  soul.  Itational  cosmology  is  equally  unable  to  at- 
tain to  any  positive  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  creation. 
It  lands  us  finally  in  four  pairs  of  transcendental  ideas, 
each  pair  producing  twin  contradictions.  These  are 
Kant's  celcljrated  antinomies :  1.  In  cpiantity,  it  may  be 
proved  that  the  world  is  both  limited  and  unlimited ;  2. 
In  quality,  that  its  elements  are  ultimately  simple  and 
infinitely  divisible ;  3.  In  relation,  tliat  it  is  caused  by 
free  action,  and  by  an  infinite  series  of  mechanical  causes ; 
4.  In  modalit}-,  that  it  has  an  independent  cause,  and 
that  it  is  composed  of  interdependent  members.  Which- 
ever of  these  alternatives  be  asserted,  it  cannot  be  ex- 
clusively maintained,  for  it  results  in  hopeless  paralo- 
gisms: Both  must  be  in  some  sense  true,  yet  both  can- 
not be  simultaneously  entertained,  because  they  are  con- 
tradictory. Hence  no  certainty,  no  complete  compre- 
hensive knowledge  can  be  attained.  Metaphysics  is 
simply  inquisitive,  speculative,  critical,  showing  the  lim- 
itations of  the  human  mind,  and  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  the  reality  of  things,  but  at  the  same  time  fur- 
nishing glimpses  of  a  reality  which  the  mind  can  not 
compass — of  existence  and  truth  beyond  the  range  of 
finite  comprehension.  It  is  the  confession,  if  not  the 
demonstration  of  the  intellectual  weakness  of  man.  The 
same  negative  result  is  reached  in  rational  theology. 
The  ontological  argument  for  the  being  of  (iod — that  of 
Anselm  and  Des  Cartes,  derived  from  the  notion  of  per- 


KANT 


16 


KANT 


feet  and  indopendcnt  existence — the  cosmological  argu- 
ment of  Clarke,  which  proceeds  from  tlie  eonceijlion  of 
contingent  to  that  of  necessary  being — and  the  pliysico- 
teleological  argument  of  the  natural  theologians,  wliich 
infers  a  supreme  intelligent  Designer  from  the  evidences 
of  design  in  the  creation,  are  all  equally  inconclusive. 
"  Thus  the  soul,  the  world,  and  God  are  left  by  Kant's 
speculative  philosophy  as  problems  not  only  unsolved, 
but  demonstrably  unsolvable."  To  fiirnisli  a  positive 
support  for  convictions  on  this  subject  indispensable  for 
human  guidance,  and  to  give  an  authoritative  rule  for 
action,  Kant  constructed  his  ethical  systems. 

(2)  Critique  of  the  Practical  Reason.  —  Neither  the 
name  nor  the  conception  of  the  practical  reason  was  a 
novelty;  both  occur  in  Aristotle  {Be  Anim.  iii,  10;  6 
/uj'  yiip  SEwpj/riKoc  vovg  o'uMv  votl  irpoKruv,  ibid.  c. 
ix\  They  are  found  in  Acpiinas  (Summ.  Theol.  ii,  1,  00, 
and  especially  91,3),  in  Roger  Bacon  {Opus  Majus,  p.  35, 
44),  and  in  most  philosophers,  mediaeval  and  modern, 
who  have  accepted  the  Aristotelian  doctrine.  What- 
ever systems  have  recognised  a  moral  sense,  whatever 
theories  have  admitted  a  sustaining  and  guiding  illumi- 
nation of  the  conscience,  whatever  schemes  acknowl- 
edge the  inworking  spirit,  and  whatever  exi:)ositions  of 
the  mysteries  of  man  assume  an  abidnig  faith  as  the 
foundation  of  moral  action,  entertain  substantially  the 
same  fundamental  doctrine  as  Kant's,  though  it  is  dif- 
ferently expanded  and  applied  by  them.  The  charac- 
teristic feature  of  Kant's  ethical  system  is  what  he  terms 
the  "  Cdtefforical  Imperative."  Speculative  philosophy 
aflFords  neither  absolute  truth  nor  certain  guidance. 
Practical  philosophy  rests  upon  the  enlightened  con- 
science— enlightened  by  its  own  indwelling  light.  Tlie 
"  categorical  imperative"  is  a  rule  of  action — a  moral  law 
deriving  its  authority  from  itself — intuitively  received — 
determining  action  by  the  idea — governing  by  the  ra- 
tional form,  not  by  the  matter — thus  advancing  to  the 
realm  of  the  absolute,  the  unconditional,  the  noumenal, 
and  passing  from  the  shadows  of  sjieci'Iation  to  the  real- 
ities of  action  and  duty.  The  formula  of  this  "  categor- 
ical imperative"  is.  Act  so  that  your  action  ma}'  be  ap- 
plied as  a  universal  rule.  It  is  obvious  that  a  precept 
so  vague  and  so  abstract  may  represent  an  essential 
characteristic  or  property  of  right  conduct,  but  cannot 
be  accepted  as  its  principle.  It  is  indefinite,  and  it 
wants  the  authority  of  sovereign  command.  It  would 
require  the  omniscient  comprehension  of  all  contempo- 
raneous relations,  and  all  possible  consequences  for  the 
regulation  of  e\-ery  act,  and  at  best  would  result  in 
transcendental  utilitarianism.  It  is  too  abstruse  to  be 
promptly  and  habitually  applied  to  all  the  occurrences 
of  life,  and  by  all  grades  of  men.  It  is  limited  to  finite 
intelligences,  and  is  sufficiently  elastic  to  allow  each 
one's  ignorance  or  obtuse  conscience  to  be  alleged  as  the 
individual  rule  of  right.  It  might  easily  be  stretched 
so  as  to  sanction  the  Donatist  thesis,  "  (Juicquid  libet, 
licet."  On  such  a  scheme,  to  employ  the  expression  of 
Lyly's  Euphues,  "  it  is  the  disposition  of  the  mind  that 
altereth  the  nature  of  the  thing."  Our  morals  would  be 
shifting  and  casuistical.  The  wish  would  continually  be 
the  father  to  the  thought;  and  all  enthusiasm,  all  fa- 
naticism, all  monomania  might  be  presented  as  the  can- 
on of  order.  The  conception  of  duty  is  the  touchstone 
and  stumliling-block  of  pliilnsojihy,  and  against  it  is 
shattered  every  scheme  which  does  not  rest  upon  the 
acceptance  of  revelation,  and  the  acknowledgment  of 
God, ''  in  whom  we  live,  and  move,  and  ha\'e  our  being." 
There  is  no  other  mode  of  passing  the  chasm  which  sep- 
arates the  negative  results  of  sjieculative  inipiiry  from 
the  positive  requirements  of  practical  action.  Specula- 
tive |>hil()S(>]iliy  discusses  the  l)iiuiidaries  of  tlie  mind; 
practical  jiliilosophy  is  concerned  with  actions  which  are 
infinite  in  their  consequences,  and  whose  eH'ects  "  wan- 
der through  eternity." 

(3)  T/ie  Critique  of  the  ,Tu(lfjmenC{Urtheihh-aft — Fac- 
ulty of  .Judgment). — This  is  the  tliird  of  the  systematic 
treatises  devoted  to  the  construction  of  the  critical  phi- 


losophy. The  designation  is  infelicitous  and  ambigu- 
ous. The  Iwaf/iiiation  would  be  more  appropriate,  but 
would  scarcely  be  applicable  without  some  violence  to 
the  whole  scope  of  the  inquiry  proposed.  The  depart- 
ment corresponds  to  the  tTrictr/j/u?/  TroirjTiKi},  or  construc- 
tive science  of  the  peripatetic  distribution  of  knowledge- 
and  connects  the  domain  of  the  pure  with  that  of  the 
practical  reason.  The  imagination  is  the  faculty  of  con- 
ciliation— of  re-creation — uniting  in  emotional  delight 
the  obligations  of  action  with  the  highest  discoveries 
of  speculation.  In  Kant's  critique  of  the  judgment  are 
included  the  doctrine  of  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime, 
or  a;sthetics,  and  the  doctrine  of  final  causes,  or  teleology. 
His  theory  of  beauty  accords  in  substance  with  that  of 
Plato,  or  rather  that  of  Plotinus,  but  from  his  own  singu- 
lar defect  of  imagination,  and  consequent  limitartion  of 
view,  it  is  denied  the  completeness,  splend(  r,  and  fulness 
of  far-reaching  suggestion  which  illustrate  that  magnif- 
icent exposition  of  the  grandest  and  most  recondite  sub- 
ject of  metaphysical  speculation.  In  beauty.  Kant  con- 
templates only  the  latent  beneficent  design,  the  harmony 
of  means  and  ends,  without  dwelling  upon  the  more  sig- 
nificant conception  of  the  primordial  plan,  the  archety- 
pal perfection,  from  which  the  whole  creation  has  de- 
clined, but  towards  which  man's  ideal  ever  strives  to  re- 
turn. The  terms  in  which  the  doctrine  is  expounded 
are  often  confused  and  indistinct,  but  the  essential  prin- 
ciple of  beauty,  which  is  not  in  things,  but  in  the  mind, 
is  the  intuitive  perception  of  the  concord  between  the 
ideal  perfection  suggested  and  the  order  of  the  universe 
observed.  The  principle  of  the  sublime  is  the  intuition 
of  the  discrepance  between  the  finite  powers  of  man  and 
the  infinite  towards  which  he  aspires,  producing  pain 
from  the  sense  of  lunitation,  but  exaltation  from  yearn- 
ing towards  the  limitless,  beyond  sense  and  conception, 
which  is  felt  to  be  his  natural  home,  his  ultimate  desti- 
nation. In  the  discussion  of  teleology  proper  Kant  en- 
deavors to  restore  some  efficacy  to  that  reasoning  from 
final  causes  which  in  earlier  treatises  he  had  repudiated. 
This  part  of  the  subject  is  inadequately  unfolded,  but  it 
presents  many  vast  and  suggestive  views,  and  in  some 
sort  prepares  the  way  for  the  last  of  Kant's  treatises 
which  can  be  specially  noticed  here. 

(4)  Relu/ion  within  the  Limits  of  Pure  Reason, — This 
is  Kant's  theology,  and  is  the  most  unsatisfactory  of  aU 
his  efforts.  It  was  an  attempt  to  reconstruct  the  foun- 
dations of  religious  belief,  which  had  been  sapped  and 
in  great  measure  overthrown  by  his  critical  investiga- 
tions. It  was  the  work  of  his  old  age,  and  at  all  periods 
of  his  life  he  seems  to  have  been  at  least  as  deficient  in 
religious  sentiment  as  in  emotional  imagination,  which 
is  closely  aUied  to  it.  The  work  provoked  much  oppo- 
sition at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  and  caused  the  only 
serious  annoyance  of  his  life.  It  scandalized  many  re- 
ligions minds,  it  was  dangerouslj'  consonant  Avith  the 
revolutionarj'  infidelity  of  France,  and  it  presented  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  German  rationalism  of  the 
19th  centurj%  It  treats  the  revelations  of  Scripture  in 
regard  to  the  fall  of  man,  to  his  redemption,  and  to  his 
restoration  as  a  moral  allegon,',  the  data  for  which  are 
supplied  by  the  consciousness  of  depravity,  and  of  dere- 
liction from  the  strict  principles  of  duty.  It  is  Strauss 
in  the  germ.  It  is  utterly  inconsistent  Avith  any  scheme 
of  religion,  and  serves  to  show  Kant's  profound  sense  of 
the  insulHciency  of  his  own  doctrine  for  the  solution  of 
the  highest  enigmas  of  humanity.  The  ttou  (xrui — the 
solid  locus  standi  was  wanting  to  his  elaborate  system. 
The  philosophy  was  wholly  critical  in  its  procedure,  and 
negative  in  its  results.  It  weakened  or  undermined 
those  intuitive  convictions— inexplicable,  but  irrefraga- 
ble—which enable  man  "  to  walk  by  faith,  and  not  by 
sight." 

This  notice  is  too  brief  to  allow  the  exhibition  of  the 
incongruities  or  fallacies  of  the  transcendental  sj-stem, 
or  the  suggestion  of  rectifications,  as  it  has  been  too  brief 
for  any  detaile<l  account  of  the  several  p.irts  of  his  com- 
plex and  elaborate  scheme.     That  scheme  is  a  wonder- 


KANTOPLATONISM 


17 


KARAITES 


fill  monument  of  patient  industrj',  acute  discernment, 
perspicacious  analysis,  and  of  bold  and  honest  thought. 
It  was  soon  felt  to  be  unsatisfactory,  and  it  engendered 
new  swarms  of  speculative  heresies ;  but  its  influences 
must  be  souglit  in  Rosenkranz's  history  of  Kant's  doc- 
trine, and  in  other  treatises  on  the  history  of  German 
speculation. 

Literature. — The  bibliography  of  Kant's  philosophy 
would  make  the  catalogue  of  an  extensive  Ubrarj-,  and 
would  include  nearly  everything  in  the  highest  branch- 
es of  metaphysics  which  has  ajjpeared  since  tlie  pubU- 
cation  of  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  In  all  the  gen- 
eral histories  of  modern  specidation,  much  space  is  of 
course  conceded  to  this  suVyect.  The  following  treatises 
may  be  examined  with  advantage.  Kant,  Wei'ke,  of 
course.  The  best  editions  are  that  of  Hartenstein  (Leip- 
zig, 1838-9, 10  vols.),  and  that  of  Rozenkranz  and  Sclui- 
bert  (Leipzig,  18i0-42, 11  vols.),  including  a  fidl  biogra- 
phy-of  the  philosopher  by  Schubert,  and  an  elaborate 
appreciation  of  the  relations  and  influences  of  the  phi- 
losophy by  Rosenkranz.  It  gives  also  a  chronological 
catalogue  of  Kant's  multifarious  writings.  Recent  trans- 
lations into  English  are  those  of  his  Critik  of  Pure  Rea- 
son, by  Hayward  (Lond.  1848,  8vo),  and  by  Meiklejohn 
(Lond.  1856, 8vo) ;  of  his  31et(iplii/sics  of  Ethics,  by  Sem- 
ple  (Lond.  1850,  8vo)  ;  of  his  Theory  of  Relif/ion,  by  the 
same  (Lond.  1858,  8vo).  There  are  biographies  by  Bo- 
rowsky  (1804  :  this  was  revised  by  Kant) ;  by  Wasian- 
sky,  his  private  secretary,  giving  an  account  of  liis  last 
years  (1804);  by  Jachmann  (1804);  by  Hasse  (1804); 
and  the  ablest  by  Kunotisclien  of  Jena  (1800).  For  the 
appreciation  of  the  doctrine  the  following  works  may 
be  consulted:  Nitzsch,  Genei-al  and  Introductorn  View 
(Lond.  1790) ;  Schmidt-Phiseldek,  Expositio  Philosoph. 
Crit.  (Hafa.  1790);  Jlellin,  Encydop.  Diet,  of  the  Kan- 
tian Philogoph'i  (1797,  6  vols.);  Vi^i\[\ch.  Elements  of  the 
Critical  Philosophy  (London,  1798);  Yiilers,  Philosophic 
de  Kant  (jMetz,  1801) ;  Degerando,  Hist.  Comp.  de  Phi- 
losophie  (Paris,  1804) ;  Wirgman,  Principles  of  the  Kan- 
tesian  Philosophy  (London,  1824 — a  recomposition  of  an 
able  article  contributed  to  the  Encyclopwdia  Londinen- 
sis  in  1812);  Cousin, /.efo«s  sur  la  Philosophie  de  Kant 
(Paris,  1842 ;  translated  by  A.  G.  Henderson,  Lond.  1871, 
8vo)  ;  ^livciXiJch,  Sketches  of  Modern  Philosophy  (1842); 
Barchou  de  Penhoen, //ts<.  f?e  la  Phil.  Allemande  depuis 
Leibnitz  jusqua  Ilegel  (Paris,  1837,  2  vols.) ;  Erdmann, 
Gesch.  der  neueren  Philosophie ;  Michelet,  Geschichte  des 
letzten  Systems ;  Willra,  Histoire  de  la  Philosophie  A  lle- 
mande  (Paris,  1847,  4  vols.) ;  Morell,  Philosophy  of  the 
Idth  Century  (1848)  ;  Chalybteus,  Histor.  Entwicktlun/j  d. 
spekulatifen  Philosophie  von  Kant  his  Her/el  (4th  edit. 
Leipz.  1848) ;  E.  Remhold,  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  (4th  ed.  Jena, 
1854),  vol.  iii ;  Lewes,  History  Philos.  (3d  ed.  1871, 2  vols. 
8vo),  vol.  ii;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  CAm/t/i  Ilist.  ISth  and 
mh  Ce«f.  (N.  York,  1870,  2  vols.Svo),  lect.iv,  sq.;  Far- 
rar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Free  Thought.  Very  instructive  no- 
tices of  Kant  and  his  philosophy  are  contained  in  tlie 
North  British  Revieir,  vol.  x,  the  Encyclopmdia  Bi'itan- 
nica,  and  in  Apjileton's  A  merican  Cyclopmlia.  The  crit- 
icisms of  Dugald  Stewart  in  the  Supplement  to  tlie  Ency- 
clop.  Brifannira  are  wholly  unsatisfactory.     (G.  F.  H.) 

Kantoplatonism,  the  French  term  for  a  new 
mode  of  philosophizing  which  inclines  to  Idealistn  (q. 
v.).  The  Kantoplatonists  are  considered  an  offspring 
of  the  Platonic  and  Kantian  schools  of  philosopliy.  The 
representative  of  Kantoplatonism  is  Cousin  (q.  v.). 

Kanute.     See  Denmark. 

Kaphar.     Sec  Kepiiar. 

Kapharnaites.     See  Lord's  Supper;  Transub- 

STANTIATION. 

Kapila,  the  reputed  author  of  the  Sdnkhya  (q.  v.), 
one  of  the  philosophical  systems  of  the  Hindus.  As  to 
the  origin  of  Kapila,  Hindu  tradition  is  ratlier  vague. 
Among  his  followers  he  is  by  some  described  as  a  son 
of  Brahma,  and  by  others,  especially  liis  later  followers, 
as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu.  He  is  also  recomited  to 
v.— B 


have  been  bom  as  the  son  of  Devahuti,  and,  again,  is 
identified  with  one  of  the  agnis  or  fires.  Finally,  it  is 
said  that  there  existed,  in  fact,  two  Kapilas — the  first 
an  embodiment  of  Vishnu  ;  the  other,  the  igneous  prin- 
ciple in  human  disguise.  The  probability  is  that  Ka- 
pila was  simply,  like  the  great  majority  of  his  educated 
countrymen,  a  Brahman.  Spence  Hardy  (Manual  of 
Buddhism,  p.  132)  quotes  a  legend  by  which  it  may  be 
shown  that  the  Hindus  regarded  Buddha  as  a  later  ex- 
istence of  our  Kapila,  and  that  therefore  Buddliism  is  the 
Sankhj'a  philosophy  modified;  but  professor  I\lax  31  tiller 
rejects  this  theorj^,  and  says  that  he  has  looked  in  vain 
for  any  similarities  between  the  system  of  Kapila,  as 
known  to  us  in  the  Sankhya-sutras,  and  the  Abhidhar- 
ma,  or  the  metaphysics  of  the  Buddhists.  He  adds, 
however,  that  if  any  similarity  of  the  two  systems 
could  be  established,  such  proofs  would  be  very  valua- 
ble. "  They  would  probably  enable  us  to  decide  whether 
Buddlia  borrowed  from  Kapila,  or  Kapila  from  Buddha, 
and  thus  determine  the  real  chronology  of  the  philo- 
sophical literatiu-e  of  India,  as  either  prior  or  subse- 
quent to  the  Buddhist  a3ra."  See  Professor  J.  E.  Hall, 
Bibliotheca  Tndica,  Sunkhyapr.  p.  14  sq. ;  Ballantyne, 
Lecture  on  the  Sankhya  Philosophy  [Mirzapore,  1850] ; 
Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  208  sq. ;  Max 
Miiller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  i,  223  sq.  See 
also  Sankhva. 

Kapitorists,  a  sect  of  the  Russian  Church.  See 
Russian  Ciiurcii. 

Karaites  (Ileb.  D'^XIp,  Karaim,  i.  e.  Readers)  is 
the  name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  remarkable  sects 
of  the  Jewish  synagogue,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  is 
strict  adherence  to  the  letter  of  the  written  law  (i.  e.  sa- 
cred writings  of  the  O.  T.),  and  utter  disregard  of  the 
authority  of  the  oral  law  or  tradition  (q.  v.). 

Ori'/in. — Up  to  our  own  day  it  has  been  impossible  to 
determine  the  age  in  which  the  Karaites  originated; 
certain  it  is  that  they  existed  before  the  8th  centiuA",  to 
which  their  origin  was  formerly  assigned.  The  Kara- 
ites themselves  claim  to  be  the  remains  of  the  ten  tribes 
led  captive  by  Shalmaneser,  The  Rabbins  (c.  g.  Aben- 
Ezra,  Maimonides,  etc.)  unjustly  assert  that  this  sect  is 
identical  with  the  Sadducees  (comp.  Rule,  Karaites,  p. 
viii),  and  that  they  -were  originated  by  Ahnan  (about 
A.D.  G40),  because  the  latter  was  ignored  in  the  election 
of  a  new  Resh-Gelutha  (q.  v.) ;  but  the  investigations  of 
our  day  lead  us  to  believe  that  the  Karaites  must  have 
originated  immediately  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
Babylonian  captivity,  although  they  did  not  organize 
into  a  distinct  sect  until  after  the  collection  of  oral  tra- 
dition, and  that  for  this,  and  no  other  reason,  we  find  no 
mention  of  them  as  such  in  the  New-Test,  writings,, 
nor  in  those  of  Josephus  and  Philo.  Upon  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Talmud  it  is  well  known  that  a  great  agita- 
tion prevailed  in  the  Jewish  communitj',  especially  in 
the  western  synagogues,  and  particularly  at  Constanti- 
nople, where,  on  the  ides  of  February,  A.D.  529,  Justin- 
ian was  obliged  to  interfere,  and  actually  prohibited  the- 
reading  of  the  Jlishna  in  the  sj-nagogue.  In  the  con- 
version of  the  Khazars  (q.  v.)  to  Judaism,  the  Karaites,, 
as  we  leani  from  the  Sepher  Chozri  [see  Judah  Ha- 
Levi],  already  appear  as  a  distinct  sect.  From  inscrip- 
tions collected  and  examined  by  Abraham  Firkovitch, 
the  celebrated  Russian  Jew,  within  tlie  last  twenty'  years, 
there  are  indications  that  in  the  Crimea  at  least  Kara- 
ites may  have  flourished  as  early  as  the  first  half  of  the 
4th  century  (compare  Rule,  p.  83 ;  N.  Y.  Nation,  June  7, 
1800).  The  external  unity,  however,  of  the  Jewish 
Church  was  not  broken  apparently  imtU  the  time  of 
Ahnan  ben-David.  It  is  true,  even  in  the  days  of 
Christ,  the  internal  peace  of  the  Jewish  fold  was  much 
disturbed  ;  synagogues  ditTered  greatly  from  each  other,, 
but  ostensibly  these  differences  were  provoked  only  by 
ignorance  of  the  Hebrew,  and  the  introduction  of  Greek 
and  other  foreign  idioms;  on  doctrines  and  discipline 
there  seemed  to  reign  universal  harmonv.     Not  so  after 


KARAITES 


18 


KARAITES 


the  publication  of  the  Talmud.  Tliore  were  many  who 
inclined  to  jiay  strict  ckfercnce  only  to  the  inspired 
writings  of  the  0.  T. ;  and  when,  in  the  middle  of  the 
8th  centurj',  a  Luther  in  the  form  of  Ahnan  ben-David 
arose  in  the  Jewish  midst  and  declared  his  opposition 
to  the  Kabbinites,  a  party  was  formed  in  his  favor  at  Je- 
rusalem itself,  which  soon  extended  throughout  Pales- 
tine, and  even  far  away  through  all  the  East,  as  well  as 
towards  the  West.  The  jjcrsonal  history  of  this  great 
Jewish  reformer  is  rather  obscured  by  the  fables  of 
Arabs,  and  the  calumnies  of  some  Kabbinites ;  and  it  re- 
mains to  be  settled  whether,  as  the  Karaites  assert,  he 
■was  born  at  Beth-tsur,  near  Jerusalem  (and  of  the  lineage 
of  king  David),  or  in  Beth-tsur  (Bazra)  on  the  Tigris, 
and  consequently  imbibed  his  reformatory  notions  from 
the  Arabian  or  Persian  dissenters  from  IMohammedanism 
known  as  MutazilHes  (q.  v.).  Certain  it  is,  however, 
that  at  the  time  of  the  election  of  a  new  Resh-Geluiha 
Ahnan  must  have  enjoyed  some  distinction,  or  he  could 
never  have  presented  claims  for  the  office  of  ''  leader 
in  Israel."  In  the  year  70 1  we  find  him  at  Jerusalem 
in  a  synagogue  of  his  own,  expounding  the  new  doc- 
trine, and,  after  kindling  great  enthusiasm  among  a  host 
of  disciples  who  had  quicklj'  gathered  about  him,  send- 
ing forth  from  this  centre  of  Judaism  "letters  of  admo- 
nition, instruction,  and  encouragement  to  distant  con- 
gregations, with  zealous  preachers  who  proclaimed  ev- 
erywhere the  supreme  authority  of  the  Law,  and  the 
worthlessness  of  all  that,  in  the  Talmud  or  any  other 
writings,  was  contrary  to  the  law  of  Moses"  (comp.  Pin- 
skcr,  Likule  Kadinonioth,  or  Ziir  Geschichte  Ji.  Litei:  des 
Kariii.-^mus,  Append,  p.  33  and  90).  Ahnan  died  in  7(55, 
yet  within  that  astonishingly  brief  period  the  Karaites 
had  spread  over  Palestine,  Egj'pt,Greece,  Barbary,  Spain, 
SjTia,  Tartary,  Byzantium,  Fez,  IMorocco,  and  even  to 
the  ranges  of  the  Atlas,  and  by  all  the  Karaites  in  these 
distant  lands  his  death  was  mourned  as  the  loss  of  a 
second  IMoses.  Under  Rabbi  Salomon  bcn-Jerukhim 
(born  in  885)  they  prospered  greatly  in  the  9th  ccnturj% 
and  even  up  to  the  14th  they  seem  to  have  increased, 
but  thereafter  their  condition  becomes  obscure,  and  light 
first  again  breaks  upon  the  Karaites'  history  with  the 
opening  of  the  present  century  (see  below). 

The  reason  why  so  little  is  yet  known  about  the  Ka- 
raites is  that  their  writings  are  not  generally  accessible. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  17th  century  Protestant  theo- 
logians interested  themselves  in  their  behalf,  and  in  1G90 
Peringer  (then  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  university  at 
Upsala)  was  sent  to  Poland  by  the  king  of  Sweden  to 
make  inquiries  into  their  history.  In  1698  Jacob  Trig- 
land  (professor  at  Leyden)  went  thither  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  the  results  of  his  investigations,  which  re- 
main of  great  value  to  this  day,  were  published  in  the 
Thesmirus  of  Sacred  Oriental  Antiquities.  Trigland  says 
that  he  had  learned  enough  to  speak  of  them  with  as- 
surance. He  asserts  that,  soon  after  the  prophets  had 
ceased,  the  Jews  became  divided  on  the  subject  of  works 
and  supererogation,  some  maintaining  their  necessity 
from  tradition,  whilst  others,  keeping  close  to  the  writ- 
ten law,  set  them  aside,  and  that  thus  Karaism  com- 
menced. He  adds  that,  after  the  return  from  the  Baby- 
lonian cajitivity,  on  the  re-cstablishnient  of  the  observ- 
ance of  the  laAv  there  were  several  practices  found  prop- 
er for  that  end,  and  these,  being  once  introduced,  were 
looked  upon  as  essential,  and  as  appointed  by  ]\Ioses. 
This  was  the  origin  of  Pharisaism,  while  a  contrary  par- 
ty, who  continued  to  adhere  to  the  letter,  foimded  Ka- 
raism. AVolliiis,  the  great  1  lebrew  l)ibliographer,  depend- 
ing on  the  Mciiioirf:  of  ]\Iardachai  ben-Nissan,  a  learn- 
ed Karaite  (imblished  by  AVolf  under  the  title  of  Xoti- 
tia  Kumorum,  Hamburg  and  Leipzig,  1714,  4to),  refers 
their  origin  to  a  massacre  among  the  Jewish  doctors 
imder  Alexander  Jannanis,  their  king,  about  a  hundred 
years  before  Clirist,  because  Simon,  son  of  Shetach."and 
the  (pieen's  brother,  making  his  eseape  into  Egypt,  there 
forged  his  pretended  traditions,  and,  on  his  return  to  Je- 
rusalem, published  his  visions,  interpolating  the  law  af- 


ter his  own  fancy,  and  supporting  his  novelties  from  the 
notices  which  God,  he  said,  had  communicated  by  the 
mouth  of  Moses,  whose  depositary  he  was.  He  gained 
many  followers,  and  was  opposed  by  others,  who  main- 
tained that  all  which  (iod  had  revealed  to  Moses  was 
written.  Hence  the  Jews  became  divided  into  two 
sects,  the  Karaites  and  Traditionists.  Among  the  first, 
Juda,  son  of  Tabbai,  distinguished  himself;  among  the 
latter,  HQlel  ((j.  v.).  In  later  history  he  agrees  with 
Avhat  has  been  said  above.  It  remains  only  to  be  stated 
that  Wolfius  reckons  not  only  the  Sadducees,  but  also  the 
Scribes,  in  the  number  of  Karaites.  But  such  a  class- 
ification is  wholly  inconsistent  with  our  present  knowl- 
edge of  the  Sadducees  and  the  Scribes.  Karaism  cannot 
be  regarded  as  in  any  sense  a  product  of  Sadduceeism ; 
the  two  are  the  opposites  both  in  principle  and  tendency, 
or,  as  Rule  has  it,  "  Sadduceeism  and  Karaism  are  just  as 
contrary  the  one  to  the  other  as  imbelief  and  faith." 

Doctrines  and  Usages. — Although  the  Karaites  are 
decidedly  opposed  to  assigning  any  authority  to  tradi- 
tion, they  by  no  means  reject  altogether  the  use  of  the 
Talmud,  etc.  Quite  to  the  contrarj-,  they  gladly  accept 
any  light  that  they  can  get  in  their  investigation  of  the 
O.-T.  Scriptures,  but  it  is  only  as  exegetical  aids  that 
they  are  ready  to  accept  Jewish  traditionary  writings. 
Selden,  who  is  very  express  on  this  point,  observes,  ia 
his  Uxor  Ilehraica,  that  besides  the  mere  text,  they 
have  also  certain  interpretations  which  they  call  hered- 
itarj-,  and  which  they  consider  proper  traditions.  Their 
theology  seems  to  differ  only  from  that  of  the  Rabbin- 
ites  in  being  purer  and  free  frtim  superstition,  as  they 
give  no  credit  to  the  explications  of  tlie  Cabalists,  chi- 
merical allegories,  nor  to  any  constitutions  of  the  Tal- 
mud. In  short,  they  accept  only  what  is  conformable 
to  Scripture,  and  may  be  drawn  from  it  by  just  and 
necessary  consequences.  The  Karaites,  in  distinction 
from  the  Kabbinites,  have  their  own  Confession  of  Faith, 
which  consists  of  ten  articles.  They  are  (as  translated 
by  Rule,  p.  128)  as  follows: 

1.  That  all  this  bodily  (or  material)  existence,  that  is  to 
say,  the  spheres  and  all  that  is  iu  them,  is  created. 

2.  That  they  liave  a  Creator,  and  the  Creator  has  hia 
own  soul  (or  spirit). 

3.  That  he  has  no  similitude,  and  he  is  one,  separate 
from  all. 

4.  That  he  sent  Moses,  our  master  (upon  whom  he 
pence !;. 

5.  That  he  sent  with  Moses,  our  master,  his  law,  which 
is  perfect ; 

G.  For  the  instruction  of  the  fiiithful,  the  language  of  our 
law,  aud  the  interpretation,  that  is  to  Fay,  the  reading 
(or  text),  and  the  division  (or  vowel  pointing). 

7.  That  the  blessed  God  sent  forth  the  other  prophets. 

S.  That  God  (blessed  he  his  name  !)  will  raise  the  sons 
of  men  to  life  in  the  day  of  judgment. 

0.  That  the  hlessed  God  giveih  to  man  according  to  his 
w.Tjs,  and  according  to  the  fruit  of  his  doings. 

10.  That  the  hlessed  God  has  not  reprobated  the  men 
of  the  captivity,  but  they  aie  under  the  cliastit-ements  of 
God,  aud  it  is  every  day  riirht  that  they  should  obtain  his 
salvation  by  the  bauds  of  Messiah,  the  Son  of  David. 

A  comparison  of  this  confession  with  the  thirteen  ar- 
ticles of  the  Kabbinites  [see  Judaism]  makes  it  evident 
that  the  Karaitic  confession  was  framed  later  than  that 
of  the  Rabl)inites,  with  intent  to  put  in  bold  relief  the 
peculiar  doctrines  of  Karaism.  Prayer,  tasting,  and  pil- 
grimages to  Hebron  (cvidtntly  inspired  by  the  Jloham- 
medan  pilgrimage  to  JMccca)  are  points  of  religious  prac- 
tice to  which  they  pay  particular  attention.  They  are 
eminently  moralists  (revering  greatly  Leviticus  xix  and 
xx),  very  conscientious  in  their  dealings  with  their  fel- 
low-men, temperate  and  .simple  in  food  ar.d  dress,  al- 
though far  from  being  ascetics.  In  distinction  from 
the  Rabbinitcs,  they  make  the  heads  of  their  jihylacter- 
ies  round  instead  of  square,  and  their  prohibition  of 
marriage  among  persons  of  affinity  extends  to  degrees 
almost  of  infinit}-.  Instead  of  facing  their  synagogues 
towards  the  east,  as  (hi  the  Kabbinites,  they  face  them 
north  and  south,  arguing  that  Shalmaneser  brought  them 
northward,  so  that  in  praying  they  nuist  turn  to  the 
south  in  order  to  face  Jerusalem. 


KAREAH 


19 


KARENS 


Numher  and  Present  Condi/ion. — The  number  of  the 
present  adherents  to  Karaism  has  been  variously  esti- 
mated; nothing,  however,  can  be  definitely  or  even  ap- 
proximately given  until  more  shall  be  known  of  the 
Jews  of  Asia.  They  are  strongest,  according  to  modern 
accounts,  in  the  Crimea,  where  there  are  over  4000  of 
them  ;  but,  with  Rule  (p.  112),  we  believe  that  there  are 
many  Jews,  ostensibly  adherents  of  the  Rabbinites,  who 
are  truly  believers  in  Karaism  ;  certainly  the  lieformed 
schools  of  Judaism  are  nothing  else  than  Rationalistic 
Karaites. 

Under  the  Russian  and  Austrian  governments  the 
Karaites  enjoy  greater  privileges  than  the  Rabbinites; 
in  mauj'  respects  they  are  on  an  equality  with  the  adhe- 
rents to  the  state  religion  of  these  respective  countries. 
Fortunately  for  the  Rabbinites,  however,  it  is  not  any 
want  of  morality  in  them,  but  the  excesses  of  the  Chas- 
idim  (q.  v.)  who  belong  to  their  number,  that  has  de- 
prived them  of  the  favors  which  are  so  freely  bestowed 
on  the  Karaites.  Strangely  enough,  the  Karaites  con- 
tend that  the  Messiah  will  issue  from  their  tribe,  and 
that  their  princes  were  once  the  sovereigns  of  Egypt. 

Literature. — The  Karaites  have,  ever  since  the  days 
of  Ahnan,  produced  writers  of  great  excellence  and  dis- 
tinction. Unfortunately,  we  have  thus  far  succeeded  in 
wresting  from  oblivion,  comparatively  speaking,  only  a 
few  works,  but  these  evince  that  Karaism  has  not  failed 
to  be  active  in  urging  its  adherents  to  literary  activity. 
They  have  produced  an  extensive  special  Hebrew  liter- 
ature of  their  own,  chiefly  consisting  of  works  on  the- 
ology, philosophy,  mathematics,  astronomy,  etc.  The 
greatest  number  of  these  are  deposited  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  So  long  as  they  lived  prin- 
cipally under  jMohammedan  rule  they  wrote  in  Arabic, 
but  when  they  unfolded  a  literary  activity  in  the  Cri- 
mea and  among  the  Tartars  they  originated  a  language 
peculiar  to  themselves — a  mixture  of  Tartar  and  Turk- 
ish. Some  of  their  principal  later  authors  are  little 
known  to  us,  e.  g.  Joseph  b.-Noah,  .Jeshua,  Jehudah  Ha- 
dassi,  Aron  b.-Joseph,  Aron  b.-Eliah,  the  celebrated  op- 
ponent of  Moses  Maimonides ;  Eliah  Beshitzi,  Kaleb, 
IMoses  Beshizi,  IMardochai  b.-Nissan,  Salomo  b.-Abram 
Traki,  Simcha  b.-Isaac  b.-lMoses,  etc. 

Se?  Furst,  Gesch.  d.  Karderthitms  (Leipz.  18G9,  5  vols. 
8vo) ;  Beer,  Gesch.  d.  jiidisch.  Sekten,  vol.  i  (Leipz.  1822, 
8vo);  Jost,  Gesch.  d.Jndentfiitm.9,  xo\.  ii  (see  Index  in  vol. 
ill);  Gviitz,  Gesch. ,d.  Juden,  u,  i07  sq.,  and  later  volumes; 
and  the  compendium  of  Rule,  History  of  the  Karaite 
Jews  (Lond.  1870, 8vo).      (J.  il.  W.) 

Kare'ah  (linh.Kare'ach,  HTp,  hald;  Sept.  Kap?;£ 
v.  r.  Kapis  or  Knp£«  ;  in  2  Kings  xxv,  23,  Kapii  v.  r. 
KcfpZ/S',  Auth.Yers.  "Careah"),  the  father  of  Johanan 
and  .Jonathan,  who  attached  themselves  for  a  time  to 
the  loyal  party  under  Gedaliah,  the  Babylonian  gover- 
niir  of  Jerusalem  (Jer.  xl,  8,  13,  15,  IG;  xli,  11,  13.  14, 
IG ;  xlii,  1,8;  xliii,  2,  4,  5).     B.C.  ante  588. 

Karelia  (also  Carena,  Quarena,  Carentana)  is  the 
name  of  an  ecclesiastical  fast  formerly  observed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  forty  days  in  length,  and  was 
generally  imposed  by  bishops  or  monastic  authorities  for 
various  venial  sins.  The  Karenist  was  confined  to  bread 
and  water,  and  deprived  of  all  other  temporal  conven- 
iences and  enjoyments,  as  well  as  all  association  with  the 
world.     See  Aschbach,  Kirchcn-Le.r.  iii,  C89. 

Karens,  the  name  of  a  people  of  India,  occupying 
various  portions  of  Burmah  between  28^  and  10°  N.  lati- 
tude, and  99°  and  93°  E.  longitude.  The  name  Karen  is 
of  Burmese  origin,  and  designates  a  class  of  the  IMon- 
golian  family  of  tribes  who  call  themselves  Pgah  Ken- 
zau,  a  term  meaning  man.  They  first  became  known 
to  Europeans  in  A.D.  1824-7.  They  appear  to  be  iden- 
tical with  the  Kak/u/en.11,  which  Kincaid  thinks  to  be 
only  another  name  for  Karen.  He  says  that  all  these 
tribes,  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  Shan  country, 
and  farther  north,  are  called  Kakhyens.  They  are  found 
from  the  JIartabau  (iulf  inward  as  i'ar  as  the  Burman 


population  has  ever  extended.  They  are  numerous 
about  Rangoon  and  Ava,  and  are  known  to  extend  at 
least  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  east  of  Ava.  These 
tribes  are  supposed  to  number  about  five  millions. 

Or  if/in.  —  There  is  much  doubt  as  to  their  origin. 
There  are  amongst  them  many  distinct  traditions  which 
would  point  to  a  Thibetan  source.  Slason  (in  his  Tcn- 
nasserini)  says  that  they  regard  themselves  as  wander- 
ers from  the  north,  and  as  having  crossed  "  a  river  of 
running  sand,"  by  which  name  he  says  Fa  Hian,  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  who  visited  India  about  the  5th  cen- 
tury, constantly  speaks  of  the  great  desert  to  the  north 
of  Burmah,  and  between  China  and  Thibet.  Bruce  says 
that  they  are  of  Turanian  stock,  and  allied  with  the  Ta- 
mulians  of  India  an<l  the  inhabitants  of  Thibet  (p.  145, 
147).  A  portion  of  northern  Burmah  and  Yunnan  has 
been  suggested  as  the  probable  original  seat  of  the  Ka- 
ren race.  Many  authorities  consider  them  as  the  abo- 
rigines of  much  of  Burmah.  Amongst  the  reasons  as- 
signed for  this  view  are  ,the  following:  (1)  They  re- 
ceived from  the  Burmese  their  name  of  Karen,  Mhich 
means  Jirrt  or  aboriginal.  (2)  Their  habits  are  much 
more  primitive  than  those  of  the  Burmese,  and  they  dir.- 
like  their  subjugation  to  the  latter.  (3)  They  have  tra- 
ditions distinctly  fixing  their  early  location  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  a  body  of  water  which  they  call  Kuiv  or  KIto, 
which  is  so  ancient  a  term  that  they  have  lost  the  mean- 
ing of  it  altogether,  but  the  tradition  itself  shows  that 
this  was  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  (4)  The  Jloans  or  Ta- 
laings,  a  people  Mho  are  older  residents  than  the  Bur- 
mese in  Farther  India,  sa}^  the  Karens  were  in  the  coun- 
try when  thej^  first  entered  it,  and  were  known  as  Be- 
loos  or  wild  men  by  their  forefathers  (Journ.  American 
Oriental  Society,  vol.  iv). 

Description. — Tlie  Karens  of  the  north  are  more  ad- 
vanced in  the  arts  and  in  the  habits  of  civilization  than 
those  of  the  southern  district.  They  reckon  themselves 
not  by  villages  nor  by  cities,  but  by  families,  having  a 
patriarchal  form  of  society,  single  families,  occupants  of 
one  house,  often  numbering  from  three  to  four  hundred 
members.  Their  liouses  are  immense  structures,  made 
of  posts,  with  joists  at  a  height  of  seven  or  eight  feet 
from  the  groimd,  the  sides  being  lined  with  mats,  the 
roof  being  of  palm-leaves,  and  the  partitions  of  bamboo 
matting. 

It  is  the  southern  section  of  these  tribes,  however, 
which  is  best  known,  especially  those  designated  as 
Sgau  and  Pgho  Karens.  The  latter  are  called  by  the 
Burmese  Talainy  Karens,  and  are  a  vigorous  people,  ro- 
bust, full-chested,  with  large  limbs,  square  cheek-bones, 
thick  and  fiattened  nose,  but  not  specially  jiromincnt 
lips.  The  Sgau,  or  pure  Karens,  are  smaller,  v.ith  a  com- 
plexion lighter  than  others  surrounding  them,  and  with 
a  general  languor  about  their  movements.  Mr.  Judson 
in  1833  wrote  of  them  as  "  a  meek,  peacefid  race,  sim- 
ple and  credulous,  with  many  of  the  softer  virtues  and 
few  flagrant  vices,  greatly  addicted  to  drunkenness,  ex- 
tremely filthy,  indolent  in  their  habits,  their  morals  in 
other  respects  being  superior  to  many  more  civilized 
races,  though  he  was  told  that  they  were  as  untamable 
as  the  wild  cow  of  the  mountains"  (Waj-land,  J«f/soH,  i, 
542  sq.). 

Reliyious  Tradition.^. — They  have  amongst  them  a 
great  number  of  religious  traditions  which  bear  a  mark- 
ed analogy  to  Biblical  history.  The  tradition  respect- 
ing the  creation  specifies  that  man  was  created  from  the 
earth,  and  woman  from  one  of  man's  ribs.  The  Creator 
said,  "  I  lose  these,  my  son  and  daughter.  I  will  bestow 
my  life  upon  them,"  and  he  then  breathed  a  particle  of 
his  life  into  their  nostrils,  "and  they  came  to  life  and 
were  men."  God  made  food  and  drink ;  rice,  fire,  and 
water;  cattle,  elephants, and  birds.  Traditions  concern- 
ing man's  primitive  state  and  first  transgression,  verj' 
similar  to  the  Bible  narrative,  are  also  preserved  amongst 
them.  Nank'plav,  who  answers  to  the  serpent  of  Gen- 
esis, is  variously  impersonated  as  sometimes  male  and 
sometimes  female  :  man  is  located  in  a  garden,  with  sev- 


KARENS 


20 


KARENS 


en  different  kinils  of  fruits  of  which  he  should  cat.  with 
one  exception.  Nauk'jdau  meets  liim  and  tells  him  tlie 
character  of  all  the  fruits,  and  assures  him  that  the  for- 
bidden one  is  the  most  delicious  of  all.  He  prevails  on 
the  woman  lirst  to  taste  this  fruit.  She  gives  it  to  her 
husband,  etc.  On  the  morrow  Ywah  (on  this  name,  see 
below,  imder  Reliyious  Views)  comes,  etc.  The  very  de- 
tail of  the  narrative  is  preserved  to  a  marvellous  de- 
gree. 

Otlier  traditions  point  to  a  flood,  in  which  the  waters 
"rose  and  rose  till  they  reached  to  heaven."  Others 
refer  to  an  early  separation  of  the  human  family.  "  JMen 
had  at  first  one  father  and  mother;  but, because  they  did 
not  love  each  other,  thej^  separated,  after  which  they  did 
not  know  each  other's  language,  and  became  enemies 
and  fought."  Still  another  says  that  when  they  were 
scattered,  a  younger  brother,  or  the  "  White  Westerner," 
came,  begging  the  Karens  to  return  to  the  place  where 
they  left  God ;  which  tradition  is  said  to  have  had  much 
to  clo  with  the  early  success  of  the  missionaries  amongst 
these  people,  as  the  Karens  applied  these  traditions  to 
them. 

Relifjious  Views. — They  have  remarkably  clear  views 
of  God,  whom  they  believe  to  be  "  immutable,  eternal ; 
that  he  was  from  the  beginning  of  the  world.  The 
life  of  God  is  endless ;  generations  cannot  measure  his 
existence.  God  is  complete  and  good,  and  through  end- 
less generations  will  never  die.  God  is  omnipotent,  but 
we  have  not  believed  him.  God  created  man  anciently. 
He  has  a  knowledge  of  all  tilings  to  the  present  time. 
He  created  spirit  and  lii'e."  This  God  is  known  as 
Ywah,  '•  which  approaches  the  word  Jehovah  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  the  Karen  language."  He  was  not,  how- 
ever, worshipped  when  the  missionaries  first  went  to  the 
Karens.  A  great  power  for  evil  (Satan)  since  the  fall  has 
rendered  relief  to  man  by  introducing  charms  against 
sickness,  death,  and  other  misfortunes,  and  this  person- 
age, though  without  image,  is  widely  worshipped.  Thus 
originated  their  dajmon  worship.  They  appear  to  be- 
lieve in  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  though  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  this  obtains  universally  amongst  them.  Mr.  Cross 
doubts  if  they  have  any  proper  idea  of  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead.  Transmigration  is  not  accepted  amongst 
them,  and  many  think  the  soul  "flics  off  in  the  air." 
They  are  thus  distinguished  from  the  Buddhists,  though 
long  resident  with  them  in  Burmah. 

Spirit  ]Vo)-shij). — Besides  the  Ywah  and  the  docmons 
above  alluded  to,  they  believe  in  many  other  spiritual 
beings  known  as  Kelah,  or,  speaking  m.jre  definitely, 
every  object  has  a  kelah,  whether  men,  trees,  or  plants, 
and  even  inanimate  objects,  such  as  axes  and  knives. 
The  grain  growing  has  its  kelah.  and  when  it  does  not 
flourish  it  is  because  the  kelah  is  leaving  it,  and  it  must 
be  called  back  by  invocation.  The  human  kelah  is  not 
the  soul,  nor  is  the  responsibility  of  human  actions  lodged 
in  it,  nor  any  moral  character  attached  to  it.  AU  this 
is  attributed  to  the  Thah.  The  kelah  is  the  author  of 
dreams ;  it  is  that  nature  which  pertains  to  life,  the  sen- 
tient soul,  the  animal  spirits.  It  can  leave  the  body  at 
will.  When  it  is  absent  disease  ensues ;  when  yet  lon- 
ger away,  death  results.  Kelah  seems  to  signify  life, 
or  existence  in  the  abstract,  or  of  the  individual.  It  is 
more  apt  to  forsake  feeble  persons  and  children.  The 
'  kelah  of  one  person  may  accompany  that  of  another  in 
going  away,  hence  children  are  kept  away  from  a  coqise, 
and  the  house  where  a  person  dies  is  abandoned.  Great 
efforts  are  made  to  induce  a  departed  kelah  to  return. 
Tempting  food  is  placed  on  the  public  wa.yside  or  in 
the  forest,  and  various  ceremonies  and  rituals  arc  gone 
through,  which  sometimes  are  thought  to  be  successful 
in  securing  tlie  return  of  the  kelah.  One  might  almost 
Avonder  that  its  return  should  Ije  cousidered  desirable 
■when  we  are  further  told  that  the  kelah  has  seven  sep- 
arate existences  in  one,  which  endeavor  to  superinduce 
madness,  recklessness,  shamelessness,  drinking  propensi- 
ties, anger,  cruelty,  violence,  murder,  and  are  constantly 
bent  on  evil.     But  along  with  the  kelah  we  learn  of 


Tso,  which  maan?,  power,  and  seems  to  be  a  personifica- 
tion oVreuson,  If  the  tso  becomes  heedless  or  weak,  or 
is  unfortunately  circimistanced,  then  the  kelah  can  do 
mischief,  but  otherwise  it  is  powerless  for  evil. 

There  are  other  spiritual  beings,  such  as  Keplwo,  a 
species  of  vampire,  which  is  the  stomach  of  a  wizard, 
and  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  entrails  of  a  human  be- 
ing goes  out  at  night  to  seek  food.  It  destroys  human 
kelahs.  Therels  are  spirits  of  those  who  have  died  by 
violence,  as  by  tigers  or  other  wild  beasts,  by  famine,  or 
sword,  or  starvation.  These  can  neither  go  to  the  up- 
per region  (Mukhah),  nor  to  that  of  the  Flu,  where  men 
are  punished,  but  must  remain  on  earth,  causing  mortal 
sickness.  Offerings  and  supplications  are  made  to  them. 
Tahmus  or  Tah-his  are  spectres  of  those  Avho  have  been 
dreadfully  wicked  in  this  life.  They  appear  as  appari- 
tions only,  in  form  of  horses,  elephants,  (togs,  crocodiles, 
serpents,  vultures,  ducks,  or  colossal  men.  /Sek/niJis  are 
spirits  of  persons  left  unburied,  and  of  infants  or  aged 
persons  who  have  become  infirm  because  the  tso  has 
left  them.  Plup)ho  are  inhabitants  of  the  infernal  re- 
gion, and  are  spirits  of  all  who  go  natinally  to  their 
proper  place,  and  renew  their  earthly  em]iloyments, 
building  houses,  cutting  rice,  etc.  The  location  is  un- 
declared, but  is  above  the  earth,  or  below  it,  or  beyond 
the  horizon.  It  is  presided  over  by  king  Cootay  or  Thee- 
do.  At  his  call  the  kelahs  must  go,  and  men  die.  Un- 
der his  dominion  they  serve,  as  in  an  intermediate  state, 
a  probation,  and  if  good  go  to  heaven,  if  bad  to  hell  or 
Lerah,  which  has  two  gradations  of  piniishment,  one  be- 
ing more  severe  than  the  other.  Tuh-nahs  or  Xaks  are 
the  spirits  of  two  sorts  of  fiends  which  take  the  form 
of  any  animals  they  please,  and  prey  upon  men.  The 
Lord  of  men  created  them  as  a  punishment  in  conse- 
quence of  a  disobedience  on  the  part  of  men  to  one  of 
his  commands.  They  have  a  king  who  was  the  great 
tempter  of  man  in  the  garden.  Mukhahs  are  the  an- 
cestors of  the  Karons  who  inhabit  the  upper  region,  and 
are  the  creators  of  the  present  generation.  Sometimes 
they  work  imperfectly,  and,  as  a  consequence,  ill-favored 
and  imperfect  persons  are  found.  Tliey  preside  over 
births  and  marriages,  mingling  together  the  blood  of 
two  persons.  Thej-  are  -worshipped  with  offerings.  The 
Keleepho  create  the  winds;  the  Tah  Yoornu  cause  eclips- 
es ;  the  Coocla  and  Liatpihoo  preside  over  the  wet  and 
dry  seasons. 

Priesthood. — There  are  amongst  the  Karens  a  class  of 
people  who  serve  as  prophets,  and  assume  conditions  of 
mind  and  body  much  like  those  affected  by  the  '•  medi- 
cine-men" amongst  North  American  Indians.  What 
with  writhing  of  the  body,  rolling  on  the  ground,  foam- 
ing at  the  mouth,  etc.,  they  are  presumed  to  attain  a  state 
of  clairvoyance  favorable  to  the  prediction  of  comuig 
events.  The  prophecies  uttered  by  these  which  are  re- 
tained in  tradition  mostly  pertain  to  the  deliverance  of 
the  Karens  from  the  oppression  of  the  Burmese.  These 
prophets  are  of  two  classes.  The  wees  compose  ballads 
and  other  poetry,  and  have  great  power  in  caUing  back 
dejjarted  kelahs.  The  other  class  are  known  as  booL- 
Iios,  and  are  rather  priests  than  prophets,  taking  the  lead 
in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  people,  instructing 
them  in  their  religious  obligations,  and  are  a  more  re- 
spectable class,  being  heads  of  commmiities,  though  not 
hereditary  chiefs. 

Jlissiniis. — iMissionary  work  was  commenced  amongst 
these  tribes  about  1828,  by  Messrs.  Boardman  and  JuH- 
son,  who  were  succeeded  bj'  Blessrs.  Wade,  Blason,  and 
Kiucaid.  Twenty-five  years  after  that  the  Karen  apostle 
Ko-thau-Bu,  a  native  convert,  met  with  wonderfLd  suc- 
cess amongst  these  people.  Associated  prominently  with 
this  great  movement  was  Rev.  Mr.  Vinton,  who  '-in  six 
years  planted  forty  churches,  opened  forty-two  houses 
of  worship  and  thirty-two  school-houses,  and  saw  be- 
tween eight  and  nine  thousand  Karens  raised  to  the  lev- 
el of  Christian  worshijipers.  In  1852  alone  he  received 
five  hundred  Karens  into  the  Church.  In  1808  the  Bap- 
tist jMission  report  showed  that  they  had  amongst  this 


KARE-PATREPAXDAROInT 


21 


people  sixty-six  native  ordained  pastors  and  evangel- 
ists; three  hundred  and  forty-six  native  preachers  un- 
ordained;  three  hunth-ed  and  sLxty  native  chiu-ches ; 
nineteen  thousand  two  liundred  and  thirty-one  church- 
members,  and  nearly  sixty  thousand  natives"  of  all  ages 
known  as  Christians.  A  writer  in  the  Madras  Obsei-v- 
er  (India)  stated  that,  in  Oct,  18G8,  a  gentleman,  not  in 
sympathy  with  the  Baptists,  but  a  great  traveller,  per- 
forming "his  journeys  on  foot  through  Burmah  while 
amongst  these  Karen  districts,  said  that  on  one  occasion 
"  he  found  himself  for  seventeen  successive  nights,  at 
the  end  of  his  days'  journeys  through  the  forest,  in  a  na- 
tive Christian  village. 

Literature. — Jonriial  of  the  American  Oriental  Socie- 
ty,  vol.  iv;  Wayland,  Z,j/e  of  Judson ;  Brace,  Races  of 
the  Old  World;  Whitney,  Lanr/uarje  and  the  Studi/  of 
Lawjuarje ;  Latham,  Elements  of  Comparative  Philolocji/  ; 
Anderson,  Foreign  Missions  (N.  Y.  18G9) ;  Mullen,  7'en 
Years  of  Missionary  Work  in  India  ;  Mrs.  Mason,  Ciril- 
izinij  Mountain  Men,  or  Sketches  of  Mission  Work  among 
the  Karens  (18G2) ;  Mrs.  Wylie,  Gospel  in  Burmah.  For 
a  full  history  of  the  mission  work  amongst  the  Karens, 
see  Mason,  Gospel  in  Burmah ;  Report  of  A  merican  Bap- 
tist Mission  Union  for  1808.  A  comparative  vocabulary 
of  the  Sgau  and  Pwo  dialects  of  the  Karen  language,  by 
the  liev.  Dr.  Nathan  Brown,  Baptist  missionarj-,  now  of 
New  York  City,  may  be  found  in  the  Jou7:  of  the  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Societi/,  vol.  iv.  See  also  the  article  Bur- 
mah (II.  Missions).     (J.  T.  G.) 

Kare-Patrepandaron,  the  name  of  a  class  of 
Hindu  ascetics,  beggars  of  the  Brahminic  order,  who  have 
vo\\-ed  eternal  silence.  Wholly  naked,  with  only  a  sacred 
string,  generally  a  snake's  skin,  over  their  shoulders, 
they  make  their  home  under  large  shade-trees.  When 
they  enter  a  house  they  manifest  their  presence  by  the 
clapping  of  their  hands,  and  generally  share  with  the 
inmates  the  best  of  their  dainties,  for  a  Brahmin  consid- 
ers himself  highly  honored  by  such  a  visit, — ^Vollmer, 
WOrterb.  d.  Mythol.  p.  1020. 

Karg,  Georg  (the  "Parsimonious"),  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Heroldingen  in  1512.  In  1538  he  was 
ordained  for  the  ministry  by  iMelancthon,  and  became 
pastor  first  at  Oettingen,  later  at  Schwabach ;  and  finally, 
in  1553,  settled  at  Anspach,  and  became  general  superin- 
tendent of  the  churches  of  the  duchy  of  Baireuth.  He 
died  in  157G.  Karg  acquired  great  notoriety  during  the 
difficulties  concerning  the  Formula  Concordice  by  main- 
taining that  it  was  only  by  passive  obedience  that  Christ 
made  atonement  for  us :  for  active  obeilience  (obedien- 
tia  activa)  he  was  bound  to  give  as  man ;  the  law  binds 
us  either  to  obedience  or  to  iinnishment,  but  not  to  both 
together.  Christ,  while  suffering  the  punishment  for 
us,  rendered  obedience  on  his  own  account.  What  he 
has  paid  remains  no  longer  for  us  to  pay  (i.  e.  the  pun- 
ishment) ;  obedience,  however,  w.e  are  bound  to  render, 
as  he  rendered  his,  in  order  to  be  a  pure  and  perfect  of- 
fering unto  God.  See  Imputation.  He  defended  these 
opinions  in  1563,  but,  as  they  provoked  a  great  contro- 
versy, he  finally  retracted  them  in  1570.  The  same 
opinions  were  afterwards  maintained  by  John  Piscator, 
professor  at  Herborn,  and  by  John  Camero  of  Saumiu-. 
See  ^Valch,  Streitigkeiten  innerh.  d.  luth.  Kirche,  xiv,  360 ; 
Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  seit  d.  Reformation,  v,  358 ;  Bol- 
linger, D.  Reformation,  iii,  564 ;  Schweizer,  Centraldog- 
men,  ii,  16, 17  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii,  379. 

Karigites,  or  Separatists,  is  the  name  of  a  IMo- 
hammedan  sect  who  oppose  all  government,  both  eccle- 
siastical and  spiritual.  They  holil  that  tlie  person  who 
is  to  preside  in  spiritual  affairs  sliould  be  a  man  of  su- 
pernatural birth  and  altogether  of  a  spiritual  character. 
See  INIoiiAMJiEDANS;  comp.  I-Lvumatiiians. 

Karim.     See  Carem. 

Kar'kaa,  or,  rather,  Kar'ka  (Hebrew  Karka', 
")5"i|?,  a  floor,  as  in  Numb,  v,  17,  etc.;  with  art.  and  il 
directive  in  pause,  i^"P'^|5'^,  hak-Karka'd;  Sept,  'Ak- 


KARMATHIANS 

Kapica  V.  r.  rijv  Kara  Sixrudg  Kdorjc  ;  Vulg.  Carcaa  v, 
r.  Caj-iatha),  a  jilace  situated  at  a  bend  in  the  southern 
boundary  of  Judali  (i.  e.  Simeon  or  Palestine),  between 
Adar  and  Azmon  (Josh,  xv,  3) ;  probably  about  mid- 
way between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  IMecUterranean,  jjer- 
haps  near  the  well  marked  as  Bir  Abu-Atreibe  on  Zim- 
mermann's  map.     See  Tribe. 

Karkaphensian  Version.  See  Syriac  Ver- 
sions. 

Karkom.     See  Saffron. 

Kar'kor  (Heb.  Karkor',  "^p^^,  foundation ;  Sept. 
KapKc'ip  V.  r.  Knpicd,\u\g.  requiescehant),  a  place  be- 
yond Jordan  whither  the  iMidianitish  princes  Zeba  and 
Zalmunna  had  retired  with  their  remaining  army  after 
the  first  rout  by  Gideon,  who  pursued  and  routed  them 
again  in  its  vicinity  (Judg.  viii,  10).  From  the  context 
it  appears  to  have  been  situated  not  far  beyond  Succoth 
and  Penuel,  towards  the  south,  in  a  naturally  secure  spot 
east  of  Nobah  and  Jogbehah;  indications  that  point  to 
a  locality  among  the  southern  openings  of  Jebel  Zurka, 
north-east  of  Rabbath  Ammon.  Schwarz  supposes  {Pa- 
lest, p.  223)  that  el-Keruh  is  meant,  a  place  a  few  miles 
south-east  of  Draa  or  Edrei,  in  the  Haiuran ;  but  this  is 
too  far  distant  north-easterly.  Eusebius's  comparison 
of  the  castle  {(ppovpiov)  Carcaria  (KapKapia,  Onomast.), 
one  day's  joiurnej^  distant  from  Petra,  is  equally  foreign ; 
and  this  may  be  the  modern  Kerak  of  Moab.     See  Ke- 

NATII. 

Karl-Borromseus  Union,  a  Eoman  Catholic  as- 
sociation in  Khenish  Prussia,  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  in  Roman  Catholic  society  the  same  results  for 
which  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society  of  the  Protestant 
Church  was  founded.  Perhaps,  in  a  measure,  it  was  in- 
tended to  oppose  any  inroads  of  the  Protestant  associa- 
tion among  the  Roman  Catholics.  It  originated  in  1841. 
and  makes  it  its  special  object  to  circidate  at  large  the 
literary  productions  of  Roman  Catholics.  The  society 
publishes  a  monthly  journal,  and  occasionally  works  of 
a  religious  character  ^vritten  in  popular  form.  See  Ka- 
tholische  Real-Encgklojmdie,  xi,  835. 

Karlowitz,  Ciiristopii  von.     See  Maurice  of 

S.VXONY. 

Karlstadt,  Andreas  Rudolph  Bodensteih. 

See  Carlstaut. 

Karlstadt,  Johannes.     See  Draconites. 

Karmathians  (so  called  from  Abu  Said  Al-Jena- 
bi,  surnamed  .1  l-Karmatha)  is  the  name  of  a  Jloham- 
medan  sect  which  originated  in  the  9th  century,  under 
the  caliphate  of  Al-jMotammed.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
Karmathians  were  Shiites  (q.  v. ;  see  also  Ismail),  for 
Karmatha,  their  founder,  was  one  of  the  missionaries  in 
the  province  of  Kufa,  appointed  by  one  of  the  apostles 
( Hussein  Ahwagi)  of  Ahmed,  the  successor  of  Abdallah 
Ibn-^Iaimun.  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
centur}'-,  and  who  first  gave  character  to  the  Ismaillte 
schism.  It  was  he  likewise  who  projected  and  prejiared 
the  way  for  a  union  of  the  Arabic  conquerors,  and  the 
many  races  that  had  been  subjected  since  Mohammed's 
death,  and  the  enthronement  of  what  later  was -called 
"  Pure  Reason"  as  the  sole  deity  for  worship.  With  an 
extraordinary  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and  hu- 
man weakness,  he  foimd  a  way  to  attract  the  high  and 
tlie  low.  To  the  believer  he  offered  devotion ;  liberty, 
if  not  license,  to  the  "free  in  spirit:"  philosophy  to  the 
"strong-minded;"  mystical  hopes  to  the  fanatics:  mira- 
cles to  the  masses.  To  the  Jews  he  offered  a  JNIessiah, 
to  the  Christians  a  Paraclete,  to  the  JNIoslems  a  Mahdi, 
and  to  the  Persi.an  and  Syrian  "pagans"  a  philoscjphi- 
cal  theologv.  The  results  of  his  exertions,  so  pr;\ctical 
in  tendency,  were  tridy  wonderful,  and  at  one  tii.ie  it 
seemed  as  if  jMohammedanism  was  doomed.  He  was 
soon  persecuted  by  the  authorities,  and,  driven  frojn 
place  to  pliice,  he  finally  died  in  Selamia,  in  Syria,  leav- 
mg  the  -work  he  had  so  successfully  begun  to  his  sun 


KARMATHIANS 


22 


KARMATHIANS 


Ahmed.  This  Ahmed,  profit uip  hy  the  experience  of 
his  father,  carried  on  tlie  work  of  conversion  somewhat 
secretly ;  at  least  he  did  not  dare  to  assume  publicly  the 
claims  of  an  imam,  as  his  father  had  done.  He  sent 
missionaries,  however,  to  different  jiarts  of  the  country 
to  gain  adherents  for  this  extreme  nationalistic  move- 
ment, and  one  of  the  converts  made  was  our  Karmatha, 
who  gave  ne^v  life  to  this  inidertaking.  He  (juickly 
gathered  about  him  a  large  number  of  converts,  and, 
successful  in  securing  their  confidence,  he  soon  made 
tliem  the  blind  instruments  of  his  will.  He  advocated, 
according  to  some  authorities,  absolute  communism,  not 
only  of  property,  but  even  of  wives,  and  fomided  one 
particular  colony,  consisting  of  chosen  converts,  around 
his  own  house  at  Kufa.      (See  below.  Religious  Belief.) 

From  this  place,  called  the  "House  of  Refuge,"  there- 
after the  whole  religious  movement  of  the  Karmathians 
was  conducted.  jNIissionaries  were  created  and  sent  to 
different  parts  of  the  earth  to  convert  the  nations,  and 
gather  them  into  the  fold  of  Karmathianism.  Among 
these  converts  was  one  Abu  Said,  whose  success  in 
Southern  Persia,  and  afterwards  at  Bahrein,  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  deserves  special  notice  here.  The  inhabitants 
of  this  country,  formerly  a  province  of  Persia,  adhering 
partly  to  the  Jewish,  partly  to  the  Persian  faith,  had 
been  subjected  by  Mohammed,  but  had  been  allowed  to 
retain  their  o^vn  creed.  After  the  prophet's  death  they 
had  at  once  shaken  off  the  unwelcome  yoke,  Avhich, 
however,  had  again  been  put  upon  them  by  Omar.  In 
the  interior  of  this  country  lived  certain  Arabs,  highly 
disaffected  against  Islam,  the  innumerable  precepts  of 
which  they  intensely  disliked,  and  among  these  Abu 
Said  made  the  most  marvellous  strides  in  his  con- 
versions, until  he  finally  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
Bahreinites  generally,  and  in  less  than  two  years  he 
brought  over  a  great  part  of  the  people  of  Bahrein.  To 
suppress  this  proselytism,  an  army  of  10,000  men  was 
dispatche'd  in  282  (Hegira)  against  liim  and  his  fol- 
lowers, but  the  Karmathians  were  victorious,  and  Abu 
Said  now  became  inidisputcd  possessor  of  the  whole 
country,  destroyed  the  old  capital  Hajar,  and  made 
Lahsa  (his  own  residence)  the  cayjital  of  the  country. 
In  other  parts  of  the  Saracenic  possessions  the  Karma- 
thians also  warred  for  a  time  successfully  against  the 
caliphate  of  Bagdad,  and  threatened  its  very  existence, 
until,  in  a  batlle  fought  in  the  29ith  year  of  the  Hegi- 
ra, the  caliph's  general,  Wasif,  won  a  decisive  victory, 
and  greatly  crippled  the  military  strength  of  the  Kar- 
matliians.  Both  Karmatha  (of  whose  personal  historj' 
after  this  time  we  lack  all  information)  and  Abu  Said 
became — by  what  means  is  matter  of  great  obscurity — 
faithless  to  their  own  creed ;  but  they  continued  to  have 
followers,  and  when  Abu  Said  was  killed,  together  with 
some  of  his  principal  officers,  in  the  bath  in  his  own 
castle  at  Lahsa.  in  301  of  the  Hegira,  by  one  of  his 
eunuchs,  his  son,  Abu  Tahir,  liecame  his  successor,  and 
the  struggle  was  continued.  In  311  he  seized  the  town 
of  Basra.  In  the  next  year  he  pillaged  the  caravan 
which  went  to  JNIecca,  and  ransacked  KuHi.  In  315  he 
once  more  appeared  in  Kufa  and  in  Irak,  and  gained  so 
decided  a  victory  over  the  caliph's  troops  that  Bagdad 
began  to  tremble  before  him.  In  317  (A.D.  930)  the 
great  and  decisive  blow  against  the  caliphate,  or,  rather, 
against  JMohammedanism  itself,  was  struck.  '■  When 
the  great  caravan  of  pilgrims  for  the  annual  pilgrimage 
had  arrived  at  jNIccca,  the  news  suddenly  sjiread  that 
Abu  Tahir,  the  terror  of  Islam,  had  appeared  at  tlie  head 
of  an  army  in  the  holy  city  itself.  All  attempts  to  buy 
him  oil"  failed,  and  a  ma.ssacre  of  the  most  fearful  de- 
scription ensued.  AVith  barbarous  irony,  he  asked  the 
victims  what  had  become  of  flie  sacred  [irotection  of  the 
place.  Every  one.  they  had  ahvays  been  told,  Avas  safe 
and  inviolable  at  !Mecca.  Why  was  he  allowed  thus  ea- 
sily to  kill  them — the  race  of  donkeys?  Accordrng  to 
some,  for  six  days;  to  others,  for  eleven  or  seventeen,  the 
massacre  lasted.  The  numbers  killed  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  temple  itself  are  variously  given.     The 


holy  places  were  desecrated,  almost  irredeemably.  But, 
not  satisfied  with  this,  Abu  Tahir  laid  hands  on  the  su- 
preme palladium,  tlie  black  stone  itself.  Yet  he  was 
apparently  mistaken  in  his  calcidations.  So  far  from 
turning  the  hearts  of  the  faithful  from  a  worship  which 
God  did  not  seem  to  have  defended,  the  remaining  Mos- 
lems clung  all  the  more  fervently  to  it.  God's  decree 
had  certainly  permitted  all  these  indignities  to  be  put 
upon  his  house,  but  it  was  not  f(jr  them  to  murmur. 
The  stone  gone,  they  covered  the  place  where  it  had 
lain  with  their  kisses."  Whenever  Abu  Tahir  did  not 
prevent  them  by  force,  the  caravans  went  on  their  usual 
annual  pilgrimage,  and  Abu  Tahir  was  finally  persuade<i 
to  conclude  a  treaty  permitting  the  pilgrimage  on  pay- 
ment of  five  denars  fur  every  camel,  and  seven  for  everj-- 
horse.  But  the  black  stone,  notwithstanding  all  the 
efforts  on  the  part  of  the  court  of  Bagdad,  he  never  re- 
turned. (See  below.)  Abu  Tahir  liimself  was  a  man 
of  great  daring,  and  so  infatuated  were  his  men  with 
the  personal  bravery  and  divine  calling  of  their  leader 
that  they  blindly  obeyed  any  demands  he  made  upon 
them. 

Abu  Tahir  died  in  332  of  the  Hegira,  master  of 
Arabia,  Syria,  and  Irak.  It  was  not  until  seven  years 
later  (A.D.  950),  inukr  the  reign  of  two  of  his  brothers 
who  had  succeeded  him,  that  the  "  black  stone"  -was  re- 
turned to  IMecca  for  an  enormous  ransom,  and  fixed 
there,  in  the  seventh  piUar  of  the  moscpie  called  Rahmat 
(God's  mercy).  But  with  the  death  of  Abu  Tahir  the 
star  of  the  Karmathians  began  to  wane.  Little  is  heard 
of  them  of  any  import  till  375,  when  they  were  defeated 
before  Kufti — an  event  which  seems  to  have  put  an  end 
to  their  dominion  in  Irak  and  Syria.  In  378  they  were 
further  defeated  in  battle  by  Asfar,  and  their  chief  kill- 
ed. They  retreated  to  Lahsa,  where  they  fortified  them- 
selves; whereupon  Asfiir  marched  to  Elkatif,  took  it, 
and  carried  away  all  the  baggage,  slaves,  and  animals 
of  the  Karmathians  of  that  town,  and  retired  to  Basra. 
This  seems  to  have  finally  ruined  the  already  -(vcak 
band  of  that  once  formidable  power,  and  nothing  fur- 
ther is  heard  of  them  in  history,  although  they  retained 
Lahsa  down  to  430,  and  even  later.  To  our  own  day 
there  still  exists,  according  to  Palgrave,  some  disaffect- 
ed remnants  of  them  at  Hasa  (the  modern  name  of  their 
ancient  centre  and  stronghold),  and  other  tracts  of  the 
peninsula;  and  their  antagonism  against  IMohammed- 
anism,  which  they  have  utterly  abrogated  among  them- 
selves, so  far  from  Ijeing  aliated,  bids  fair  to  break  out 
anew  into  open  rebellion  at  the  first  opportunity.  In- 
deed, some  of  the  most  trustworthy  writers  on  Eastern 
historj'  assert  that  the  modern  Druses  owe  the  origin  of 
their  religious  belief  to  the  Karmatliiaiis  (comp.  Mad- 
den, Turkish  Empire,  ii,  210). 

The  religious  heVuf  of  the  Karmathians,  so  far  as  it 
has  been  preserved  to  us,  seems  in  the  beginning — be- 
fore Ismailism  became  a  mixture  of  "naturalism"  and 
"materialism"  of  whilom  Sabaism,  and  of  Indian  incar- 
nations and  transmigrations  of  later  days — to  have  only 
been  a  kind  of  "reformed"  Islam.  Their  master  Kar- 
matha, this  sect  maintained,  had  evinced  himself  to  be 
a  true  prophet,  and  had  brought  a  new  law  into  the 
world.  By  this  many  of  the  IMohammedan  tenets  were 
altered,  many  ancient  ceremonies  and  forms  of  prayer 
were  changed,  and  an  entirely  new  kind  of  fast  intro- 
duced. Wine  was  permitted,  as  well  as  a  few  other 
things  which  the  Koran  prohibited,  while  many  of  the 
precejits  found  in  that  book  were  made  mere  allegories. 
L'rayer  was  but  the  symbol  of  obedience  to  their  imam, 
and  fasting  the  symbol  of  silence,  or,  rather,  of  conceal- 
ment of  the  religious  doctrine  from  the  stranger.  Thej' 
also  believed  fornication  to  be  the  sin  of  infidelity,  and 
the  guilt  thereof  to  be  incurred  by  those  who  revealed 
the  mysteries  of  their  religion,  or  failed  to  pay  a  blind 
obedience  to  their  chief,  or  to  contribute  the  fifth  part 
of  their  jiroperty  as  an  offering  to  the  imam  (compare 
Sale.  Prclimliiari/  Discourse  fo  tlte  Koran'). 

For  further  details,  see  Weil,  GescJdchte  d.  Chalijen; 


KARX 


23 


KARO 


idem,  Geschichte  der  islam'Uischen  Volker  (Stuttg.  18Cfi, 
8vo),p.  197  sq. ;  De  (Joeje,  il/e^woiz-e  sur  Its  Cannathi's, 
etc. ;  Silvestre  de  Sacy,  litlif/ion  des  Druses  ;  Sale,  Ko- 
ran;  Taj'lor,  Hist. Mohammedanism,  p.  223  sq. ;  Madden, 
Turkish  Jimpire,  ii,  IGi  sq. ;  Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  x, 
58G  sq.     See  Siiiites. 

Karn,  Aakox  Jakob,  a  Lutheran  minister,  was  born 
in  Loudon  Co.,  Virginia,  August,  1820.  In  his  youth  lie 
dedicated  himself  to  the  service  of  the  Lord,  and,  with 
a  view  to  enter  the  Christian  ministry,  became  a  stu- 
dent ill  tlie  institution  at  Gettysburg  in  the  autumn 
of  1837,  and  was  gTaduated  from  Pennsylvania  College 
in  18-12,  and  from  the  theological  seminary  in  1811. 
After  his  license  to  preach  he  accepted  a  caU  to  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  Pine  Grove,  Pa. ;  thence  he  removed 
to  Canton,  Ohio.  In  1848  he  took  charge  of  the  En- 
glish Lutheran  Church  in  Savannah,  Georgia.  Here  he 
labored,  enjoying  the  confidence  of  his  people  and  the  re- 
spect of  the  whole  community,  till  his  physical  strength 
gave  vvay,  and  advancing  disease  compelled  him  to  sus- 
pentl  the  exercise  of  his  office.  His  congregation  sug- 
gested a  trip  to  foreign  lands.  They  provided  the  ex- 
penses for  the  journey,  and  supplies  for  the  pulpit  during 
his  absence.  He  travelled  through  France,  Ital}',  Ger- 
many, and  Switzerland,  but  his  impaired  health  derived 
no  advantage  from  the  tour,  and  he  returned  to  his  na- 
tive country  only  to  close  liis  life  surrounded  l)y  the 
tender  sympathies  of  loved  ones  at  home.  He  died  at 
Chicago,  lU.,  Dec.  19, 18t)0.  Karn  was  an  able  preacher 
and  an  excellent  man.  His  ministry  was  fruitfid  in  good 
results.  During  the  prevalence  of  flie  yeUow  fever  in 
Savannah  in  1854  and  1858,  he  continued  at  his  post, 
exhausting  his  time  and  his  strength  in  ministering  to 
the  suffering  and  the  dying,  not  only  of  his  own  con- 
gregation, but  to  others  wlio  were  not  in  connection 
with  any  Church,  amid  scenes  the  most  distressing  and 
heart-rending,  in  his  offices  of  kindness  to  the  sick  and 
in  the  burial  of  the  dead.  It  is  supposed  his  physical 
constitution  sustained  an  injury  from  the  influences  of 
the  epidemic  from  whicli  he  never  recovered.    (M.  L.  S.) 

Karnaim.     See  Asiitarotii-karnaim. 

Karuko"Wski,  Stanislaus,  a  celebrated  Roman 
Catholic  jirelate,  was  born  in  Bland  in  1526.  Of  Ids 
early  life  nothing  is  known  to  us.  In  15G3  he  was  made 
bisliiip  of  Wladislaw,  and  became  coadjutor  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  Gnesen  in  1577,  and  in  1581  sole  occupant  of 
the  archbishopric  and  primate  of  Poland.  In  the  civil 
history  of  Poland  Karnkowski  played  jio  imimportant 
part.  King  Stephen  (Betori)  was  crowned  b}'  him  (Hay 
1, 157G),  and  on  the  death  of  the  king  Karnkowski  him- 
self assumed  the  reins  of  government  until  a  ro3'al  suc- 
cessor was  found  in  the  person  of  the  Swedish  crown- 
prince  Sigismund,  whom  he  also  crowned.  It  is  gener- 
ally supposed  that  Karnkowski  belonged  to  the  .Jesuit- 
ical order.  In  Kalisch  he  built  a  college  for  the  .Jesuits : 
he  also  founded  two  schools  for  the  theological  training 
of  Roman  Catholics.  Under  his  protection  tlie  cele- 
brated .Jesuit  .Jacob  Wujek  translated  the  Bilile  into  Po- 
lish, a  work  which  to  tliis  day  remains  the  only  authen- 
tic edition  in  the  Polish  (Roman  Catholic)  Church. 
Karnkowski  died  May  2G,  1G03.  He  published  Consti- 
tutiones  synodales  dioceses  cum  caiechesi : — Sermones  ad 
parochos: — De  ecclesia  utraqiie ;  etc.  See  Wetzer  und 
Welte,  Kircheii-Lexikon,  xii,  632. 

Karo,  Joseph  bex-Ephraim,  ^  Jewish  Rabbi,  one 
of  the  most  celebrated  characters  in  Rabbinic  literature, 
was  born  in  Sjiain  in  1488,  of  a  family  of  note.  Amid 
the  great  persecutions  which  the  Spanish  Jews  suffered 
in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth  century,  the  Karo  family 
were  exiled,  anil  settled  finally  at  Nicopolis,  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey.  His  early  Talmudical  education  .Joseph 
received  under  tlie  instruction  of  liis  own  father,  and 
the  youth  quickly  evinced,  in  the  ready  acquisition  of 
Talmudic  lore,  a  particular  liking  for  tradition.  The 
Mishua  text,  it  is  said,  he  had  learned  by  heart,  and  be- 
fore he  had  reached  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  was  ac- 


cepted as  a  Talmudical  authority.  From  Nicopolis  .Jo- 
seph removed  successively  to  Adrianoiile  and  Salonica. 
WhUe  a  resident  of  these  places  (about  1522-35)  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  great  cabalistic  fanatic  Sa- 
lomo  Moleb(j  of  Pcjrtagal.  and  he  was  finally  induced  to 
remove  to  Safet  (q.  v.),  in  Palestine,  the  great  cabalis- 
tic centre  in  the  East  in  the  IGth  century.  In  Safet  he 
studied  much  with  the  Rabbinical  authorities  of  Pales- 
tine, and  during  the  controversy  on  the  Jewish  gaonate 
[see  Jacob  Berab]  Joseph  Karo  was  one  of  the  four 
disciples  whom  Jacob  Berab  ordained  when  forced  by 
Levi  ben-Chabib  to  quit  the  country.  See  Ordination, 
Jewish.  Previously  infatuated  with  the  Cabalists'  Mes- 
sianic notions,  and  now  (Jacob  Berab  died  Januar\', 
1541,  shortly  after  quitting  Palestine)  one  of  the  four 
Rabbis  ordained  by  the  only  authority  competent  to 
perform  the  sacred  rite,  he  became  satisfied  that  he  was 
divinely  chosen  for  some  important  mission,  perhaps 
even  the  Messiahship  itself.  (He  believed,  says  Griitz 
[see  below],  that  he  would  die  and  be  again  raised  up 
to  become  the  leader  of  his  nation.)  Ever  since  1522 
he  had  been  engaged  in  writing  an  extensive  religious 
and  ritual  codex,  entitled  ~&i^  IT'Sl  (Beth  Yosepth,  first 
published  at  Sablonets,  1553,  4  vols,  folio),  a  revision, 
correction,  and  enlargement  of  a  like  work  by  Jacob  ben- 
Asher ;  he  now  hastened  the  completion  of  this  gigantic 
undertaking  in  the  hope  that  its  publication  would  lead 
his  people  to  assign  him  at  once  the  jilace  to  which  he 
believed  himself  divinely  called.  He  completed  the 
work  in  1542,  but- it  gauied  for  him  only  the  recognition 
of  being  one  of  the  ablest  rabbis  of  Safet.  Unremit- 
tingly he  continued  his  labors,  determined  to  bring 
about  the  result  which  he  believed  to  be  his  mission — 
the  union  of  Israel — and  with  it  hasten  the  days  of  the 
Messiah.  In  the  IGth  century  the  Talmud  was  exten- 
sively studied  among  the  Jews.  Every  important  con- 
gregation sustained  not  onh'  a  rabbi,  but  a  college.  Thus 
many  lucrative  positions  were  open  to  men  inclined 
to  study,  and  there  resulted  a  general  interest  in  the 
study  of  the  Talmud.  But  many  students  imply  many 
interpreters,  and  thus  it  came  that,  after  a  time,  each 
congregation,  and  sometimes  even  each  member  of  a 
college,  had  their  own  interjiretation  of  the  Talmudical 
precepts,  and  Jewish  orthodoxy  Avas  at  a  loss  how  to 
judge  rightly.  Joseph,  comprehending  the  danger  of  a 
general  division  and  a  loose  interjiretation,  determined 
to  meet  the  case  by  a  compilation  of  rabbinical  law  and 
usage,  i.  o.  by  the  publication  of  the  interpretations 
which  the  Talmud  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the 
most  distinguished  teachers  in  Israel.  At  first  he  sim- 
ply subjected  his  former  work  to  a  general  supervision, 
wlaich  he  completed  after  twelve  years  of  haril  labor. 
Finding,  however,  that  this  did  not  quite  accomplish  the 
desired  result,  he  set  about  writing  a  new  work,  and  af- 
ter nine  years  of  intense  application  presented  his  peo- 
ple with  a  compendium  of  rabbinical  law  and  usage,  en- 
titled Tl^^"  'I'^V'^  {ShuJchan  .4r((^-,  first  published  at 
Venice,  1565),  which  to  this  day  remains  a  rabbinical 
authority.  His  name  now  became  celebrated  in  all 
lands  Avhere  Jews  made  tlieir  abode,  and  at  Safet  itself 
(which  really  meant  all  I'alestine)  he  was  cheerfidly  ac- 
corded the  place  of  first  authority,  as  a  worthy  successor 
of  Jacob  Berab.  See,  however,  the  article  INIoses  de 
Trani.  He  died  in  1575.  One  result  Karo's  labors 
had  at  least  effected — the  harmony  of  all  Israelites  in 
expounding  the  law  through  the  Talmud — tlie  estab- 
Ushment  of  Rabbinic  Judaism — after  all.  a  very  dittcrent 
religion  from  that  revealed  through  IMoses  at  Jlount 
Sinai,  foretold  hy  tlie  prophets,  and  taught  by  IMoses 
IMaimonides.  For  a  long  time  the  Shulchan  Aruk  was 
the  text-book  in  all  the  Je^vish  schools,  the  accepted 
interpretation  among  aU  that  people,  and  many  are  the 
editions  that  have  been  published  of  it,  legions  the  schol- 
ars who  hnve  commented  upon  it.  Karo's  other  work 
of  note  which  deserves  mention  liere  is  Chisiph  Mi.'^hne, 
a  commcntarv  on  3Iaimonidcs's  Jad  Uavhazaka,  which 


KARPAS 


24 


KATYAYANA 


h?is  frequently  been  published  with  the  latter  work. 
See  Griitz,  Geschichie  ihr  Judeii,  ix,  319  sq. ;  Zunz,  Zur 
Geschichte  u.L{teratU7-,  p.  230  sq. ;  Jost,  Gesck.  d.Jtiden- 
■  tkums,  iii.  129  ;  Flirst, Biblioth.  Jud. ii,  172  sq.     (i.  II.  W.) 

Karpas.     See  Greks  ;  Cotton. 

Kar'tah  (lleb.  A'aW«/j',  nn"i|3,  city;  Sept.  K«p- 
^av  V.  r.  Kuap:),  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  as- 
signed, with  its  suburbs,  as  one  of  tlie  places  of  residence 
for  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Merari  (Josh,  xxi,  34). 
It  is  there  mentioned  between  Jokncam  and  Dimnah, 
the  fourth  city  named  being  Nahalal;  but  the  parallel 
passage  (1  Chron.  vi,  77)  gives  but  two  cities,  and  these 
different,  namely,  Kimmon  and  Tabor,  the  first  of  these 
being  probably  a  preferable  reading  for  Dimnah,  and 
the  latter  a  collective  for  two  others,  Jokneam  being  in 
the  same  connection  (ver.  08)  separately  attributed  to 
the  Kohathites  along  with  other  places  on  Mt.  Ephra- 
im,  near  which  it  lay.  Kartah  is  doubtless  identical 
with  the  Kattath  elsewhere  spoken  of  in  the  same  as- 
sociation (Josh,  xix,  15).  Van  de  Yelde  suggests  (J/e- 
7)ioif,  p.  327)  that  it  is  "possibly  the  same  with  el- 
Ilarte,  a  village  with  traces  of  antiquity  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kishon,"  not  very  far  from  its  junction  with  wady 
Melek ;  the  ruins  being  on  the  teU  Hiirteyeh,  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  river  (^Narrative,  i,  289). 

Kar'tan  (Heb.  A'ar^a?j',  "ri"i|^,  double  city,  an  old 
dual  from  »^"^p;  Sept.  KapBch'  v.  r.  Qif.ii.Lwv  and  Nof/(- 
/xwf),  a  town  of  Naphtali,  assigned  to  the  Gcrshonite 
Levites,  and  appointed  to  be  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(Josh,  xxi,  32).  In  the  parallel  passage  (1  Chron.  vi, 
76)  it  is  called  by  the  equivalent  name  of  Kirjathai  ji. 
The  associated  names  suggest  the  probability  of  some 
locality  near  the  north-western  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Ti- 
berias, perhaps  the  ruined  village  marked  as  el-Katanah 
on  Van  de  Velde's  map,  on  wady  Furam,  about  midway 
between  Lake  Tiberias  and  the  Ilulch. 

Kartikeya  is  the  name  of  the  Hindu  Mars,  or 
god  of  war,  who  is  represented  Ijy  the  Pnranic  legends 
as  having  sprung  from  Siva  after  a  most  miraculous 
fashion.  The  germ  of  Kartikeya  having  fallen  into 
the  Ganges,  it  was  on  the  banks  of  this  river,  in  a 
meadow  of  Sara  grass,  that  the  offspring  of  Siva  arose ; 
and  as  it  happened  that  he  was  seen  by  six  nymphs,  the 
Krittikfis  (or  Pleiades),  the  chUd  assumed  six  faces,  to 
receive  nurture  from  each.  Grown  up,  he  fulfilled  his 
mission  in  killing  Taraka,  the  dnemon-king,  whose  pow- 
er, acquired  by  penances  and  austerities,  threatened  the 
very  existence  of  the  gods.  He  accomplished,  besides, 
other  heroic  deeds  in  his  battles  with  the  giants,  and 
became  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  divine  armies. 
Having  been  brought  up  by  the  Krittiktis,  he  is  called 
Kartikeya,  or  Shunmatura,  the  son  of  six  mothers ; 
and,  from  the  circumstances  adverted  to,  he  bears  also 
the  names  of  Gangeya,  the  son  of  the  Ganges ;  Sarahhu, 
reared  in  Sara  grass;  Shanmukha,  the  god  with  the  six 
faces,  etc.  One  of  his  common  appellations  is  Kumdni, 
youthful,  since  he  is  generally  represented  as  a  fine 
youth;  and,  as  he  is  riding  on  a  peacock,  he  receives 
sometimes  the  epithet  of  Sikhiruhana,  or  "the  god 
whose  vehicle  is  the  peacock." — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Kasiniir,  St.,  prince  of  Poland,  noted  in  the  aimals 
of  the  lloman  Catholic  Church  for  his  great  piety  and 
asceticism,  born  in  October,  1458,  took  no  unimportant 
part  in  the  efforts  of  the  royal  house  of  Poland  to  secure 
the  throne  of  Hungary.  Quite  inconsistently  with  his 
saintly  profession,  he  marched  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  towards  the  borders  of  Hungary  in  1471.  On  his 
return,  after  the  declaration  of  pope  Sixtus  IV  in  favor 
of  the  deposed  king  of  Hungary',  Kasimir  practised  even 
greater  austerity  than  before,  and  died  March  4,  HS;;, 
at  AViliia,  in  Lithuania.  Kasiniir  was  canonized  in  1522 
by  pope  Leo  X,  and  he  is  looked  upon  as  the  patjrou 
saint  of  Poland.     See  Pol^vi«u. 

Kaspi.     See  Ibx-Caspi. 


Katan.     See  Hakk^vtan. 

Katerkamp,  Joiiaxn  Theodor  Hermann,  an 
eminent  Koman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Och- 
trup,  near  Minister,  Germany,  Jan.  17,  17G4;  studied 
theology  at  IMunster,  and  subsequently  (1809)  became 
professor  of  Church  History  in  his  alma  mater.  He  had 
been  ordained  priest  in  1787,  and  in  1823  he  was  ap- 
pointed canon,  and  in  1831  dean  of  the  cathedral  at 
^linistcr.  He  died  Jidy  8,  1834.  Katerkamp's  princi- 
pal work  is  his  Kirchenyesch.  (of  which  the  introduction 
was  published  in  1819;  and  live  volumes,  bringing  the 
work  down  to  the  second  Crusade,  from  1823-34,  8vo). 
He  also  wrote  Ueher  d.  chrhtl.  Lehen  u.  d.  Geist  d.  gottes- 
dienstl.  Versainmlunrjen  (jMi'inster,  1830,  8vo):  —  Denk- 
tnirdigkeiten  aus  d.Leben  d.FUrstin  Galiczin  (ibid.  1828; 
2d  ed.  1838).  See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklopddie,  vii,  459  ; 
Wetzer  mid  Welte,  Kircken-Lex.  xii,  (537. 

Katharinus,  Ajibrosius.     See  Catharixus. 

Kathenotheism  ((caS'  tvog  &i6c,  each  one  a  god) 
is  a  term  devised  by  Prof.  J\Iax  iNIuller  {Mg  Vtda,  i,  164, 
460)  to  designate  the  doctrine  of  tlivine  unity  in  diver- 
sity as  unfolded  in  the  sacred  writings  of  tlie  Hindus. 
He  rejects  the  term  jjolytheism  on  the  ground  that  the 
Hindus,  in  their  worship,  ever  ascribe  to  one  god  the  at- 
tributes of  all  the  others.  Thus  in  one  hj-mn,  ascribed 
to  Mann,  the  poet  saj's,  "Among  you,  O  gods,  there  is 
none  that  is  small,  none  that  is  young ;  you  are  all  great 
in  deed."  .  .  .  "And  what  more  coidd  human  language 
achieve,"  asks  tlie  professor,  "  in  trying  to  express  the 
idea  of  a  divine  aad  supreme  power?  .  .  .  This  is  surely 
not  what  is  commonlj-  understood  by  polj'theism.  Yet 
it  would  be  equally  wrong  to  call  it  monotheism.  If  we 
must  have  a  name  for  it,  I  should  call  it  KatJienotJteism" 
(Chips,  i,  28).  See  also  Tyler,  Primitice  Culture  (Loud. 
1871,  2  vols.  8vo),  ii,  321.     (J.  H.W.) 

Elathisniata  [Ka^iapara,  sittings)  is  a  name  which, 
in  the  early  Church,  according  to  Suicer,  was  applied  to 
certain  parts  of  holy  Scripture,  because,  during  the  read- 
ing of  them,  the  people  sat.  Other  portions  of  Scripture 
were  entitled  araaHQ  (standings),  because,  during  the 
reading  of  them,  the  people  stood.  It  was  usual  m  the 
early  Church  for  all  worshippers  to  stand  during  the 
reading  of  the  gospels  and  the  singing  of  the  psalms. 

Katona,  Emeric,  of  Abaujvar,  a  Hungarian  Prot- 
estant controversialist,  was  born  at  Uifalon  in  1572.  He 
became  rector  of  the  college  of  Szepsi  in  1593,  but  re- 
signed in  1595  to  study  theology  at  "Wittenberg  and 
Heidelberg  for  two  years  and  a  half,  and  then  returned 
to  his  country.  He  became  successively  rector  of  Pa- 
tak  (in  1599),  preacher  at  the  court  of  George  Ea- 
goczi,  prince  of  Transylvania,  pastor  of  Szepsi,  Goenc- 
ziu,  and  Karextur,  and  died  Oct.  22,  1610.  He  wrote 
De  Libera  Arbitrio,  contra  theses  Andrece  Saroji ;  Anti- 
papismus ;  Tractatus  de  Patrum,  conciliontm  et  tradi- 
tionum  Aitctoritate  cii'ca  Jidel  dogmata,  cult^ts  idem  mo- 
resque  vivendi  (Francfort,  1611,  8vo,  with  a  Life  of  the 
author  by  Pareits).  See  Cz^^tt^nger,  Specimen  llunga- 
rice  Literatw,  p.  199;  Horanyi,  Nova  Memoria  llunga- 
ronim,  ii,  304. 

Katon  Moed.     See  Talmud. 

Kat'tath  (lleb.  Kattath',  n^Jp,  small,  for  ^VJ^^; 
Sept.  Karra5-  v.  r.  KaravaS;),  one  of  the  cities  of  Zeb- 
ulon, mentioned  first  in  a  list  of  towns  apparently  along 
the  southern  border  from  Slount  Tabor  westerly  (Josh. 
xix,  15) ;  and  (notwithstanding  the  slight  difference  in 
radicals)  ]irobably  the  same  with  the  Kartaii  (q,  v.) 
of  Josh,  xxi,  34;  perhaps  also  with  Kiti:on  (Judg.  i, 
30).  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  172),  by  a  tortuous  derivation 
through  the  Talmud,  seeks  to  identify  it  witli  Cana  of 
Galilee. 

Katyayana  is  a  name  of  great  distinction  in  the 
histoni'  of  the  literature  of  India,  especially  the  ritual 
and  grammatical  literature  of  the  ]'rahniauical  Hindus, 
which  has  been  greatly  enriched  by  a  writer  or  writers 


KAUTZ 


25 


KEBLAH 


of  that  name.     Katyayana  is  also  the  name  of  several 
of  the  chief  disciples  of  the  Buddha  Sakyamuni. 

Kautz,  Jacob,  an  eminent  German  theologian) 
'prominent  in  the  Anabaptist  movement  of  the  16th 
century,  was  born  at  Bockenheim,  Hesse  Cassel,  about 
1500.  He  was  a  preacher  at  Worms  when,  in  1527,  he 
identified  himself  with  the  Denk-Hetzer  movement  in 
forming  a  strong  opposition  against  infant  baptism. 
Previously  to  this  time,  Kautz  had  estranged  him- 
self from  the  Lutheran  reformers  by  his  anti-Trini- 
tarian heresies ;  now  he  openly  broke  with  them,  and 
warmly  welcomed  the  Strasburg  preachers.  See  Ana- 
baptists. He  published  seven  theses  in  defence  of  his 
peculiar  views  (corap.  Arnold,  Ketzerhistorie,  i,  63),  and 
for  the  day  of  Pentecost  invited  the  Lutheran  ministers 
to  pulilic  disputation.  Although  yet  a  j'ouug  man,  he 
had  already  obtained  great  celebrity  as  a  public  speaker, 
and  no  doubt  took  this  course  in  order  to  increase  the 
number  of  his  followers.  But  the  theses  of  Kautz  were 
so  decidedly  opposed  to  Lutheran  christology  and  dog- 
mas that  the  authorities  interfered,  incarcerated  him, 
and  finally  obliged  him  to  quit  "Worms.  Wandering 
about  from  place  to  place,  we  find  him  in  July  at  Augs- 
burg, later  at  Rothenburg,  and  in  1528  finally  at  Stras- 
burg. Here  he  succeeded  for  a  time  in  preaching  his 
heretical  doctrines,  but  in  1529,  so  great  had  his  fanati- 
cal excesses  become,  that  the  city  authorities  felt  obliged 
to  interfere,  and  he  was  arrested  and  compelled  to  leave 
the  city.  After  losing  sight  of  him  for  a  time,  we  find 
him  in  1532  again  knocking  at  the  gates  of  the  city  of 
Strasburg,  and  vainlj'  seeking  admission.  From  this 
time  all  traces  of  him  are  lost,  and  neither  the  time  nor 
the  place  of  his  death  is  known.  Kautz  was  qiute  inti- 
mate with  Capito,  the  eminent  coadjutor  of  the  Reform- 
ers QicolampacUus  and  Buccr,  and  at  one  time  it  was 
even  asserted  by  the  Anabaptists  that  he  had  succeeded 
in  winning  him  to  their  side.  Capito,  however,  does 
not  deserve  this  reproach.  On  the  contrary,  he  did  all 
in  his  power  to  restrain  Kautz  in  his  fanaticism.  See 
Trechsel,  Antitrinitarier,  i,  13  sq. ;  Keim,  in  the  Jahrh. 
f.  dmtsche  Theol.  i,  2,  271  S(i. ;  Stud,  nml  Krif.  1841,  p. 
1080  sq.     See  aLso  Denk  ;  Hktzer.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kay,  .James,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  born  at  Heap 
Fold,  in  Lancashire,  England,  June  21,  1777,  and  was 
reared  in  the  Church  of  England.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, however,  he  became  a  dissenter,  and  at  once  pre- 
pared for  the  ministry.  In  1799  he  was  settled  over  a 
Calvinistic  congregation  in  Kendal,  Westmoreland,  but 
he  resigned  this  charge  in  1810,  and,  with  about  one 
third  of  his  congregation,  joined  the  Unitarians,  and 
two  years  later  became  pastor  of  a  Unitarian  church  at 
Hindley,  Lancashire.  In  1821  he  emigrated  to  this 
country,  but  never  again  took  active  work.  He  died 
Sept.  22, 1817,  at  Trout  Run,  I'a.  "  He  fell  asleep  with 
the  accents  of  a  devout  faith  on  his  lips,  and,  we  doubt 
not,  with  the  trustful  spirit  of  a  disciple  in  his  heart." — 
Christian  Examiner,  1848,  p.  157. 

Kaye,  John  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  bom 
at  Hammersmith,  London,  in  1783,  and  was  educated  at 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge  (graduated  in  1804  with 
high  honor  and  distinction).  In  1814  he  was  elected 
master  of  his  college,  and  afterwards  filled  the  ofiice 
of  vice-chancellor.  In  1816  he  was  chosen  regius  pro- 
fessor of  divinity,  and  in  1820  became  bishop  of  Bristol; 
was  translated  to  Lincoln  in  1827,  and  died  in  1853.  Be- 
sides his  professional  labors,  Kaye  did  a  great  deal  of 
literary  work.  Many  of  his  writings  are  of  special  value. 
Characterized  as  they  are  bj'  clearness  and  precision, 
by  accuracy  and  fairness,  combined  with  the  necessary 
flexibihty,  no  thinking  mind  can  fail  to  be  enriched  by 
them.  Ilis  principal  writings  are :  The  Ecdedasticnl 
Ilistonj  of  the  2d  and  3(1  Centuries,  illustrated  from  the 
Writings  of  Tertullian  (Camb.  2d  ed.  1826,  8vo ;  3d  ed. 
1845): — SonK  Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of 
Justin  Martyr  (Lond.  2d  ed.  1836,  8vo;  3d  ed.  1853)  :— 
A  Charge  delivered  at  the  primary  Visitation  in  1828 


(Camb.  1828, 8vo) : — A  Charge  to  the  Clergy,  delivered  at 
the  triennial  Visitation  in  1843  (London,  1843,  8vo).  He 
also  published  some  anonymous  Remarks  on  Dr.  Wise- 
man\s  Lectures,  and  a  llejily  to  the  Travels  of  an  Irish 
Gentleman  (a  Roman  Catholic  polemical  work).  See 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  A  iithors,  s.  v. ;  London  Gentleman's 
Magazine,  1853  (April,  ]\Iay,  and  August).     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kaye,  John  (2).     See  C^uus. 

Kayits.     See  Fruit. 

Kazin.     See  Ittaii-kazix. 

Keach,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  English  Baptist  di- 
vine, was  born  at  Stokehaman,  Buckinghamshire,  Feb. 
29, 1640.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  followed  any  reg- 
ular course  of  study;  his  parents  were  poor,  and  could 
not  aid  him  in  a  collegiate  education.  He  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  Scriptiu-es.  In  1658  he  be- 
came a  preacher,  and  in  1668  was  chosen  pastor  of  a 
congregation  in  Southwark,  of  which  he  had  for  three 
years  previously  been  a  member.  After  the  Restoration 
he  suffered  in  common  with  all  nonconformists,  and  tted 
from  the  country,  where  the  persecutions  were  unbear- 
able, to  the  metropolis.  Here  he  became  pastor  of  a 
small  society,  which  met  in  a  private  house  in  Tooley 
Street.  Successful  as  a  minister,  he  soon  moved  his 
fast-increasing  flock  (which  numbered  at  one  time  over 
lOOO)  to  a  large  new  chiu-ch  in  Horsley  Down,  South- 
wark. He  died  in  1704.  Keach  belonged  to  the  Par- 
ticular or  Calvinistic  Baptists,  and  was  considered  a  man 
of  great  ]jiety  and  learning.  His  principal  Avorks  are, 
Tropologia,  or  Key,  to  open  Scripture  Metaphors  (Lond. 
1682 ;  best  edition  1779,  fol. — very  scarce ;  and  reprinted 
in  1856,  8vo) : — The  Marrow  of  true  Justification,  or 
Justification  without  Works  (Lond.  1692, 4to) : — The  Axe 
laid  to  the  Root,  or  one  more  Blow  at  the  Foundation  of 
Infant  Baptism  and  Church-membership  (Loudon,  1693, 
4to): — Light  broke  forth  in  Wales  (Lond.  1696,  8vo;  an 
answer  to  INIr.  .Tames  Owen's  book,  entitled  Children's 
Baptismfroni  Heaven')  : — The  Display  of  glorious  Grace, 
in  14  Sermons  [on  Isa.  liv,  10]  (Lond.  1098, 8vo)  : — Gos- 
pel Mysteries  Unveiled,  or  an  Exposition  of  all  the  Par- 
ables, etc.  (Lond.  1701 ,  fol. ;  1856,  royal  8vo.  "  ^Mingled 
with  unquestioned  reverence  for  the  divine  Word,  and 
much  good  material  of  which  the  judicious  student  may 
avail  himself  with  advantage,  there  is  a  large  amount 
of  fanciful  exposition  and  of  unwise  spiritualizing"  [Kit- 
to])  : — A  Golden  Mine  opened,  or  the  glory  of  God's  i-ick 
Grace  displayed  in  the  Mediator,  etc.  (Lond.  1694,  4to)  : 
— The  French  Impostor  delected,  or  Zach.  Ilousel  tryed 
by  the  Word  of  God,  etc.  (Lond.  1703, 12mo)  : — Believer's 
Baptism,  wherein  the  chief  arguments  for  infant  bap- 
tism are  collected  and  combated  (London,  1705,  8vo) : — 
Travels  of  True  Godliness,  and  Travels  of  Ungodliness, 
after  the  manner  of  Bunyan's  (often  reprinted) ;  also  ^vith 
Notes  and  Memoirs  of  the  author,  by  the  Rev.  Howard 
Malcolm  (N.  Y.  1831,  18mo) : — Exposition  of  the  Para- 
bles (Lond.  1704,  fol.).  Keach  also  figured  in  his  day  as 
a  hymnologist,  but  his  sacred  songs  were  rather  medi- 
ocre. See  Stoughton,  Eccles.  History  of  Engl,  ii,  465  sq. ; 
Crosby,  Hist,  of  the  Baptists ;  Wilson,  Hist,  of  Dissent  in g 
Chwches ;  AlVihone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  American  Authors, 
s.  V. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop).  Bibl.  Lit.  s,  v,      (J.  H.  W.) 

Keating,  Geoffrey,  an  Irish  divine  and  historian, 
flourished  in  the  early  jiart  of  the  17tli  century  (died 
about  1625,  or  somewhat  later).  He  is  noted  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  general  history  of  Ireland,  in  which  tlie  eccle- 
siastical history  of  that  country  is  treated  in  detail.  It 
was  translated  into  English  by  Dermot  O'Connor  (Lon- 
don, 1728,  fol. ;  Westm.  1726,  fol. ;  1738,  fol. ;  Dubl.  1809, 
2  vols.  8vo;  1811,  8vo). — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Au- 
thors, s.  V. 

Keblah  is  a  term  by  which  the  Mohammedans  des- 
ignate the  direction  towards  which  they  are  command- 
ed to  turn  their  faces  in  their  devotions.  ''At  first," 
says  Sale  (Koran,  p.  17),  "  ^lohammed  and  his  follow- 
ers observed  no  particular  rite  in  turning  their  faces  to- 
wanls  any  certain  place  or  quarter  of  the  world  when 


KEBLE 


26 


KECKERMANN 


they  prayof],  it  being  declared  to  be  perfectly  indiffer- 
ent. Afterwards,  when  the  pro[)het  Hed  to  jNIedina,  he 
directed  them  to  turn  towards  the  temple  of  Jerusalem 
[probably  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  Jews],  which 
continued  to  be  their  Keblah  for  six  or  seven  months; 
but,  either  finding  tlie  Jews  too  intractable,  or  despair- 
ing of  otherwise  gaining  the  pagan  Arabs,  who  coidd  not 
forget  their  respect  to  the  temple  of  Mecca,  he  ordered 
that  praj-ers  for  the  future  should  be  tt)wards  the  last. 
This  change  was  made  in  the  second  year  of  the  Hegira, 
and  occasioned  many  to  fall  from  him,  taking  offence  at 
his  inconstancy."     See  Kaaba. 

Keble,  Johx,  "  the  sweetest  and  most  Christian  poet 
of  modern  days,"  was  bora  in  Fairford,  in  Gloucester- 
shire, April  25, 1792.  His  father  was  fellow  of  Corpus 
Christi  College,  and  for  fifty  years  vicar  of  Coin,  St^^Vl- 
vins,  and  lived  until  his  ninetieth  year.  His  mother 
was  the  daughter  of  a  clergyman.  Thus  on  both  sides 
he  came  of  a  pastoral  stock ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note 
that  his  only  surviving  brother,  Thomas,  like  himself 
became  a  clergyman  (rector  of  Bisley),  that  that  broth- 
er's sou  also  tooli  orders,  and  that  Mr.  Keble  himself, 
like  his  father,  married  a  clergyman's  daughter.  Young 
Keble  was  prepared  for  college  by  his  father,  and  en- 
tered the  University  of  Oxford,  and  there  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  by  a  remai-kable  display  of  talent  and 
application.  When  only  eighteen,  fidl  four  years  be- 
low the  customary  age  for  graduating,  John  Keble  won 
the  highest  intellectual  rank  the  universitj-  can  bestow, 
that  of  a  "  double-first  classman,"  his  name  appearing 
in  the  first  class  of  classics  as  well  as  in  the  first  class  of 
mathematics.  This  distinction  had  never  been  achieved 
up  to  tliat  time  except  in  the  case  of  Robert  Peel.  April 
20,  1811,  wanting  a  few  daj'S  of  the  completion  of  his 
nineteenth  year,  he  was  elected  probationer  fellow  of 
Oriel,  and  took  his  place  at  the  high  table,  and  in  the 
senior  common  room  of  that  celebrated  college.  Whate- 
ly  entered  it  with  him,  and  these  two  were  the  duum- 
viri to  whom  all  paid  an  almost  obs  quious  deference. 
In  1812  he  won  the  prizes  for  both  the  bachelors'  essays 
— the  English  on  Translation  from  Dead  Languages,  the 
Latin  a  comparison  of  Xenophon  and  Julius  C;Esar  as 
Military  Chroniclers.  In  the  annals  of  Corpus  twice 
only  has  such  a  triumph  been  won,  one  instance  that  of 
young  Keble,  and  the  other  no  less  a  man  than  Henry 
Hart  iMilman,  the  late  celebrated  dean  of  St.  Paul's  Ca- 
thedral. At  the  unprecedented  age  of  twenty-two — in- 
deed, some  months  short  of  it — he  was  appointed  by  the 
University  of  Oxford  one  of  its  public  examiners.  Thus 
did  Keble  attain  a  success  which  w-e  believe  has  never 
been  equalled  ft)r  its  precocious  ability.  In  1815  he  was 
ordained  deacon,  the  following  year  priest,  and  soon  af- 
ter left  the  university,  and  never  again  permanently  re- 
sided there.  lie  became  his  father's  curate,  and  lived 
with  him  in  tliat  capacity  nearly  twenty  years.  He 
turned  aside  from  the  numerous  paths  of  ambition  which 
were  open  to  him,  and  gave  himself  to  parochial  work  as 
the  employment  of  his  life.  In  1835  Keble's  father  died. 
He  was  now  offered  and  accepted  the  vicarage  of  Hurs- 
ley,  and  married.  His  parish  was  obscure,  thirty  miles 
from  Oxford.  There  was  not,  it  is  said,  a  single  culti- 
vated family  in  his  charge,  so  that  his  labors  were  alto- 
gether among  the  humbler  and  poorer  classes,  but  under 
his  indefatigable  ministrations  it  became  one  of  the 
model  parishes  of  England.  It  is,  however,  as  the  poet 
of  the  "Christian  Year"  and  the  "Lyra  Innocentium" 
that  Keble  will  be  most  widely  and  permanently  known. 
The  former  was  published  in  1827.  It  is  probaVtle  that 
most  of  the  imem  was  written  at  Fairford.  Its  success 
was  certainly  most  remarkable.  IMore  than  one  hun- 
dred editions  have  been  sold.  Of  course  Keble  might 
have  realized  a  fortune  from  the  sale  of  this  extraordi- 
nary book;  lint  in  this,  as  in  evcrj'thingelse, he  showed 
his  disintercste(hiess.  When,  in  1835,  Keble  came  to 
Hursley,  he  found  a  church  not  at  all  to  his  mind.  It  is 
descriljcd  as  a  i)laiii  and  anything  but  beautiful  build- 
ing of  Mint  and  rubble.    He  at  once  determined  to  have 


a  new  one  built,  and,  in  order  to  carrj'  out  his  project, 
he  employed  the  profits  of  the  many  editions  of  The 
Christian  Year;  and  when  the  building  was  finished, 
his  friends,  in  token  of  their  regard  for  him,  filled  all  the" 
windows  with  stained  glass.  On  Friday,  the  Cth  of 
April,  1800,  he  was  buried  in  the  church-yard  of  Hurs- 
ley, where  he  had  officiated  as  minister  for  nearly  thirty 
years.  It  was  on  the  day  before  Good  Friday,  viz.  on 
the  29th  of  March,  that  he  died.  On  the  eve  of  a  great 
Christian  observance,  he,  the  singer  of  Christian  observ^- 
ances,  passed  away  to  his  rest.  The  character  of  Ke- 
ble's poetry  may  be  surmised  from  his  life  and  opinions; 
it  is  gentle,  sweet,  devotional,  and  highly  cultivated;  it 
translates  religious  sentiment  out  of  the  ancient  and  ex- 
clusively Hebrew  dialect  into  the  language  of  modern 
feeling.  A  deep  tone  of  home  affection  runs  through 
all  his  poems.  The  highest  culture  of  which  man  is 
capable,  and  the  most  refined  thought  in  him,  had  not 
weakened,  but  only  made  natural  affection  more  pure 
and  intense.  Never,  perhaps,  except  in  the  case  of 
George  Herbert,  has  a  character  of  such  rare  and  saintly 
beauty  concurred  with  a  poetic  gift  and  power  of  poetic 
expression  of  the  highest  order.  John  Keble  is  noted 
also  as  the  leader  of  the  original  band  of  Oxford  schol- 
ars and  divines  who  began  the  so-called  "  Puseyite" 
movement  in  the  English  Church.  He  contributed  to 
the  famous  Tracts  for  the  Times  (183-1-1836),  and  it  is 
to  Keble's  influence  over  Newman  that  the  latter  as- 
scribes  his  conversion  to  Romanism,  dating  it  from  July 
14, 1833,  when  Keble  preached  his  sermon  on  National 
Apostasi/.  He  was  also  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Bihli- 
otheca  Patrum  Ecclesi(e  Catholicie  (begun  in  1838).  His 
works  are,  0«  Translation  from  the  Dead  Languages  (an 
Oxford  Prize  Essay,  1812;  Oxf.  1812)  -.—The  Christian 
Year:  thoughts  in  verse  for  the  Smidaj-s  and  hoh'-days 
throughout  the  year  (1827,  2  vols. ;  36th  cd.  1852",  8vo) : 
—The  Child's  Christian  Year  (4th  edit.  1841, 18mo)  :— 
Primitire  Tradition  recognised  in  Jlohj  Scrijiture  ;  a  Ser- 
mon (on  2  Tim.  i,  14;  4tli  ed.,with  a  Postscript  and  Ca- 
tena Patrum  [No.  3  of  the  Tracts  of  the  Timesi,  1839, 
18mo ;  originaUy  published  [in  1837]  as  No.  78  of  the 
[Oxford]  Tracts  for  the  Times) : — The  Psalter,  or  Psalms 
of  David,  in  English  Verse  (1839,  sm.  8vo  ;  3d  edit.  1840, 
18mo)  : — Selections  from  Richard  Ilool-er  (1839, 18mo  ; 
2d  edit.  1848, 18mo) : — an  edition  of  Ilool-er's  ]Vo7-ks : — 
Pralectiones  Academicm  Oxotiii  J/abitce  (1832-41,  2  vols. 
8vo;  1844-1846,  2  vols.  8vo)  :  —  Lgra  Innocentium: 
Thoughts  on  Verse,  on  Children,  their  Ways  and  their 
Privileges  (184G.  sm.  8vo,  Anon.)  : — Sermons  Academi- 
cal and  Occasional  (1847,  8vo;  2d  edit.  1848,  8vo)  :—A 
very  feio  j)luin  Thoughts  on  the  proposed  Addition  of 
Dissentei's  to  the  University  of  Oxford  (written  from  his 
position  as  High-Church  polemic,  1854).  See  Coleridge, 
Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  J.  Keble  (1869, 2  vols.  8\-o) ;  Shairp, 
Memoir  (in  tSiudies  in  Poetry  and  Philosophy);  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Authors,  s.  v. ;  Church  Review,  Oct.  1866,  art.  i; 
A nur'.Ch.  Review,  April,  1870,  art.  i.     (E.  de  P.) 

Keckermann,  BAitTiioLOM.Kus,  a  reformed  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Dantzic  in  1571,  and  edu- 
cated at  Wittenberg,  Leipsic,  and  Heidelberg.  In  the 
last  place  he  became  professor  of  the  Hebrew  language 
about  1592.  In  1602  he  accepted  the  rectorate  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Dantzic,  where  he  died  August  25, 1609. 
Keckermann  wrote  many  theological  and  philosophical 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Systemti  The- 
olor/ice  (Berlin,  1()15,  4to),  and  Rhetorica  Ecclesiasticce 
(Ilanau,  1600, 1613, 8vo).  These  are  circulated  vcrj'  ex- 
tensively, and  prove  him  to  have  been  a  writer  of  great 
originality  and  ability.  He  argued  in  behalf  of  a  sep- 
aration of  philosophy  and  theology,  to  ])revent  any  fur- 
ther miscliief  to  Cliristianity  such  as  scholasticism  had 
caused,  and  in  his  Systema  Ethices  (ibid.  1610,  8vo)  he 
pleads  for  the  separation  of  ethics,  as  a  philosophical 
science,  from  theology ;  the  latter,  he  argues,  must  con- 
fine itself  to  the  inner  religious  life,  the  former  to  the 
'^bonum  civile"  (0pp.  ii,  233  sq.).  In  view  of  these,  his 
own  teachings,  it  is  unjust  to  classify  this  \vritcr,  as  some 


KEDAR 


27 


KEDESH 


have  done,  among  the  originators  of  Protestant  scholas- 
ticism. Of  vaUie,  also,  are  Keckermann's  speculations 
on  the  Trinity  (comp.  Baur,  Dreieiniijkeitslehre,  iii,  308 
sqO.  His  works  have  been  published  entire  {Opera  Om- 
nia) at  Geneva  in  lGl-1.  See  lleizog,  Eeal-Enc^klojm- 
clie,  vii,  463. 

Ke'dar  (Heb.  Kedar',  "I'll?,  (7«/-i--skinned ;  Sept. 
Ki]vun),  the  second  son  of  Ishmael,  and  founder  of  the 
tribe  that  bore  his  name  (Gen.  xxv,  13).  B.C.  post 
20(jl.  The  name  is  used  in  Scripture  as  that  of  the 
Budouins  generally,  whose  characteristic  traits  are  as- 
cribed to  them  (Cant,  i,  5;  Isa.  xxi,  10;  xhi,  11;  Ix,  7; 
Jer.  ii,  10 ;  xlix,  28 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  21) ;  more  fully,  "sons 
of  Kedar"  ("i^i?  "^Sa,  Isa.  xxi,  17);  in  Psa.  cxx,  5,  Ke- 
dar and  Mesecli  are  put  for  barbarous  tribes.  Rabbin- 
ical writers  expressly  identify  them  with  the  Arabians 
(Pseudojon.  on  Gen.  xxv,  and  the  Targum  on  Psa.  cxx ; 
comp.  the  Jewish  expression  "tongue  of  Kedar"  for  the 
Arabic  language),  and  the  Arabs  acknowledge  the  pa- 
ternity (Pococke,  Spec.  40).  The  Kedarenes  (as  they 
were  called  in  later  times)  do  not  appear  to  have  lived 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Judaea  (Jer.  ii,  10; 
comp.  Psa.  cxx,  5).  Jerome  (Onomasi.  s.  v.  MaStdi') 
places  them  in  the  Saracenic  desert,  on  the  east  of  the 
lied  Sea,  which  identities  them  with  the  Cedrei  of  Pliny 
(v,  12)  as  neighbors  of  the  Nabathreans  (comp.  Isa.  xl, 
7).  Stephen  of  Byzantium  reckons  them  {K-tSpaviTai) 
as  inhabitants  of  Arabia  Felix ;  but  Theodoret  (on  Psa. 
cix)  assigns  them  a  locality  near  Babylon  (see  Relaudj 
Pakest.  p.  86  sq.).  Ptolemy  calls  them  Durrce  {Geocj. 
vi,  7),  evidently  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  Hebrew; 
and  Forster  supposes  that  it  is  the  same  peojile  Arrian 
refers  to  as  the  Kanraita,  which  he  thinks  shoidd  be 
read  Kddraitce  (Georjr.  of  Arah'ut,  i,  247).  A  very  an- 
cient Arab  tradition  states  that  Kedar  settled  in  tlie 
Hejaz,  the  country  round  jNIecca  and  Medina,  and  that 
his  descendants  have  ever  since  ruled  there  (Abulfeda 
Hist.  Ante  islamic  a,  ed.  Fleischer,  p.  192).  Fnnn  Kedar 
sprung  the  distinguished  tribe  of  Koreish,  to  which  Mo- 
hammed belonged  (Caussin,  Essai,  i,  175  sq.).  Of  the 
histoiy  of  the  head  of  the  tribe  little  is  known,  but  his 
posterity  are  described  as  being  rich  in  flocks  of  sheep 
and  goats,  in  which  they  traded  with  the  Syrians  (Ezek. 
xxvii,  21 ;  Jer.  xlix,  49),  as  dwelling  in  tents  of  black 
hair  (Cant,  i,  5),  though  some  of  them  occupied  cities 
and  villages  (D'^IS'  and  D'^IIiri;  Isa.  xliii,  11)  in  the 
midst  of  the  wilderness  of  Arabia,  apparently  in  a  moun- 
tainous and  rocky  district,  and  as  being  sliilful  in  the 
use  of  the  bow  (Isa.  xxi,  17) :  particulars  which  emi- 
nently agree  with  all  descriptions  of  the  mamiers  and 
mode  of  life  of  the  nomade  Arabs  bordering  Palestine  on 
the  cast,  from  the  Red  Sea  to  Asia  Jlinor  (Wellsted, 
Travels  in  Arabia,  ii,  231  sq. ;  Wallin.in  the  Journ.  of 
R.  Gcofj.  Soc.  vols.  XX  and  xxiv).     Sec  Arabia. 

Ked'emah  (\\^\i.Ked'mah,T\'Z'^'^_,easticard;  Sept. 
KfO;u«,  but  in  Chron.  v.  r.  Kftiwui),  the  last  named  of 
the  sons  of  Ishmael,  and  probably  head  of  an  Arab  tribe 
called  by  the  same  title  (Gen.  xxv,  15;  1  Chron.  i,  31). 
B.C.  post  2061. 

Ked'emoth  (Heb.  Kedemoth',  T'i'C'lp,  heijinninfjs; 
Sept.  KtOj^iw^,  Kicii]i.iw^,  but  in  Chron.  KcioiiwSr  v.  r. 
Kni.ii]l)io^),  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Rcnbcn,  assigned,  with 
its  suburbs  ("villages"),  to  the  Levites  of  tiie  family  of 
IMerari  (Josh,  xiii,  18 ;  xxi,  37 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  79 ;  in  all 
which  passages  it  is  mentioned  between  Jahazah  and 
Mephaath),  with  a  desert  (n3"ir),  open  i)asture-groun(Js) 
of  the  same  name  adjacent,  whence  Moses  despatched 
the  messengers  requesting  of  Sihon  a  peaceable  pas- 
sage through  liis  dominions,  which  the  Israelites  were 
now  entering,  having  crossed  the  river  vVrnon  (Deut.  ii, 
20).  These  indications  (ix  its  locahty  not  far  north- 
cast  of  Dibon-gad,  possibly  at  the  ruined  village  ed- 
Duleitat  (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Appeml.  p.  170),  east 
of  Medeba  (Van  de  Velde,  il/o/)). 


Ke'desh  (Heb.  id.,  "d'lp,  sanctuary ;  Sept.  KeoiQ, 
but  Kdticc  in  Josh,  xxi,  32  ;  K.uOtjg  in  Judg.  iv,  C,  v.  r.  9- 
Kf'!£f  V.  r.  in  1  Chron.  vi,  72),  the  name  of  three  towns 
in  Palestine. 

1.  A  city  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  the  terri- 
tory originally  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  23,  where 
it  is  mentioned  between  Adadah  and  Hazor),  and  doubt- 
less included  in  the  portion  afterwards  set  off  to  Simeon 
(Josh,  xix,  1-9).  As  the  associated  places  seem  to  in- 
dicate a  position  towards  the  Dead  Sea,  we  may  con- 
jecture that  it  was  the  same  as  Kadesii-barnea  (the 
names  being  the  same  in  Heb.),  which  lay  there,  and  is 
not  mentioned  in  either  of  the  foregoing  lists,  although 
it  certainly  was  includeil  within  the  district  indicated. 

2.  A  Levitical  city  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (1  Chron. 
vi,  72),  otherwise  called  Kisiiiox  (Josh,  xix,  20;  "Ki- 
shon,"  xxi,  28). 

3.  A  "  fenced  city"  of  Naphtali  (Josh,  xix,  37,  where 
it  is  mentioned  between  Hazor  and  Edrei),  hence  also 
called  Kedesii-nai'iitali  (i.  e.  Kadesh  of  Naphtali, 
Judg.  iv,  6) ;  appointed  as  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge 
(Josh,  xix,  7,  where  it  is  located  on  Mt.  Naphtali),  be- 
ing a  Levitical  city  assigned  to  the  Gershonites  (Josh. 
xxi,  32;  1  Chron.  vi,  76).  It  was  one  of  the  original 
Canaanitish  royal  cities,  whose  chieftains  were  slain  by 
Joshua  (Josh,  xii,  22).  and  was  reckoned  as  a  Galilean 
town  (Josh,  xix,  7 ;  xxi,  32 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  76).  It  was 
the  residence  of  Barak  (Judg.  iv,  G),  and  there  he  and 
Deborah  assembled  the  tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Najilitali 
before  the  conflict  (vcr.  9, 10\  Near  it  was  the  tree  of 
Zaananim,  where  was  pitched  the  tent  of  the  Kenites 
Heber  and  Jacl,  in  which  Siscra  met  his  death  (ver.  11). 
It  was  probably,  as  its  name  implies,  a  "  holy  place"  of 
great  antiquity,  -(vhich  Avould  explain  its  selection  as 
one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and  its  being  chosen  by  the 
prophetess  as  the  spot  at  which  to  meet  the  warriors  of 
the  tribes  before  the  commencement  of  the  struggle  "  for 
Jehovah  among  the  mighty."  It  was  one  of  the  places 
depopulated  by  Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  xv,  29).  Josc- 
phus  calls  it  Kedesa  (>)  KiC(tT(t,Ant.  v,  1, 18,  and  24)  or 
Cydisa  {Ant.  ix,  11, 1  >,  and  places  it  under  the  name  of 
Cedasa  (Ktoaca),  on  the  border  between  Galilee  and 
Tyre  {Ant.  xiii,  5,  6),  to  the  latter  of  which  it  adhered 
in  the  fhial  struggle  (  War,  ii,  18, 1).  It  was  here  that 
Jonathan  the  Maccabee  gained  the  victory  over  the 
princes  of  Dcrnctrius  {\s.an]q,  1  Mace,  xi,  63, 73).  It  is 
probably  the  same  with  the  Cydis  {Ki<cig  i)  Nf0.3-nXi) 
mentioned  as  the  birthplace  of  Tobit  (i,  1).  Ensebius 
{Onomast.  s.  v.  MiUq)  mentions  it  by  the  name  ofCydossos 
{KvSoffaoc,  Jerome  Cidissus),  as  lying  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Paneas,  about  20  Roman  miles  from  Tyre.  It  is 
also  probably  the  same  with  the  strongly-fortilied  place 
in  this  district  called  Cydyssi  by  Josephns  {Kvcva(Toi, 
War,  iv,  2,  3).  Kedesh  was  situated  near  the  "  plain"  of 
Zaanaim,  on  the  route  taken  by  Barak  (who  was  a  na- 
tive of  the  place)  in  the  pursuit  of  Siscra,  and  hence 
must  have  been  beyond  j\It. Tabor,  in  the  direction  from 
the  Kishon  (.Judg.  iv,  6,  9, 10, 11).  The  indications  cor- 
respond very  weil  to  the  position  of  the  modern  village 
of  Kedes,  discovered  by  Dr.  Robinson  on  the  hills  west 
of  the  lake  el-Hnleh  {Researches,  iii,  355;  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1843,  p.  11).  and  fully  described  by  Rev.  E.  Smith 
{Bib!.  Sac.  1849,  p.  374,  375)  as  being  a  small  place  ro- 
mantically situated  on  a  hill  in  a  rich  and  beautiful 
plain,  abundantly  sujiplied  with  water,  and  containing 
extensive  ruins  apjiarently  of  Roman  origin  (see  also 
Robinson's  Researches,  new  edit.,  iii,  366-309 ;  "\*an  de 
Ye\de, Narralire,  ii,417).  From  the  12th  century  (Bcnj. 
of  Tudela,  in  Bohn's  L'arly  Travels,  p.  89)  it  has  been 
reputed  to  possess  the  graves  of  Delwrah,  Barak,  Ahino- 
am,  Jael,  and  Heber  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  183 ;  comp.  ]i. 
91).  Porter,  in  1858,  saw  close  by  the  site  the  black  tents 
of  nomads  pitched  imder  the  terebinths  {Handbook for 
Palest,  p.  443),  Ukc  those  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  iv, 
11). 

"  In  the  Greek  {Kvciwif)  and  Syriac  (Kedesh  de  ^aph- 
tali)  texts  of  Tob.  i,  2— tliough  not  in  the  Vulgate  or  A, 


KEDROX 


28 


KEILAH 


Y. — Kcdesh  is  introduced  as  the  birthplace  of  Tobias. 
The  text  is  exceedingly  corrupt,  but  some  little  support 
is  lent  to  this  reading  by  tlie  \'ulgate,  which,  although 
omitting  Kedesh,  mentions  Safed — j^ost  vium  qum  ducit 
ad  Occidentem,  in  sinistro  hahens  cintatem  Suphet, 

"  The  name  Kedesh  exists  much  farther  north  than 
the  possessions  of  Naphtali  would  appear  to  have  ex- 
tended, attached  to  a  lake  of  considerable  size  on  the 
Orontes,  a  few  miles  south  of  Hums,  the  ancient  Emessa 
(Thomson,  in  Kitter,  Damascus,  p.  1002  sq.).  The  lake 
was  well  known  under  that  name  to  the  Arabic  geogra- 
phers (sec,  besides  the  authorities  iiuoted  by  Robinson 
[iii,  594,  new  ed.],  Abulfeda  in  Schultcns's  Index  Georjr., 
'Fluvius  Orontes,'  and  'Kudsum'),  and  they  connect  it 
in  jjart  with  Alexander  the  (Jreat.  But  this  and  the 
origin  of  the  name  are  alike  uncertain.  At  the  lower 
end  of  the  lake  is  an  island  which,  as  already  remarked, 
is  possibly  the  site  of  Ketcsh,  the  capture  of  which  by 
Sethos  I  is  prcser\'ed  in  the  records  of  that  Egyptian 
king"  (.Smith). 

Kedron.     See  Kidrox. 

Keel  (rpoTTtC)  as  being  that  which  turns  the  vessel), 
the  lo;igltudinal  projection  on  the  bottom  of  a  ship 
(Wisd.  V,  10). 

Keeler,  Sylvaxus,  was  the  earliest  native  ISIeth- 
odist  itinerant  in  Canada.  He  tirst  appears  in  the 
^Minutes  of  1795  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte  Circuit,  "  He 
proved,"  says  the  Canadian  chronicler  of  the  Church, 
"  a  good  and  faithful  minister  of  Christ."  He  labored 
about  twelve  years  in  the  itinerant  work,  and  then  re- 
tired into  the  local  ranks,  compelled  by  the  growing 
necessities  of  his  family  to  resort  to  other  means  of  sup- 
port. He  did  not,  however,  abandon  his  Sabbath  labors, 
but  continued  to  preach  all  his  days.  After  his  family 
grew  up  and  were  able  to  provide  for  themselves,  he 
extended  his  efforts  to  greater  distances  from  home, 
carrying  the  Gospel  into  the  distant  settlements  of  im- 
migrants beyond  the  liideau.  He  died  in  the  faith. 
Keeler  bad  no  advantages  of  early  education;  he  had, 
however,  endowments,  natural  and  of  divine  bestow- 
ment.  His  person  was  commanding,  and  his  voice 
clear,  melodious,  and  strong.  His  spirit  and  manners 
were  the  most  bland  and  engaging,  and  his  zeal  and 
fervor  knew  no  bounds  and  suffered  no  abatement. — 
Stevens,  Hist.  M.  E.  Church,  iii,  192 ;  iv,  27-i.     (J.  L.  S.) 

ICeeling,  Isaac,  an  English  Weslcyan  minister  of 
note,  was  born  in  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century,  and 
entered  the  ministry  iu  1811,  but  it  was  not  until  after 
many  years  of  hard  labor  that  he  rose  to  any  promi- 
nence. In  1815  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Confer- 
ence; shortly  after  his  health  began  to  fail,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  take  a  supernumerary  relation.  He  died  in 
18G9.  "  ]\Ir.  Keeling  was  sagacious,  discriminating,  cau- 
tious, profound,  and  intensely  original.  His  sermons 
were  models  of  pure  diction,  exact  thought,  luminous 
arrangement,  careful  definition,  and  varied  instructive- 
ness.  He  was  a  man  of  retiring  habits  and  cold  exte- 
rior, but  he  had  a  warm  heart,  and  a  keen  relish  of  the 
pleasures  of  friendship." 

Keene,  Edmund,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate,  and  a 
native  of  Lynn,  Norfolk,  was  born  in  1713.  He  became 
master  of  Peter  House  in  1748,  bishop  of  Chester  in  1752, 
and  ;vas  thence  transferred  to  l-^ly  in  1770.  He  died  in 
1781.  He  published  five  Occasional  Strmons  (1748, 1753, 
1755,  1757, 1707). 

Keeper,  in  its  widest  sense,  corresponds  to  the  Ileb. 
^"Si'l",  shomer',  Gr.  Ti]poJv;  in  a  special  sense  to  "'1313 
or  "l^lS,  a  icatchman,  as  often  rendered;  il^li"!,  is  a 
shepherd ;  while  TJ,  <bv\a^,  is  a  ffuard  over  prisoners. 
These  words  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  besides  others 
iu  certain  peculiar  senses  or  combinations,  the  meaning 
being  clear  from  the  connection.   , 

Kehel'athah,  or,  rather,  Keiie'lau  (Heb.  Kehe- 
lah',  '!^'^'!^'p,  assembly,  only  with  tl  paragogic,  tirSilpj 


Kehela'thah;  Septuag.  MrtK-(;\Xc(3,Vulg.  (7ee?aMa),  the 
twenty-third  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  be- 
tween Kissali  and  j\It.  Shapher  (Numb,  xxxiii,  22,  23); 
perhaps  at  the  mouth  of  wady  el-Hasana,  west  of  Jebel 
Achmer.     See  Exode. 

Keil,  Karl  August  Gottlieb,  an  eminent  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Grossenhain,  near  Dresden,  Sax- 
ony, April  23, 1754,  and  was  educated  at  Leipzig  L^ni- 
versity.  Three  years  after  graduation  he  obtained  a 
privilege  as  tutor  at  his  alma  mater,  and  at  once  opened 
a  course  of  lectures  on  exegesis  and  hermeneutics.  In 
1785  he  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of  philos- 
ophy, in  1788  professor  extraordinary  of  theology,  and  in 
1793  was  finally  promoted  to  the  full  or  ordinary  profess- 
orship. He  died  at  Leipzig  April  22, 1818.  His  works 
are  St/stematisches  Verzeichm^s  derjenigen  theolngischen 
Schriften  d.  Kenntniss  cdlgemein  nothig  und  niitzlich  ist 
(Stendel,  1783,  1792,  8vo) :  —  De  exempilo  Christi  recte 
imitando  Dissert.  (Lpz.  1792,  4to)  : — De  Doctoribus  vete- 
ris  Ecclesiin  culpa  corrupts  per  Pkitonicas  sententius  ihe- 
ologice  liberamUs  (Lpzg.  1793,  181G,  4to),  consisting  of 
twenty-two  dissertations,  which  were  to  be  followed  by 
others.  They  were  afterwards  printed  in  his  Opuscida 
A  cad.,  of  which  they  form  the  second  part.  It  is  a  very 
valuable  work: — Ueber  d.  historische  Ei'Marungsart  d. 
heiligen  Schrift  u.  deren  Nothivendigkeit  (Lpz.  1798, 8vo ; 
Latin  by  Hempel) : — Lehrhuch  der  Hermeneutik  d.  N.T, 
nach  Grundsdtzen  d.  grammatisch-historischen  Interpre- 
tation (Leipzig,  1810,  8vo;  Latin  translation  \>y  C.  A.  G. 
.  Emmerling,  Lpz.  1811, 8vo),  a  very  useful  and  important 
contribution  to  the  department  of  hermeneutics,  which 
he  made  his  specialty,  and  in  which  he  has  justly  be- 
come very  celebrated.  After  his  death  his  occasional 
^mtings  were  collected  by  J.  D.  Goldhom,  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Opuscida  academica  ad  N.  T.  interpre- 
tationem  grammatico-historicctm,  et  theologice  Christiance 
origines  2Je7iinentia  (Lpzg.  1821,  2  vols.  8vo).  Besides 
treatises  on  topics  of  hermeneutical  interest,  this  volume 
contains  several  excgetical  essays,  and  an  elaborate  dis- 
sertation, De  Platonicfv  p)hilosophi(c  ad  theolog.  Christ, 
apud  vet.  ecclcs.  scriptores  ratione.  "  Keil,"  says  Prof. 
AV.  L.  Alexander  (in  Kitto,  Bibh  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.), 
"is  a  perspicuous  writer,  and  his  works,  though  cold 
and  formal,  are  full  of  good  sense  and  solid  learning." 
In  connection  with  H.  G.  Tzschirner,  Keil  also  published 
a  theological  journal  under  the  title  Analectenf.  d.  Stu- 
dium  d.  exegetischen  it.  systemaiischen  Theologie  (Lei]izig, 
1812-18,  4  vols.  8vo),  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener. 
XX,  503 ;  Herzog,  Real-Enajldop.  vii,  504. 

Kei'lah  (Heb.  Ke'ilah',  Th'^Vp  [in  1  Sam.  xxiii,  5, 
TOVY>~\,\)Xoh. citadel ;  Septuag. KtVAa  or  Kt/Xa,  v.  r.  in 
Chron.  and  Neh.  KtaXa),  a  city  in  the  plain  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV,  44),  bordering  on  the  southern  portion  of  the 
highlands  (see  Keil's  Comment,  ad  loc).  It  appears  to 
have  been  founded  by  Naham  the  Garmite,  brother  of 
Hodiah.  one  of  the  wives  of  Mered  (1  Chron.  iv,  19). 
"  The  Philistines  had  fallen  upon  the  town  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  harvest  (Josephus,  Ant.  vi,  13, 1),  plundered 
the  corn  from  its  threshing-floor,  and  driven  off  the  cat- 
tle (1  Sam.  xxiii,  1).  The  prey  was  recovered  by  Da- 
vid (ver.  2-5),  who  remained  in  the  city  till  the  com- 
pletion of  the  ingathering.  It  was  then  a  fortified 
place,  with  walls,  gates,  and  bars  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  7,  rnd 
Josephus).  During  this  time  the  massacre  of  Nob  Avas 
perpetrated,  and  KeUah  became  the  repository  of  the 
sacred  cphod,  which  Abiathar  the  priest,  the  sole  sur- 
vivor, had  carried  off  with  him  (ver.  6).  But  it  was 
ncjt  destined  long  to  enjoy  the  presence  of  these  brave 
and  hallowed  inmates,  nor  indeed  was  it  worthy  of  such 
good  fortune,  for  the  inhabitants  soon  plotted  David's 
betrayal  to  Saul,  then  on  his  road  to  besiege  the  ]ilace. 
Of  this  intention  David  was  warned  by  divine  intima- 
tion. He  therefore  left  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  7-13").  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  word  Baali  is  used  by  David  to  de- 
note the  inhabitants  of  Keilah  in  this  passage  (ver.  11, 
12;  A.  V.  '  men'),  possibly  pointing  to  the  existence  of 


KEIR 


29 


KEITH 


Canaanites  in  the  place"  (Smith).  See  Baal.  Keilah 
was  so  considerable  a  city  in  the  time  of  Nehemialr  as 
to  have  two  prtefects,  who  are  mentioned  as  assisting  in 
the  reconstruction  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  17, 
18),  and  existed  in  the  days  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
who  place  it  eight  (the  former,  s.  v.  Ki]\a,  less  correctly, 
seventeen)  Roman  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  on  the 
road  to  Hebron  (see  Keland,  Pulcest.  p.  488,  G98).  Jose- 
phus  calls  it  CiUct  (KiXXrt,  Ant.  vi,  13, 1).  The  prophet 
Habakkuk  is  said  to  have  been  buried  here  (Sozomen, 
Hist,  vii,  29 ;  Nicephorus, Ilisf.  xii, 4:8) ;  but  see  IIukkok. 
The  above  notices  all  point  to  a  locality  at  a  f(jrk  of 
■\\aily  el-Faranj,  a  little  N.  of  Idhna  (Jedna),  "  where  on 
a  projection  of  the  right-hand  mountain  stands  a  ruined 
tower"  {lloh'mson, Researches,  ii,  427),  which  Van  de  Velde 
learned  at  Hebron  was  still  called  Kiluh  {Memoir,  p. 
328).  This  is  confirmed  by  Tobler  {Dritte  Wanderun;/, 
p.  loO  sq.),  although  he  remarks  (p.  4G7)  that  Van  de 
Velde,  on  the  first  edition  of  his  Maji,  had  placed  it  too 
far  south  (S.E.  of  Idhna).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dic- 
tiomirii  (s.  V.)  argues  in  favor  of  the  locality  of  Khmcei- 
lifeh  [see  Rimmon],  but  this  is  utterly  out  of  the  re- 
quired region,  being  in  the  Simeonitish  portion  of  the 
tribe.     See  Judaii. 

Keir,  John,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
at  Bucklyvie,  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  Feb.  2,  1770,  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  studied  theology  un- 
der Rev.  A.  Bruce,  professor  of  theology  in  the  tleneral 
Associate  Synod,  and  was  licensed  at  Glasgow  in  1807. 
In  1808  he  was  appointed  missionary  to  Nova  Scotia, 
B.  P.,  wliither  he  immediately  proceeded.  In  the  spring 
of  1809  he  preached  at  Halifax  and  Merigomiah,  and 
later  took  charge  of  the  societies  at  Princetown  and  St. 
Peter's,  Prince  Edward  Island,  and  in  June,  1810,  was 
ordained  and  installed  as  pastor,  which  position  he  held 
for  nearly  fifty  years.  In  addition  to, his  pastoral  duties 
he  filled  the  position  of  professor  of  theology  in  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  Nova  Scotia,  to  which  he  was  ap- 
pointed in  1843.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1858.  "  Mr.  Keir, 
as  a  lecturer,  left  upon  the  minds  o6  the  students  a  deep 
imjiression  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  sa- 
cred ottice." — Wilson's  Presh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1859-60,  p. 
234. 

Keith,  George,  the  noted  leader  of  a  faction  of 
the  (Quakers,  was  born  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  lie  was  a  man  of 
superior  intellect,  who  had  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
a  splendid  training,  not  only  in  tlie  schools  of  the  na- 
tional Church  of  Scotland,  but  also  at  the  University  of 
Aberdeen.  In  the  year  10G4  he  came  as  a  minister  from 
the  south  of  Scotland  to  his  friends  in  Aberdeen,  and, 
adopting  the  views  of  the  Quakers,  was  involved  in  con- 
fiscations and  imprisonment,  together  with  others  of 
that  persecuted  people.  He  wrote  and  published  sev- 
eral treatises  in  vindication  and  ex|3lauation  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  that  respectable  body  of  Christians,  and  in  1675 
was  engaged  with  the  celebrated  Robert  Barclay  in  a 
dispute  with  the  students  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen 
in  defence  of  the  Quaker  doctrines.  He  also,  about  this 
time,  with  William  Penn,  (ieorge  Whiting,  and  Stephen 
Crisp,  engaged  in  a  discussion  with  the  Baptists  in  Lon- 
don. About  the  year  1682  he  removed  to  England,  and 
took  charge  of  a  school  at  Edmonton,  established  by  the 
Society  of  Friends.  He  was  soon  persecuted,  however, 
for  pireaching  and  teaching  without  a  license,  and,  re- 
fusing to  take  the  oath,  was  committed  to  jail.  In  1684 
he  removed  to  London,  but  was  imjirisoned  five  months 
in  Newgate  for  nonconformity.  After  his  liberation  he 
emigrated  to  New  Jersey,  and  was  there  appointed  sur- 
veyor general,  and  employed  in  determining  the  boun- 
dary-line between  East  and  West  Jersey.  In  1689  he 
removed  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  took  charge  of  a 
Friends'  school,  with  a  liberal  salary,  but  resigned  his 
position  at  the  end  of  the  school  year,  and  travelled  in 
New  England,  visiting  meetings  and  holding  disputa- 
tions with  the  religious  professors.  He  is  noted  for  his 
defence  at  this  time  of  the  Quaker  tenets  against  In- 


crease and  Cotton  Mather.  On  his  return  to  Philadel- 
phia he  became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  his  own 
denomination,  on  various  points  of  discipUne  and  doctrine. 
He  charged  them  with  doing  away,  by  allegor\-,  with 
the  narrative  of  the  real  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  conse- 
quently the  doctrine  of  a  real  atonement.  He  also  sus- 
pected them  of  being  infected  with  the  spirit  of  Deism. 
Penn,  being  at  this  time  in  London,  addressed  a  letter  to 
Turner,  a  justice  in  I'hiladelphia,  in  which  he  defends 
"  honest  Geo.  Keith  and  his  I'latonic  studies,"  but  after- 
wards, becoming  acquainted  with  the  merits  of  the  dis- 
pute, decided  against  Keith.  Keith  returned  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  soon  came  in  collision  with  Penn  himself. 
Penn  having  spoken  from  the  text,  "The  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ  his  Son  cleanseth  us  from  all  sin,"  his  exposition 
being  strictlj'  orthodox  on  their  principles,  namely,  that 
"  the  blood  is  the  life,  and  the  life  is  the  light  within 
them,"  Keith  took  up  the  subject,  and  showed  that "  sin 
was  cleansed  by  the  blood  of  the  true  Christ  actually 
shed  on  Calvary."  Penn  is  reported  to  have  started 
from  his  seat,  and,  as  he  himself  afterwards  stated  in 
the  annual  meeting,  being  "so  transported  by  the  pow- 
er of  God  that  he  was  carried  out  of  himself,  and  did 
not  kno^v  whether  he  was  sittmg,  or  standing,  or  on  his 
knees,"  he  tlumdered  forth  this  anathema:  "I  pronounce 
thee  an  apostate,  over  the  head  of  thee."  The  great 
body  followed  Penn,  and  Keith  was  condemned  by  an 
edict  of  the  annual  meeting.  He  was  not  slow,  how- 
ever, in  his  own  defence,  but  denounced  the  society  as 
Deists,  and  entered  into  an  able  and  labored  argument 
to  prove  it  (see  Keith's  JJeism  of  William  Penn,  and 
Mosheim,  vol.  v,  cent,  xvii,  ch.  iv,  sect,  ii,  part  ii),  and 
formed  a  society  of  his  own,  kno%vn  as  Christian  Quale- 
ers.  Baptist  Quakers,  or  Keithians  (q.  v.).  Still  dissat- 
isfied, he  finally  entered  the  Church  of  England,  and 
became  a  regular  priest.  In  the  years  1702, 170;'>.  1704, 
he  performed  an  important  and  successful  mission  on 
the  American  continent,  under  the  care  of  the  Episco- 
pal Society  for  projHtr/cttiiuj  the  Gospel  in  Foreiffn  Parts. 
He  was  especiallj'  successful  in  Pennsj-lvania  and  New 
Jersey.  Seven  hundred  Quakers  were  through  his  in- 
strumentality converted  from  Quakerism  and  baptized 
(see  Humphry's  Historij  of  the  Qual-erSjl^onA.  A.D.  1730 ; 
Christian  Observer,  April,  1816).  Returning  to  England, 
in  1706  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Edburton,  in  Sussex, 
and  there  died  about  1715.  Bishop  Burnet,  who  was 
educated  with  Keith  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  in 
his  Historij  of  his  Own  Times  (1700,  ii,  144),  says  that 
Keith  "  was  esteemed  the  most  learned  man  that  ever 
was  in  that  sect ;  he  was  well  versed  both  in  the  Ori- 
ental tongues,  in  philosophy  and  mathematics."  Keith 
•\vrote  a  great  many  theological  tracts,  principally  di- 
rected against  the  (Quakers,  for  a  list  of  which  see  'Watts, 
Bihl.  Brit.  The  most  important  of  all  is  The  Standard 
of  the  Quakers  examined  (Lond.  1702,  8vo),  which  is  a 
refutation  of  Barclay's  Apolorjy.  See  Janney,  History 
of  the  Frieruls  (Philad.  1867,  4  vols.  12mo),  iii,  71  sq.  (E. 
de  P.) 

Keith,  Isaac  Stockton,  D.D.,  a  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  at  Newton,  Pa.,  Jan.  20,  1755,  grad- 
uated at  Princeton  College  in  1775,  entered  the  minis- 
trj'  in  1778,  and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian 
church  in  Alexandria  in  1780.  In  1788  he  v,-ent  to 
Charleston,  S.  C,  as  colleague  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional church,  in  which  position  he  labored  until  his 
death,  Dec.  14,  1813.  A  memoir  of  his  life  and  a  fev/ 
sermons  vrere  published  in  a  volume  in  1816. — Sprague, 
A  muds,  ii,  166. 

Keith,  Reuel,  D.D.,  a  Protestant  Episcopal  min- 
ister in  America,  was  born  at  Pittsford,  Vt.,  in  1792, 
and  passed  A.B.  in  jNIiddlebury  College  in  1814.  After 
teaching  for  some  time,  he  became  an  assistant  at  St. 
John's,  Georgetown,  D.  C,  and,  in  1820,  professor  of  hu- 
manity and  liistory  in  Williamsburgh,  Va.  A  theolog- 
ical seminary  having  been  established  soon  after  in 
Alexandria,  he  became  professor  of  pulpit  eloquence  and 
pastoral  theology  there,  and  in  1827  was  made  D.D.  by 


KEITH 


30 


KELLER 


his  alma  mater.  For  upwarils  of  twenty  years  lie  con- 
tinued to  (listharife  his  duties,  when  his  mind  hecame 
unstruni;  in  regard  to  his  salvation,  and  the  cloud  was 
removed  bj^  death  Sept.  3, 1«42.  He  published  a  Trans- 
lation (from  the  German)  of  Hengsteiibertfn  Christolof/y 
of  the  Old  Testament  (Alexandria,  D.  C,  1836,  3  vols. 
8vo).     See  Spragne,  ,1  nnals,  v,  625. 

Keith,  Robert,  iirimus  bishop  in  the  Scotch  Epis- 
cojial  Church,  was  born  at  Uras,  Kincardineshire,  in 
IGJSl.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and 
in  1713  became  pastor  of  a  congregation  in  l%dinburgh. 
In  1727  lie  was  ordained  bishop  of  Caithness,  Orlciiey, 
and  the  Isles,  and  in  1733  became  bishop  of  Fife.  He 
died  in  1757.  His  principal  works  are,  Iliston/  of  the 
Affairs  of  Church  and  State  in  Scotland  from  the  hef/in- 
iiing  of  the  Reformation  to  the  Retreat  of  Queen  Mary 
into  Enf/land,  anno  15G8  (Edinb.  1734,  fol.) : — llistoi-ical 
Catalor/ue  of  the  Scottish  Bishops  down  to  the  Year  1688, 
etc.  (Edinb.  1755,  4to;  new  cd.  1824,  8vo). — Chambers 
and  Thomson's  Bio(j.  Diet,  of  Einiiieiit  Scotsmen,  iii,  30b; 
Hook,  Fecks.  Bioff,  vi,  397. 

Keith,  ■William,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Easton,  Mass.,  Sept.  15,  1776,  entered  the 
itinerancy  in  1798,  withdrew  from  the  connection  in 
1801,  but  returned  in  1803,  and  in  1806  re-entered  the 
itineranc3%  In  1809  he  was  stationed  in  New  York, 
where  he  died,  Sept.  10,  1810.  Ho  was  a  man  of  fine 
abilities,  of  comprehensive  mind,  and  logical  power. 
His  piety  was  deej)  and  sincere,  and  his  jireaching  tal- 
ents often  eloquent  and  always  useful. — Minutes  of  Con- 
ferences, i,  193. 

Keithians,  a  party  which  separated  from  the  Qua- 
kers in  Pennsylvania  in  the  j'ear  1691.  They  were 
headed  by  the  famous  George  Keith  (q.  v.),  from  whom 
they  derived  their  name.  Those  who  persisted  in  their 
separation,  after  their  leader  deserted  them,  practiced 
baptism,  and  received  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  party 
were  al::o  called  Quaker  Baptists,  because  they  retained 
the  language,  dress,  and  manner  of  the  Quakers. — Buck. 

Kelah.     See  Karens  {Spirit  Worship). 

Kelai'ah  (Heb.  Kelaijah',  •T^-'i?,  perh.  despised  by 
.Tehorah;  Sept.  KwXi'a  v.  r.  KaiXao),  one  of  the  Levitcs 
wlio  divorced  his  Gentile  wife  after  the  captivity,  oth- 
ern-ise  called  Kelita  (Ezra  x,  23). 

Keleb.     See  Dog. 

Keleusma  (KtXtvajia,  call).     See  Call. 

Keli.     See  Talmud. 

Kel'ita  [some  Keli'ta]  (Hebrew  Kelita',  Xli'^bp, 
dirarf;  Sept.  KioXiTacKaWirar;,  Ka\irih'\  one  of  the 
Levitcs  who  assisted  Ezra  in  expounding  the  law  to  the 
]icoplc  (Xeh.  viii,  7),  and  joined  the  sacred  covenant 
(Neh.  X,  10) ;  he  was  also  one  of  those  who  had  divorced 
their  heathen  wives  (Ezra  x,  23,  where  it  is  stated  that 
his  name  was  likewise  Kelaiaii).     B.C.  459-410. 

Ken,  John,  a  Reformed  Presbyterian  minister,  a  na- 
tive of  South  Carolina,  was  educated  in  the  University 
of  ( Jlasgow,  Scotland,  and,  with  a  view  to  enter  the  min- 
istry, he  imrsued  a  theological  course  of  study  under 
the  direction  of  the  late  Pev.  John  McMiller,  then  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  Scotland. 
On  his  return  to  this  country  he  was  ordained  and  in- 
stalled pastor  at  Beech  Woods,  Ohio,  which  he  left  a  few 
years  later,  to  become  pastor  at  Princeton,  Indiana,  a 
charge  held  by  him  for  more  than  20  years.  He  died 
Nov.  6,  1842.  "  jNIr.  Kell  was  ardent  in  temperament, 
and  by  constitution  and  habit  generous.  He  was  never 
neutral  in  the  cause  which  he  believed  to  be  right,  and, 
while  zealous,  he  was  liberal.  Strict  in  regard  to  him- 
self, towards  others  he  was  indulgent." — Wilson, /Vc-si. 
J/isf.  A  liuitniic,  l.^'l;!.  p.  .'i.s7. 

Keller,  Benjamin,  a  promjnent  minister  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  was  iiorn  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  ISfarch  4, 
1794.  Under  the  faithful  ministry  of  Rev.  Dr.  IL  E. 
Muhlenberg,  he  made  a  public  profession  of  religion, 


and  from  that  time  felt  an  earnest  desire  to  devote  him- 
self to  the  work  of  preaching  the  Gospel.  His  classical 
course  he  pursued  under  the  direction  of  Rev.  Dr.  D.  F. 
Schsefter,  of  Frederick,  Jld. ;  his  theological  studies  with 
his  pastor.  Dr.  Muhlenberg.  In  1814,  before  he  had 
reached  his  21st  year,  he  was  commissioned  by  the  Syn- 
od of  Pennsylvania  to  preach.  His  first  charge  was  Car- 
lisle, Pa.  He  subsequently  labored  in  Gcrmantown,  Pa., 
(iettysljurg,  and  Philadelphia,  and  in  each  charge  he 
was  pre-eminent  as  a  pastor.  For  a  season  he  was  most 
successfully  engaged  as  general  agent  of  the  Parent  Ed- 
ucation Society,  and  at  a  later  jjeriod  his  services  were 
secured  by  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  in  its  efforts  to 
endow  a  German  professorship  in  the  institution  at  Get- 
tysburg. By  his  untiring  devotion  to  the  work,  his  per- 
severance and  tact,  the  object  was  readily  attained.  For 
some  years  he  was  also  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  Lu- 
theran Publication  Society,  in  a  general  agency  and  su- 
perintendence of  its  interests.  He  died  July  2, 18G4,  af- 
ter a  service  of  fifty  j'ears  in  the  Gospel  ministrv\  (M. 
L.  S.) 

Keller,  Emanuel,  a  Laitheran  minister,  was  bom 
at  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Sept.  30,  1801.  Blessed  with  pious 
and  faithful  parents,  his  thoughts  and  desires  were  early 
turned  to  the  Christian  ministry.  His  classical  studies 
were  pursued  at  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  and  the 
study  of  divinity  imder  the  instruction  of  his  pastor. 
Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  Lochman.  In  1826  he  was  inducted  into 
the  sacred  office.  He  labored  in  the  ministry  succes- 
sively at  Manchester,  Md.,  and  Jlechanicsburg,  Pa. ;  at 
the  latter  place  he  died,  April  11,1837.  In  his  death 
the  Church  mourned  for  one  of  her  most  usefid  and  de- 
voted ministers.  Through  his  direct  and  personal  in- 
struTientality  a  large  ninnber  of  individuals  were  intro- 
duced into  the  ministry.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Keller,  Ezra,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister  of  the 
Lutheran  Church,  was  born  in  IMiddletown  Valley,  Md., 
June  12, 1812.  Influenced  by  an  unquenchable  desire  to 
preach  the  Gospel,  the  most  formidable  obstacles  could 
not  deter  him  from  his  purpose.  While  at  Pennsylva- 
nia College  (he  graduated  in  1835)  he  began  the  study 
of  theology,  and  then  entered  the  seminary  at  Gettys- 
burg. After  his  licensure  to  preach  he  devoted  himself 
for  a  season  to  the  arduous  work  of  an  itinerant  mission- 
ary' for  the  Western  States.  In  this  work  he  was  very 
successhd,  especially  as  he  preached  in  German  as  well 
as  English.  Subsequent!}'  he  was  engaged  in  the  pas- 
toral work,  first  at  Taneytown,  Md.,  and  then  at  Hagers- 
town.  His  ministry  at  both  places  was  very  efficient. 
In  1844  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Wittenberg  Col- 
lege, Springfield,  Ohio,  a  literary  and  theological  school 
called  into  existence  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  West,  a  position  for  which  he  was  re- 
garded as  admirably  fitted.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
few  men  in  the  Church  gave  greater  promise  of  exten- 
sive and  permanent  influence.  Ezra  Keller  died  Dec. 
29, 1848.  He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Jeffer- 
son College  in  1845.     (:M.  L.  s!) 

Keller,  Frederick  Augustus  Muhlenberg, 

the  son  of  Benjamin  Keller,  was  born  in  Carlisle,  Pa., 
\\m\  19, 1819 ;  he  graduated  at  Pennsylvania  College  in 
1838,  and  studied  theology  at  the  seminary  in  (icttys- 
burg.  For  a  brief  season  he  engaged  in  the  w^rk  of 
teaching  at  Waynesborough,  Pa.,  but  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1842;  and  having  received  a  unanimous  call 
to  Trinity  Church,  Reading,  Pa.,  he  immediately  entered 
upon  the  duties  assigned  him  as  an  assistant  to  Rev.  Dr. 
jVIiller.  On  the  death  of  Dr.  ISIillcr  in  1850,  St.  James's 
Church  was  organized,  of  which  he  became  pastor.  This 
congregation,  with  others  -in  the  vicinity,  he  continued 
to  serve  with  a  fidelity  and  a  diligence  that  never  fal- 
tered, till  his  death,  March  18, 1864.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Keller  (Cellaurs\  Jacob,  a  German  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Siickingen,  in  Swabia,  in  1568,  and  entered  the 
Jesuitical  order  when  only  twenty  years  old.  He  gain- 
ed an  unenviable  notoriety  by  his  controversies  with 


KELLERMAN^ 


31 


KELLY 


Protestants ;  most  prominent  among  them  is  his  public 
dispute  with  Jacob  lleilbruimer.  The  Jesuits  claim  that 
Keller  silenced  the  Protestant,  but  evangelical  writers 
all  deny  the  truth  of  this  assertion.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
Keller  himself  became  a  great  favorite  in  his  order,  and 
was  honored  with  a  professorsliip  of  theology  at  Regens- 
burg,  and  later  with  the  rectorate  at  jMiuiich.  He  was 
in  great  favor  also  with  the  duke  of  Bavaria.  Klose  (in 
Ilerzog,  Real-Enci/Hop.  vii,  508)  accuses  Keller  of  having 
contributed,  both  by  pen  and  byword  of  mouth,  towards 
the  feeling  of  hatred  which  divided  Protestants  and  Ko- 
manists  just  before  the  Thirty  Years'  War.  Keller  died 
Feb.  23,1031. 

Kellerman,  Georg,  a  celebrated  Roman  Catholic, 
was  born  Oct.  11,  177G,  near  Minister  ((iermany),  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  jMUnster  and  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  seminary  of  that  place.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  Aug.  2, 1801,  but  did  not  hold  any  priestly 
office  until  1811,  tilling  up  to  this  time  the  position  of 
private  tutor  in  the  family  of  the  celebrated  count  of 
Stolberg,  and  to  Kellerman,  no  doubt,  is  due  the  strong 
Roman  Catholic  tendencies  of  the  Stolberg  family.  In 
1826  Kellerman  assumed,  besides  his  priestly  duties, 
those  of  the  professorship  of  New-Testament  exegesis  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  theological  school  at  IMiinster,  which 
in  1830  he  exchanged  for  those  of  pastoral  theology. 
December  13,  1840  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Minister, 
but  he  died  shortly  after,  March  29, 1847.  He  published 
Predirjten  (Miinster,  1830,3  vols.  8vo;  1831,  and  1833)  : 
— Gesch.  d.  A.  und  N.  Test,  (an  abridgment  of  the  large 
work  of  Overberg,  and  extensively  used  as  a  text-book 
in  Roman  Catholic  schools) ;  and  edited  several  works 
of  others. — Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  xii,  041. 

Kelley,  Chas.  H.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Logan  Co.,  Ky.,  1821 ;  emigrated  to  Indiana 
in  1829 ;  was  converted  in  1830 ;  entered  the  Indiana  As- 
bury  University  in  1845,  but  his  health  soon  failed,  and 
he  left ;  entered  the  Indiana  Conference  in  1840 ;  Avas 
transferred  to  the  Missouri  Conference  in  1849,  and  ap- 
pointed to  St.  Joseph  station ;  in  1850  was  stationed  at  St. 
Louis ;  in  1851  at  Independence ;  and  in  1852  at  Lagrange 
Mission.  While  on  this  work  he  was  arrested,  on  Feb. 
13, 1853,  by  a  band  of  rufhans,  on  a  pretended  suspicion 
of  his  identity  with  Chas.  F.  Kelley,  who  had  recently 
escaped  from  the  state-prison  at  Fort  Madison.  Thith- 
er he  was  forced  on  a  stormy  winter  night,  and  though 
the  state  officers  instantly  set  him  at  liberty,  the  out- 
rages and  exposure  of  the  eighteen  hours  he  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  mob  threw  his  feeble  system  into  sickness, 
and  he  died  shortly  after,  Sept.  17, 1853.  He  was  a  good 
man,  an  able  and  faithful  preacher,  and  much  lamented 
by  his  brethren.— J/wiu^f*-  of  Conf.  v,  481.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Kells  (originally  Kenlis)  is  the  name  of  an  ancient 
Irish  t(]wn  in  wliich  a  very  important  synod  was  held 
A.D.  1152.  It  was  convoked  by  Papyrio  (Paparo?),  car- 
dinal priest,  and  the  pope's  (Eugenius  HI)  legate,  for  the 
formal  reception  of  the  Irish  Church  into  the  see  of 
Rome.  The  Church  of  Ireland,  which  had  been  found- 
ed A.U.  432,  remained  until  the  close  of  the  9th  centurv, 
and  even  later,  almost  entirely  isolated  from  the  rest  of 
Christendom.  Through  these  long  years,  bishop  Usher 
says  (iv,  325), "  All  the  affairs  of  the  bishops  and  Church 
of  Ireland  were  done  at  home  .  .  .  the  people  and  the 
kings  made  their  bishops."  All  this  while  the  Irish 
Churcli,  in  her  isolation  and  poverty,  grew  from  infancy 
to  maturity,  following  the  plain  scriptural  teachings  of 
her  unlettered  founder,  without  ]icrhaps  knowing  any- 
thing of  the  refinements  and  innovations  which  were 
arising  on  the  Continent.  The  irruption  of  the  Danes 
in  A.D.  787  had  brought  the  Irisli,  and  with  them  the 
Church,  into  more  general  communication  with  conti- 
nental Europe;  and  when,  towards  the  close  of  the  9th 
century,  many  of  the  colonists  in  Ireland  embraced 
Christianitj',  their  clergy  apjilied  to  the  English,  whom 
they  claimed  as  their  kindred,  for  ordination,  and  in 
A.D.  1085,  Laiifranc,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  ordained 


for  them  Donatus  as  the  bishop  of  Dublin.  On  his  con- 
secration Donatus  made  the  following  declaration :  "  I, 
Donatus,  bishop  of  the  see  of  Dublin,  in  Ireland,  do 
jiromise  canonical  obedience  to  you,  O  Lanfranc,  arch- 
bishop of  the  holy  Church  of  Canterbury,  and  to  your 
successors"  {Illust.  Men  of  Ireland,  i,  235).  This  was 
the  tirst  promise  of  fealty  on  the  part  of  any  church  in 
Ireland,  and  it  was  made  by  a  foreigner  (no  native  had 
ever  made  such  a  pledge),  and  gave  rise  to  two  Church 
organizations,  the  old  one  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  and 
the  new  Dano-Irish  Church  started  by  this  action  of  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury.  The  Synod  of  Kells  was  called 
to  bring  about  a  union  of  the  two  branches,  or,  at  least, 
to  establish  on  a  permanent  basis  the  claims  of  Roman- 
ism. We  cannot  tell  who  composed  this  celebrated  syn- 
od at  Kells,  for  from  this  time  forward  all  the  records 
were  in  the  keeping  of  the  new  organization;  those  of 
the  old  were  either  accidentally  or  intentionally  lost. 
It  is  not,  however,  very  probable  that  the  old  Irish  gov- 
ernment of  nearly  seven  hundred  years'  standing  would 
at  once  dissolve  itself  and  merge  into  the  new  our, 
whose  purposes  they  had  so  long  resisted.  Besides, 
nearly  twent}'  j-ears  aftenvards,  in  A.D.  1170,  we  fnid 
the  old  Synod  of  Armagh  still  in  existence,  deploring 
and  protesting  against  the  slaughterings  and  devasta- 
tions of  the  English  under  Henry  H,  whom  the  popes 
had  then  sent  over  to  Ireland  to  bring  their  Church  '•  to 
canonical  conformity."  I'apj-rio  clearly  recognised  it 
as  his  task  to  establish  a  hierarchy  where  none  had 
ever  existed  before,  and  for  this  purpose  he  attempted 
to  suppress  most  of  the  former  Irish  bishops,  and  to  cre- 
ate four  great  archicpiscopal  sees  —  those  of  Armagh, 
Cashcl,  Dublin,  and  Tuani — by  instituting  a  system  of 
tithes,  claiming  Peter's  pence,  and  requiring  conformity 
in  all  Church  matters  "  to  the  one  catliolic  and  Roman 
office."  He  brought  also  with  him  the  palliums  or  in- 
vestitures from  the  pope  for  the  four  newly-created  ar- 
chicpiscopal sees ;  the  reception  of  these  was  regarded 
as  so  many  pledges  of  fealty  and  obedience  to  the  popes 
of  Rome.  The  public  presentation  and  reception  of 
these  badges  had  long  been  an  object  of  great  solicitude 
on  the  part  both  of  Rome  and  of  several  of  the  promi- 
nent bishops  in  England  and  Ireland ;  for,  in  their  es- 
timation, until  this  was  done,  tliere  seemed  to  have 
been  something  Avanting  in  regard  to  a  fuU  and  com- 
plete union.  All  of  these  measures,  as  we  have  seen, 
were,  however,  inaugurated  and  carried  forward  liy  the 
Dano-Irish  and  a  smaU  Romanizing  jiarty  in  Ireland. 
The  native  clergy,  with  few  exceptions,  would  liave  ac- 
tivel}^  opposed  them  had  they  not  looked  upon  the 
Danes  as  mere  colonists.  To  their  sorrow,  the  Irish 
learned,  when  too  late,  that  the  Roman  hierarchy  had 
been  successfully  established  in  Ireland  by  the  action  of 
the  Synod  of  Kells.  See  Mant,  IlUtory  of  the  Irish 
Church,  p.  G.     See  Ireland.     (D.  D.) 

Kelly,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed  Presbyte- 
rian Church,  was  born  at  Rocky  Creek,  Chester  District, 
S.  C,  in  1772,  and  was  educated  abroad  (at  Glasgow  Col- 
lege, Scotland),  as  was  the  custom  and  necessity  in  his 
day.  His  theological  studies  he  pursued  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  Rev.  Dr.  iMc^Millan,  of  Stirling,  Scotland. 
He  returned  to  South  Carolina  in  1808,  and  in  June, 
1809,  was  licensed  to  preach.  Two  years  later  he  was 
ordained  and  appointed  missionary  in  the  AVestern  States 
and  Territories,  and  settled  finally  at  Beech  Woods,  But- 
ler Co.,  Ohio.  He  was  released  from  active  seiwice  in 
1837,  but  continued  preaching  up  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  Nov.  6, 1842.  "  His  life  was  one  of  most  untiring 
activity,  and  under  his  faithful  ministry  many  a  spot  in 
the  wilderness  was  seen  to  bud  and  blossom  as  the  rose," 
— Sprague,  Annals,  ix  (Ref.  Presb.),  ji.  03. 

Kelly,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Queens  County,  Ire-i 
land,  about  1709,  and  was  the  son  of  Judge  Kelly,  of 
Kellyville.  He  graduated  at  the  Dublin  University 
with  the  highest  honors,  with  a  view  of  studying  law. 
He  entered  at  the  Temple,  London,  and  while  there  en- 


KELPIES 


32 


KEMPER 


joyed  the  friendship  of  his  celebrated  conntnTnan,  Ed- 
niiiiul  Biirko,  but  before  the  comiiletioii  of  his  letjal  stud- 
ies, his  miud  having  been  strongly  exercised  on  the  sub- 
ject of  religion,  he  entered  upon  a  course  of  theological 
reailing,  and  in  1793  was  ordained  a  clergyman  oi'  the 
Established  Church.  Kelly  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  preachers  in  Dublin,  and  crowds  flocked  to  his 
clmrch  Sunday  after  Sunday  to  listen  to  his  fervent  ap- 
peals ;  incurring,  however,  the  displeasure  of  his  superi- 
ors in  the  Church,  he  was  induced  at  length  to  leave  the 
Establishment,  though  he  never  dissented  from  its  doc- 
trines, lie  continued  to  labor  in  Dublin  for  more  than 
sixty  years,  and  it  was  a  common  remark  concerning 
liim  that  he  never  seemed  to  waste  an  hour.  He  was 
possessed  of  abundant  means,  a  rare  thing  among  cler- 
gymen, and  devoted  a  large  portion  of  it  to  the  building 
of  churches.  He  was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  versed 
in  the  Oriental  languages,  and  an  excellent  Biblical  crit- 
ic. He  was  also  skilled  in  music,  and  composed  a  vol- 
ume of  airs  for  his  hjTnns  which  were  remarkable  for 
their  simplicity  and  sweetness.  In  October,  1854,  while 
preaching  to  his  own  congregation,  he  was  seized  v.ith 
a  slight  stroke  of  paralysis,  which  gradually  lessened  his 
strength,  till  he  died  j\Iay  li,  1855.  jNIr.  Kelly  was  the 
author  of  Andrew  Dunn,  a  controversial  work  against 
Romanism,  and  of  a  pamphlet  entitled  Thovfjhis  on  Im- 
puted Righteousness,  but  as  a  writer  he  is  best  known  as 
the  author  of  IIi/m)is  on  various  Passar/es  of  Scripture 
(the  last  edition,  published  in  Dublin,  1853,  contains  sev- 
en hundred  and  sixty-five  hymns).     (E.  de  P.) 

Kelpies,  in  Scotch  mythology  a  name  for  departed 
spirits,  who  are  said  to  return  to  this  world  in  tlie  shape 
of  river-horses.  They  correspond  to  the  Ncik  of  Nor- 
wegian mythology.  See  Thorpe,  Northern  Mijtholorjy, 
ii,  22. 

Kelsey,  Jajies,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
born  at  Tyringham,  INIass.,  Oct.  18, 1782,  was  converted 
in  179G,  entered  the  Philadelphia  Conference  in  180G, 
and  labored  with  great  success.  .He  died  in  1840  (?). 
.Tames  Kelsey  was  a  good  man,  and  through  a  long  ser- 
vice was  intent  on  the  \vork  of  saving  the  souls  of  men. 
— Minutes  of  Conferences,  iii,  146. 

Kelso,  Gp:orge  W.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Louisa  County,  Va.,  in  1815,  and  emi- 
grated while  young  to  Tennessee,  He  was  educated  at 
the  Nashville  University,  joined  the  Tennessee  Confer- 
ence in  1835,  was  transferred  to  the  Virginia  Conference 
in  1842,  and  died  Aug.  10, 1843.  Kelso  was  a  faithful 
and  very  successful  minister,  not  brilliant,  but  sound  and 
equable,  and  very  trustworthy  in  all  things. — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  iii,  460. 

Kemp,  James,  D.D.,  a  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland, 
in  1764,  of  I'resbyterian  parentage;  graduated  at  Aber- 
deen University  (Marischal  College)  in  1780,  and  the 
year  following  came  to  this  country.  At  first  he  en- 
gaged in  teaching,  but,  finally  decitUng  to  join  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  he  prepared  for  the  ministry;  was  or- 
dained by  bishop  White  Dec.  26, 1789,  and  the  year  fol- 
lowing became  rector  of  (ireat  Choptank  parish,  Mary- 
land, where  he  remained  for  more  than  twenty  years.  In 
1802  he  received  from  Columbia  College  the  degree  of 
D.D.  Two  years  later  he  was  elected  suifragan  bishop 
with  bishop  Claggett,  of  Maryland,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  he  was  to  succeed  the  latter  in  case  he  was  the 
survivor.  He  was  consecrated  for  this  position  at  New 
Brunswick,  New  Jersey,  Sept.  1, 1814.  The  jurisdiction 
of  bishop  Kemp  was  exercised  especially  over  the  par- 
ishes on  the  Eastern  Shore ;  in  1816,  however,  on  bishop 
Claggett's  decease,  the  whole  diocese  came  under  his 
charge,  and  by  his  ])rudence  and  moderation  lie  com- 
mended himself  to  both  clergy  and  laity.  In  1816  lie 
accepted  the  provostship  of  the  University  of  JIaryland, 
and  held  it  mitil  the  time  of  his  death,  Oct.  28,  1827. 
(J.  H.  \V.) 


Kemp,  Thomas  William,  a  minister  of  much 
promise  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  born  in  Frederick 
Co.,  I\Id.,  Dec.  2, 1833.  LTnder  the  influence  of  faithful 
Christian  nurture  his  religious  principles  were  success- 
fully developed,  and  the  foundation  of  his  character  laid. 
His  childhood  and  youth  were  characterized  by  an  ex- 
emption from  everything  vicious,  by  unusual  s]irightli- 
ness,  and  an  eager  desire  for  study.  For  four  years  he 
was  a  puiiil  of  St.  Mary's  (Catholic)  College,  Baltimore. 
He  subseciuently  entered  Pennsylvania  College,  and  grad- 
uated in  1853.  He  commenced  his  theological  studies 
under  the  direction  of  Drs.  Morris,  Seiss,  and  Webster, 
at  the  time  pastors  in  Baltimore,  and  completed  them 
at  the  seminary  in  Gettysburg.  He  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1855.  For  a  brief  period  he  was  associated 
with  Dr.  Stork  in  the  pastoral  work  in  Philadelphia.  He 
subsequently  took  charge  of  a  Mission  Church  in  Chi- 
cago, Illinois,  but  the  climate  proving  unfavorable  to  his 
health,  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  the  field.  He  vis- 
ited foreign  lands,  but  returned  from  his  pilgrimage  to 
die  amid  the  scenes  of  his  childhood  and  the  embrace 
of  loved  ones  at  home.  He  passed  peacefully  away 
Sept.  15, 1861.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kemp,  van  der,  John  Theodore,  a  Dutch  mis- 
sionary, Avas  born  at  Kotterdam  in  1748,  and  studied 
Oriental  languages  and  theology  at  the  University  of 
Leyden,  but  after  graduation  he .  entered  the  army  in 
a  regiment  of  dragoons,  in  which  he  soon  attained  the 
grade  of  lieutenant.  He  left  the  army,  however,  and 
turned  to  the  study  of  medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  in 
1791  commenced  practicing  at  Dort;  but,  in  the  end, 
he  turned  again  to  theology.  The  loss  of  liis  wife  and 
daughter,  who  were  drowned  together,  so  affected  him 
that  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  service  of 
his  divine  JMaster.  About  this  time  he  wrote  a  work 
on  St.  Paul's  theodicy  (published  in  1798),  and  later  he 
went  as  a  missionary  to  the  Hottentots.  Arriving  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  he  obtained  leave  from  a  Kaf- 
fre  king  to  settle  in  his  states,  but  was  subsequently 
driven  away  by  the  jealousy  of  the  Dutch  settlers.  Ee- 
tained  at  the  Cajie  by  governor  Janssens  until  1806,  he 
was  then  permitted  by  the  English  governor  Baird  to 
settle  at  Bethelsdorp.  The  official  report  of  his  mission, 
which  he  drew  up  in  1809,  does  not  show  him  to  have 
been  particularly  successful  in  his  attempts  to  civilize 
the  natives.  He  died  at  the  Cape  Dec.  7, 1811.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxvii,  539.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kempe,  Stepiian,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Ger- 
man Ileformation  of  the  16th  century,  the  founder  of 
Protestantism  in  the  city  of  Hamburg,  his  native  place, 
was  born  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  He 
was  educated  at  Postock,  and  became  a  Franciscan  monic 
in  1523;  but,  while  on  business  for  his  order  at  Ham- 
burg, he  became  acquainted  with  the  reformer  Joachim 
Slitter,  and  soon  v/as  himself  one  of  the  most  enthusias- 
tic preachers  of  the  new  religion.  To  Kempe  belongs 
the  glory,  indeed,  of  the  evangelization  of  Hamburg. 
One  of  his  ablest  assistants  in  the  glorious  work  was 
Ziegenhagen  (q.  v.).  In  1528  they  had  so  far  gained 
the  upper  hand  that  the  Roman  Catholics  were  obliged 
to  leave  the  city  altogether  in  their  hands.  In  Lilne- 
burg,  also,  Kempe  aided  the  good  cause  of  the  Luther- 
ans ;  in  fact,  wherever,  in  the  immediate  neighborhood 
of  the  Hanse  cities,  his  assistance  was  needcil  to  further 
the  reformatory  movement,  it  had  not  to  be  asked  for 
twice.  He  died  at  llanilmrg  October  23,  1540.  He 
wrote  a  narrative  of  the  Keformation  in  Hamburg  which 
was  published  by  ]\Iayer  in  Das  Evangelische  Hamburg 
(Hamburg,  1693, 12mo). 

Kemper,  Jacksox,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  first  missionan,' 
bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  Pleasant  Valley,  in  Dutchess  County, 
New  York,  Dec.  24, 1789.  When  about  twelve  years  of 
age  he  was  sent  to  the  Episcopal  Academy  at  Clieshire, 
Conn.,  and  remained  there  two  years;  after  that  he  was 
put  under  the  charge  of  Rev.  Dr.  Barrj',  a  graduate  of 


KEMPIS 


33 


KEMPIS 


Trinity  CoUcge,  Dublin,  at  that  time  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  classical  teachers  in  the  country ;  entered 
Columbia  College  in  1805,  and  graduated  in  1809.  He 
began  the  study  of  theology  under  the  care  of  bishop 
Moore  and  the  clergy  of  Trinity  parish,  there  being  no 
theological  seminaries  in  those  daj-s.  As  soon  as  he  had 
reached  the  canonical  age  of  twenty-one  years,  he  was 
ordained  deacon  at  the  hands  of  bishop  White,  in  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church,  Philadelphia,  on  the  second  Sunday  in 
Lent,  1811.  He  was  immediately  called  to  the  assist- 
antship  under  bishop  White,  and  held  this  po'^ition  till 
June  of  1831,  when  he  accepted  the  rectorship  of  St. 
Paul's  Church,  Norwalk,  Conn.  h\  1835  he  was  elected 
tlic  first  missionary  bishop  of  the  American  Church. 
His  jurisdiction  comprised  "  the  North-west."  Out  of  it 
have  been  formed  the  dioceses  of  Missouri,  Indiana,  Wis- 
consin, jMinnesota,  Iowa,  Kansas,  and  Nebraska.  Early 
in  tiie  winter  of  this  year  bishop  Kemper  reached  St. 
Louis,  where  he  tooi^  up  his  residence  until  he  removed 
to  Wisconsin  in  1814.  Meanwhile  (about  1838)  he  had 
been  elected  to  the  bishopric  of  Maryland,  but  this  hon- 
or he  declined,  preferring  the  more  burdensome  but  not 
less  honorable  position  of  missionary  bishop.  In  1847, 
Wisconsin  having  been  organized  into  a  diocese,  the 
Primary  Convention  elected  bishop  Kemper  diocesan. 
This  was  also  declined;  but  in  1854,  being  again  unani- 
mously elected,  he  accepted,  only  upon  condition  that 
his  acceptance  should  allow  him  to  remain  missionary 
bishop  still.  At  the  General  Convention  of  1859  he  re- 
signed his  office  as  missionary  bishop,  and  from  that 
time  until  his  death,  Maj'  24, 1870,  his  labors  were  con- 
fined to  the  diocese  of  Wisconsin.  He  was  active  in 
the  establishment  of  a  theological  seminary  within  the 
bomids  of  his  diocese,  and  when,  in  1843,  it  was  founded 
at  Nashotah,Wisconsin,  the  bishop  took  up  his  residence 
on  a  farm  adjoming. 

Kenipis,  John  a,  a  German  monk,  brother  of 
Thomas  ;i  Kenipis  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Kempen,  near 
Cologne,  in  13G5.  About  1380  he  came  to  Deventer, 
and  ^vas  admitted  by  Gerard  Groot  among  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life.  He  became  successively  one  of 
the  first  members  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  Windesheim 
in  1386 ;  prior  of  the  Convent  of  Mariabrunn,  near  Arn- 
heim,  in  1392 ;  and  of  the  new  Convent  of  jMount  St.  Ag- 
nes, near  Zwoll,  in  1399.  Here  he  remained  nine  years, 
during  \vhicli  he  caused  the  buildings,  etc.,  of  the  con- 
vent to  be  finished.  He  subsecjuently  directed  four  oth- 
er establishments  of  his  order,  and  died  at  Bethany,  near 
Arnheira,  Nov.  4,  1432.  It  was  John  ;i  Kempis  who 
drew  up  the  rules  of  the  chapter  of  Windesheim,  the  cen- 
tral establishment  of  his  order.  Gerson  pronounced  his 
eulogy  in  the  Council  of  Constance.  See  Buschius, 
Chroiiicnn  Windescmense ;  Rosweide,  Vita  Joh.  a  Kempis 
{^Airpendix  ad  Thomm  a  Kempis  Chronicon  Montis  S. 
Agnetis) ;  Mooren,  Nachrichten  iiber  Thorn,  a  Kempis,  p. 
134. — Iloefer,  Xou  v.  Biog.  Gener.  xxvii,  542.    (J.  N.  P.) 

Kempis,  Thomas  a  Cso  called  from  his  native 
place,  Kempen,  a  village  in  the  diocese  of  Cologne ;  his 
family  name  was  Ildmerketi  [Latinized  Malleolus,  \At- 
tle  Hammer]),  one  of  the  most  celebrated  mystics  and 
forerunners  of  the  Reformation  of  tlie  IGth  century,  was 
born  about  1380.  Thomas's  parents  were  poor,  and 
could  ill  afford  the  aspiring  youth  any  su]ierior  advan- 
tages of  education,  but,  trained  by  a  pious  mother,  he 
had  early  inclined  to  the  priesthood,  and,  aware  of  the 
advantages  afforded  young  jiersons  by  the  monastic 
brotherhood  known  as  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life 
(q.  v.),  he  quitted  his  parental  roof  at  the  age  of  thir- 
teen to  seek  fiu-ther  educational  advantages  than  he 
had  enjoyed  at  his  home,  imder  the  instruction  of  the 
celebrated  John  Bffihme,  then  at  the  head  of  a  school 
at  Deventer,  superintended  by  the  "  Brethren  of  the 
Common  Life."  While  here  at  school  he  was  brought 
to  the  notice  of  Florentius,  one  of  the  principal  disciples 
of  Gerhard  Groot.  and  the  superintendent  of  the  broth- 
irhood,  whose  protection Tliomas  was  enjoving.  Floren- 
Y.-C 


tius,  not  slow  to  discover  in  Thomas  abilities  of  a  high 
order,  embraced  every  oijportunity  to  draw  the  pious 
youth  closer  to  liis  side,  and  in  139G  tinalf)'  offered  him 
a  home  at  Ids  own  house,  the  head-quarters  of  the  breth- 
ren, to  study  and  watch  more  closely  the  character  and 
inclinations  of  the  youthful  stranger.  Surrounded  Ijy  pi- 
ous comrades,  among  whom  we  meet  Arnold  of  Schoon- 
hoven  (q.  v.),  with  whom  he  shared  a  little  chamber 
and  bed,  Thomas  was  soon  inclined  to  a  life  of  asceti- 
cism. "Examples,"  says  Thomas  a  Kempis  himself, 
'■are  more  instructive  than  words"  (J\ill.  lilior.xxiv,  1, 
p.  95).  Possessed  of  a  boding  mind,  and  animated  by 
a  piety  so  fervent  as  to  presume  always  the  best  of  oth- 
ers, such  was  the  effect  produced  upon  him  by  the 
brethren's  whole  manner  of  life,  that  the  seven  years  he 
spent  in  the  zealous  exercise  of  piety  and  the  prosecu- 
tion of  his  studies  at  the  school  and  brother-house  of 
Deventer  were  to  him  seven  years  spent  in  an  actual 
paradise.  About  1400  he  petitioned  father  Florentius 
for  a  recommendation  to  admit  him  into  the  convent  of 
Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwoll,  of  which  his  brother  John 
a  Kempis  (q.  v.)  was  then  prior,  and  with  a  hearty  wel- 
come he  entered  this  monastery  as  a  novice  among  the 
regular  canons.  "Strangely  as  the  mind  of  Thomas 
w'as  bent  upon  his  vocation,  and  although  both  nature 
and  previous  education  had  perfectly  adapted  him  for 
it,  he  did  not  pluftge  into  it  without  consideration.  De- 
liberate even  in  his  youthful  zeal,  he  spent  five  years 
of  novitiate,  assumed  the  monastic  dress  in  the  sixth, 
and  did  not  imtil  the  year  following  take  the  vow, 
which  he  then,  however,  kept  with  inviolable  fidelity" 
(Ullmann,  uf  infra,  ii,  124).  It  was  not  until  about  1413 
that  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood.  Before  this  or- 
dination he  had  buried  himself,  like  all  worthy  disciples 
of  the  brotherhood,  in  the  copying  of  MSS.  and  in  the 
performance  of  religious  exercises.  Now  that  he  ^\■as  a 
priest,  his  chief  occupation  became  the  delivery  of  relig- 
ious discourses  and  the  duties  of  the  confessional.  He 
continued,  however,  copying  religious  MSS.  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  indeed,  applied  himself  with  vigor  to  this  la- 
bor, to  which  he  brought  a  quick  eye  and  a  skilful  liand. 
He  copied  out  the  whole  Bible,  a  missal,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  works,  which  the  monasters  of  St.  Agues 
preserved ;  but,  in  performing  this  office,  he  also  prac- 
ticed the  advice  of  one  of  the  ancients,  who,  in  writing 
out  books,  did  not  only  seek  by  the  labor  of  his  hands 
to  gain  food  for  his  body,  but  also  to  refresh  his  soul 
with  heavenlj'  nourishment.  He  was  humble,  meek, 
ready  to  give  consolation ;  fervent  in  his  exhortations 
and  prayers,  spiritual,  contemplative,  and  his  efforts  in 
this  direction  finally  resulted  in  the  composition  of  an 
original  treatise,  which  to  this  hour  remains  one  of  the 
most  perfect  compositions  in  religious  literature,  by 
many  considered  the  most  beautiful  uninspired  produc- 
tion—  the  Imitation  of  Christ  (see  below).  In  1425 
Thomas  was  appointed  subprior,  an  office  which  in- 
trusted to  his  care  the  spiritual  progress  of  the  brethren 
and  the  instruction  of  novices.  A  difficidty  having  oc- 
curred between  the  jiope  on  the  one  side,  and  the  chap- 
ter and  nobility  of  Utrecht  on  the  other,  about  the  elec- 
tion of  Rudolph  of  Dieiihold  as  archbishop,  the  diocese 
was  put  under  interdict,  and  the  canons  left  JNIount  St. 
Agnes  in  1429  to  retire  to  Lunekerke,  in  Friesland,  but 
returned  in  1432,  when  Thomas  became  procurator  of 
the  convent.  But,  as  the  duties  of  this  office  appeared 
to  abstract  him  too  much  from  meditation  and  his  more 
profitalile  labors  as  an  author,  he  was,  about  1449,  re- 
poned  in  the  subpriorate,  and  continued  in  this  office 
until  his  death,  July  2r>,  1471.  "From  the  nature  of 
the  case,  we  have  little  to  say  of  Thomas's  cloisteral  life. 
Without  any  considerable  disturbance,  it  flowed  on  like 
a  limpid  brook,  reflecting  on  its  calm  surface  the  un- 
clouded heavens.  ( Juict  industry,  lonely  contemplation, 
and  secret  prayer  filled  uj)  tlie  day,  and  every  day  was 
like  another."  Among  his  contemporaries  Thomas  was 
eminently  distinguished  for  sanctity  and  ascetic  learn- 


KEMPIS 


34 


KEMPIS 


Worl:^. — The  reputation  of  a  Kempi?,  however,  rests 
not  upon  his  ascetic' character,  but  rather  on  the  produc- 
tions of  liis  pen — his  sermons,  ascetical  treatises,  pious 
biographies,  letters,  and  hynnis^and  from  these  only 
one  need  be  selected  to  claim  for  him  the  mastery  as  a 
religious  writer — his  Ih'  Iinilutione  Christi — "  standing, 
as  no  o)ie  doubts,  and  as  even  its  effects  have  demon- 
strated it  to  do,  ill  point  of  excellence  far  above  all  the 
rest,  the  (lurest  and  most  linished  production  of  Thom- 
as;" a  worlv  which,  next  to  the  sacred  Scriptures  only, 
has  had  the  largest  number  of  readers  of  which  sacred 
literature,  ancient  or  modern,  can  furnish  an  example. 
In  its  pages,  says  Milman  (^Lutiii  Christianity,  vi,  482), 
'•  are  gathered  and  concentred  all  that  is  elevating,  pas- 
sionate, profoundly  pious  in  all  tho  older  mystics.  No 
book,  after  the  holy  Scripture,  has  been  so  often  reprint- 
ed ;  none  translated  into  so  many  languages,  ancient 
and  modern,"  extending  even  to  Greek  and  Hebrew,  or 
so  often  retranslated.  Sixty  distinct  versions  are  enu- 
merated in  French  alone,  and  a  single  collection,  formed 
at  Cologne  within  the  present  century,  comprised,  al- 
though confessedly  incomplete,  no  fewer  than  500  dis- 
tinct editions.  Indeed,  it  may  be  somewhat  of  a  sur- 
prise to  some  to  learn  that  this  book  has  had  an  impor- 
tant influence  on  the  mind  of  John  Wesley  and  on  the 
origin  of  Methodism.  Wesley  published  a  translation 
of  it,  entitled  The  Christian's  Pattern.  It  was  one  of 
the  earliest  volumes  issued  by  the  ^Methodist  Book  Con- 
cern, and  is  still  on  their  catalogue.  "It  should  be," 
says  one  of  the  most  distinguished  American  Method- 
ists, '•  in  the  hands  of  every  Methodist." 

Strange,  indeed,  it  seems  that  the  authorship  of  a 
work  so  popular  and  so  widely  noted,  and  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  should  ever  have  been  a  subject  of 
doubt  and  long  controversy.  Shortly  after  the  decease 
of  Thomas  a  Kempis  a  violent  dispute  arose  between  the 
Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  and  the  Benedictines, 
the  former  claiming  De  1  initatiojie  Christi  as  the  work 
of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  latter  asserting  it  to  have 
been  the  production  of  the  celebrated  John  (Jerson  (q. 
v.),  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  who  died  in 
1429.  These  two  persons  were  generally  cited  as  its 
authors  until  the  beginning  of  the  17th  centurv,  when 
the  Spanish  Jesuit  Manriqucz  discovered  a  MS.  which 
credited  it  to  John  Gersen,  or  Gesen,  abbe  of  Verceil  in 
the  early  part  of  the  13th  century.  Since  that  time 
(1604)  three  competitors  have  divided  the  voices  of  the 
learned — not  alone  individuals,  but  public  bodies,  uni- 
versities, religious  orders,  the  Congregation  of  the  In- 
dex, the  Parliament  of  Paris,  and  even  the  French 
Academy;  and  the  assertors  of  these  respective  claims 
have  carried  into  the  controversy  no  trifling  amount  of 
polemical  acrimony.  So  much  lias  been  written  on  the 
theme,  especially  by  French  and  Netherland  antiqua- 
ries, that  its  pamphlets  and  books  would  make  up  quite 
a  little  library.  Among  the  French  writers  the  ten- 
dency of  opinion  has  been  to  give  the  merit  of  this  cele- 
brated production  to  John  Gerson.  "  Kempis,"  argued 
Messieurs  Barbier  and  Lcroy,  "was  an  excellent  copv- 
ist;  his  copy  of  the  Bible — the  labor  of  fifteen  years- 
was  thought  a  masterpiece  of  calligraphic  art;  and  so 
he  was  merely  employed  in  transcribing  the  work  of 
Gerson,"  basing  their  inference  mainly  on  the  name  and 
date  of  an  ancient  MS.  of  the  De  Imitatione  preserved 
in  the  library  at  Valenciennes.  (German  writers,  on  the 
other  hand,  liavc  always  been  decidedly  in  favor  of  as- 
signing tlie  work  to  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  since  the 
discovery  by  bishop  ]Malon  of  a  MS.  in  the  lilirary  at 
Brussels,  bearing  the  name  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  as  au- 
thor, the  Belgians  have  joined  the  Germans.  The 
proofs  in  favor  of  Thomas  a  Kempis  are  thus  stated  by 
M.  Ernest  (iregoire  (in  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioij.  Gen.  xxvii, 
545  sq.). 

A.  The  direct  Testimom/  of  his  Contemporaries. — 1. 
John  Buschius,  canon  regular  of  tJie  monastery  of  Win- 
desheim  (1420-79),  positively  declares  in  his  (  hronicle  of 
that  convent  that  Thomas  wrote  the  Imitation,     As  he 


knew  him  intimately,  and  had  often  occasion  to  see  him, 
his  testimony  is  important.  They  were  of  the  same 
congregation,  and  Buschius  was  in  the  principal  con- 
vent, where  was  held  the  general  chapter,  in  which 
Thomas,  as  subprior,  took  part.  Moreover,  he  resided 
there  for  fifty-one  years,  only  one  league  and  a  half 
from  Mount  St.  Agnes,  where  Thomas  lived  at  tlie 
same  time.  It  was  said  by  some  that  the  passage  re- 
ferring to  Thomas  was  afterwards  added  in  the  chroni- 
cle; but  a  well-authenticated  deed,  drawn  up  in  17G0, 
testifies  tTiat  the  MS.  of  the  chronicle  written  by  Busch- 
ius's  own  hand  contains  the  passage  written  in  the  same 
hand,  with  the  same  ink,  and  in  full,  without  erasure, 
insertion,  or  parenthesis.  The  same  has  been  proved 
concerning  a  ]\IS.  copy  of  the  Chronir/e  of  Windesheim, 
written  in  1477,  and  another  written  in  1478,  which  was 
sold  at  Cologne  in  1823.  2.  Hermann  of  Uyd,  ^vho  wrote 
in  1464  a  description  of  the  convents  belonging  to  the 
Canons  Regular  of  Windesheim,  states  as  positively  as 
Buschius  tliat  Thomas,  with  whom  he  was  personally 
acquainted,  wrote  the  Imitation.  3.  Gaspard  Pforzheim, 
at  the  end  of  his  German  translation  of  the  first  three 
books  of  the  Imitation,  written  in  1448,  declares  that  it 
was  the  work  of  Kempis.  4.  The  author  of  an  anony- 
mous biography  of  Kempis,  written  before  the  year  1488, 
counts  the  Imitation  among  the  works  of  Thomas.  His 
testimony  is  the  more  valuable,  as  he  had  expressly  gone 
to  jNIount  St.  Agnes  to  learn  all  the  ]iarticulars  concern- 
ing Kempis  from  those  who  had  lived  with  him.  5. 
Albert  of  Hardenberg,  a  disciple  of  the  celebrated  Wes- 
sel,  who  was  himself  a  disciple  of  Thomas,  wrote  the 
following  decisive  passages:  "The  reputation  of  the 
excellent  brother  Thomas  a  Kempis  attracted  many 
people  to  him.  About  that  time  he  was  MTiting  the 
book  of  the  Imitation  oj"  Christ,  commencing  Qui  sequi- 
tiir  me.  Wessel  used  to  say  that  this  book  first  rendered 
him  zealously  pious,  and  decided  him  to  become  better 
acquainted,  and  even  familiar,  with  master  Thomas,  so 
that  he  actually,  embraced  monastic  life  in  the  same 
convent  of  St.  Agnes ;"  again :  "  The  monks  of  ilount 
St.  Agnes  have  shown  me  several  writings  of  the  very 
pious  Thomas  a  Kempis,  of  whom  they  have  preserved, 
among  others,  the  trul_v  estimable  work  of  the  Imita- 
tion of  Jesus  Christ,  to  which  A^'essel  owed  his  taste  for 
theologj-.  The  reading  of  this  \\ork  had  decided  him, 
while  jx't  quite  young,  to  go  to  Zwoll  to  study  belles- 
lettres,  and  to  enjoj'  the  friendship  of  the  pious  Thomas 
a  Kem])is,  who  was  then  canon  of  St.  Agnes.  Wessel 
had  the  highest  regard  for  liim,  and  preferred  dwelling 
there  rather  than  anywhere  else."  6.  John  jMauburne, 
a  canon  regular,  who  was  a  novice  of  jMount  St.  Agnes 
under  Renier,  which  latter  had  lived  there  six  years 
with  Thomas  .a  Kempis,  quotes,  in  his  Eosetum  spiritn- 
alium  exercitiorum,  printed  in  1491,  three  passages  of 
the  Imitation,  naming  Kempis  as  its  author.  In  his 
Catalogue  des  hommes  ilhistres  de  la  conf/ret/alion  de  Win- 
desem  (Windesheim)  he  names  three  books  of  the  Imi- 
tation, separately,  as  the  work  of  Thonias. 

These  various  testimonies  are  all  derived  from  learned 
and  trustworthy  men,  all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of 
one,  were  personally  acciuainted  with  Thomas  a  Kenijiis, 
or  with  persons  who  lived  with  him.  They  are,  more- 
over, given  with  a  simplicity  which  shows  that  they 
did  not  consider  the  question  as  one  at  all  likely  to  give 
rise  to  controversy.  They  appear  so  conclusive  that  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  other  writers  of  the  15th 
century  who  testified  to  tlie  same  effect.  Trithemius 
(De  tScript.  Ercles.  c.  707)  informs  us  that  in  his  day 
Kempis  was  universally  considered  as  the  autlior  of  the 
Imitiitinn  ;  and  though  after  1441  some  MSS.  and  sul)se- 
qnently  some  editions  bore  the  name  of  Jolm  Gerson, 
everj'  time  the  question  as  to  the  authorship  arose  in  the 
15th  century  it  was  decided  in  favor  of  Kempis.  Thus 
Peter  Schott,  canon  regular  of  Strasburg,  in  the  pref- 
ace to  his  edition  of  the  works  of  John  (ierson  in  1488, 
says:  "Some  treatises  are  attributed  to  John  (Jerson, 
though  well  known  to  have  been  written  by  other  par- 


KEMPIS 


35 


KEMPIS 


ties ;  such,  for  instance,  is  the  work  De  Conlemptu  Mim- 
di,  which  i.s  proved  to  have  heen  written  by  a  canon 
rei^ular  called  Thomas  h  Kempis."  The  publisher  of  the 
French  translation  of  the  Imitation  (Paris.  1493)  ex- 
pressly states  thr.t  Thomas  ;i  Kempis  was  the  author. 
The  publisher  of  the  Nuremberg  edition,  1494,  does  the 
same.  Finally,  Francis  of  Tholen,  successor  of  Thomas 
as  subprior  of  Mount  St.  Agnes,  gives  the  IMS.  copies  of 
the  Iiiii/ation  in  Thomas's  own  handwriting  as  a  proof 
against  Gerson. 

B.  Indirect  Proofs  from  the  various  MSS.  and  Edi- 
tions.— The  oldest  MS.  of  the  Imitation  we  now  possess 
is  that  known  as  Kirchheim's  (in  the  Bourgogne  Li- 
brary, Brussels,  as  No.  15,137);  it  contains  only  the  first 
tlirce  books.  At  the  bottom  of  the  first  page  is  a  note 
saying,  "  Be  it  remarked  that  this  treatise  is  the  work 
of  a  pious  and  learned  man,  master  Thomas  of  jMount 
St.  Agnes,  and  canon  regular  of  Utrecht,  called  Thomas 
a  Kempis.  It  was  copied  from  the  author's  autograph 
in  the  diocese  of  Utrecht  in  the  year  1425,  in  the  cen- 
tral house  of  the  province."  Another  IMS.  of  the  same 
period  was  discovered  in  1852  [by  bishop  MUller,  of 
Minister],  in  the  gymnasium  of  Gadesd'onk,  near  Goch  : 
it  contains  the  first  four  books  of  the  Imitation:  the 
first  he  copied  in  1425,  and  the  last  in  1427.  It  does  not 
give  the  name  of  the  author,  but  a  very  significant  fact 
is  that  it  belonged  originally  to  the  Canons  Kegular  of 
Bethlehem,  near  Dottingheim,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
IVIount  St.  Agnes.  Among  the  other  MSS.  we  notice,  in 
the  first  place,  that  belonging  to  the  Jesuits  of  Anvers, 
which  played  an  important  part  in  the  controversy  re- 
specting the  authorship.  It  is  now  in  the  Bourgogne 
Library,  Brussels,  as  No.  6855-5861.  It  is  all  in  Thom- 
as's own  handwriting,  and,  besides  the  first  four  books 
of  the  Imitation,  it  contains  some  other  treatises  of  Kem- 
pis. It  closes  with  these  words :  "  Finitus  et  completus 
Anno  Domini  1441  per  manus  fratris  Thomre  Kempen- 
sis  in  Monte  S.  Agnetis  prope  Zwollas."  Some  have 
considered  this  as  a  proof  that  he  only  copied  it,  for 
he  used  the  same  formula  concerning  the  copies  of  the 
missal  and  Bible  which  he  wrote  in  1417  and  1438;  but 
it  has  been  ascertained  that  he  used  it  also  in  all  copies 
of  his  own  original  works.  The  Bourgogne  Library, 
Brussels,  preserves  as  No.  4585-4587  a  MS.  of  Thomas 
fi  Kempis  containing  a  collection  of  his  essays,  and 
which  ends  as  follows:  "Anno  1446  finitus  et  scriptus 
per  manus  fratris  Thomaj  Campensis,"  without  otherwise 
naming  Thomas  as  the  author.  This  formula,  there- 
fore, proves  nothing  either  for  or  against  the  claims  of 
Kempis.  But  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  authorship 
of  the  ascetic  treatises  contained  in  the  Anvers  MS.  af- 
ter the  four  books  of  the  Imitation  has  always  been 
unanimously  ascribed  to  Kempis,  and  he  would  certain- 
ly not  have  put  at  the  head  of  them  the  work  of  anoth- 
er which  he  had  merely  copied,  or  he  would  be  open  to 
the  charge  of  deception.  There  are  other  MSS.,  dated 
1441, 1442, 1445,  1447,  and  1451,  as  also  seven  between 
1463  and  148S,  which  name  Kempis  as  the  author  of  the 
Imitation.  Among  the  many  MSS.  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury which  bear  no  precise  date,  but  testify  to  this  au- 
thorship, we  shall  mention  only  that  of  Dalhem,  copied 
by  a  priest  who  said  a  mass  for  Kempis  two  months  af- 
ter the  latter's  death,  and  that  of  the  canons  of  St.  Mar- 
tin of  Louvain,  which  they  received  in  1570  from  the 
last  remaining  members  of  the  congregation  of  Motmt 
St.  Agnes.  It  is  in  Kempis's  own  handwriting,  and  con- 
tains the  first  draft  of  the  fourth  book  of  the  Imitation — 
the  first  he  prepared  in  composing  the  work.  Among 
the  many  editions  of  the  Imitation  published  in  the 
15th  century,  twenty-three  at  least  consider  Kemjiis  as 
the  author;  and  among  these  we  find  the  oldest  of  all, 
published  by  Zainer  (Augsb.  1468-1472). 

C.  Proofs  drawn  froln  the  Doctrines  held  and  the 
Expressions  used  in  the  Imitation. — The  ]irinciples  ad- 
vanced in  the  Imitation  are  in  perfect  accordance  with 
those  held  by  the  founders  of  the  congregation  of  the 
Brethren  of  the  Common  Life,  (icTha.T(\  Groot,' Floren- 


tius  Radewins,  and  John  van  Heusden.  It  may  even 
be  considered  only  as  a  commentary  or  exposition  of 
their  doctrines.  In  judging  it  thus,  criticism,  how- 
ever, does  not  detract  from  the  value  of  this  mas- 
terpiece of  the  second  half  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
Buschius  said  of  its  author,  "Veriis  his  novissimis  teni- 
poribus  hujus  nostraj  terrre  apostolus,  primus  hujus  nos- 
tra3  reformationis  et  totius  modernaj  devotionis  origo."' 
The  word  d^rotio  came  to  be  used  to  designate  the  kind 
of  piety  Groot  sought  to  develop  among  his  disciples, 
and  the  latter  took  the  name  of  devoti.  Now,  in  the 
Imitation  we  find  some  ten  passages  where  the  expres- 
sion devotus  is  used  to  designate  a  particular  class  of  per- 
sons who  applied  themselves  zealously  and  ceaselessly 
to  the  practice  of  religious  exercises,  and  to  which  the 
author  himself  belonged.  Some  eleven  other  passages, 
and  a  whole  chapter  even,  show,  moreover,  that  the  book 
was  written  for  a  religious  community  of  wliich  the  au- 
thor was  also  a  member,  a  fact  quite  incompatible  with 
the  opinion  which  considers  Gerson  as  the  autlior.  We 
can  quote  here  only  three  of  the  most  conclusive  pas- 
sages: "SiT'pe  sentimus,  ut  meliores  et  puriores  in  initio 
conversionis  nos  fuisse  inveniamus,  quam  post  multos 
annos  professionis"  (lib.  i,  ch.  11).  "O  quantus  fervor 
omnium  rcligiosorum  in  principiis  suas  sanctre  institu- 
tionis!  .  .  .  O  temporis  et  negligentioe  status  nostri, 
quod  tam  cito  declinamus  a  pristino  fervore"  (lib.  i, 
ch.  18).  "Suscepi,  suscepi  de  manu  tua  crucem;  por- 
tabo  et  portabo  eam  ustpie  ad  mortem,  sicut  impo- 
suisti  mihi.  Yere  vita  boni  monachi  crux  est ;  sed 
dux  paradisi.  Eia  fratres,  pergamus  simul ;  Jesus  erit 
nobiscum.  Propter  Jesum  suscepimus  banc  crucem ; 
propter  Jesum  perseveremus  in  cruce"  (lib.  iii,  ch.  56). 
Another  and  strong  proof  in  favor  of  Kempis  is  the 
fact  that  the  principles  advanced  in  those  of  his  trea- 
tises the  authorship  of  which  has  not  been  contested 
are  precisely  the  same  as  are  advocated  in  the  Imi- 
tation. More  than  twenty  chapters  in  these  various 
treatises  have  almost  the  identical  headings  of  some  of 
the  Imitation.  Some  have  accounted  for  this  on  the 
ground  of  his  familiarity  with  De  Imita'ione  by  copy- 
ing; but  this  theory  falls  to  the  ground  when  we  con- 
sider that  in  all  his  other  treatises,  more  than  forty  in 
number,  he  nowhere  refers  to  or  quotes  the  Imitation, 
which  he  woukl  not  have  failed  to  do  if  it  were  the  pro- 
duction of  some  other  writer.  Next  to  the  general  re- 
semblance of  these  productions  with  regard  to  their  ten- 
or and  tone,  we  must  notice  their  similarity  of  style. 
The  Imitation  consists  wholly  of  a  series  of  sejiai-ate 
maxims,  pious  reflections,  advice,  axioms,  without  any 
special  connection  of  the  several  parlv?.  A  number  of 
MS.  copies  bore  the  title  Liber  sententiarum  de  Imita- 
iione  Chrisli,  or  A  dmonitiones  ad  spiritualiu  trahentes. 
But  this  is  exactly  Thomas  a  Kempis's  style.  The  writ- 
er's own  description  of  his  manner  of  writing  is  evident- 
ly that  of  the  author  of  the  Imitation :  '•  Vario  etiam 
sermonum  genere,  nunc  loquens,  nunc  disputans,  nunc 
orans,  nunc  colloquens,  nunc  in  propria  persona,  nunc  in 
peregrina,  placido  stylo  textum  pra?scntem  circum  fiexi" 
(Prolog.  Soliloqiii  A  nimcc).  Some  object  to  Kemjiis  on 
the  ground  that  he  was  a  mere  copyist,  who  spent  his 
life  peaceably  in  a  convent,  and  could  not  have  known 
so  intimately  and  accurately  the  yearnings,  the  sublime 
outbursts  of  the  human  heart  which  fill  every  page  of 
the  Imitation.  We  must  remark,  however,  that  tlie 
Canons  Regular  were  not  mere  copyists,  as  the  word  is 
understood  in  our  time,  but  rather  intelligent  ])ubli.sh- 
crs  of  the  works  they  copied,  and  often  men  of  great 
learning.  They  compared  and  corrected  the  works 
which  came  out  of  their  hands  by  the  aid  of  the  best 
authorities,  and,  according  to  Thomas,  their  principal  oc- 
cupations were  orare,  meditare,  studcre,  scribere.  Thom- 
as, as  we  have  seen,  was  especially  intrusted  ^vith  the  in- 
struction of  the  novices,  and,  it  seems,  preached  on  all 
special  occasions,  drawing  large  crowds  by  his  eloquence. 
He  who  seriously  studies  his  own  heart,  moreover,  does 
not  need  to  yo  abroad  in  the  world  to  become  thorough- 


KE3IPIS 


36 


KEMPIS 


ly  acquainted  with  human  nature,  with  its  varied  strug- 
gles, emotions,  and  j^eaniings.  "  I  iiave,"  says  Kenipis 
himself,  "  everywhere  sought  rest,  and  found  it  only  in 
solitude  and  among  books"  (De  Imitat.  Chrisli,  i,  22,  G ; 
23, 1  sq. ;  iii,  54, 1-8).  '■  The  Imitation,"  says  a  writer 
in  the  Revue  Chretienne  (Feb.  1861), "  is  a  great  and  good 
hook.  One  breathes  in  it  the  most  perfect  love  of  God. 
The  author,  whoever  he  may  be,  has  sounded  the  depths 
iif  this  abyss  of  love,  and  the  abyss  attracts  instead  of 
frightening  him.  In  this  faith  resting  on  God  one  feels 
a  passionate  casting  aside  of  the  things  of  this  world, 
and  a  fervent  yearning  for  the  realities  of  a  future  life." 

Another  great  reason  for  assigning  the  work  directly 
to  German  ground,  and  therefore  also  to  Kempis,  are 
the  many  Germanisms  occurring  in  the  Imituiion.  We 
shall  mention  only  five,  but  these  are  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  writer  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  German 
idioms :  Cackre  super,  in  the  sense  of  caring  for  a  thing ; 
jacere  in,  for  to  depend  on ;  (jravitas,  for  difficulty ;  levi- 
rt'i;  for  easily ;  and,  finally,  scire  exterius,  for  to  know  by 
heart.  This  last  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  German 
idiom  (unintelligible  in  any  other),  and  should  have  been 
■memoriter  scire.  Some  have,  on  the  other  hand,  point- 
ed to  several  Gallicisms  in  the  Imitatiun,  but  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  was  at  that  time  the  centre  of  theolog- 
ical knowledge,  and  it  is  no  wonder  if  some  French  idi- 
oms became  current  expressions  in  the  schools,  w'hile 
this  could  not  be  the  case  with  German.     See  Gerson. 

The  other  works  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  which  are  all 
of  an  ascetic  character  with  the  exception  of  two,  have 
been  collected  in  several  editions,  none  of  which,  how- 
ever, is  quite  complete.  Among  the  most  important 
editions  are  those  of  Ketelaer,  published  at  Utrecht  a 
few  j-ears  after  Kempis's  death;  of  Paris  (1493.  1520, 
1521, 1523, 1549),  Nuremberg  (1494),Venice  (1535, 1568, 
1576),  Antwerp  (1574).  That  published  at  the  same 
place  in  1600  by  the  Jesuit  Sommalius  is  considered  the 
best,  thougli  it  is  not  complete  ;  it  was  reprinted  at  Ant- 
werp (in  1607  and  1615),  at  Douay  (1635), Cologne  (1660, 
1728,  1754),  etc.  A  German  translation  of  Kempis's 
complete  works  was  published  by  Silbert  (Vienna,  1834, 
4  vols.  8vo).  One  of  the  latest  editions  was  prepared  by 
Krans,  Opera  Omnia  (Treves,  1868, 16mo),  but  the  most 
remarkable  modern  edition  is  a  Heptaglot,  printed  at 
Sulzbach  (1837),  containing,  besides  the  original,  later 
versions  in  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  German,  English, 
and  Greek.  As  for  the  De  Imitatione,  it  has  continued 
in  print  to  the  present  time  in  nearly  aU  the  languages 
of  the  civilized  world. 

Doctrines. — Supposing,  then,  that  Thomas  a  Kempis, 
of  whose  life  and  principal  work  we  have  just  treated, 
actually  floiu-ished  in  the  14th  century,  it  remains  to  be 
seen  in  how  far  his  doctrinal  views  entitle  him  to  prom- 
inence in  the  Christian  Church,  and  to  a  place  among 
the  forerunners  of  the  great  Reformation.  '•  It  is  true 
that  with  him  (Kempis),  in  common  with  aU  eminent 
men,  a  few  governing  thoughts  constitute  the  kernel  of 
his  intellectual  being  .  .  .  but  then  .  .  .  what  we  find 
in  him  is  practical  wisdom  .  .  .  sustained  by  a  deter- 
minate general  tendency  of  life  and  spirit."  It  must  be 
confesried,  also,  that  Thomas's  whole  theory  of  Christian 
life  and  laith,  in  so  far  as  we  see  It  developed  in  his 
writings,  cannot  be  i)roperly  called  original,  for  "  he 
draws  continually  from  the  great  traditionary  stream." 
'•  But,"  says  Ullmann  (ii,  132),  "  even  though  the  mate- 
rial be  not  to  any  great  extent  original,  it  yet  acquires 
through  the  individuality  of  Thomas,  compacting  it 
into  a  Ijeautiful  unity,  a  new  soul,  something  peculiarly 
lovely,  amiable,  and  fresh,  a  tone  of  truth,  a  cheerful- 
HLSS,  and  gentle  warmth  of  heart,  by  virtue  of  which  it 
|iroduces  quite  a  peculiar  etfect." 

For  a  decided  inclination  to  asceticism  we  always 
look  in  characters  of  the  age  to  which  Thomas  ;i  Kem- 
]iis  belonged;  we  do  not,  therefore,  make  room  here"  for 
a  delineation  of  this  part  of  his  character,  but  will  treat 
hastily  (inly  his  pecidiar  views  an  J'cl/oics/ii/i  vith  God. 
••  Where,"  asks  he,  "  can  man  find  that  which  is  tridy 


good,  and  which  cnduringly  satisfies  ?  Not  in  the  mul- 
titude of  things  which  distract,  but  in  the  One  which 
collects  and  unites.  For  the  one  does  not  proceed  out 
of  the  many,  but  the  many  out  of  the  one.  That  one  is 
the  one  thing  needfid,  the  chief  good,  and  nothing  better 
and  higher  either  exists  or  can  even  be  conceived.  .  .  . 
Compared  -with  him  the  creature  is  nothing,  and  only  be- 
comes anything  when  in  fellowship  with  him.  Whatev- 
er is  not  God  is  nothing,  and  sliould  be  counted  as  noth- 
ing" (Be  Imit.  Christi,  iii,  32,  1).  Here  we  find  Thomas 
agreeing  in  words  with  Eckart  of  the  Brethren  of  the 
Free  Sjdrit.  Both  say  God  is  all  and  man  nothing.  But 
with  what  tlifference  of  meaning!  Eckart  understands 
the  projjosition  metaphysically ;  Thomas  understands  it 
morally.  "According  to  l^ckart,  man  only  requires  to 
bear  in  mind  his  true  and  eternal  nature  in  order  to  be 
himself  God;  according  to  Thomas,  God,  as  himself  the 
most  perfect  person,  in  the  exercise  of  free  grace,  and 
from  fulness  of  the  blessings  that  reside  in  him,  is  [ileased 
to  impart  personality  to  men  in  order  that,  although, 
morally  considered,  they  are  themselves  nothing,  they 
may  through  him,  and  in  voluntary  fellowshi|)  with 
him,  attain  to  true  existence  and  eternal  life.  To  entef 
into  fellowship  with  God,  the  chief  good  and  fountain 
of  blessethiess,  and  to  become  one  with  him,  is  the  basis 
of  all  true  contentment.  But  how  can  two  such  par- 
ties, God  and  man,  the  Creator  and  the  creature,  be 
brought  together  ?  God  is  in  heaven  and  man  on  earth ; 
God  is  perfect,  and  man  sensual,  vain,  and  sinful.  There 
must,  therefore,  be  mediation — some  way  in  which  God 
comes  to  man,  and  man  to  God,  and  both  unite.  This 
union  of  man  with  God  depends  upon  a  twofold  condi- 
tion, one  negative  and  the  other  positive.  The  nega- 
tive is  that  man  shall  wholly  renoimce  what  can  give 
him  no  true  peace.  He  must  forsake  the  ^vorld,  which 
offers  to  him  such  hardship  and  distress,  and  whose  very 
pleasures  turn  into  pains ;  he  must  detach  himself  from 
the  creatures,  for  nothing  defiles  and  entangles  the  heart 
so  much  as  impure  love  of  them ;  and  only  when  a  man 
has  advanced  so  far  as  no  longer  to  seek  consolation 
from  any  creature  does  he  enjoy  God,  and  find  consola- 
tion in  him ;  he  must,  in  fine,  deny  himself,  and  wholly 
renounce — be  dead  to — selfishness  and  self-love,  for  who-> 
ever  loves  himself  will  find,  wherever  he  seeks,  only  his 
own  little,  mean,  sinfid  self,  without  being  able  to  find 
God.  This  last  is  the  hardest  of  all  tasks,  and  can  only 
be  attained  by  deep  and  earnest  self-acquaintance.  But 
whosoever  strictl)^  exercises  self-examination  will  infal- 
libly come  to  recognise  himself  in  his  meanness,  little- 
ness, and  nonentity,  and  will  be  led  to  the  most  perfect 
humility,  entire  contrition,  and  ardent  longing  after 
God.  For  only  when  man  has  become  little  and  noth- 
ing in  his  own  eyes  can  God  become  great  to  him ;  only 
when  he  has  emptied  himself  of  all  created  things  can 
God  replenish  him  with  his  grace.  .  .  .  Having  con- 
densed his  whole  doctrine  into  the  short  rule,  'Part  iriih 
all,  and  then  Jind  all,^  he  immediately  subjoms,  '  Lord, 
this  is  not  the  work  of  a  day,  nor  a  game  for  children. 
These  few  words  include  all  perfection.'  Here,  accord- 
ingly, an  efficacy  nutst  intervene  which  is  superior  to 
human  strength.  This  efficacy  is  divine  love  imparting 
itself  to  man,  and  becoming  the  mediatrix  between  God 
and  him,  between  heaven  and  earth.  Love  brings  to- 
gether the  holy  God  who  dwells  in  heaven  arid  the  sin- 
ful creature  upon  earth,  uniting  that  which  is  most 
humble  with  that  which  is  most  exalted.  It  is  the 
truth  that  makes  man  free,  'Juit  the  highest  truth  is  love. 
Divine  love,  imparting  and  manifesting  itself  to  man.  is 
grace.  God  sheds  forth  his  love  into  the  heart  of  man, 
who  thereby  acquires  liberty,  peace,  and  ability  for  all 
good  things;  and,  made  partaker  of  this  love,  man  reck- 
ons as  worthless  all  that  is  less  .than  God,  loving  God 
only,  and  loving  himself  no  more,  or,  if  at  all,  only  for 
God's  sake.  .  .  .  '  He  who  has  tnie  and  perfect  love 
does  not  seek  himself  in  anything,  but  only  desires  that 
(iod  may  be  glorified.  He  cares  not  to  have  joy  in 
himself,  but  refers  all  to  God,  from  whom,  as  their  source, 


KEMPIS 


KEX 


all  blessings  flov;-,  and  in  whom,  as  their  final  end,  all 
siilnts  lind  a  blissful  repose'"  (UUmann,  ii,  140  sq.). 

Naturall)'  enough,  Thomas  a  Kempis  shares  the  no- 
tion of  his  day — of  almost  the  whole  medieval  period 
—  in  reckoning  monachism  the  highest  stage  of  the 
Christian  life,  and  the  monk  the  perfect  Christian.  But 
this  is  due,  first  of  aU,  to  the  high  ideal  which  Thomas 
had  of  monachism,  and  of  which  he  was  himself  no 
mean  example.  Asceticism,  therefore,  characterizes  all 
he  writes.  Indeed,  even  a  taint  of  the  Pelagianism  of 
the  mediajval  theology  fastens  also  upon  him,  and  is  es- 
pecially manifest  in  those  of  his  writings  which  are  de- 
voted to  the  delineation  and  recommendalion  of  the 
monastic  life,  where  the  notion  of  merit  plays  a  not  nn- 
important  part,  and  the  centre  of  Thomas's  whole  re- 
ligious system  constitutes,  not  justification  by  faith,  but 
reconciliutiou  by  love.  It  is  even  true  that  "Thomas 
was  a  strict  Catholic,  and  directly  impugned  nothing 
which  had  received  the  sanction  of  the  Church,"  and 
that  "he  practiced  with  great  zeal  the  whole  divine 
worship  as  it  then  obtained,  and  which,  as  such,  appear- 
ed to  him  just  what  it  ought  to  be.  He  insists  with  par- 
ticular urgency  upon  ■what  is  so  characteristically  Ifo- 
mish,  prayers  for  the  dead  offered  through  the  medium 
of  the  mass,  especially  the  adoration  of  the  saints,  among 
whom  he  chiefly  worships  the  i)atron  saints  of  his  own 
monastery,  and,  most  of  all,  the  service  of  IMary,  to 
Avhom  he  ascribes  so  important  a  share  in  the  divine 
government  of  the  world  as  to  say  of  her, '  How  could  a 
world  which  is  so  full  of  sin  endure  unless  IMarj',  with  the 
saints  in  heaven,  were  daily  praying  for  it'?'  (Be  Discip, 
C/ciustr.  cap.  xiv;  comp.  /Sermon,  ad  Novit.  iii,  4,  p.  84; 
and  see  also  Trithemius,  ]Je  Scrijyt.  eccl.  c.  707,  p.  164; 
Specul.  Exemplar.  Dist.  x,  §  7).  He  no  less  acknowl- 
edges the  existing  hierarchy  and  ecclesiastical  constitu- 
tion in  their  whole  extent,  together  with  the  priesthood 
in  its  function  of  mediating  between  God  and  man;" 
but,  if  he  docs  not  attack,  neither  does  he  defend  or  es- 
tabUsh  any,  while,  in  many  respects,  he  may  be  said,  by 
his  negative  position,  to  have  not  only  actually  destroy- 
ed the  influence  of  the  Church,  but  really  to  have  paved 
the  way  for  reform.  However  true  it  be  that  "  Thomas 
is  not  intent ioimll 11  a  reformer  ...  he  nevertheless  is  a 
reformer, for  he  desired  the  selfsame  objects  as  Luther;" 
for  the  I'ormer,  like  the  latter,  cver^nvherc  insists  upon 
the  Christian  principles  of  spirituality  and  freedom 
which  formed  the  very  basis  of  the  Lutheran  Reforma- 
tion. In  the  12th  century  mysticism  was  the  defender 
of  the  Church,  but  not  so  the  practical  mysticism  of  the 
loth  century,  as  exhibited  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Com- 
mon Life,  and  especially  by  Thomas.  By  this  time  the 
tal)les  had  turned  completely.  The  position  once  occu- 
pied b}'  scholasticism  was  no-\v  assumed,  in  a  measure, 
by  mysticism,  and  it  became,  though  perhaps  only  cov- 
ertly and  unintentionaUy,  the  opponent  of  the  Church ; 
it  founded  or  gave  life  to  the  instittitions  which  sent 
forth  tlie  most  influential  precursors — the  very  leaders 
of  the  great  German  reform— and  in  many  other  respects 
"  directly  or  indirectly  exercised  a  positive  influence 
upon  the  Reformation."  For  did  not  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  labor  in  many  new  ways  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  great  reforms  of  the  lt?th  century? 
Who  but  they  afforded  religious  instruction  to  the  peo- 
ple in  their  mother  tongue,  and  sought  their  improve- 
ment by  every  means — educated  the  young,  and  circu- 
lated the  Bible?  "And,  inasmuch  as  h,  Kempis  also 
belongs  to  that  side,  inasmuch  as  he  is  manifestly  anti- 
scholastical,  gives  prominence  to  the  religious  and  moral 
import  of  the  dogma,  and  applies  it  almost  exclusively 
to  the  use  of  the  mystical  and  ascetical  life,  we  must, 
from  a  regard  for  his  edifj'ing  character,  ascribe  to  him 
a  real,  although  an  indirect  influence  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  creed"  (UUmann,  ii,  158). 

See  Brewer,  Thomre  h  Kempis  Bior/raphia ;  UUmann, 
Reformers  before  the  Reformation,  W,  1\4  sq. ;  Bahring, 
Thomas  a  Kempis  nach  seinem  diisseren  ii.  inneren  Le- 
ben  dargestellt  (Berlin,  1854,  8vo) ;  Jlooren,  Nachrichten 


ii.  Thomas  a  Kempis  (Crefeld,  1855,  12mo) ;  Rosweydo, 
VindicicK  Kempenses  ;  J.  Fronteau,  Kempis  Vindicatus  ; 
Heser,  Bioptra  Kemjiensis ;  Th.  Carre,  Thomce  a  Kempis 
a  seipso  restitutus  ;  Ens.  Amort,  Plena  Informatio  de  statu 
controversiee  quw.  de  uiictore  libelli  de  Imitatione  Chrisii 
ayitatur,  etc.;  Y>(;\\^xaX,Verhandelinf/  over  het  Broodir- 
schap  van  G.  Groot  (Leyden,  185G)  ;  Scholz,  Dissertatio 
qua  Thomce  a  Kemjns  sententia  de  re  Christiana  exponi- 
tur,  etc.  (Gronmg.  1839) ;  Malou,  Recherches  historiqucs 
et  critiques  sur  le  veritable  auteur  du  livre  de  Vlinitaiion 
de  Jesus  Christ  (Louvain,  1849)— the  most  recent  and 
best  account  of  the  details  of  the  discussion  on  the  au- 
thorship of  the  Imitation;  Herzog,  Reed-Encyklopddie ; 
Schrockh,  Kirchengesch.  xxxiv,  302  ;  Erhard,  Gesch.  dcs 
WiederuufblUhens,  i,  2G3 ;  Gieseler,  Kirchengesch.  ii,  4, 
p.  347;  Hodgson  (William),  Reformers  before  the  Ref- 
ormation (Philada.  18G7,  r2mo),  chap,  x ;  Kiihn,  in  the 
Rev.  Chret.  Aug.  1857 ;  Contemp.  Rev.  Sept.  18GG ;  Meth. 
Quart.  Rev.  Oct.  185G,  p.  G42;  Am.  Presb.  Review,  .Tan. 
18G3,  p.  1G4 ;  Jahrb.  deutsch.  Theol.  x,  1.      (J.  H.  AV.) 

Kemu'el  [some  Kem'uel}  (Keh.Kemuel',  bx^irp, 
perhaps  helper  of  God,  otherwise  assembly  of  God;  Sept. 
KapovliX),  the  name  of  three  men. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Abraham's  brother  Nahor,  and 
father  of  six  sons  (Gen.  xxii,  21),  all  unknown  except 
the  last,  Bcthucl,  who  was  the  father  of  Laban  and  Re- 
bekali  (Gcn.xxiv,  15).  B.C.  cir.  2090.  As  the  name  of 
Ai-am,  the  first-born,  is  also  the  Hebrew  name  of  Syria, 
some  commentators  have  most  strangely  conceived  that 
the  Syrians  were  descended  from  liim ;  but  Syria  was 
already  peopled  ere  he  was  born,  Laban  (Gen.  xxviii,  5) 
and  Jacob  (Deut.  xxvi,  5)  being  both  called  "  Syrians," 
although  neither  of  them  was  descended  from  Kemuel's 
son  Aram.  The  misconception  originated  with  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  which  in  this  case  renders  d'nX  "^nN,  "  father 
of  Aram,"  by  Trnrtpa  Si'pwj',  "father  of  the  Sj'rians." — 
Kitto.     See  Aram.  • 

2.  Son  of  Shiphtan  and  phylarch  of  Ephraim,  ap- 
pointed commissioner  on  behalf  of  that  tribe  to  partition 
the  land  of  Canaan  (Numb,  xxxiv,  24).     B.C.  1G18. 

3.  A  Levite,  father  of  Ilashabiah,  which  latter  was 
one  of  the  roval  ofiiccrs  under  David  and  Solomon  (1 
Chron.  xxvii,  17).     B.C.  1014. 

Ken,  Thomas,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  a 
distinguished  nonjuror  divine,  was  born  at  Berkham- 
Etead,  Hertfordshire,  in  July,  1637.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  School  and  New  College,  Oxford.  About 
1G66  he  entered  the  Church,  and  became  chaplain  to 
bishop  Morley,  who  in  1GG9  secured  for  him  a  prebend 
in  Westminster.  In  1G74  he  visited  Rome,  and  on  his 
return  in  1G79  was  made  D.D.  About  the  same  time 
he  was  appointed  to  the  household  of  the  princess  of 
Orange ;  but  the  strictness  of  his  mora!  and  religious 
principles  having  displeased  prince  'Winiam,  he  soon  left 
Holland,  and  accompanied  lord  Dartmouth  in  his  expe- 
dition against  the  pirates  of  Tangier.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  latter,  he  was,  on  their  return  in  1(;84, 
appointed  chaplain  to  Charles  II,  and  knew  how  to  main- 
tain the  dignity  of  his  office  unspotted  in  the  midst  of 
that  monarch's  licentious  court.  It  is  said  that  once,  as 
the  king  was  on  a  visit  to  Winchester,  Ken  refused  to 
receive  the  favorite.  El eonora  (iwynn,  into  his  house; 
the  king,  however,  praised  highly  the  dignity  of  the 
prelate's  character  instead  of  resenting  this  refusal, 
and  only  remarked,  "  IMistrcss  Gwynn  will  find  other 
lodgings."  In  the  very  same  year  (1684)  Ken  was  pro- 
moted to  the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells.  During 
the  reign  of  James  II,  when  the  Church  of  England 
seemed  threatened  with  inroads  from  the  papacy,  bish- 
op Ken  stood  forth  one  of  the  most  zealous  guardians 
of  the  national  Church,  stoutly  opposing  .any  attempts 
to  introduce  popery  into  Great  Britain.  He  did  not,  in- 
deed, take  an  active  part  in  the  famous  popish  contro- 
versy which  agitated  the  reign  of  king  James  II  so 
briskly,  but  lie  was  far  from  being  unmindful  of  the 


KENAN 


KENAZ 


danger,  and  while  others  worked  by  their  pen,  he  as 
actively  labored  in  the  j)ul|iit,  and  boldly  took  every 
occasion  to  refute  the  errors  of  Romanism ;  nor  did  lie 
hesitate,  when  the  dan!j;er  of  the  hour  seemed  to  require 
it,  to  set  before  the  royal  court  its  injurious  and  un- 
manly politics  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  Some  have  as- 
serted that  bishop  Ken  was  at  one  time  won  over  to  the 
papal  side,  either  at  this  time  or  later  in  life,  but  against 
this  assertion  speaks  his  decided  stand  in  l(i«8,  when  he 
protested  energetically  against  the  Edict  of  Tolerance, 
and  his  refusal,  when  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence  was 
strictly  commanded  to  be  read,  by  virtue  of  a  dispensing 
power  claimed  by  the  king,  to  comply  with  the  demand 
of  his  king.  Bishop  Ken  was  one  of  the  seven  bishops 
who  signed  a  petition  to  the  king  protesting  against 
tlie  act,  and  who  were  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  for 
their  insubordination.  After  the  Eevolution,  however, 
he  proved  his  steadfastness  to  his  royal  master  by  his 
refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  obedience  to  William  of 
Orange,  and  thereby  lost  his  bishopric.  Even  his  polit- 
ical adversaries,  ho^vever,  could  not  but  resi)ect  such 
conduct,  and  queen  iNIary,  whose  chaplain  he  had  been, 
provided  for  him  by  pension.  lie  retired  to  Longleate, 
in  Wiltshire,  and  there  died,  March  19, 1711.  Ken  was 
an  eminently  jiious  man,  and  jiossessed  great  learning 
and  talents.  While  in  the  bishopric  he  published  an 
Exposition  of  the  Church  Catechism  (Lond.  1G8(),  8vo), 
and  Prai/ersfor  the  Use  of  Bath  and  Wells  (Lond.  1G8G, 
12mo,  and  often).  Later  he  composed  a  Manual  of 
Prayers  (Lond.  1712,  12mo)  : — Exjjosition  of  the  Creed 
(Lond.  1852,  12rao),  etc.  He  also  wrote  much  poetry, 
which  remains  popiUar  to  this  day.  His  works  were 
lirst  published  at  London  in  1721,  in  4  vols.  8vo;  also 
Prose  Works  (London,  1838,  8vo).  See  W.L.Bowles, 
Life  of  Thomas  Ken  (Lond.  1830-31,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Life 
of  Thomas  Ken,  by  a  Layman  (Lond.  1851,  8vo) ;  Haw- 
kins, Zzye  of  Ken  (1713);  Duj'ckinck,  ZZ/e  of  Bishop 
Thomas  Ken  (N.  Y.  1859) ;  Burnet,  Own  Times ;  Gentle- 
man's Mar/azine,  vol.  Ixxxiv;  Stoughton,  Eccles.  Hist, 
of  the  Emjl.  Church  of  the  Restoration  (Lond.  1870, 2  vols. 
8vo),  ii,  87,  97,  141  sq.,  278,  4G0 ;  Darling,  Cyclopmdia 
Bibliorp-aphica,  ii,  1713;  Allibone,  Ziic^  of  English  and 
American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v.;  Strickland  (Agnes),  Lives 
of  the  Seven  Bishops  (Lond.  18GG,  12mo),  p.  234  sq.      (.J. 

ii.  w.) 

Ke'nan  (1  Chron.  i,  2).     See  Caixan, 

'K.e'n^th.(l\ch.Kenath',T':'^, possession;  Sept. Ka- 
vd^),  a  city  of  Gilead,  captured,  with  its  environs,  from 
the  Canaanites  by  Nobah  (apparently  an  associate  or 
relative  of  .lair),  and  afterwards  called  by  his  name 
(Numb.  xxxiii,42;  compare  .Judg.viii,  11);  although  in 
the  ])arallel  passage  (1  Chron.  ii,  23)  the  cai)ture  seems 
not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  exploits  of  ,Tair  him- 
self, a  circum^ance  that  may  aid  to  explain  the  appar- 
ent discrepancy  in  the  number  of  villages  ascribed  to 
the  latter.  SeeJAiR.  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (O«owrts^ 
s.  V.)  call  It  Kanathd  (Kava^u),  and  reckon  it  as  a  part 
of  Arabia  (Trachonitis).  It  is  probably  the  Canatha 
(Kdi'a^a)  mentioned  by  Ptolemy  (v,  15,  and  23)  as  a 
city  of  the  Decapolis  (v,  16),  and  also  by  Josephus  ( War, 
i,  19,2)  as  being  situated  in  Culi-Syria.  In  the  time 
of  the  latter  it  was  inhabited  l>y  Arabians,  who  defeated 
the  troops  led  against  them  by  Herod  the  Great.  In 
the  Peutinger  Tables  it  is  placed  on  the  road  leading 
from  Damascus  to  Bostra,  twenty  miles  from  the  latter 
(Relaiid,  Pal.  p.  421).  It  became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
in  the  5th  century  (id.  ]i.  G.s2).  All  these  notices  indicate 
some  locality  in  tlu'  llaurau  (Auranitis)  (ilcland.raldst. 
p.  G81),  where  Burckhardt  found,  two  miles  northeast 
of  Suweidah,  the  ruins  of  a  place  called  Kunawat  (Trav. 
in  Syria,  p.  83-G), doubtless  the  same  mentioned  by  Kev. 
E.  Smith  (Robinson's /i'e«mrc7(es,  iii.  Append,  p.  157)  in 
the  .lebel  Hauran  (see  also  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  "223). 
This  situation,  it  is  true,  is  rather-distant  north-easterly 
for  Kcnatli,  which  lay  not  far  licyond  .Togl)eliah  ( .Fudg. 
viii,  11),  and  within  the  territory  of  Manasseh  (Numb. 


xxxiii,  39-42),  but  the  boundaries  of  the  tribe  in  this 
direction  seem  to  have  been  quite  indelinite.  See  Ma- 
NASSEH,  East.  The  suggestion  that  Kenairat  was  Ke- 
nath  seems,  however,  to  have  been  lirst  made  by  Gese- 
nius  in  his  notes  to  Biu-ckhardt  (A.D.  1823,  p.  505).  An- 
other Kenawat  is  marked  on  Van  de  Yelde's  map  about 
ten  miles  farther  to  the  west.  The  former  place  was 
visited  by  I'orter  {Damascus,  ii,  87-115),  who  describe* 
it  as  "beautifully  situated  in  the  midst  of  oak  forests, 
on  the  western  declivities  of  the  mountains  of  Bashan, 
twenty  miles  north  of  Bozrah.  The  ruins,  which  cover 
a  space  a  mile  long  and  half  a  mile  wide,  are  among  the 
luiest  and  most  interesting  east  of  the  Jordan.  They 
consist  of  temples,  palaces,  theatres,  towers,  and  a  hip- 
podrome of  the  Roman  age  ;  one  ox  two  churches  of  ear- 
ly Christian  times,  and  a  great  number  of  massive  pri- 
vate houses,  with  stone  roofs  and  stone  doors,  which 
were  jirobably  built  by  the  ancient  Rephaim.  The  city 
walls  are  in  some  places  nearly  perfect.  In  front  of  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  temples  is  a  colossal  head 
of  Ashteroth,  a  deity  which  seems  to  have  been  wor- 
shipped here  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  as  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  Bashan  was  then  called  Ashteroth-Kar- 
naim  (Gen.  xiv,  5).  Kunawat  is  now  occupied  by  a  few 
families  of  Druses,  who  find  a  home  in  the  old  houses" 
{Handbook  for  Palest,  p.  512  sq. ;  comp.  Ritter,  Pal.  and 
Syr.  ii,  931-939;  Buckingham,  Travels  amonij  the  Arab 
Tribes,  p.  240). 

Ke'naz  (Ileb.  Kenaz',  13 p,  hunter ;  Sept.  Ktj/t^,  but 
in  1  Chron.  i,  3G  v.  r.  K^^{^),  the  name  of  three  or  four 
men. 

1.  The  last  named  of  the  sons  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  first- 
born ;  he  became  the  chieftain  of  one  of  the  petty  Edom- 
itish  tribes  of  Arabia  Petraja  (Gen.  xxxvi,  11,  15;  1 
Chron.  1,36).  B.C.  post  1905.  "The  descendants  of 
Esau  did  not  settle  within  the  limits  of  Edom.  The  Itu- 
rreans  migrated  northward  to  the  borders  of  DamasciLs; 
Amalek  settled  in  the  desert  between  Egypt  and  Pales- 
tine; Teman  went  westward  into  Arabia.  We  are  jus- 
tified, therefore,  in  inferring  that  Kenaz  also  may  have 
led  his  family  and  followers  to  a  distance  from  Mount 
Seir.  Forster  maintains  (Geor/raphy  of  Arabia,  11,43) 
that  the  tribe  of  Kenaz,  or  Al-Kenaz  with  the  Arabic 
article  prefixed,  are  identical  with  the  Lnkeni  or  Lteeni 
of  Ptolemy,  a  tribe  dwelling  near  the  shores  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  {Geoy.  vi,  7),  and  these  he  would  further  iden- 
tif}'  with  the  iEnezes  (pioyjCTly  Anezeh),  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  tribe  of  Bedawhi  in  Arabia.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Hebrew  Koph  may  have  been  changed  into  the 
Arabic  Ain;  in  other  respects  the  names  are  identical. 
The  ^Enezes  cover  the  desert  from  the  Euphrates  to 
Sj'ria,  and  from  Alejipo  on  tlie  north  to  the  mountains 
of  Nejd  on  the  south.  It  is  said  that  they  can  bring 
into  the  field  10,000  horsemen  and  90,000  carael-riders, 
and  they  are  kirds  of  a  district  some  40,000  square  miles 
in  area  (Burckhardt,  Xotes  on  the  Bedouins  and  Waha- 
bys,  1  sq. ;  Porter,  Handbook  for  Syria  and  Palest,  p.  536 
sq.)"  (Kitto).     See  Kexizzite. 

2.  Successor  of  Pinon,  and  predecessor  of  Teman 
among  the  later  Edomitish  emirs  ("dukes"),  who  ap- 
pear to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  Horite  kings 
(Gen.  xxxvi,  42 ;  1  Chron.  i,  53).  B.C.  considerably 
ante  1G58.     See  Esau. 

3.  The  younger  brother  of  Caleb  and  father  of  0th- 
niel  (afterwards  judge),  who  married  Caleb's  daughter 
(Josh.  XV.  17  ;  Judg.  i,  13)  ;  he  had  also  another  son.  Se- 
raiah  (1  Chron.  iv,  13).  B.C.  post  1698.  On  account 
of  this  double  relationship  Caleb  is  sometimes  called  a 
Kksezite  (Numb,  xxxiii,  12;  Josh,  xiv,  6, 14),  whence 
some  have  maintained  that  he  was  the  son  rather  than 
brother  of  Kenaz. 

4.  Son  of  Elah,  ajid  grandson  of  Caleb,  the  sun  of 
.Jeplnnmeh  (1  Chron.  iv,  15,  where  the  margin  under- 
stands "even  Kenaz,"  tlp^,  as  a  proper  name.  Uknaz). 
B.C.  post  1G18. 


KENDAL 


39 


KENITE 


Kendal,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Sherburne,  Mass.,  July  11,  17r>3,  of  humble  par- 
entage. Young  Kendal  labored  hard  to  secure  for  him- 
self the  advantages  of  a  thorough  education,  with  a  view 
to  entering  the  ministry.  When  about  ready  to  go  to 
college  the  Kevolution  broke  out,  and  he  entered  the 
army.  He  finally  went  to  Cambridge  University  when 
25  years  old,  and  graduated  in  1782;  studied  theology 
under  the  sliadow  of  the  same  institution,  and  settled 
over  the  Congregational  Church  at  Weston,  IMass.,  as 
an  ordained  pastor,  Nov.  5, 1783.  In  180(5  Yale  College 
conferred  the  degree  of  D.D.  on  Mr.  Kendal.  He  died 
Feb.  15,  1814.  He  published  many  of  his  Sei-mons  (from 
17n3-1813).  Dr.  Kendal  "stood  high  among  the  clergy 
of  his  day,  and  was  ...  an  acceptable  preacher."  Of 
his  religious  opinions,  Dr.  James  Kendal  says  (in  Sprague, 
AmuiLijViih  180), '•  he  was  classed  with  those  who  are 
denominated '  liberal,'  and  was  probably  an  Arian,  though 
I  think  he  was  little  disposed  either  to  converse  or  to 
preach  on  controversial  subjects." 

Kendal],  George  (1),D.D.,  an  English  Calvinis- 
tic  divine,  who  flourished  abou't  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century,  was  prebend  of  Exeter  and  rector  of  Blisland, 
Cornwall,  at  the  Kestoration,  whgn,  on  account  of  non- 
conformity, he  was  ejected.  He  died  in  1(563.  He  is 
noted  as  tlie  author  of  an  able  treatise  on  the  Calvinistic 
faith,  entitled  Vindication  of  (he  Doctrine  of  Pi-edestina- 
tion  (Lond.  1653,  fol.).  Another  noted  work  is  his  reply 
to  John  Goodwin,  Defence  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Perse- 
verance of  the  Saints  (1054,  fol.).  See  Allibone,  i^iW. 
of  A  mcr.  and  Enf.  A  utluns,  ii,  s.  v. 

Kendall,  George  (2),  a  Methodist  minister,  was 
born  about  the  year  1815,  was  converted  at  the  age  of  16, 
and  joined  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  In  1845  he 
joined  the  Southern  Church.  He  was  licensed  to  preach 
about  1858,  and  upon  the  reorganization  of  the  IMcthod- 
ist  Episcopal  Church  in  Georgia  after  the  war,  he  was 
amoiig  the  first  to  return  to  the  Northern  Church.  He 
was  ordained  deacon  by  bishop  Clark  at  jMurfreesbor- 
ongh,  Tenn.,  and  continued  to  labor  as  a  missionary 
among  his  people  until  the  organization  of  this  Confer- 
ence, when  he  was  received  on  trial  and  appointed  to 
Clayton  Circuit.  In  1808  he  was  ajipointed  to  Clark 
Chapel,  Atlanta,  and  in  1860  and  1870  to  White  Water 
Circuit.  He  died  there  April  12, 1871.  His  dying  words, 
"  The  gates  are  open  and  I  must  go,"  give  assurance  that 
he  passed  away  as  one  of  the  fathers,  after  a  useful  and 
happy  life,  to  the  rest  that  remaineth  to  the  people  of 
God. — Minnies  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  278. 

Kendall,  John,  a  prominent  Quaker,  was  born  in 
Colchester,  England,  in  1726;  entered  the  ministrj' when 
21  years  old,  and  in  1750  accompanied  Daniel  Stanton 
on  a  religious  visit  through  the  northern  parts  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  active  in  the  work  for  over  sixty  years, 
and  encouraged  many  "  to  the  exercise  both  of  civil  and 
religious  duties."  He  died  Jan.  27, 1815. — Janney,  Hist, 
of  the  Friends,  iv,  44  sq. 

Kendrick,  Bennett,  an  early  Methodist  Episco- 
pal minister,  was  a  native  of  Mecklenburg  Co.,Va. ;  en- 
tered the  itinerancy  in  1789;  was  stationed  at  Wilming- 
ton in  1802;  at  Charleston  in  1803-4;  at  Columbia  in 
1805 ;  presiding  elder  on  Camden  District  in  1807,  and 
died  April  5  of  that  year.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  nqt 
given,  but  he  died  j^oung.  He  was  a  man  of  much 
gravity,  piety,  and  intelligence,  and  was  a  studious  and 
skilful  preacher  of  the  AVord.  His  ministry  was  very 
useful,  and  his  early  death  was  a  loss  to  his  Conference 
and  tlie  Church. — Min.  of  Conferences,  i,  150.    ((i.  L.T.) 

Kendrick,  Clark,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in 
Hanover,  N.  11.,  Oct.  6,  1775.  After  teaching  school  for 
a  time,  he  finally  turned  his  attention  to  preaching,  and 
became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  at  Poultney,  Vt., 
where  he  was  ordained,  May  20, 1802.  He  had  in  1810 
been  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  Vermont  Association, 
of  which  he  remained  a  member  all  his  life.  He  also 
made  several  missionary  tours,  aside  from  his  regular 


pastoral  duties.  Mr.  Kendrick  had  early  interested  him- 
self in  the  subject  of  foreign  missions,  and  when,  in  1813. 
the  Baptist  General  Convention  for  the  Promotion  of 
Missions  was  established,  he  immediately  advocated  an 
auxiliary  in  his  own  state,  and  it  was  forpied.  He 
was  elected  first  vice-president,  and  in  1817  became  its 
corresponding  secretary,  which  office  he  held  until  his 
death.  In  1819  he  received  the  honorary  degree  of 
M.A.  from  tlie  Middlebury  College.  He  was  chiefly  in- 
strumental in  forming  the  Baptist  Education  Society  of 
the  State  of  Vermont,  of  which  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent, and  afterwards  appointed  agent.  In  this  connec- 
tion he  co-operated  witli  tlie  Baptists  of  Central  and 
Western  New  York  for  the  benefit  of  IMadison  Univers- 
ity, Hamilton.  He  died  Feb.  29,  1824.  Mr.  Kendrick 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled  Plain  Dealinrj  with  the  Pc- 
do-Bu]3tists,  etc.,  and  some  occasional  Sennons. — Sprague, 
Annals,  vi,  379. 

Kendrick,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister 
of  note,  was  born  in  Hanover,  N.  II.,  April  22,  1777. 
His  early  education  was  limited,  and  he  was  at  first  en- 
gaged in  agricidtural  pursuits.  Having  joined  the  Bap- 
tist Church  in  1798,  he  felt  called  to  preach,  and,  after 
studying  with  that  view,  was  licensed  in  the  fpring  of 
1803.  He  supplied  for  about  a  year  the  Baptist  socictj- 
in  Bellingham,Mass. ;  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church 
at  Lansingburgh, N.  Y.,  in  Aug.,  1805;  and  from  thence 
removed  in  1810  to  Middlebury,  Vt.  In  1817  he  became 
pastor  of  the  churches  of  Eaton,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1822  he 
was  elected  professor  of  theology  and  moral  ]ihiIosophy 
in  Madison  University,  N.  Y.,  with  which  institution  he 
remained  connected  until  his  death,  Sept.  11. 1848.  In 
1823  he  was  made  D.D.  by  Brown  University,  and  in 
1825  one  of  the  overseers  of  Hamilton  College.  Dr. 
Kendrick  published  two  or  three  occasional  Sermons. 
See  Sprague,  yl ?i«a&,  vi,  482 ;  A.^\Ae.tan,  American  Cy- 
clopcedia,  x,  185. 

Ken'ezite  (Numb,  xxxii,  12;  Josh.  xiv,0, 14"^.  See 
Kexizzite, 

Ken'ite  [some  Ke'nite']  {^i^p,,  Keijni',  prob.  from 
"jlp,  to  worh  in  iron,  Gen.  xv,  19 ;  Numb.  xxi,v,  21 ; 
Judg.  i,  16;  iv,  11,  17;  v,  24;  1  Sam.  xv,  6;  xxx,  29; 
written  also  "'3|!!,  Kent',  1  Sam.  xxvii,  10;  and  plural, 
£"'2^1?',  Kinim',  1  Chron.  ii,  55  ;  Sept.  Kf7'«(0(,  Gen.  xv, 
19;  Kf ?'a7oc,  Numb,  xxiv,  21;  Judg.  iv,  11,  17;  V.ivaloi, 
1  Chron.  ii,  55 ;  Ku'rtToc,  Judg.  i,  16 ;  v,  24  ;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ; 
Kfi'i  V.  r.  Kfi'fi^i,  1  Sam.  xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  Vulg.  Ci- 
ncei.  Gen.  xv,  19 ;  1  Chron.  ii,  55 ;  Cinaus,  Numb,  xxiv, 
21 ;  Judg,  i,  16 ;  iv,  11, 17  ;  v,  24 ;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ;  Ceni,  1 
Sam.  xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  Auth.Vers.  "Kenitcs,"  Gen. 
XV,  19;  Numb,  xxiv,  21;  Judg.  iv,  11;  1  Sam.  xv,  6 ; 
xxvii,  10;  xxx,  29;  1  Chron.  ii,  55;  '"  Kcnite,"  Judg.  i, 
16;  iv,17;  v,24;  sometimes  written  "^|?,A''rt'?/H/, Numb, 
xxiv,  22,  Septuag.  voacia  iravovf)^  iac ,\ v\s;.  Cin,  Auth. 
Vers.  "Kenite;  Judg.  iv.  11,  last  clause,  Sept.  K.tva, 
Vulg.  Cina'i,  Auth.Vers. "  Kenites"),  a  collective  name  for 
a  tribe  of  peojile  who  originally  inhabited  the  rocky  and 
desert  region  lying  between  St)uthern  Palestine  and  the 
mountains  of  Sinai  adjoining— and  even  partly  inter- 
mingling with  —  the  Amalekites  (Numb,  xxiv,  21;  1 
Sam.  XV,  0).  In  the  time  of  Abraham  they  possessed  a 
part  of  that  country  which  the  Lord  promised  to  him 
(Gen.  XV,  19),  and  which  extended  from  Egypt  to  the 
Euphrates  (verse  18).  At  the  Exodus  the  Kenites  pas- 
tured their  flocks  round  Singi  and  Horel).  Jethro,  Mo- 
ses's father-in-law,  was  a  Kenite  (Judg.  i,  16);  and  it 
was  when  Moses  kept  his  flocks  on  the  heights  of  Ho- 
rel) that  the  Lord  appeared  to  him  in  tlie  bi:rning  bush 
(Exod.  iii,  1,  2).  Now  Jethro  is  said  to  have  been 
'■priest  of  J/m//««"  (ver.  1),  and  a  "Midianitc"  (Numb. 
X,  29) ;  hence  we  conclude  that  the  jMidianifes  and  Ke- 
nites were  identical.  It  seems,  however,  that  there 
were  two  distinct  tribes  of  IMidianites,  one  descended 
from  Abraham's  son  by  Keturah  (Gen.  xxv,  2),  and  the 
other  an  older  Arabian  tribe.     See  JIidiaxite.     If  this 


KEXITE 


40 


KENIZZITE 


1)6  SO,  then  the  Kcnites  were  the  older  tribe.  They 
were  nomads,  and  roamed  over  the  country  on  the  north- 
ern border  of  the  Sinai  peninsula,  and  along  the  eastern 
shores  of  the  Gidf  of  Akabah.  This  r^y^ion  agrees  well 
with  the  prophetic  description  of  Balaam:  "'And  he 
looked  on  the  Keuites,  and  said,  Strong  is  thy  dwelling- 
jilace,  and  thou  puttest  thy  nest  {'p_,  ken,  alluding  to 
their  name)  in  a  rock"  (Xunib.  xxiv,  21  J.  The  wild 
and  riH-ky  mountains  along  the  west  side  of  the  valley 
of  Arabah,  and  on  both  shores  of  the  Gidf  of  Akabah, 
were  the  home  of  the  Kenites.  The  connection  of  j\Io- 
ses  with  the  Kenites,  and  the  friendship  shown  by  that 
tribe  to  the  Israelites  in  their-journey  through  the  wil- 
derness, had  an  important  influence  npon  their  after  his- 
tory. Mosos  invited  .Tethro  to  accompany  him  to  Pal- 
estine; he  declined  (Numb,  x,  29-32),  Init  a  portion  of 
the  tribe  afterwards  joined  the  Israelites,  and  Lad  as- 
signed to  them  a  region  ou  the  southern  border  of  Ju- 
dah,  such  as  fitted  a  nomad  people  (Judg.  i,  IG).  There 
they  had  the  Israelites  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Amalek- 
ites  on  the  other,  occupying  a  position  similar  to  that 
of  the  Tartar  tribes  in  Persia  at  the  present  day.  One 
family  of  them,  separating  themselves  from  their  breth- 
ren in  the  south,  migrated  away  to  Northern  Palestine, 
and  pitched  their  tents  beneath  the  oak-trees  on  the 
iqiland  grassy  plains  of  Kedesh-Naphtali  (Judg.  iv,  11, 
where  we  should  translate :  "And  Hcber  the  Kcnite  had 
severed  himself  from  Kain  of  the  children  of  Ilobab,  the 
father-in-law  of  ■Moses,  and  pitched,"  etc.).  It  was  here 
that  Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber,  their  chief,  slew  Sisera, 
who  had  sought  refuge  in  her  tent  (verse  17-21).  It 
would  appear  from  the  narrative  that  while  the  Kenites 
preserved  their  old  friendlv  intercourse  with  the  Israel- 
ites, they  were  also  at  peace  with  the  enemies  of  Israel 
— with  the  Canaanites  in  the  north  and  the  Amalekites 
in  the  south.  When  Saul  marched  against  the  Ama- 
lekites, he  warned  the  Kenites  to  separate  themselves 
from  tlicm,  for,  he  said,  '"Ye  showed  kindness  to  all  the 
children  of  Israel  when  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt"  (1 
Sara.  XV,  0).  The  Kenites  still  retained  their  posses- 
sions in  the  .south  of  Judah  during  the  time  of  David, 
who  made  a  similar  exemption  in  their  case  in  his  feign- 
ed attack  (1  Sam.  xxvii,  10 ;  compare  xxx,  20),  but  we 
hear  no  more  of  them  in  Scriptiu-e  history.  If  it  be 
necessary  to  look  for  a  literal  '■  fulfilment"  of  the  sen- 
tence of  Balaam  (Numb,  xxiv,  22),  we  shall  best  find  it 
in  the  accounts  of  the  latter  days  of  Jerusalem  under 
Jchoiakim,  when  the  Keuite  Rechabites  were  so  far 
'•  wastetl"  by  the  invading  array  of  Assyria  as  to  be 
driven  to  take  refuge  within  the  walls  of  the  city,  a 
step  to  which  we  may  be  sure  nothing  short  of  actual 
extremity  coidd  have  forced  these  Children  of  the  Des- 
ert. Whether  '"Asshur  carried  them  away  captive" 
with  the  other  inhabitants  we  arc  not  told,  but  it  is  at 
least  probable. 

Josephus  gives  the  name  Keveriotc  (.Uif.  v,  5,4); 
but  in  his  notice  of  Saul's  expedition  (vi,  7,  3)  he  has 
TO  TMV  "SliKijUTthv  tbvoc — the  form  in  which  he  else- 
where gives  that  of  the  Shechcmites.  In  the  Targums, 
instead  of  Kenites  Ave  find  Shulmai  (■^X'cbu,"),  and  the 
Talmudists  generally  represent  them  as  an  Arabian 
tribe  (Lightfoot,  Opera,  ii,  420;  \lfi\a.nA,  Pahpst.  p.  140). 
The  same  name  is  introduced  in  the  Samarit.Yers.be- 
fore  "the  Kcnite"  in  Gen.  xv,  19  only.  Procopius  de- 
scribes the  Kenites  as  holding  the  country  about  Petra 
and  ("ades  (Kadesh),  and  bordering  on  the  Amalekites 
(ad  Gen.  xv ;  see  Keland,  p.  81).  The  name  has  long 
since  disappeared,  but  probably  the  old  Kenites  are  rep- 
resented l)y  some  of  the  nomad  tribes  that  still  pasture 
their  flocks  on  the  southern  frontier  of  Palestine.  The 
name  of  Jia-Kain  (al)breviatcd  from  Bene  el-K(iin)  is 
mentioned  In' Ewald  (OV-.s-r/u'r/^/f,  i,  337,  note)  as  borne  in 
comparatively  modern  days  l)y  one  of  the  tribes  of  .the 
•desert :  but  little  or  no  inference  can  be  drawn  from  such 
similarity  in  names. 

The  most  remarkable  development  of  this  people,  ex- 


emplifying most  completely  their  characteristics — their 
Bedouin  hatred  of  the  restraints  of  civilization,  their 
fierce  determination,  their  attachment  to  Israel,  together 
with  a  peculiar  semi-monastic  austerity  not  observable 
in  their  earher  proceedings — is  to  be  found  in  the  sect 
of  the  Kechabite.s,  instituted  by  Itechab,  or  Jonadab  his 
son,  who  come  prominently  forward  on  more  than  one 
occasion  in  the  later  history.  See  IJeciiabite.  The 
founder  of  this  sub-family  apjiears  to  have  been  a  cer- 
tain Hammath  (Auth.Yers. '■Hemath"),and  a  singular 
testimony  is  furnished  to  the  connection  which  existed 
between  this  tribe  of  Midianitish  -wanderers  and  the  na- 
tion of  Israel,  by  the  fact  that  their  name  and  descent 
are  actually  included  in  the  genealogies  of  the  great 
house  of  Jiulah  (1  Chron.  ii,  55).  It  appears  that,  what- 
ever was  the  general  condition  of  the  3Iidianites,  the 
tribe  of  the  Kenites  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  true 
God  in  the  time  of  Jethro  [see  Hoisab]  ;  and  that  those 
families  which  settled  in  I'alestine  did  not  afterwards 
lose  that  knowledge,  but  increased  it,  is  clear  from  the 
passages  which  have  been  cited. — Kitto  ;  Smith.  See 
Hengstenberg,  Bileam,  p.  192  sq. ;  Schwarz,  Pulestiiie,  p. 
218;  Ewald,  Gesch.  der  V.  Israel,  i,  337;  ii,  31;  Hitter, 
Erdkunde,  xv,  135-138 ;  also  the  monographs  of  A.  Mur- 
ray, Comrn.  de  Kinms  (Hamb.  1718) ;  A.  (i.  Kerzig,  BibL- 
hist.  A hhundl.  v.  d.  Kenitern  (Chemnitz,  1798).    See  Mid- 

lAXITE. 

Ken'izzite  (Heb.  "^'Sp,  Kenizzi',  patronymic  from 
KiiN.iz),  the  appellation  of  two  races  or  families. 

1.  (Sept.  Kfj'f^nToijYulg.  Cenezai,  Auth.Yers.  "  Ke- 
nizzites.")  Dr.  Wells  suggests  thatrthey  were  the  de- 
scendants of  Kenaz  {Geocjr.  i,  1G9).  ]Mr.  Forster  adopts 
this  view  {Georjraphy  of  A  ruhia,  ii,  43),  but  it  is  clearly 
at  variance  with  the  scope  of  the  IMosaic  narrative.  The 
words  of  the  covenant  made  with  Abraham  were :  '■  Unto 
thy  seed  have  I  given  this  land,  from  the  river  of  Egypt 
unto  the  great  river,  the  river  Euphrates,  the  Kenites, 
and  the  Ktrdzzites,^''  etc.,  plainh'  impl\ing  that  these 
tribes  then  occupied  the  land,  whereas  Kenaz,  the  grand- 
son of  Esau,  was  not  born  for  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  Kenizzites  were  thus  noticed.  Forster's  idea  that 
the  promise  to  Abraham  was  proleptical  cannot  be  en- 
tertained. Nothing  further  is  known  of  their  origin, 
which  was  probably  kindred  with  that  of  the  other  tribes 
enumerated  in  the  same  connection.  As  the  name  sig- 
nifies hunter,  it  maj'  possibly  be  a  general  designation  of 
some  nomade  tribe.  The  sacred  writer  gives  no  infor- 
mation as  to  Avhat  part  of  the  country  the}-  inhabited, 
but,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  among  the  tribes  of  Ca- 
naan who  were  actually  dispossessed  by  the  Israelites 
(Exod.  iii,  8 ;  Josh,  iii,  10 ;  Judg.  iii,  5),  we  may  infer 
that  the  Kenizzites  dwelt  beyond  the  borders  of  those 
tribes.  The  whole  country  from  Egypt  to  the  Eui)hra- 
tes  was  promised  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xv,  18) ;  the  coun- 
try divided  by  lot  among  the  twelve  tribes  extended 
only  from  Dan  to  Bocrsheba,  and  consequently  by  far 
the  larger  portion  of  the  ''land  of  promise"  did  not  then 
become  "  the  land  of  possession,"  and,  indeed,  never  was 
occupied  by  the  Israehtes,  though  the  conquests  of  Da- 
vid probably  extended  over  it.  Bochart  supposes  that 
the  Kenizzites  had  become  extinct  between  the  times 
of  Abraham  and  Joshua.  It  is  more  probable  that  they 
inhabited  some  part  of  the  Arabian  desert  on  the  con- 
fines of  Syria  to  which  the  expeditions  of  Joshua  did  not 
reach  (see  Bochart,  Opera,  i,  307).  This  is  the  view  of 
the  Talmudists,  as  may  be  .seen  in  the  quotation  from 
their  writings  given  by  Lightfoot  {Opera,  ii,  429). — 
Kitto. 

2.  (Sept.  KiPfZatoQ,  but  ^taKtyiopifffifvoc  in  Numb.; 
Yulg.  Cenezmis,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Kenezite.")  An  epithet 
applied  to  Caleb,  the  son  of  Jephunneh  (Numb,  xxxii, 
12;  Jo.sh.  xiv.  C,  14);  probably  designating  his  twofold 
relationship  withKEXAz,  2  (see  further  in  Eitter's  Krd- 
hinde,  XV,  138).  "  Ewald  maintains  that  Caleb  really  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  the  Kenizzites,  and  was  an  adopt- 
ed Israelite  {Isr,  Gesch.  i,  298).    Prof.  Stanley  {Lectures 


KENNADAY 


41 


KENNEDY 


on  Jewish  Church,  i,  2G0)  holds  the  same  view,  and  re- 
gards Caleb  as  of  Idumaian  origin,  and  descended  from 
Kenaz,  Esau's  grandson.  But  a  careful  study  of  sacred 
history  proves  that  the  Edomites  and  Israelites  had 
many  names  in  common ;  and  the  patronymic  Kenizzite 
is  derived  from  an  ancestor  called  Kenaz,  whose  name  is 
mentioned  in  Judg.  i,  13,  and  who  was  perhaps  Caleb's 
grandfather"  (Kitto).     See  Caleb. 

Kennaday,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
ISIethodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  in  the  city  of 
New  York  Nov.  3, 1800.  In  early  life  he  was  a  printer, 
devoting  even  then,  however,  his  leisure,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, to  literary  pursuits.  He  was  converted,  under 
the  ministry  of  the  Kev.  Dr.  Heman  Bangs,  in  the  John 
Street  Methodist  Episcopal  Church ;  was  licensed  to  ex- 
hort the  year  following;  joined  the  New  York  Confer- 
ence in  1823 ;  was  stationed  Vm  Kingston  Circuit  in  1823 ; 
1825,  Bloomingburgh  Circuit ;  182(5,  transferred  to  Phil- 
adelphia Conference,  and  appointed  that  and  the  follow- 
ing year  at  Patterson,  N.  J. ;  1828-29,  Newark,  N.  J. ; 
1830-31,  Wilmington,  Del. ;  1832,  Morristown,  N.  J. ;  in 
1833,  retransferred  to  New  York  Conference,  and  sta- 
tioned in  Brooklyn ;  1835-3(>,  preacher  in  charge  of  New 
York  East  Circuit,  embracing  all  the  churches  east  of 
Broadway;  1837-38,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. ;  1839,  retrans- 
ferred to  Philadelphia  Conference,  and  that  and  tlie  fol- 
lowing year  stationed  at  Union  Church,  Philadeliihia  ; 
18-11-42,  Trinity  Church,  Philadelphia ;  1843-14,  second 
time  to  AVilmington,  Del. ;  at  the  close  of  his  pastoral 
term  the  Church  was  tlivided  peacefully,  and  a  new 
Church  organized,  called  St.  Paul's,  and  for  the  t-ivo  fol- 
lowing years  Dr.  Kennaday  was  its  pastor;  1847-48, 
again  pastor  of  Union  Church,  Philadelphia ;  1849,  Naz- 
areth Churcli,  in  that  city;  1850,  transferred  to  New 
York  East  Conference,  and  tliat  and  the  following  year 
was  pastor  of  Pacific  Street  Church,  Brooklyn  ;  1852-53, 
returned  to  Washington  Street  Church ;  1854-55,  First 
Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  185G-57,  second  time  to  Pa- 
cific Street  Church,  Brooklyn ;  1858-59,  third  time  to 
Washington  Street  Church,  Brooklyn;  18G0-C1,  reap- 
pointed to  First  Church,  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  18G2,  Hart- 
ford, Conn. ;  and  in  1803  he  was  appointed  presiding 
elder  of  Long  Island  District,  which  office  he  was  admin- 
istering at  the  time  of  his  decease.  The  noticeable  fact 
of  this  record  is  the  number  of  times  Dr.  Kennaday  was 
returned  as  jiastor  to  churches  that  he  had  ]ireviously 
served.  Of  the  forty  years  of  his  ministerial  life,  twenty- 
two  years,  or  more  than  half,  were  sjient  in  live  church- 
es. No  fact  better  attests  his  long-continued  popularity 
and  his  power  of  winning  the  affections  of  the  people. 
"As  a  Christian  pastor,"  says  bishop  Janes,  "Dr.  Ken- 
naday was  eminent  in  his  gifts,  in  his  attainments,  and 
in  his  devotion  to  his  sacred  calling,  and  in  the  seals. 
God  gave  to  his.ministrj^  In  the  pulpit  he  was  clear; 
ill  the  statement  of  his  subject,  abundant  and  most  felic- 
itous in  his  illustrations,  and  pathetic  and  impressive  in 
his  applications.  His  oratory  was  of  a  high  order.  ,  .  . 
Out  of  the  pulpit,  the  ease  and  elegance  of  his  manners, 
the  vivacity  and  sprightliness  of  his  conversational  pow- 
ers, the  tenderness  of  his  s3-mpafhy,  and  the  kindness  of 
his  conduct  towards  the  afflicted  and  needy  .  .  .  made 
him  a  greatly  beloved  pastor."  He  died  Nov.  13, 1863. 
—Conference  Minutes,  1804,  p.  89.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Kennedy,  B.  J.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
■was  born  in  Bolton,Yt.,  Aug.  IG,  1808;  was  converted  in 
1842;  served  the  Church  faithfully  as  a  local  preacher 
until  1800,  when  he  joined  the  I*;rie  Annual  Conference, 
and  tilled  with  great  success  the  pulpits  at  Baiubridge, 
Maytield,  Bedford,  Twinsburgh,  and  Hudson  successive- 
ly. He  died  at  Hudson,  Ohio,  Nov.  30, 18C9.  Tke  chief 
elements  of  Kennedy's  power  with  the  people  were  puri- 
ty of  life,  cheerfulness,  broad  Christian  sympathies  for 
fallen  humanity,  and  strong  convictions  of  the  saving 
efficacy  of  Jesus  and  his  Gospel.  He  sustained  a  high 
position  among  the  brethren  of  his  Conference. — Chris- 
Han  Advocate'(N.Y.),  1870. 


Kennedy,  James,  a  Scotch  prelate,  grandson,  by 
his  mother,iiti;ol)ert  HI  of  Scotland,  was  Iwrn  in  1405  (V). 
After  studying  at  home,  he  was  sent  to  the  Continent 
to  finish  his  education,  entered  the  Church,  and  as  early 
as  in  1437  became  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  and  in  1440  ex- 
changed for  the  more  important  see  of  St.  Andrew.  He 
next  made  a  journey  to  Florence,  to  lay  before  pope  Eu- 
genius  IV  the  plan  of  the  reforms  he  intended  introduc- 
ing in  the  administration  of  his  diocese.  On  his  return 
(1444)  he  was  made  lord  chancellor,  and  as  such  took 
an  active  part  in  the  affairs  of  Scotland.  Pained  at  wit- 
nessing the  discords  which  marked  the  first  years  of  the 
reign  of  James  II,  he  again  applied  to  the  pope  for  ad- 
vice ;  but  the  latter's  intervention,  which  he  thought 
would  restore  peace,  did  not  have  this  result.  During 
the  minority  of  James  HI  he  sat  in  the  council  of  the 
regency,  and,  according  to  Buchanan,  used  his  infiueiice 
there  for  the  public  good.  He  died  at  St.  Andrew,  May 
10,  1406.  Kennedy  founded  and  endowed  the  college 
of  San  Salvador,  wliich  afterwards  became  the  Univer- 
sity of  St.  Andrew.  He  is  reputed  to  have  written  a 
work  entitled  iMonita  Politico,  and  also  a  history  of  his 
times,  both  of  which  are  ])robably  lost.  See  Mackenzie, 
Lives ;  Crawford,  Lires  of  Statesmen ;  Buchanan,  History 
of  Scotland ;  Chambers,  Illustrious  Scotsmen;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biorj.  Ginerule,  xxvii,  560,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kennedy,  John,  an  English  divine,  who  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  (he  died  aliout 
1770).  rector  of  Bradley,  Derbyshire,  is  noted  for  his 
works  on  Scripture  chronology,  of  which  the  following 
are  best  known  :  Complete  SifStem  of  A  stronomical  Chro- 
nolofiii  mfoldinri  the  Scriptures  (London,  1702, 4to) :  this 
work  Kennedy  dedicated  to  the  lung,  and  the  dedica- 
tion was  composed  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson : — Explana- 
tion and  Proof  of  diko  (1774,  8vo),  addressed  to  James 
Ferguson. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Enylish  and  Ameri- 
can Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v% 

Kennedy,  Samuel,  M.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Scotland  in  1720,  and  educated  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  On  coming  to  America  he 
was  received  by  the  I'resbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  and 
Ucensed  by  them  in  1750.  The  following  year  he  was 
ordained,  and  installed  over  the  congregations  of  Bask- 
ing Ridge,  New  Jersey,  where  he  was  jirincipal  of  a  clas- 
sical school  which  acquired  considerable  celebrity.  In 
1700  he  rendered  his  name  conspicuous  in  behalf  of  an 
Episcopal  clergyman  by  his  connection  with  the  ludi- 
crous proclamation,  ^^  Eiyhteen  Presb.  Minis,  for  a  yroatr 
He  ■was  not  only  a  minister  and  a  teacher,  but  a  physi- 
cian, and  practiced  medicine  with  no  small  reputation 
in  his  own  congregation.  He  died  August  31, 1787. — 
Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  175. 

Kennedy, 'William  Megee,  an  early  Methodist 
minister,  was  born  iu  1783,  in  that  ])art  of  North  Caro- 
lina which  was  ceded  to  Tennessee  in  1790.  He  lived 
some  years  in  South  Carolina,  and  afterwards  settled  m 
Bullock  County,  Ga.  In  1803  he  was  Ijrought  into  the 
Church  under  the  ministry  of  Hope  Hull;  joined  the 
South  Carolina  Conference  in  1805,  and  filled  its  most 
important  appointments  for  more  than  thirty  years,  half 
of  the  time  as  presiding  elder.  In  1839  he  was  struck 
with  apoplexy,  and  was  cousequenfly  retunied  as  super- 
annuate, but  he  still  continued  to  labor  untU  his  death 
in  1840.  He  was  lamented  as  one  of  the  noblest  men 
of  Southern  ^Methodism.  Kennedj'  had  a  pc<'nliarly 
well-balanced  mind.  His  counsel  was  prudent  and  sa- 
gacious; he  formed  his  opinions  deliberately,  and  such 
was  his  discretion  that,  in  the  various  responsible  rela- 
tions he  sustained  to  the  Church,  it  is  quesfionalile 
whether  a  single  instance  of  rashness  could  be  justly 
charged  upon  him.  His  piety  unaffected,  his  intercourse 
with  the  people  affectionate,  his  preaching  faitlifid,  car- 
nest,  and  successful,  he  was  a  very  popular  prcaclier. 
He  was  successivelv  at  Charleston  (iu  1809, 1810, 1820, 
1821,  1834,  and  183'5),  Camden  (1818),  AVilmington,  N. 
C.  (1819),  Augusta,  Ga.  (1826-27),  Columbia,  S.  C.  (1828- 


KENNEDY 


42 


KENNEY 


29. 1S36-37).     See.  Summers,  SJcetches,  p.  131 ;  Stevens, 
History  of  the  M.  E.  Church,  iv,  205.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Keunedy,Williani  Sloane,  a  Presliyterian  min- 
ister (N.  S.),%vas  liorii  in  3Iii:--cy,  ra.,Jiine  "..  \>^ii\  grad- 
uated at  Western  Keserve  College  in  184G  ;  was  licensed 
by  the  Cleveland  Presbytery  in  1848,  and  soon  after  in- 
stalled pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church  in  Bucks- 
ville.  Ohio.  Here  he  labored  earnestly  for  four  years. 
In  185-2  he  accepted  a  call  to  Sandusky,  Ohio,  where  he 
ministered  with  great  success  until  his  removal  to  Cin- 
cinnati in  1859.  His  work  there  seemed  to  promise  well, 
his  congregations  increased,  and  his  influence  was  strong; 
but  in  the  spring  of  1860  his  health  began  to  fail,  and 
for  foiu-teen  months  he  struggled  against  disease,  preach- 
ing even  the  Sabbath  before  his  death.  He  died  July 
30, 1861.  He  was  a  thorough  scholar,  a  profound  theo- 
logian, and  an  instructive  and  impressive  preacher.  He 
wrote  Mesmtnic  Prophecies: — a  History  of  the  Plan  of 
Union: — Life  of  Christ;  and  Sacred  Analofjies. — Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  1862. 

Keimerly,  Philip,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Augusta  Co.,  Va.,  Oct.  18, 1769 ;  converted 
in  1786;  entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1804;  and 
ill  1806,  on  account  of  ulcerated  throat,  located  and  set- 
tled in  Logan  Co.,  Ky.  In  June,  1821,  he  re-entered 
the  itinerancy  in  the  Kentucky  Conference,  but  died  on 
the  5th  of  the  ensuing  October.  "  But  his  work  Avas 
done,  his  temporalities  well  adjusted,  his  slaves  emanci- 
pated, and  his  sun  went  down  without  a  cloud."  During 
his  long  location  his  labors  were  "very  extensive  and 
useful."  "  He  was  a  good  preacher,  full  of  faith  and  of 
the  spirit  of  Christ." — Minutes  of  Conferences,  i,  399. 

Kennet,  Basil,  an  English  divine  of  note,  younger 
brother  of  the  following,  was  born  Oct.  21, 1674,  at  Post- 
ling,  in  Kent ;  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford, 
in  1690 ;  took  the  master's  degree  in  1696,  and  the  year 
following  entered  the  ministry.  In  1706  he  was,  by  the 
interest  of  his  brother,  appointed  chaj  lain  to  the  English 
factory  at  Leghorn,  where  he  no  sooner  arrived  than  ho 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the  papists,  and  was  in 
danger  of  the  Inquisition.  This  establishment  of  a 
Church  of  England  chaplain  was  a  new  thing;  and  the 
Italians  were  so  jealous  of  the  Northern  heresy  that,  to 
give  as  little  offence  as  possible,  he  perlbrmed  the  duties 
of  his  office  with  the  utmost  privacy  and  caution.  But, 
notwithstanding  this,  great  offence  was  taken  at  it, 
and  complaints  were  immediately  sent  to  Florence  and 
Kome,  when  both  the  pope  and  the  court  of  Inquisition 
declared  their  resolution  to  expel  heresy  and  the  public 
teacher  of  it  from  the  confines  of  the  holy  sec,  and  se- 
cret orders  were  given  to  apprehend  and  hurrj^  him 
away  to  Pisa,  and  thence  to  some  other  religious  prison, 
to  bury  him  alive,  or  otherwise  dispose  of  him  in  the 
severest  manner.  Upon  notice  of  this  design,  Dr. New- 
ton, the  English  envoy  at  Florence,  interposed  his  of- 
fices at  that  court,  where  he  could  obtain  no  other  an- 
swer but  that  "  lie  might  send  for  the  English  preacher, 
and  keep  him  in  his  own  family  as  his  domestic  chap- 
lain ;  otherwise,  if  he  presumed  to  continue  at  Leghorn, 
he  must  take  the  consequences  of  it,  for,  in  those  matters 
of  religion,  the  court  of  Inquisition  was  superior  to  all 
civil  powers."  When  the  earl  of  Sunderland,  then  sec- 
retarj^  of  stale,  was  informed  of  this  state  of  affairs,  he 
sent  a  menacing  letter  by  her  majesty's  eoniniand.  and 
the  chaplain  was  permitted  to  continue  to  officiate  in 
safety  (  Life  of  Jiishop  Kennet,  p.  53  sq.).  In  1713  Ken- 
net's  failing  health  obliged  him  to  quit  Leghorn,  and  he 
returned  to  Oxford,  to  be  elected  only  the  year  follow- 
ing iiresident  of  his  college.  He  died,  however,  shortly 
after,  eillier  towards  the  close  of  1714  or  the  opening  of 
1715.  He  wrote  in  the  theological  department  an  A'.rpo- 
fition  of  the  Apostles''  Creed: — IJnriiphriise  on  the  Psalms, 
in  verse  (1706,  8vo) ;  and  published  shortly  before  his 
death  a  volume  of  Sei'mons  on  several  Occasions  (Lond. 
1715,  8vo).  He  also  furnished  English  translations  of, 
1.  I'uffendorf 'd  Iaiio  of  Nature  and  Nations  : — 2.  Pla- 


cette's  Christian  Casuist: — 3.  Godeau's  Pastoral  Instruc- 
tions : — 4.  Pascal's  Thouyhts  on  Reliyion,  to  which  he  pre- 
fixed an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  those  thoughts 
were  dehveretl  by  the  author : — 5.  Balzac's  A  ristijipus, 
with  an  account  of  his  life  and  writings : — 6.  The  Mar- 
riaye  of  Thames  and  Isis,  from  a  Latin  poem  of  iMr.  Cam- 
den. I)r.  Basil  Kennet  is  said  to  have  been  a  very  amia- 
ble man,  of  exemplary  integrity,  generosity,  and  mod- 
esty. See  AUibone,  Diet.  Enyl.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  s.  v. ; 
Gen.  Dictionary ;  Hook, Eccles.  Bioy.  vi, 433.     (.J.  H.  W.) 

Kennet,  White,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  writer,  was  born  at  Dover  Aug.  10, 1660.     He  stud- 
ied at  St.  Edmund  Hall,  Oxford,  and  while  there   at- 
tracted attention  by  publishing  in   1680   a  pamphlet 
against  the  Whig  party,  entitled  Letter  from  a  Student 
at  Oxford  to  a  Eriend  in  the  Country,  in  Vindication  of 
his  i\fajesi'y,  the  Church  ofEnyland,  and  the  University, 
Through  the  influence  of  sir  William  Glynne  he  was 
appointed  vicar  of  Ambrosden,  C)xfordshire,  in  1684,  and 
obtained  a  preljend  in  the  church  of  Peterborough,  but 
returned  to  Oxford,  where  he  became  vice-principal  of. 
Edmund  Hall,  the  college  to  which  Hearne  belonged. 
He  was  decidedly  opposed  to  the  concessions  in  1688, 
and  was  of  the  number  in  the  Oxford  diocese  who  re- 
fused to  read  the  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience. 
He  subseciuently  (1700)  resigned  Ambrosden,  and  settled 
in  London  as  minister  of  St.  Botolph's,  Aldgate,  where 
he  became  a  very  popidar  preacher.    He  was  made  suc- 
cessively archdeacon  of  Huntingdon  in  1701.  and  in  1707 
dean  of  Peterborough,  and  finally,  in  1718,  bijhop  of 
Peterborough.     He  died  Dec.  19, 1728.    Bishop  Kennet 
was  a  man,  as  his  biographer  says,  "  of  incredible  dili- 
gence and  application,  not  only  in  his  youth,  but  to  the 
very  last,  the  whole  disposal  of  himself  being  to  perpet- 
ual industry  and  service,  his  chiefest  recreation  being 
varietj'  of  employment."     His  published  works  are,  ac- 
cording to  his  biographer's  statement,  fifty-seven  in 
number,  including  several  single   sermons  and  small 
tracts ;  but  perhaps  not  a  less  striking  proof  of  the  in- 
defatigable industry  ascribed  to  him  is  to  be  seen  in  his 
manuscript  collections,  mostly  in  his  own  hand,  now  in 
the  Lansdowne  department  of  the  British  Museum  Li- 
brary of  Jlanuscripts,  where  from  No.  935  to  1042  are 
all  his,  and  most  fif  them  containing  matter  not  incor- 
porated in   any  of  his   printed  works.     The  principal 
among  the  latter  are:  Parochiid  Antiquities  attempted  in 
the  History  of  Ambrosden,  Burcester,  etc.  (Oxford,  1695, 
4to;  1818,  4to)  : — Ecclesiast.  Synods,  etc.,  of  the  Church 
ofEnyland  vindicated  from  the  3Iisrep7-esentations,  etc. 
(Lond.  1701,  8vo)  : — An  occasional  Letter  on  the  Subject 
of  Enylish  Convocations  (Lond.  1701,  8vo),  and  a  num- 
ber of  occasional  letters  and  sermons : — Jllonitioiis  and 
A  dvices  delivered  to  the  Cleryy  of  the  Diocese  of  Peter- 
borouyh,  etc.   (London,  1720,  4to) :  —  On  Lay  Impro- 
priations  (see  below)  : — Complete  History  of  England 
(Lond.  1719,  3  vols.  foL),  etc.     Bishop  Kennet,  in  1713, 
had  made  a  large  collection  of  books,  maps,  etc.,  with 
intent  to  write  A  full  History  of  the  Propayntion  of 
Christianity  in  the  Enylish  American  Colonies,  hut,  for 
some  reason  unknown  to  us,  the  j)lan  was  never  execu- 
ted.   It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  bishop  failed  to  carry 
out  the  project;  to  judge  from  vol.  iii  of  the  History  of 
England  which   he   pre]iared,  the   contribution  would 
have  been  valuable  to  American  Church  hi!-tory.     In 
1.S50,  S.  F.AVof)d  and  Ivl.  Baddeley  published  from  bish- 
op Kennet's  ^MSS.  his  Lay  Dnj.i-opriaiions  (  Lond.  12mo). 
See  William  Newton.  Life  (f  the  Riyht  Per.  Dr.  White 
Kennet  (London,  1730,  8 vo) ;  'SXooA,  Athenm  Oxonienses, 
vol.  ii ;  Chalmers,  Gen.  Bioy.  Dicticnai-y ;  Hoefer,  Kom: 
Bioy.  Generate,  xxvii,  563 ;  English  Cyclopa'dia ;  AUi- 
bone, Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  mer.  Authors,  s.  v. 

Kenney,  Paishox  T.,  a  IMethodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  iu  New  Bedford,  Mass..  Se])t.  5, 1810.  He 
embraced  religion  at  the  tender  .ige  of  seven,  but  grad- 
ually became  indifferent  to  its  personal  enjoyment  until 
his  nineteenth  year,  when  he  was  restored  to  the  di- 


KENNICOTT 


43 


KENNICOTT 


vine  favor.  He  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1830;  entered 
"Wil'oraham  Academj',  and  in  1832  iSIiddlctown  Univers- 
ity, lu  1833  he  joined  the  New  England  Conference, 
was  appointed  to  Thompson  Circuit;  1834,  Hebron; 
1835,  East  Windsor;  1830,  IMystic;  1837,  North  Nor- 
wich; 1838-39,  Chicopee  Falls ;  1840-41,  Willimantic; 
1842,  located ;  1844,  readmitted  and  sent  to  Manchester; 
1845-4(;,  Mystic  Bridge :  1847,  Westerly  Mission ;  1848, 
Falmonth  ;"l849,  East  Harwich ;  1850-51, 1'rovincetovvn 
Centre ;  1852-55,  Sandwich  District ;  185G-57,  North 
Manchester;  1858-59,  Stafford  Springs;  1800-Gl,  Allen 
Street,  New  Bedford  ;  1862-65,  Sandwich  District;  1866 
-68,  New  London  District.  In  1869  he  removed  to  Ne- 
braska City,  Neb.,  and  started  a  school,  with  the  pros- 
pect of  its  becoming  a  Conference  Seminary,  but  died 
shortly  after,  Nov.  11, 1869.  As  a  preacher,  he  was  em- 
inently practical,  lucid,  fervent,  and  spiritual,  and  his 
labors  were  attended  with  success.  As  a  presiding  el- 
der, his  executive  ability  gave  general  satisfaction. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  72. 

Keunicott,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent Biblical  scholars,  was  born  of  humble  parents  at 
Totness,  in  Devonshire,  England,  Apr.  4, 1718.  At  quite 
a  youthful  age  he  succeeded  his  father  as  master  of  a 
charity  school  in  his  native  place,  and  here  continued 
imtil  1744,  when,  having  previously  given  proof  of  pos- 
sessing superior  talents,  he  was,  through  the  kindness 
of  several  gentlemen  in  the  neighborhood  who  inter- 
ested themselves  in  his  behalf,  and  opened  a  subscrij)- 
tiou  to  defray  his  educational  expenses,  eiiabled  to  go  to 
the  University  of  Oxford.  He  entered  at  AVadham  Col- 
lege, and  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  divinity  and 
•Hebrew  with  great  diligence,  and  while  yet  an  under- 
graduate published  Ta-o  Dissertations:  1.  On  the  Tree 
of  Life  in  Paradise,  n-ith  some  Ohsercations  on  the  Fall 
of  Man  ;  2.  On  the  Oblations  of  Cain  and  A  hel  (Oxf.  8vo), 
which  came  to  a  second  edition  in  1747,  and  procured 
him,  free  of  ex])ense,  the  distinguished  honor  oi'  a  bach- 
elor's degree,  even  before  the  statute  time.  Shortly  af- 
terwards he  was  elected  fellow  of  Exeter  College,  and 
in  1750  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  By  the  publication  of 
several  sermons  at  this  time  he  acijuired  addit.onal 
fame,  but  his  great  name  is  due  to  his  elaborate  re- 
searches f(jr  the  improvement  of  the  text  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  for  which  he  laid  the  foundation  in  1763.  It 
was  in  this  year  that  lie  inaugurated  his  great  under- 
taking by  giving  to  the  public  the  tirst  volume  of  his 
dissertations,  entitled  The  State  of  the  Printed  Hebrew 
Text  of  the  0.  T.  considered  (Oxford,  1753-1759,  2  vols. 
8vo ).  In  this  work  he  evinces  the  necessity  of  the  un- 
dertaking upon  which  he  had  set  his  heart  by  refuting 
the  popular  notion  of  the  "absolute  integrity"  of  the 
Hebrew  text.  In  the  first  volume  he  institutes  a  com- 
parison of  1  Chron.  xi  with  2  Sam.  v  and  xxiii,  followed 
by  observations  on  seventy  Hebrew  MSS.,and  maintains 
that  numerous  mistakes  aud  interpolations  disfigure  the 
sacred  Scriptures  of  the  O.  T. ;  in  the  second  volume  he 
vindicates  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  proves  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  printed  copies  of  the  Chaldee  paraphrase 
(the  accordance  of  which  with  the  text  of  the  O.  T.  was 
boasted  of  as  evincing  the  purity  of  the  latter),  gives  an 
account  of  the  Hebrew  MSS.  supposed  at  liis  day  to 
have  b'.'en  extant,  and  closes  with  tlie  proposition  to  in- 
stitute a  collation  of  existing  Hebrew  ^ISS.  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  a  correct  edition  of  the  O.-T.  Scriptures 
in  the  original;  extending  a  very  hearty  invitation  for 
assistance  to  the  Jews  also.  This  undertaking,  as  we 
miglit  naturally  expect,  met  with  much  opposition  both 
in  lingland  and  on  the  Continent.  It  was  feared  by 
many  that  such  a  collation  might  overturn  the  received 
reading  of  various  important  passages,  and  introduce 
uncertainty  into  the  whole  system  of  Biblical  interpre- 
tation. The  ])lan  was,  however,  warmly  patronized  by 
the  majority  of  the  English  clergy;  and  when,  in  1760, 
he  issued  his  proposals  for  collecting  all  the  Hebrew 
MSS.  prior  to  the  invention  of  the  art  of  printing  that 
could  be  found  in  Great  Britain  or  in  foreign  countries, 


the  utility  of  the  proposed  collation  w'as  very  generally 
admitted,  and  a  subscrijjtion  to  defray  the  expense  of  it, 
amounting  to  nearly  ten  thousand  poiuids,  was  quickly 
made.  Various  persons  ■were  employed,  both  at  home 
and  abroad ;  among  foreign  literati  the  principal  vi'as 
professor  Bruns,  of  the  University  of  Helmstadt,  who 
not  only  collated  Hebrew  MSS.  in  Germany,  but  went 
for  that  purpose  into  Switzerland  and  Italy.  In  conse- 
quence of  these  efforts,  more  than  six  hundred  Hebrew 
MSS.,  and  sixteen  jVISS.  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
were  discovered  in  different  libraries  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent,  many  of  which  were  wholly  collated,  and 
others  consulted  in  important  passages.  To  this  colla- 
tion of  MSS.  was  also  added  a  collation  of  the  most  noted 
printed  editions  of  the  Bible,  including  those  edited  by 
the  Kabbins,  whose  annotations,  as  well  as  the  Talmud 
itself,  were  frequently  consulted  by  the  learned  Keuni- 
cott. The  collation  continued  from  1760  to  1769,  during 
which  period  an  account  of  the  progress  making  was 
annually  published.  At  length,  after  sixteen  years  of 
unmitigated  industry,  appeared  the  first,  and  four  years 
later  the  second  volume  of  Kennicott's  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Bible — Vetvs  Testamentuni  Hebraicum  cum  rariis 
Lectionibus  (Oxonii,  1776, 1780,  2  vols.  fol.).  Though  the 
number  of  various  readings  was  found  to  be  very  great, 
yet  they  were  neither  so  numerous  nor  by  any  means  so 
important  as  those  that  are  contained  in  Griesbach's 
edition  of  the  New  Testament.  But  this  is  easily  ac- 
counted for  from  the  revision  of  the  Hebrew  text  by  the 
Masorites  in  the  7th  and  8th  centuries,  and  from  the 
scrupulous  fidelity  with  which  the  Jews  have  trans- 
scribed  the  same  text  Jrom  that  time.  '■  The  text  of 
Kennicott's  edition,"  says  Marsh  {Uiriniti/  Lectures,  pt. 
ii),  "was  printed  from  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  with 
which  the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  by  Kennicott's  direc- 
tion, were  aU  collated.  But  as  variations  in  the  points 
were  disregarded  in  the  collation,  the  points  were  not 
added  in  the  text.  The  various  readings,  as  in  the  crit- 
ical editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  were  printed  at 
the  bottom  of  the  page,  with  references  to  the  corre- 
sponding readings  of  the  text.  In  the  Pentateuch  the 
variations  of  the  Samaritan  text  were  printed  in  a  col- 
umn parallel  to  the  Hebrew ;  and  the  variations  observ- 
able in  the  Samaritan  manuscripts,  which  differ  from 
each  other  as  well  as  the  Hebrew,  are  likewise  noted, 
with  references  to  the  Hamaritan  printed  text.  To  this 
collation  of  manuscripts  was  added  a  collation  of  the 
most  distinguished  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  in  the 
same  manner  as  Wetstein  has  noticed  the  variations  ob- 
servable in  the  principal  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. Nor  did  Kennicott  confine  his  collation  to  man- 
uscripts and  editions.  He  further  'considered  that  as 
the  (piotations  from  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  works 
of  ecclesiastical  writers  afford  another  source  of  various 
readings,  so  the  quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Bible  in 
the  works  of  Jewish  writers  are  likewise  subjects  of  crit- 
ical inquiry."  To  the  second  volume  Kennicott  added 
a  Dissertatio  Generalis,  in  which  an  account  is  given  of 
the  manuscripts  and  other  authorities  collated  for  the 
work,  and  also  a  history  of  the  Hebrew  text  from  the 
time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  This  dissertation, 
which  the  best  Biblical  scholars  regard  as  able  and  valu- 
able, was  reprinted  at  Brunswick,  Germany,  in  1783,  im- 
der  the  superintendence  of  professor  Bruns.  Tlic  faults 
attaching  to  this  great  work  of  Dr.  Kennicott  are  thus 
summarized  by  Dr.  Davidson  {Biblical  Crit.  2d  edit.,  p. 
154  sq.):  "  He  (i.  e.  Kennicott)  neglected  the  ^fasorah 
(q.  V.)  as  if  it  Avere  wholly  worthless.  In  specifying  his 
sources,  he  is  not  always  consistent  or  uniform  in  his 
method.  Some  MSS.  are  only  partially  examined.  Nei- 
ther was  he  very  accurate  in  extracting  various  read- 
ings from  his  copies.  ■\Vhere  several  letters  arc  want- 
ing in  MSS.  there  is  no  remark  indicating  whether  the 
defect  should  be  remedied,  and  how.  The  ^MSS.  cor- 
rected by  a  different  hand  are  rejected  without  reason. 
Old  synagogue  ]\ISS.  are  neglected,  though  they  would 
have  contributed  to  the  value  of  the  various  rcaduigs. 


KENNON 


44 


KENOSIS 


Tan  dor  Hooght's  text  is  not  accurately  given,  since  the 
marginal  kerh,  the  vowel  points,  and  the  accents,  have 
been  kit  out.  The  Samaritan  text  should  have  been 
given  in  Samaritan  letters,  tliat  readers  might  see  the 
origin  of  many  of  the  various  readings.  The  edition 
wants  extracts  from  ancient  versions,  which  is  a  serious 
defect.  His  principles  or  rides  forjudging  Hebrew  MSS., 
and  determining  the  age,  quality,  or  value,  are  defec- 
tive. In  applying  his  copious  materials  he  often  errs. 
He  proceeds  too  much  on  the  assumption  that  the  Mas- 
oretic  text  is  corrupt  where  it  differs  from  the  Samari- 
tan rentateuch  and  ancient  versions,  and  therefore  sets 
about  ref(jrming  it  where  it  is  authentic  and  genuine. 
Yet,"  Dr.  Davidson  continues,  "  there  can  be  no  doubt 
thai;  Kennicott  was  a  most  laborious  editor.  To  him  be- 
longs the  great  merit  of  bringing  together  a  large  mass 
of  critical  materials.  The  task  of  furnishing  such  an  ap- 
paratus, drawn  from  so  many  sources,  scattered  through 
the  libraries  of  many  lands,  was  almost  Herculean,  and 
the  learned  author  is  entitled  to  all  the  praise  for  its  ac- 
complishment." An  important  Supplement  to  Kenni- 
cott's  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  by  De  Kossi,  under 
the  title  of  Vdi-ue  Lectiones  Veteiis  Testamenti  (Parma, 
1784-88, 4  vols.  4to,  with  an  Appendix  in  1798).  The 
works  of  Kennicott  and  De  liossi  are,  however,  too  bulky 
and  exjicnsive  for  gcntral  use.  An  edition  of  the  He- 
brew liible,  containing  the  most  important  of  the  vari- 
ous readings  in  Kennicott's  and  De  Kossi's  volumes,  was 
published  by  Dciderlein  and  Meissner,  Leipz.  1793 ;  but 
the  text  is  incorrectly  printed,  and  the  paper  is  exceed- 
ingly bad.  A  far  more  correct  and  elegant  edition  of 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  -which  also  contains  the  most  impor- 
tant of  Kennicott's  and  De  Rossi's  various  readings,  is 
that  of  Jahn  (Vienna,  1806, 4  vols.  8vo).  Dr.  Kennicott, 
during  the  progress  of  this  work,  resided  at  Oxford, 
where  he  was  librarian  of  the  Kadcliife  Library  after 
17G7,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church.  He  died  there  Sept. 
18,  1783.  Kennicott's  other  works  are,  The  Duty  of 
T/iuiik.ir/ifwf/for  Peace,  etc.  (Loud.  1749, 8vo) : — A  Woid 
to  the  Ilutciiinsonians,  etc.  (London,  1756, 8vo): — Chris- 
tian Fortitude :  a  Sermon  on  Rom.  viii,  35,  37  (Oxford, 
1757,  8vo)  : — A  luwer  to  a  Letter  from  the  Rev.  T.  Ruth- 
erford, D.D.,  F.R.S.  (London,  1762,  8vo)  -.—A  Sermon 
jJrear/ied  before  the  University  of  Oxford  at  St.  Marfs 
Church,  May  19,  1765  (Oxf.  1765,  8vo) : — Observations 
on  1  Sam.  vi,  19  (Oxford,  1768,  8vo): — Ten  Annual  Ac- 
counts of  the  Collation  of  Hebrew  MSS.  of  the  0.  Test., 
1760-1769  (Oxf.  1770, 8vo)  ■.—Critici  Sac7-i,  or  Short  Jn- 
trod.  to  Hebrew  Criticism  (Lond.  1774, 8vo)  : — Vetus  Tes- 
tameiitum  Hehraicum,  etc.  (Oxonii,  1776-80,  2  vols,  fol.) : 
— Dissertaiio  fjenei-alis  in  Vetus  Testanientum  Hebraicum, 
etc.  (Oxonii,  1780,  fol.) : — Epistola  ad  celeberrimum  pro- 
fessnrem  Joannem  Daridem  Michaelis,  de  censuru  primi 
tomi  liitiliorum-  Hebraicorum  nuper  editi,  in  Bihliotheca 
ejus  ()ri(  iitiili,  parte  xi  (Oxonii,  1777,  8vo) : — Editionis 
Veteris  Testamenti  Hebraici  cum  rari/s  hctionibus  brevis 
defensio,  contra  Ephemeridum  Go<  //iiif/i  jisium  crimina- 
tiones  (Oxon.  1782, 8vo)  -.—The  Sabbath,  a  Sermon  (Oxf. 
1781, 8  vo) : — Remarks  on  select  Passages  in  the  0.  T.,  to 
which  are  added  eight  Sermons  (Oxford,  1787,  8vo),  of 
which  more  than  one  hundred  pages  are  occupied  with 
a  translation  of  thirty-two  i)salms  and  critical  notes  on 
the  entire  book.  "  It  is  worthy  of  the  author's  reputa- 
tion." See  Dr.  Paulus,  Mcuiorabilia,  No.  i,  p.  191-198; 
(ientl.  Magazine,  1768;  North  Amer.  Review,  x,  8  sq.; 
W.ilch,  Xeueste  Religionsgesch.  i,  319-410;  v,  401-536; 
Eicldiorn,  Einleitung  in  das  A.  T.  vol.  ii ;  Darling,  Cgclo- 
jxrdia  J->ibliograj)h.  ii,  1721 ;  English  Cyclopeedia  ;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclopcedia,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kennon,  IJohkut  Lkwis,  a  INIethodist  Episcopal 
minister,  born  in  (iranville  County,  N.  C,  in  1789,  was 
converted  in  1801,  entered  the  South  Carolina  Confer- 
ence in  1809,  and  in  1.S13  was  crrdained  elder,  and  loca- 
ted on  account  of  ill  health;  then  studied  medicine  and 
practiced  for  several  years,  jircaching  as  his  health  per- 
mitted. In  1819  he  removed  from  Georgia  to  Tusca- 
loosa, Ala.,  and  continued  his  jirofession  until  1824,  when 


he  re-entered  the  ministry  in  the  Mississippi  Confer- 
ence, antl  ;vas  four  years  presiding  elder  on  the  Black 
Warrior  District.  In  1829-30  he  was  stationed  at  Tus- 
caloosa, in  1831-2  on  Tuscaloosa  District,  in  1834  on  the 
Choctaw  Mission,  in  1835-6  in  Mobile,  and  in  1837  in 
Tuscaloosa.  He  died  during  the  session  of  the  Confer- 
ence at  Columbus,  Miss.,  Jan.  9, 1838.  Mr.  Kennon  was 
one  of  the  most  able  and  influential  ministers  of  his 
time  in  the  Southern  States.  His  home  culture  in 
childhood  was  excellent,  and  he  had  a  very  good  aca- 
demical education.  AV'hile  .studying  medicine  he  fur- 
ther pursued  his  literarj'  studies  at  the  South  Carolina 
College.  Kennon  numbered  among  his  friends  the  fore- 
most men  of  the  county  in  aU  professions,  and  was  the 
father  and  model  of  the  Conference.  He  died  honored 
and  beloved  h\  a  wide  circle  of  brethren  and  citizens. — 
Minutes  of  Confe7-ences,n,b7o;  Sketches  of  eminent  Itin- 
erant Ministers  (Nashville,  1858),  p.  113.     (G.  L.  T.) 

I^eiiosis  {kivwchq),  a  Greek  term  signifying  the 
act  0^  emptying  or  self-divestiture,  employed  by  modern 
German  divines  to  express  the  voluntary  humiliation 
of  Christ  in  his  incarnate  state.  It  is  borrowed  from 
the  expression  of  Paul, "  But  made  himself  of  no  reputa- 
tion {lavTov  hKh'ujae,  emptied  himself),"'  etc.  (Phil,  ii, 
7).  The  same  self-abasement  is  indicated  in  other  pas- 
sages of  Scripture ;  e.  g.  the  Son  laid  aside  the  glory 
which  he  had  with  the  Father  before  the  world  was 
(John  xvii,  5),  and  became  poor  (2  Cor.  viii,  9).  This 
term  touches  the  essential  difficulty  in  the  doctrine  of 
the  incarnation.  That  difficidty  seems  to  consist  in  the 
supposition  that  the  Logos  in  his  absolute  infinitude  of 
being  and  attributes  imited  himself  in  one  personality 
with  an  individual  created  man.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  alleged  as  an  objection  to  the  ke?wsis  tlieory 
that  "to  assume  any  self-limitation  on  the  part  of  God 
is  inconsistent  with  the  unchangeableness  of  the  divine 
Being."  But  God's  immutability  is  that  perfection  by 
virtue  of  which  his  will  and  nature  remain  in  constant 
harmony.  Every  change  must,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
be  rejected  that  woidd  bring  God's  will  or  nature  in 
conflict  with  each  other.  But  any  act  on  the  part  of 
God,  affecting  his  existence  internally  or  externally, 
that  is  in  harmony  with  the  divine  will  and  being,  is 
consistent  with  the  divine  immutabilitj'.  To  deny  such 
acts  on  the  part  of  God  is  to  deny  the  living  God  him- 
self A  God  without  a  motion  internally  or  externally 
would  be,  according  to  the  Scriptures,  a  nuUity,  a  dead 
God,  an  idol.  "Tlie  very  idea,"  says  Ebrard,  "of  God 
as  the  living  one  implies  the  possibility  of  a  self-lim- 
itation or  change  of  self,  of  course  of  such  a  change  by 
which  God  continues  as  God,  and  out  of  which  he  has 
at  all  times  the  power  of  asserting  his  infinitude.  In 
the  divine  Being  this  is  possible  through  the  Trinity. 
As  the  triune  God,  there  is  in  his  being  the  possibility 
for  him  to  distinguish  himself  from  himself  also  in  time, 
i.  e.  to  receive  within  himself  the  difference  between 
existence  within  time  and  out  of  time."  That  the  Son 
of  God  can  become  a  man  without  thereby  destroy- 
ing his  true  divinity  even  the  fathers  of  the  Church 
taught,  Tcrtullian  says:  "God  can  change  himself 
into  everything  and  yetremain  (in  substance)  what  he 
is."  Hilary  says:  "The  form  of  (Jod  and  the  fiirm  of 
a  servant  can  indeed  not  umiualilledly  become  a  unity ; 
they  rather  exclude  one  another  as  such.  But  how 
does  their  union  Jjecome  a  possibility  ?  Answer :  Only 
by  giving  up  the  one,  the  other  can  be  assumed.  But 
he  that  has  emptied  himself,  and  taken  upon  himself 
the  form  of  a  servant,  is  therefore  not  a  different  person. 
To  give  tq)  a  form  does  not  imply  the  desti-uction  of  its 
substance.  Exacth'  in  order  to  prevent  this  destruction 
the  act  of  self-emptying  goes  only  far  enough  to  consti- 
tute the  form  of  a  servant."  Ebrard  makes  the  fitting 
comparison  :  "  If  a  crown  prince,  in  order  to  set  others 
free,  should  go  for  the  time  being  into  voluntary  servi- 
tude, he  would  be,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  servant, 
and,  .18  he  has  not  forfeited  his  claims  to  the  crown,  also 
a  prince,  so  that  he  could  with  propriety  be  called  both 


KENOSIS 


KENOSIS 


sen^ant  ami  a  prince :  in  the  same  manner  Jesus  was 
the  true  and  eternal  God,  and  at  the  same  time  a  true 
and  real  man ;  and  it  can  be  said  with  propriety  of  him, 
the  Son  of  God  is  man,  and  the  mau  Jesus  Christ  is 
God."  To  this  is  added  by  the  author  of  Die  biblische 
Glauhenslehre  (published  by  the  "  Calwer  Verem") : 
"  The  same  is  the  case  with  man,  who,  notwithstanding 
the  various  changes  of  liis  circumstances  here,  and  the 
great  changes  which  he  shall  undergo  in  the  resurrec- 
tion, is  stiil  the  same  person.  We  meet  even  in  God 
■nith  a  change  of  conditions.  He  rested  before  and  after 
he  had  created  the  world ;  does  not  this  imply  a  self- 
llmitatioa  0:1  the  part  of  God?  And  what  self-limita- 
tions docs  not  God  impose  upon  himself  with  regard  to 
human  liberty !  The  omnipresence  of  God  is  no  infinite 
diffusion,  but  has  its  definite  starting-point;  and  if  God 
is  not  as  near  to  the  wicked  as  he  is  to  the  pious,  this  is 
likewise  an  act  of  self-limitation  on  God's  part  over 
against  the  ungodly.  Again,  the  personality  of  God, 
what  else  is  it  than  a  self-comprehension  of  the  infinite  V 
Yet  in  all  these  self-liniitations  God  remains  God. 
Should,  then,  the  Son  not  be  able  to  remain  in  sub- 
stance what  he  is,  if,  out  of  compassion  for  fallen  hu- 
manity, he  becomes  a  man,  and,  in  order  to  become  a 
man,  lays  aside  his  divine  glor}^  V" 

This  leads  us,  then,  to  the  main  question.  What  have  we 
to  understand  hij  the  divine-  glory  v-hich  the  Son  laid  aside 
durinfi  his  sojourn  on  earth?  To  this  question  the  Chris- 
tologians  who  adopt  the  l-enosis  return  different  answers. 
We  are  met  here  again  by  the  old  dillicidty  to  unite  the  di- 
vine and  the  human  in  one  self-consciousness.  The  ques- 
tion is  this,  Whether  the  self-consciousness  of  the  God- 
man  is  the  divine  self-consciousness  of  the  eternal  Son, 
or  the  self-consciousness  of  the  assumed  luiman  nature? 
Gess  (Gesch.  d.  Dor/mulik-)  takes  the  latter  view,  and  says 
tliat,  in  order  to  do  justice  to  the  true  humanity  of  Jesus 
Christ,  it  is  necessary  to  consistently  caiTy  out  the  self- 
emptying  act  of  the  Logos,  so  that  the  Son  of  God  in 
the  act  of  the  incarnation  laid  aside  the  divine  attributes 
of  omnipotence  and  omniscience,  together  with  his  di- 
vine self-consciousness,  and  regained  the  latter  gradual- 
ly in  the  way  of  a  really  human  development,  in  such  a 
manner  as  not  to  affect  the  true  and  real  divinity  of 
Christ.  Whether  a  temporary  la}'ing  aside-  of  the  di- 
vine self-consciousness  is  consistent  with  the  immuta- 
bility of  the  divine  Being  we  need  not  discuss  here.  The 
argimientation  of  Gess  is  very  acute,  and  may  appear  to 
the  metaphysician  the  most  consistent  and  satisfactory 
analysis  of  the  personal  union  of  the  divine  and  the  hu- 
man in  the  person  of  Christ;  but  exegcticaUy  it  seems 
to  us  untenable,  nor  is  it  fit  for  the  practical  edifica- 
tion of  the  Christian  pcojile,  an<l  a  theology  that  cannot 
be  preached  intelligibly  from  the  pulpit  is  justl}^  to  be 
suspected.  We  conclude  with  Liebner  and  other  Chris- 
tologians  that  by  the  glory  which  the  Son  of  God  laid 
aside  during  his  sojourn  on  earth  we  must  not  under- 
stand his  divine  self-consciousness,  n'ot  the  fulness  of  the 
Deity,  as  far  as  it  can  manifest  itself  in  a  human  nature. 
Oil  the  contrary,  it  is  said  of  this  very  glory,  "The 
Word  became  tiesh  and  dwelt  among  us,  and  we  saw 
hU  glory,  a  glory  as  of  the  only  begotten  of  the  Father, 
fu'.l  of  grace  and  truth.  .  .  .  And  of  his  fulness  we  all 
have  received  grace  for  grace."  This  divine  fulness  the 
Son  did  not  give  up  at  his  incarnation,  but  it  followed 
him  as  his  peculiar  property  from  heaven,  from  out  of 
the  Father's  bosom,  to  legitimate  him  as  the  Logos,  as 
the  only  begotten  of  the  Father,  yet  so  that  he  turned 
it  into  a  divine-human  glory,  actjuired  in  a  human  man- 
ner. Only  the  form  of  (iod,  the  divine  form  of  exist- 
ence, consequently  the  transcendent  divine  majesty  and 
sovereign  power  over  all  things,  united  with  uninter- 
rupted ghny,  he  exchanged,  at  his  incarnation  and  dur- 
ing the  time  of  his  sojourn  on  earth,  for  his  human  form 
of  existence,  for  the  form  of  the  servant.  Into  this  his 
antemundane  glory,  however,  he  re-entered  (John  xvii, 
5)  on  his  going  home  to  his  Father  (John  vi,  (32),  also 
in  the  capacity  of  the  exalted  Son  of  man  (Phil,  ii,  9). 


But  in  every  stage  of  his  divine-human  development 
the  Son's  oneness  of  being  and  of  will  with  the  Father 
remained,  and  by  this  verjr  fact  he  was  in  his  human 
teaching  and  conduct  the  express  image  of  the  invisible 
God,  the  personal  revealer  of  him  who  had  sent  him,  the 
Son  of  God  in  the  form  of  human  existence.  According 
to  this  view,  the  immanent  relation  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost  did  not  suffer  any  change  by  the  laying 
asiile  of  the  divine  form  of  existence  on  the  part  of  the 
Son,  nor  during  the  time  of  his  existence  in  human 
form.  Only  according  to  this  view  also  have  the  words 
of  the  incarnate  Son  of  God  their  full  force :  "  Believe 
me  that  I  am  in  the  Father,  and  the  Father  in  me ;  if 
not,  believe  me  for  the  very  works'  sake.  The  words 
that  I  speak  unto  you  I  speak  not  of  myself,  but  the  Fa- 
ther that  dwelleth  in  me,  he  docth  the  Avorks"  (John 
xiv,  10,  11).  If  it  be  objected  that  the  really  human 
development  of  Jesus  is  inconsistent  A\ath  or  excluded 
by  the  continuance  of  the  eternal  self-consciousness  of 
the  Logos  in  the  incarnation,  we  answer  that  this  infer- 
ence does  not  necessarily  follow.  There  is  nothing  self- 
contradictory  in  the  assumption  that  the  incarnate  Lo- 
gos had  in  his  one  Ego  a  consciousness  of  his  twofold 
nature.  Even  if  we  cannot  explain  how  the  Logos  was 
conscious  of  himself  as  the  eternal  Son  of  God,  and  yet 
had  this  self-consciousness  only  in  a  human  form,  yet 
the  consciousness  of  his  twofold  nature  was  necessary  for 
the  mediatorial  office  of  the  incarnate  Logos;  he  was  to 
know  himself  accorduig  to  his  absolute  divinity  and  his 
human  development;  and  if  we  suppose  that  of  his  di- 
vine self-consciousness  onli/  so  much  as  was  necessary  for 
his  mediatoiial  office  passed  over  into  his  human  self- 
consciousness,  this  double  self-consciousness  is  in  perfect 
agreement  with  his  purely  human  life  and  with  his 
mediatorial  office.  As  to  the  divine  attributes  or  powers 
that  are  connected  with  the  divine  self-consciousness, 
there  is  nothing  self-contradictorj'  in  the  supposition 
that  the  divine  Ego  of  the  Logos  acted  in  concert  with 
the  powers  of  human  nature,  with  human  self-conscious- 
ness, and  human  volition,  if  we  ado^it  the  cthoi-e-mentioned 
relative  selj-limitutian  of  the  divine  knoivledge  and  will  as 
necessary  for  the  mediatorial  office.  But  even  if  by  this 
view  of  the  personal  oneness  of  the  divine  and  the  human 
in  Christ  the  metaphysical  difficulty  should  not  be  fidly 
removed,  we  would  prefer  confessing  the  unfathomable 
depth  of  this  mystery  to  any  philosophical  solution  of 
the  problem  which  we  could  not  fully  reconcile  with  the 
plain  teachings  of  the  Word  of  God. 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  striking  presentations  of 
this  self-abnegation  on  the  part  of  our  Lord  is  that 
found  in  Henry  Ward  Beccher's  Life  of  Jesus  (i,  50), 
which  we  here  transcribe,  omitting  its  monothelitism 
and  anthropopathy :  "  The  divine  Spirit  came  into  the 
world  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  not  bearing  the  attributes 
of  Deity  in  their  full  disclosure  and  power.  He  came 
into  the  world  to  subject  his  spirit  to  that  whole  disci- 
pline and  exjierience  through  which  every  man  must 
pass.  He  veiled  his  royalty ;  he  folded  back,  as  it  were, 
within  himself  those  ineffiible  powers  which  belonged 
to  him  as  a  free  spirit  in  heaven.  He  went  into  cap- 
tivity to  himself,  wrapping  in  weakness  and  forgetful- 
ness  his  divine  energies  while  he  was  a  babe.  '  Being 
found  in  fashion  as  a  man,'  he  was  subject  to  that  grad- 
ual imfolding  of  his  buried  powers  which  belongs  to  in- 
fancy and  childhood.  'And  the  c\n\<\  greiu  and  iraxed 
strong  in  spirit.'  He  was  subject  to  the  restrictions 
which  hold  and  hinder  common  men.  He  was  to  come 
back  to  himself  little  by  little.  Who  shall  say  that 
God  cannot  put  himself  into  finite  conditions?  Though 
a  free  spirit  God  cannot  grow,  yet  as  fettered  in  the 
flesh  he  may.  Breaking  out  at  times  with  amazing 
power  in  single  directions,  yet  at  other  times  feeling  the 
mist  of  humanity  resting  upon  his  brows,  he  declares, 
'  Of  that  day  and  that  hour  knoweth  no  man,  no,  not 
the  angels  which  are  in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the 
Father.'  This  is  just  the  experience  which  we  should 
expect  in  a  being  whose  problem  of  life  was,  not  the  dis- 


KENRICK 


46 


KENT 


closure  of  the  full  power  and  glory  of  God's  natural  at- 
tributes, but  tbe  manifestation  of  the  love  of  God,  and 
of  the  extremities  of  self-renunciation  to  which  the  di- 
vine lieart  would  sulnnit,  in  the  rearing  up  of  his  family 
of  children  from  animalism  and  passion.  The  incessant 
looking  for  the  signs  of  divine  power  and  of  intinite  at- 
tributes in  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus,  whose  mission  it  was 
to  bring  the  divine  Spirit  within  the  conditions  of  feeble 
humanity,  is  as  if  one  should  search  a  dethroned  king 
in  exile  for  his  crown  and  his  sceptre.  We  are  not  to 
look  fur  a  glorified,  an  enthroned  .Jesus,  but  for  God 
manifest  in  the  jlesh  ;  and  in  this  view  the  very  limita- 
tions and  seeming  discrepancies  in  a  divine  Ufe  become 
congruous  parts  of  the  whole  sublime  problem." 

Most  theologians,  however,  will  see  in  this  progres- 
sive development  of  Jesus  rather  the  growth  of  the  /nt- 
maii  faculties  as  shone  upon  by  the  inward  sun  of  divine 
life ;  and  in  the  alternate  lights  and  shades  of  the  Re- 
deemer's career,  not  so  much  the  vicissitudes  imposed 
upon  the  enshrined  Deity  by  the  earthly  abode,  as  the 
mutual  play  of  the  divine  and  the  human  natures,  now 
one  and  now  the  other  specially  manifesting  itself.  In- 
deed, the  theory  of  a  somewhat  double  consciousness,  if 
we  may  so  express  it,  or  at  least  an  occasional  (and  in 
early  life  a  prolonged)  withdrawal  of  the  divine  cogni- 
tions from  the  human  intellect,  and  thus  of  the  fuU  di- 
vine energies  from  the  human  will,  seems  to  be  required 
in  order  to  meet  the  varying  aspects  under  whicli  the 
comijound  life  of  Jesus  presents  itself  in  the  Gospels. 
Certainly  the  union  of  the  divine  Spirit  with  a  mere 
human  body  is  a  heathen  theophany,  not  a  Christian 
incarnation.  Indeed,  the  "Jksh''  which  the  Saviour  as- 
sumed, in  its  Scripture  sense,  has  reference  to  human 
vafnre  as  such,  its  mental  and  spiritual  faculties  not  less 
than  its  physical.  The  problem,  therefore,  still  is  to 
adjust  the  God  to  the  man.  This,  of  course,  can  only 
be  done  by  conceiving  of  the  infinite  as  assuming  finite 
relations,  and  this,  in  short,  is  the  meaning  of  Kenosis. 
See  HiMiLiATiox. 

This  topic  became  a  subject  of  controversy  in  the  first 
part  of  the  17th  century  between  the  theologians  of 
Gicssen  and  those  of  Tubingen  ;  the  former  (^lenzer  a;ul 
Feuerborn)  contending  that  Christ  during  his  state  of 
earthly  humiliation  actualh'  divested  himself  {KtvojciQ 
proper)  of  omnipotence,  omniscience,  etc.;  while  the 
latter  (Luke  Osiander,  Theodore  Thummius,  and  j\Iel- 
chior  Nicolai)  maintained  that  he  still  continued  to  pos- 
sess these  divine  attributes,  but  merely  concealed  them 
(K-()i'i;//(f)  from  men  (see  Thummius,  De  TaTziivuxriypa- 
<pi(f.  sacra.  Tubing.  162.3  ;  Nicolai,  De  Kivwan  Christi,  ib. 
iC22).  For  details  of  the  controversy,  see  Herzog,  liecd- 
KncykLxu,  oil  sq.;  xiv,  78G.  On.  the  doctrine  itself,  see 
Dorner,  Doct.  of  the  Person  oj"  Christ,  I,  ii,  29 ;  Schrockh, 
Kirchenr/esch.  iv,  G70  sq. ;  comp.  Jiib.  Repos.,h\ly,  1807, 
p.  410 ;  A  mer.  F'l-esh.  Rei:  July.  18G1.  p.  551 ;  Mcth.  Quar. 
Her.  Jan.  18G1,  p.  148 ;  April,"l870,  p.  291.  The  treatise 
of  ]5odemeyer, />«-/.<=/( /-e  i-on  der  Kenosis  (Gotting.  18G0), 
is  t)f  a  very  vague  and  general  character.  See  Cheis- 
TOLocv,  vol.  ii,  p.  281,  282. 

Keniick,  Fhancis  Patrick,  D.D.,  an  American 
IJoman  Catholic  prelate  of  great  note,  was  born  in  Dub- 
lin, Inland,  Dec.  3,  1797,  received  a  classical  education 
in  his  native  city,  and  in  1815  was  sent  to  Rome  to  study 
divinity  and  philos(i]ihy.  There  he  spent  two  years  at 
the  Ihuise  of  the  Lazarists,  and  four  years  in  the  College 
of  the  Pro|)aganda.  He  was  ordained  in  1821,  and  im- 
mediately thereafter  came  to  the  United  States  to  as- 
sume the  charge  of  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  just  start- 
ing at  Bardstown,  Ky.  He  soon  distinguished  himself 
as  a  polemic  writer  by  h\s  Letters  of  Omicron  to  Omer/a, 
■written  in  I'efence  of  tlie  Homan  Catholic  doctrine  of 
the  Eucharist,  in  reply  to  attacks  liy  Dr.  Blackburn, 
president  of  Danville  College:  Ky.,  under  t,he  signature 
of  "  Omega.'"  On  June  Gth,  l.s.'jd,  at  Bardstown,  he  was 
consecrated  bishoji  of  Arath  in  partihiis  infidelium,  and 
made  coadjutor  to  the  right  reverend  bishop  Connell,  of 
Philadelphia,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1842.     Dining  his 


episcopate  there  occurred  the  anti-Catholic  riots,  and  by 
his  firmness  and  jiromptness  of  effort  his  people  were 
prevented  from  retaliatory  acts.  In  1851  bishop  Ken- 
rick  was  transferred  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Balti- 
more. In  1852,  as  "  apostolic  delegate,"  he  presided  over 
the  first  plenarj'  council  of  the  United  States  held  at 
Baltimore,  and  in  1859  the  pope  conferred  upon  him  and 
his  successors  the  "  ])rimacy  of  honor,"  which  gives  them 
precedence  over  all  Ifoman  Catholic  prelates  in  this  coun- 
try. He  died  at  Baltimore  July  8,  18G3.  Archbishop 
Kenrick  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  learned  men 
and  tlieologians  of  his  creed  in  this  country'.  He  is 
equally  distinguished  as  a  controversialist  and  a  Biblical 
critic.  His  style  is  vigorous  and  decided.  In  1837  he 
published  a  series  of  letters  On  the  Primacy  of  the  Holy 
See  and  the  A  uthorify  of  General  Councils,  in  reply  to 
bishop  Hopkins,  of  Vermont,  subsequentl}'  enlarged  and 
reprinted  under  the  title  of  The  Pi-imacy  of  the  Apostolic 
See  Vindiciited  (4th  ed..  Bait.  1855);  aho.Vi/idicution  of 
the  Catholic  Church  (12mo,  Baltimore,  1855),  in  reply  to 
Dr.  Hopkins's  End  of  Co7itrorersy  Controverted.  The 
works,  however,  which  constitute  his  chief  claim  to  the- 
ological eminence  are  his  Latin  treatises  on  dogmatic 
theologv,  Theolofjia  TJof/matica  (4  vols.  8vo,  Phil.  1839, 
1840)  and  Theolofut  Moralis  (3  vols.  8vo,  Phil.  1841-3), 
which  form  a  complete  course  of  diviriity,  and  are  used 
as  text-books  in  nearly  all  the  Romish  seminaries  of 
the  United  States.  An  enlarged  edition  of  these  works 
has  been  published  both  in  Belgium  and  in  this  countrj'. 
This  contains  many  valuable  additions,  among  them  a 
catalogue  of  the  fathers  and  ecclesiastical  writers,  with 
an  accurate  descrijition  of  their  genuine  works.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  v,as  engaged  in  revising  the  Fng- 
lish  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  of  which  the  whole  of 
the  X.  T.  and  nearly  aU  of  the  O.  T.  have  been  jinblished. 
"  It  is  illustrated  hy  copious  notes,  and  will  probably  su- 
persede the  Douay  version  in  general  use."  His  other 
works  of  a  sectarian  and  controversial  character  are 
Catholic  Doctrine  on  Justif  cation  Explained  and  Vindi- 
cated (12mo,  Phil.  1841): — Treatise  on  Baptism  (12mo, 
New  York*1843).  Kenrick  was  distinguished  both  for 
his  sagacity  and  moderation  in  counsel,  "  and  for  his  in- 
defatigable efforts  in  extending  the  power  and  influence 
of  his  Church."  While  in  Philadelphia  "he  founded 
the  theological  seminary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and 
introduced  into  his  diocese  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, who  devote  themselves  to  the  care  of  Magdalen 
asylums."  "  During  the  period  of  our  civil  war  he  was 
unswerving  in  his  loyalty  to  the  Union,  and  never  failed 
to  inculcate  obedience  to  the  laws"  in  the  face  of  the  op- 
position of  many  of  his  people. — Alii  bone's  X'^(•^  of  Au- 
thors, s.  v.;  Appleton's  New  Arner.  Cyclop),  x,  13G;  An- 
nual for  18G3,  p.  5G1. 

Kent,  Asa,  a  ^Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was  bom 
in  West  Brookfleld,  Mass.,  May  9, 1780.  In  18U1  he  was 
licensed  as  an  cxhorter,  and  ajipointed  to  Weathersfield 
Circuit,Vermont;  in  1802  he  joined  on  trial  the  New  York 
Conference,  and  was  apjiointed  to  Whitingham  Circuit. 
Tlie  following  year  he  became  a  member  of  the  old  New 
England  Conference,  and  during  the  thirty-six  years  suc- 
ceeding filled  apjiointments  at  Bamard,Yt.;  Atlicns,Yt.; 
Lunenburg,  Yt. ;  Ashburnham,  j\Iass. ;  Salisbury,  Mass. ; 
Salem,  N.H.;  Lynn,!Mass.;  Bristol.  R.  I.;  New  London, 
Conn. ;  Nantucket,  R.  I. ;  jMiddleborough,  L'ochestcr, 
IMass.;  Chestnut  Street,  Providence,  R.  I.;  Elm  Street, 
New  Bedford,  ]\Iass. ;  Newport.  R.  I.;  Charlestown,  An- 
dover.Mass.;  and  Edgartown,  j\Iartha's  Yineyard.  Dur- 
ing this  period,  ill  health,  brought  on  by  the  strain  of 
indefatigalJe  lai)ors  upon  a  naturally  delicate  constitu- 
tion, compelled  liim  several  times  to  take  sujiernumerary 
and  superanniiat('<l  relations.  In  1814-17  he  was  presid- 
ing elder  of  the  New  I>)ndon  district.  He  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  (ieneral  Conference  in  New  York  in  1812, 
and  also  in  Baltimore  in  181G.  From  the  date  of  his 
last  appointment  in  1839  to  the  day  of  his  death,  Sept.  1, 
18G0,  he  was  always  laboring  when  his  health  would 
permit.     He  wrote  much  for  Ziori's  Herald  and  the 


KENT 


47 


KEPLER 


Christian  Advocate  andJournaJ.  His  productions  were 
characterized  by  a  clear,  concise,  unornamennd  Style, 
freshness  of  thought,  and  deep  spirituality.  Not  osten- 
tatious in  the  expression  of  his  religious  convictions  and 
experiences,  he  claimed  personal  knowledge  of  the  doc- 
trine of  entire  sanctification.  "  Uniformly  cheerful,  full 
of  buoyant  hopes  in  Christ,  he  always  was  remarkably 
sedate." — Meth.  Minutes  for  180 1;  New  York  Christian 
Advocate. 

Kent,  James,  a  distinguished  English  composer  of 
Church  music,  was  born  at  Winchester  in  ITOti,  and  at 
an  early  age  employed  as  chorister  in  the  cathedral  of 
that  cit}'.  His  talents  secured  him  admittance  to  the 
Chapel  koyal,  London,  where  he  enjoyed  the  tuition  of 
the  celebrated  Dr.  Croft.  After  completing  his  educa- 
tion, he  was  chosen  organist  of  Finden,  in  Northampton- 
shire, and  subsequently  was  appointed  organist  of  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge.  In  1737  he  was  elected  to  fill 
the  same  situation  in  the  cathedral  of  his  native  place, 
which  he  accepted  and  held  until  1774.  He  died  in  177G. 
Mr.  Kent  greatly  assisted  Dr.  Boyce  in  the  preparation 
of  his  magnificent  work,  the  collection  of  Cathedral  Mu- 
sic, and  his  services  are  duly  acknowledged  by  that 
learned  editor.  Mr.  Kent  published  a  volume  of  Twelve 
Anthems  (London,  1773,  ito),  among  which  are.  Hear 
imj  Prai/er,  When  the  Son  of  Man^Mn  Sonfj  shall  he  of 
Mercj,  and  others  which  are  favorites  with  the  congrega- 
tions of  English  cathedrals.  After  his  decease,  a  Morn- 
iiifi  and  Ereninfj  Service,  and  Eitjht  A nthems,  comjiosed  by 
him  for  the  Winchester  choir,  were  collected  and  printed 
by  Mr.  Corfe,  of  Salisbury ;  but  the  probability  is  tliat  the 
author  never  intended  them  for  publication,  as  they  are 
not  equal  to  his  other  published  productions.  "  ^Ir.  Kent 
was  remarkably  mild  in  his  disposition,  amiable  in  his 
manners,  exemplary  in  his  conduct,  and  conscientiously 
diligent  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties.  His  performance 
on  the  organ  was  solemn  and  impressive,  and  he  was  by 
competent  judges  considered  one  of  the  best  musicians 
of  the  age  in  which  he  lived"  {Ilarmonicon).    (.J.  H.AV'^.) 

Kentigern,  St.,  a  Scottish  prelate  who  flourished 
toward  the  close  of  the  Gth  century,  was  actively  en- 
gaged in  the  interests  of  the  Christian  Church  among 
the  natives  of  Scotland.  He  is  said  to  have  made  many 
converts  while  bishop  of  Glasgow.  Bishop  Kentigern 
died  about  A.D.  GOO. 

Kephar-  (132,  villar/e),  a  frequent  prefix  to  the 
Heb.  name  of  hamlets  or  small  places  in  Palestine,  as  in 
•  that  here  following,  and  many  others  mentioned  by  Be- 
laud {Paltrst.  p.  681  sq.)  and  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  1 18. 119, 
ICO,  170, 177, 187, 188, 190,  200, 201, 204, 235).  See  Ca- 
riiAi;-. 

Kephar-Chananiah  (X'':Dn  "iSD,  i.  e.  villaffe  of 
Ilunaiduh),  a  place  named  in  the  Talmud,  and  now 
called  Kefr  A  nan,  5  miles  S.W.  of  Safed,  containing  the 
ruins  of  a  synagogue  (Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  187;  compare 
Eobinson,  Later  Bib.  Res.  p.  78,  note). 

Kepliir.     See  Lion. 

Kepler,  Joiianx,  the  celebrated  astronomer,  deserves 
a  place  here  not  so  much  on  account  of  his  services  to  the 
science  of  astronomy  as  for  the  relation  h2  sustained  to, 
and  the  treatment  he  received  from  the  Christian  Church 
of  the  IGth  century.  He  was  born  near  the  imperial 
city  of  Weil,  in  Wiirtemberg,  Dec.  27,  1571,  and  in  his 
childhood  was  weak  and  sickl^^  He  was  sent  to  school 
in  1577,  but  the  straitened  circumstances  of  his  father 
caused  great  interruption  to  his  education.  He  was 
soon  taken  from  school,  and  emiiloyed  in  menial  services 
at  his  father's  tavern.  In  his  twelfth  year,  however,  he 
was  again  placed  at  the  same  school,  but  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  seized  with  a  violent  iOness,  so  that  his 
life  was  for  some  time  despaired  of.  In  158G  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  monastic  school  of  ^Nlaulbronn,  where  his 
expenses  were  paid  by  the  duke  of  Wiirtemberg.  The 
three  years  of  Kepler's  life  following  his  admission  to 
this  school  were  marked  by  a  return  of  several  of  the 


disorders  which  had  well-nigh  proved  fatal  to  him  in 
his  childhood.  To  add  to  his  misfortunes,  his  father  left 
home  in  consequence  of  disagreements  with  his  mother, 
and  soon  after  tiled  abroad.  After  the  departure  of  his 
father  his  mother  quarrelled  with  her  relations,  "having 
been  treated,"  says  Hantsch,  Kepler's  earliest  biographer, 
(in  his  edition  of  Epistoke  ad  J.  Keplerum,  etc.  [Leipz. 
1718]),  "with  a  degree  of  barbarity  by  her  husband  and 
brother-in-la^v  that  was  hardly  exceeded  even  by  her 
own  perversencss."  As  a  natural  consequence,  the  fam- 
ily affairs  were  in  the  greatest  confusion.  Notwith- 
standing these  complications,  young  Kepler  took  his  de- 
gree of  master  at  the  University  of  Tubingen  in  Au- 
gust, 1591,  holding  the  second  place  in  the  examination. 
While  at  the  uni\-ersity  he  had  paid  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  study  of  theology,  and  no  doubt  intended  to 
enter  the  ministry;  but,  annoyed  by  the  strife  which 
the  controversy  on  the  Formula  of  Concord  occasioned, 
and  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  idjiquity,  at  that  time 
made  an  article  in  the  confession  of  Wiirtemberg's  state 
rehgion,  he  failed  to  secure  a  position  as  minister.  He 
now  turned  to  mathematical  studies.  His  attention 
was  first  directed  to  astronomy  by  the  offer  of  the  as- 
tronomical lectureship  at  Gratz.tlie  chief  town  of  Styria. 
At  that  time  he  knew  very  little  of  the  subject,  but, 
having  accepted  the  lectureship,  he  was  forced  to  ciual- 
ify  himself  for  the  position.  While  engaged  in  these 
investigations,  he  came  by  degrees  to  understand  the 
superior  mathematical  convenience  of  the  system  of  Co- 
pernicus to  that  of  Ptolemy.  His  general  views  of  as- 
tronomy, however,  were  somewhat  mystical,  as  may  be 
seen  in  his  Prodromus.  He  supposed  the  sun,  stars,  and 
planets  were  typical  of  the  Trinity,  and  that  (iod  dis- 
tributed the  planets  in  space  in  accordance  with  regular 
polyhedrons,  etc. 

In  1595  Kei>ler  completed  his  Mi/sterium  Cosmorjraj^h- 
icum,  in  which  he  details  the  many  hypotheses  he  had 
successively  formed,  examined,  and  rejected  concerning 
the  number,  distance,  and  periodic  times  of  the  planets, 
and  endeavors  to  demonstrate  the  correctness  of  the  Co- 
pernican  system,  which  at  that  time  was  stUl  discredited 
and  rejected  as  un-Biblical  by  both  Romanists  and  Prot- 
estants. To  avoid  persecution,  Kepler  took  the  precau- 
tion to  secure  the  opinion  of  eminent  theologians  of  both 
churches  before  publication,  and  for  this  purpose  sub- 
mitted the  ^IS.  to  the  faculty  of  Tlibingen  University. 
Of  course  they  quickly  condemned  the  sacrilegious  effort 
and  daring  of  the  j'oung  astronomer  (see  below),  but 
not  so  thought  duke  Louis  of  Wiirtemberg,  who  not 
only  approved  of  the  w^ork,  but  furnished  the  means  (in 
159G)  to  defray  the  expense  of  printing  it.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  the  IGth  century  astronomical 
truth  was  equally  unknown  to  the  clergy  and  the  laity, 
and  that  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  the  stability  of 
the  sun  were  doctrines  apparently  inconsistent  with 
holy  Scripture.  Besides,  in  those  days  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion were  guarded  by  a  sternness  of  discipline  and  a 
severity  of  punishment  which  have  disappeared  in  more 
enlightened  times.  In  order  to  form  a  correct  judgment 
respecting  the  causes  which  led  to  the  opposition  to 
Kepler  bj^  the  Church,  and  the  subsequent  trial  and 
condemnation  of  (ialileo  (([.  v.),  we  must  turn  to  that 
period  when  they  first  submitted  their  opinions  to  the 
public.  The  philosophy  of  Aristotle  was  then  preva- 
lent throughout  Europe.  It  was  taught  in  all  its  uni- 
versities by  professors  lay  and  clerical,  and  every  at- 
tempt to  refute  their  doctrines  exposed  its  author  to  the 
opposition  of  the  learning  and  scholarship  of  that  day. 
One  of  the  principal  dogmas  of  the  Aristotelian  philos- 
ophy was  the  immutability  of  the  heavens.  The  bril- 
liant discoveries  of  Kepler  and  Galileo  struck  a  blow  at 
the  ancient  jihilosophy,  and  consequently  exposed  them 
to  the  hostility  of  the  Peripatetic  philosophers.  Now 
when  we  reflect  that  the  minds  of  all  thinking  men 
were  then  completely  moulded  by  that  philosojjhy,  and 
that  these,  again,  governed  the  reflections  of  those  im- 
mediately beneath  them,  and  from   them   the  residts 


KEPLER 


48 


KERCHIEF 


of  Aristotelianism,  minglint;  up,  as  they  did,  especially 
with  the  rehgioiis  opinions  of  tlie  day,  thus  reached 
the  whole  of  the  popular  intellect,  we  will  lind  it  no 
matter  of  surprise  that  the  zeal  of  these  innovators  met 
with  the  most  determined  opposition.  "The  Aristote- 
lian professors,  the  temporizing  Jesuits,  the  political 
churchmen,  and  that  timid  but  respectful  body  who  at 
all  times  dread  innovation,  whether  it  be  in  legislation 
or  in  science,  entered  into  an  alliance  against  the  philo- 
sophical tyrants  who  threatened  them  with  the  penal- 
ties of  knowledge."  "  He  who  is  allowed  to  take  the 
start  of  his  species,"  says  Sir  David  Brewster,  "  and  to 
penetrate  the  veil  which  conceals  from  common  minds 
the  mysteries  of  nature,  must  not  expect  that  the  world 
will  be  patiently  dragged  at  the  chariot-wheels  of  his 
philosopliy.  Mind  has  its  inertia  as  well  as  matter,  and 
its  progress  to  truth  can  only  be  insured  by  the  gradual 
and  jiatient  removal  of  the  difficidties  which  embarrass 
it."  Those  Protestants,  therefore,  who  are  so  ready  to 
censure  the  Church  of  Home  for  its  action  with  regard 
to  these  great  men  should  remember  that  it  was  but 
carrying  out  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  a  measure  which 
the  "spirit  of  the  people  demanded.  Surely  Protestant- 
ism has  but  little  to  boast  of  in  this  matter.  More  than 
half  a  century  later  we  tind  that  the  great  and  good  Sir 
Matthew  Hale  condemned  to  death  two  women  for  witch- 
craft on  the  ground,  first,  that  Scripture  had  affirmed 
the  reality  of  witchcraft ;  and,  secondly,  that  the  wis- 
dom of  all  nations  had  provided  laws  against  persons 
accused  of  the  crime.  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  the  cele- 
brated author  of  the  Religio  Medici,  was  called  as  a  wit- 
ness at  the  trial,  and  swore  "  that  he  was  clearly  of 
opinion  that  the  persons  were  bewitched."  Not  only 
so,  but  Henry  j\Iore  and  Cudworth  strongly  expressed 
their  belief  in  the  reality  of  witchcraft ;  and,  more  than 
all,  Joseph  Glauride,  probably  the  most  celebrated  theo- 
logical thinker  of  his  time,  wrote  a  special  defence  of 
the  superstition,  without  doubt  the  ablest  book  ever 
written  on  that  subject.  As  late  as  1G92  nineteen  per- 
sons were  executed  and  one  pressed  to  death  in  iSIassa- 
chusetts  on  the  same  plea  for  witchcraft.  See  Salesi. 
'•  To  deny  the  possibility,  nay,  actual  existence  of  witch- 
craft and  sorcery,"  says  Sir  ■\\'illiam  Blackstone  (Com- 
mentciry  on  the  Laics  of  England,  bk.  iv,  ch.  iv,  sec.  6), 
"  is  at  once  flatly  to  contradict  the  revealed  Word  of 
God  in  various  passages  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments."     See  WlTCUCKAFT. 

In  1597  Kepler  married  Barbara  JNIiiller  von  IMiihl- 
eckh.  She  Avas  already  a  widow  for  the  second  time, 
although  two  years  younger  than  Kepler  himself.  In 
the  year  following  his  marriage,  on  account  of  the 
troubled  state  of  tlie  province,  arising  out  of  the  two 
great  religious  parties  into  which  the  German  empire 
was  then  divided,  he  was  induced  to  withdraw  into  Hun- 
gary. The  Jesuits,  anxious  to  secure  for  the  Piomish 
Church  the  learning  and  renown  of  Kepler,  earnestly 
worked  in  his  behalf,  and  secured  permission  for  his  re- 
turn to  Gratz.  Verj'  independent  in  character,  Kepler 
was  not  the  man  to  eat  the  bread  of  his  opponents,  and 
upon  his  frank  refusal  to  join  the  Romanists  he  was  vis- 
ited with  still  fiercer  opposition.  In  lOOO  he  paid  a  visit 
to  Tycho  Brahe,  and,  by  recommendation  of  the  latter, 
was  appointed  assistant  imperial  mathematician  b_v  em- 
peror Kudolph  II.  Upon  the  death  of  Tycho  in  1(501, 
Kepler  succeeded  him  as  principal  mathematician  to  the 
emperor,  and  took  up  his  residence  at  Prague.  The 
special  task  intrusted  to  Kepler  at  this  time  was  the  re- 
duction of  Tycho's  observations  relative  to  the  planet 
Mars,  and  to  this  circumstance  is  mainly  owing  his  grand 
discovery  of  the  law  of  elliptic  orbits,  and  that  of  the 
equable  description  of  a>ras.  These  continued  studies, 
his  searchings  after  liarmony,  led  him  at  last  to  the  dis- 
covery of  tlie  three  remarkable  truths  called  Kepler's 
Laws.  (For  an  account  of  these,  and  the  st6ps  that  led 
to  their  discovery,  see  the  Knf/lish  Cyclopedia,  s.  v., 
where  also  will  be  found  a  list  of  Kepler's  works.)  In 
162-i  he  went  to  Vienna,  the  emperor  finding  it  impos- 


sible to  make  good  his  promises  to  assist  Kepler,  to  se- 
cure the  necessary  means  to  aid  him  in  the  completion 
of  the  liudolphine  Tables;  it  was  not,  however,  till  1627 
that  these  tables — the  first  that  were  calcidated  on  the 
supposition  that  the  planets  move  in  elliptic  orbits — 
made  their  appearance ;  and  it  will  be  sufficient  to  say 
of  them  in  this  place,  that,  had  Kepler  done  nothing  in 
the  course  of  his  wln)le  life  but  construct  these,  he  would 
have  well  earned  the  title  of  a  most  useful  and  inde- 
fatigable calculator.  He  died  in  the  early  part  of  No- 
vember, 1030,  and  his  body  was  interred  in  St.  Peter's 
church-yard  at  Katisbon.  "Ardent,  restless,  burning  to 
distinguish  himself  by  his  discoveries,  he  attempted  ev- 
erything; and,  having  once  obtained  a  glimpse,  no  labor 
was  too  hard  for  him  in  following  or  verifying  it.  All 
his  attempts  had  not  the  same  success,  and,  in  fact,  that 
was  impossible.  Those  which  have  failed  seem  to  us 
only  fanciful;  those  which  have  been  more  fortunate 
appear  sublime.  When  in  search  of  that  which  really 
existed,  he  has  sometimes  found  it;  when  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  pursuit  of  a  chimera,  he  could  not  but 
fail;  but  even  there  he  unfolded  the  same  qualities,  and 
that  obstinate  perseverance  that  must  triumph  over  all 
difficulties  but  those  which  are  insurmountable."  See 
Breitschwerdt,  Jo/;o«?j  Keple7-'s  Leben  u.Wirkcn  (Stuttg, 
1831);  Brewster, />ices  of  the  Martyrs  of  Science  (Lond. 
1841) ;  Bailly,  Ilistoire  de  Vastronomie  moderne,  ii,  4  sq. ; 
Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexik.  s.  v. ; 
Brockhaus,  Conversaf.  Lex.  s.  v. ;  Enylish  Cyclop,  s.  v. ; 
Menzel,  Gesch.  der  Deutschen,  v,  104  sq.,  327  sq.,  471 ;  vi, 
10  sq. 

Kerach.     See  Crystal. 

Keralay,  De,  a  French  Eoman  Catholic  mission- 
ary, who  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  ccn- 
turj',  joined  the  Congregation  of  Foreign  jMissions,  and 
in  1720  took  charge  of  the  mission  at  INIergui.  In  1722 
he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Eosalia,  and  became  co- 
adjutor to  M.  de  Cire,  apostolic  vicar  of  Siam,whom  he 
succeeded  in  1727.  The  court,  which  had  at  first  ap- 
peared favorably  inclined  towards  the  Christians,  soon 
began,  at  the  instigation  of  the  bonzes,  to  persecute 
them  violently.  The  missionaries  were  forbidden  pub- 
lishing any  books  in  the  Siamese  language,  or  teaching 
their  doctrines  to  the  people.  Inscriptions  insulting  to 
the  Christian  faith  were  placed  on  the  front  or  inside 
of  the  churches.  Keralay  himself  also  was  repeated- 
ly summoned  before  the  authorities,  to  answer  for  his 
infringements  of  their  regulations,  but  he  disjilaycd 
throughout  great  firmness  and  patience.  The  death  of 
the  king  and  the  civil  war  which  followed  gave  the 
Christians  some  respite,  but  after  a  short  time  persecu- 
tions began  anew,  and  it  was  during  these  that  Keralay 
died  atjuthia,  Nov.  27,  1737.  See  Lettres  edif antes; 
Henrion,  Hist,  des  Missions ;  Pallegoix,  Description  du 
royuume  Thai  (Paris,  1854, 12mo);  Uocfer,  Xouv.  Bioff. 
Generale,  xxvii,  595.  (J.  N.  I\) 
Keraziu.     See  Chorazix. 

Kerchief  (only  in  the  plur.  nnSS'S,  mispachoth', 
so  called  from  being  spread  out;  Sept.  tTrijiuXata  v.  r. 
TTioiSt'Xaia,  Symmachus  in7avxivia,\vlg.  ccrricalia), 
an  article  of  apparel  or  ornament  that  occurs  only  in 
Ezek.  xiii,  18. 21,  where  it  is  spoken  of  as  something  ap- 
plied to  the  head  by  the  idolatrous  women  of  Israel,  but 
the  meaning  of  which  it  is  difficult  to  discover.  Some 
of  the  ancient  versions  (e.  g.  Symmachus,  the  A'ulgate, 
etc.)  understand  7«Yfo?c.s  or  cushions  for  the  head,  as  in 
the  paraUel  member  (so  Ilosenmiiller,  Gcsenius,  etc.) ; 
others  (e.  g.  the  Sept.,  Syriac,  etc.)  think  that  manths  or 
coverings  for  the  head  are  intended.  Hitzig  understands 
the  talith  or  long  doth  worn  by  Jewish  worshippers. 
See  Fringe.  The  derivation  of  the  Hebrew  word,  and 
the  fact  that  the  article  might  be  torn  (ver.  21),  shows 
that  it  was  long,  loose,  and  flexible,  like  the  shawl  with 
which  Oriental  women  envelop  themselves  (Ruth  iii,  15 : 
Isa.  iii,  22)-,  and  the  statement  that  they  were  adapted 
to  be  placed  "  upon  the  head  of  every  stature"  (d"n  5" 


KERCKHERDERE 


49 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


tl12'ip"^5,  i.  e.  persons  of  whatever  height),  confirms 
this  view.  Kimclu  says  it  was  a  rich  upper  garment. 
It  was  probably  a  long  and  elegant  veil  or  head-dress, 
perhaps  denoting  by  its  shape  or  ornament  the  charac- 
ter of  those  who  wore  them.  See  Veil.  The  false 
prophetesses  alluded  to  practiced  divinations,  and  jire- 
tended  to  deliver  .oracles  which  contradicted  the  divine 
prophecies.  (See  H;ivernick,6'omH?fH^  ad  loc).  Schroe- 
der  {De  vest.  mul.IIehr.  p.  2G0, 2G9)  well  interprets  "  veils 
such  as  those  with  which  in  the  East  women  cover  the 
entire  head,  especially  the  face"  (comp.  Paith  iii,  15 ;  Isa. 
iii,  22 ).  The  Eastern  women  bind  on  their  other  orna- 
ments with  a  rich  embroidered  handkerchief,  which  is 
described  by  some  travellers  as  completing  the  head- 
dress, and  falling  without  order  upon  the  hair  behind. 
See  Head-dkess.  This,  if  of  costly  and  splendid  ma- 
terial, would  be  a  not  unapt  decoration  for  the  meretri- 
cious purpose  in  question.     See  also  Handkerchief. 

Kerckherdere,  John  Geuard,  a  Dutch  theolo- 
gian anil  philologian,  was  born  near  IMaestricht  about 
1G78,  and  was  educated  at  Louvain,  where  he  afterwards 
became  a  professor.  He  died  March  IG,  1738.  His  the- 
ological works  of  note  avQ,  Systeina  Ajwcalypiicum  (Lou- 
vaiu,  1708, 12mo)  : — Prodromus  Danielicus,  sive  novi  co- 
nntus  historici  critici  in  celeberrimas  difficultates  hisforice 
Vet.  Test,  monarchic! rum  Asice,  etc.,  ac  prmcipiie  Daniel. 
2)ro2)het.  (Louv.  1711, 12mo) : — Be  MonarcJda  Rovim  pa- 
game  secundum  concordiam  inter  jJropketas  Danielem  et 
Joannem;  consequens  historiu  a  monarch ia;  conditoi-ihus 
uSiiue  adurlis  et  imperii  ruimim ;  accessit  series  historice 
ApoculifpticcB  (Louv.  1727,  12mo) :  —  De  Situ  Paradisi 
terr?stris  (Louv.  1731, 12mo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxvii,  GOo. 

Kerckhove,  John  Polyandeu  van  den,  a  Dutch 
Protestant  theologian,  born  at  Metz  jNIarch  2G,  15G8,  was 
educated  at  Embden,  where  his  father  was  pastor  of  the 
French  Church,  and  afterwards  went  to  study  Hebrew 
and  philosophy  at  Bremen,  and  theology  at  Heidelberg, 
mider  Du  Jon  and  Crellius,  and  at  Geneva  under  The- 
odore de  Beza  and  Antony  Lafaye.  In  1591  he  became 
pastor  of  the  French  Church  at  Leyden,  and  soon  after 
at  Dort.  In  IGll  he  succeeded  Arminius  as  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  took  part  in 
the  Synod  of  Dort,  and  was  one  of  the  theologians  com- 
missioned to  (b^aw  up  the  canon  of  that  synod ;  he  was 
also  member  of  a  committee  for  revising  the  Bible. 
Kerckhove  died  Feb.  4, 1G16.  He  wrote  A  ccord  desjjas- 
sages  de  VEcriture  qui  semhlent  ctre  contraires  les  uns  aux 
autres  (Dort,  1590, 12mo)  : — Theses  logicce  atque  elhicce 
(1602) : — Resp)onsio  ad  interpolata  A.  Cocheletii,  doctoris 
Sorhonnistce  (1610);  Cochelet  answered  in  his  Cmm^te- 
rium  Culrini: — Miscellaneai  Tructationes  theohgicce,  in 
quihus  (ir/itur  de  prcBdesdnatione  et  Ccena  Domini  (Ley- 
den, 1629, 8 vo) : — Prima  Concertatio  anii-sociniana  (Am- 
sterd.  16-40, 8vo)  : — De  essentiali  Christi  Existentia  Con- 
certatio, contra  Johannem  Crellium  (Leyden,  1G43, 12mo); 
etc.  He  also  published  Thomas  Cartwright's  Commen- 
tarii  in  Proverbia  Sulomonis,  and  was  one  of  the  pub- 
lishers of  the  Synopsis  purioris  Theologice  (hcyden,l6'25, 
8vo).  iiecFop])cns,Bibliotheca  Belgica;  Hos.horn.The- 
atrum  Hollandix,  p.  3G1 ;  'Pa(\ViOt,Memoires,  vol.  v. ;  Joh. 
Fabricius,  Jlistor.  Bibliothecarnm,  iv,  92. — Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generule,  xxvii,  G04.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Ke'reii-hap'pvich  (Heb.  Ke'ren-hap-Puh',  ''^1? 
T)^3"j, /'o;«  of  the  facG-jKiint,  i.  c.  cosmetic-box;  Sept. 
'AfiaX^cluQ  [v.  r.  'AjuriXSa/oc,  'AnaX^iac,  MaXBsai;] 
Kipag,  i.  e.  horn  of  plenty ;  Vulg.  correctly  Cornu  stibii, 
i.  e.  of  antimonj'),  a  name  given  to  Job's  third  daughter 
(Job  xliii,  14),  after  the  Oriental  ideas  of  elegance  (see 
Kitto's Dailg Bib. I II. adloc).  B.C. cir. 2220.   See  Paint. 

Keri  and  Kethib  (ainri  i-ip,  plural  liilp 
"|a'ir>21),  so  frequently  found  in  the  margins  and  foot- 
notes of  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  exhibit  tlie  most  ancient 
various  readings,  and  constitute  the  most  important 
portion  of  the  critico-exegetical  apparatus  bequeathed 
v.— D 


to  us  by  the  Jews  of  olden  times.  On  this  subject  we 
substantially  adopt  Ginsburg's  article  in  Kitto's  Cyclo- 
jicedia,  s.  v.     See  Masoraii. 

I.  Signification,  Classification,  and  3fode  of  Indication 
of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — The  word  "^Ip,  Jceri',  may 
be  either  the  imperative  or  the  participle  passive  of  the 
Chaldee  verb  Xip,  to  call  out,  to  read,  and  hence  may 
signify  "  Read,''  or  "  It  is  read,"  i.  e.  the  word  in  ques- 
tion is  to  be  substituted  for  that  in  the  text.  S'^inS, 
kethib',  is  the  participle  passive  of  the  Chaldee  verb 
3ri2,  to  icrite,  and  signifies  "It  is  icritten,"  i.  e.  the  word 
in  question  is  in  the  text.  Those  who  prefer  taking 
the  word  "^"ip  as  participle,  do  so  on  the  ground  that  it 
is  more  consonant  with  its  companion  nT^S,  which  is 
the  participle  passive.  The  two  terms  thus  correspond 
substantially  to  the  modern  ones  margin  (Keri)  and  text 
(Kethib).  AVe  may  add  that  tlie  Rabbins  also  call  the 
Keri  N'^p'O,  mikra',  scripture,  and  the  Kethib  llTlO^) 
masorah',  tradition;  but,  according  to  our  ideas,  these 
terms  should  be  reversed. 

The  different  readings  exhibited  in  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes:  a. 
"Words  to  be  read  differently  from  what  they  are  written, 
arising  from  the  omission,  insertion,  exchanging,  or  trans- 
position of  a  single  letter  (-"^v?^  ''"ip,  ''"^p^  ^T?)  5 
b.  Words  to  be  read,  but  that  are  not  ^vritten  in  the 
text  (UTID  N'Pl  'i"ip) ;  and,  c.  Words  written  in  the 
text,  but  that  are  not  to  be  read  (i"!p  X'?1  IS'^nS). 

a.  The  first  general  class  (variations)  comprises  the 
bulk  of  the  various  readings,  and  consists  of— 

1.  Corrections  of  errors  arising  from  mistaldng  hom- 
onyms, 0.  g.  xb,  the  negative  particle,  for  the  similarly 
sounding  15,  the  pronoun,  of  which  we  have  fifteen  in- 
stances (comp.  Exod.  xxi,  8 ;  Lev.  xi,  21 ;  xxv,  30 ;  1 
Sam.  ii,  3 ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  18 ;  2  Kings  viii,  10 ;  Ezra  iv,  2 ; 
Job  xiii,  15 ;  xli,  4 ;  Psa.  c,  3  ;  cxxxix,  16 ;  Prov.  xix, 
7;  xxvi,  2;  Isa.  ix,  2;  Ixiii,  9),  and  two  instances  in 
which  the  reverse  is  the  case  (1  Sam.  ii,  16 ;  xx,  2). 
Besides  noticing  them  in  their  respective  places,  the 
]\Iasorah  also  enumerates  them  all  on  Lev.  xi,  15.  The 
Talmud  {Sopherim,  vi)  gives  three  additional  ones,  viz., 
1  Chron.  xi,  21 ;  Job  vi,  21 ;  Isa.  xlix,  5.  hv  for  bx,  of 
which  we  have  four  instances  (1  Sam.  xx,  24;  1  Kings- 
i,  33  ;  Job  vii,  1 ;  Isa.  Ixv,  7 ;  Ezek.  ix,  5). 

2.  Errors  arising  from  mistaking  the  letters  which 
resemble  each  other,  e.  g.  S  for  3  (comp.  Prov.  xxi,  29) ; 
5  for  t  (Ezek.  xxv,  7) ;  'I  for  "j  (1  Sam.  iv,  13);  n  for 
1,  of  which  the  Masorah  on  Prov.  xix,  19,  and  Jer.  xxi^. 
40,  gives  four  instances  (2  Sam.  xiii,  37 ;  2  Kings  xvi,. 
6;  Jer.  xxi,  40 ;  Prov.  xix,  19) ;  fl  for  n  (.Jer.  xxviii,  1 ;. 
xxxii,  1) ;  n  for  D  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  13) ;  H  for  T\,  of  which 
the  Masorah  on  Prov.  xx,  21  gives  four  instances  (2 
Sam.  xiii,  37;  Prov.  xx,  21 ;  Cant,  i,  17 ;  Dan.  ix,  24)  ;; 
::  for  a  (1  Sam.  xiv,  32) ;  "^  for  1  in  innumerable  in- 
stances; D  for  3  in  eleven  cases  (Josh,  iv,  18;  vi,  5, 15"; 
1  Sam.  xi,  6,  9 ;  2  Sam.  v,  24 ;  2  Kings  iii,  24 ;  Ezra  viii, 
14 ;  Neh.  iii,  20  ;  Esth.  iii,  4 ;  Job  xxi,  13 ;  D  for  n  (Isa. 
xxx,  32) ;  :J  for  SJ  (2  Kings  xx,  4) ;  "I  for  ^  twice  (Jer. 
ii,  20 ;  Ezra  viii,  14)  ;  n  for  H  (Eccles.  xii,  6)  ;  n  for  n 
(2  Kings  xxiv,  14;  xxv,  17;  Jer.  Iii,  21). 

3.  Errors  arising  from  exchanging  letters  which  be- 
long to  the  same  organs  of  speech,  e.  g.  3  for  53,  of 
which  the  Keri  exhibits  one  instance  (Josh,  xxii,  7),. 
and  vice-versa,  of  which  the  Groat  INIasorah,  mider  letter 
3,  gives  six  instances  (Josh,  iii,  16 ;  xxiv,  15 ;  2  Kings 
v,  12 ;  xii,  10 ;  xxiii,  33 ;  Dan.  xi,  18) ;  M  for  N  (2  Kings 
xvii,  21);  :}  for  X  (1  Sara,  xx,  24;  1  Kings  i,  33;  Job- 
vii,  1 ;  Isa.  Ixv,  7;  Ezek.  ix,  5)  ;  52  for  2  (Isa.  Ixv,  4). 

4.  Errors  arising   from  the  transposition  of  letter^. 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


50 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


■which  the  Masorah  designates  "iPIIX'il  tS'lpl'O,  and 
of  which  it  gives  sixty-two  cases,  as,  for  instance,  the 
textual  reading,  or  Kethib,  is  priXfl,  the  tent,  and  the 
marginal  reading,  or  Keri,  transposing  the  letters  P  and 
n,  has  nbxn,  tlwse  (comp.  Josh,  vi,  13 ;  xx,  8 ;  xxi,  27 ; 
Judg.  xvi,  •!() ;  1  Sam.  xiv,  27 ;  xix,  18,  22,  23  [twice]  ; 
xx^-ii, «;  2Sam.  iii,  25;  xiv,  30;  xvii,  IG;  xviii,  8;  xx, 
14;  xxiv,  10;  1  Kings  vii,  45;  2  Kings  xi,  2;  xiv,  6; 
1  Chron.  i,  40 ;  iii,  24 ;  xxvii,  29 ;  2  Chron.  xvii,  8 ; 
xxix,  8;  Ezra  ii,  40;  iv,  4;  viii,  17  ;  Neh.  iv,  7  ;  xii,  14; 
Esth.  i,  5,  10  ;  Job  xxvi,  12  ;  Psa.  Ixxiii,  2 ;  cxxxix,  6  ; 
cxlv,  0  ;  Prov.  i,  27 ;  xiii,  20 ;  xix,  16  ;  xxiii,  5,  26  ; 
xxxi,  27 ;  Eccles.  ix,  4  ;  Isa.  xxxvii,  30  ;  Jer.  ii,  25  ; 
viii,  6;  ix,  7;  xv,  4;  xvii,  23;  xxiv,  9;  xxix,  18,  23  ; 
xxxii,  23  ;  xlii,  20 ;  1, 15 ;  Ezek.  xxxvi,  14 ;  xl,  15 ;  xUi, 
10 ;  xliii,  15, 16 ;  Dan.  iv,  9 ;  v,  7, 16  [twice],  29). 

5.  Errors  arising  from  the  small  letter  '^  bemg  dropped 
before  the  pronominal  1  from  plural  nouns,  and  making 
them  to  be  singular,  of  which  there  are  a  hundred  and 
thirteen  instances  [it  is  very  strange  that  the  jNIasorah 
JIagna  only  enumerates  fifty-six  of  tliese  instances] 
(Gen.  xxxiii,  4;  Exod. xxvii,  11;  xxviii,  28;  xxxii,  19; 
xxxix,  4,33;  Lev.  ix,  22;  xvi,  21 ;  Numb,  xii,  3;  Deut. 
ii,  33  ;  vii,  9 ;  viii,  2 ;  xxvii,  10 ;  xxxiii,  9  ;  Josh,  iii,  4 ; 
viii,  11;  xvi,  3;  Ruth  iii,  14;  1  Sam.  ii,  9,  10  [twice]; 
iii,  18 ;  viii,  3 ;  x,  21 ;  xxii,  13 ;  xxiii,  5 ;  xxvi,  7 
[twice],  11, 16;  xxix,  5  [twice]  ;  xxx,  6;  2  Sam.  i,  11 : 
ii,  23;  iii,  12;  xii,  9,  20;  xiii,  34;  xvi,  8;  xviii,  7,  18; 
xix,  19;  XX,  8;  xxiii,  9,  11;  xxiv,  14,  22;  1  Kings  v, 
17;  X,  5;  xviii,  42;  2  Kings  iv,  34;  v,  9;  xi,  18;  Ezra 
iv,  7  ;  Job  ix,  13  ;  xiv,  5  ;  xv,  15  ;  xx,  11 ;  xxi,  20  ; 
xxiv,  1;  xxvi,  14;  xxxi,  20;  xxxvii,  12;  xxxviii,  41; 
xxxix,  26,  30;  xl,  17;  Psa.  x,  5;  xxiv,  6;  Iviii,  8;  cvi, 
45;  cxlvii,  19;  cxlviii,  2;  Prov.  vi,  13  [twice];  xxii, 
24;  xxvi,  24;  Isa.  Hi,  5;  Ivi,  10;  Jer.  xv,  8;  xvii,  10, 
11;  xxii,  4;  xxxii,  4;  Iii,  33  ;  Lam.  iii,  22,  32, 39 ;  Ezek. 
iii,  20;  xvii,  21;  xviii,  23,  24;  xxxi,  5;  xxxiii,  13,  10; 
xxxvii,  16  [twice],  19;  xl,  6,  22  [twice],  26;  xliii,  11 
[thrice],  26;  xliv,  5;  xlvii,  11;  Dan.  xi,  10;  Amos  ix, 
6;  Obad.  v,  11 ;  Hab.  iii,  14) ;  as  well  as  from  the  in- 
sertion of  1  before  the  pronominal  1  and  before  the  pro- 
nominal "i  in  smgular  nouns,  and  making  them  plural ; 
the  Keri  exhibits  seven  instances  of  the  former  (1  Kings 
xvi,  26;  Psa.  ev,  18,  28 ;  Prov.  xvi,  27;  xxi,  29;  Eccles. 
iv,  17;  Dan.  ix,  12)  and  eight  of  the  latter  in  the  word 
ini  (Judg.  xiii,  17;  1  Kings  viii,  26;  xxii,  13;  Psa. 
cxix,  147, 101 ;  Jer.  xv,  10  [twice]  ;  Ezra  x,  12). 

6.  Errors  of  a  grammatical  nature,  arising  from  drop- 
ping the  article  (1  where  it  ought  to  be,  of  which  the 
Keri  exhibits  fourteen  instances  (1  Sam.  xiv,  32 ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii,  9 ;  1  Kings  iv,  7;  vii,  20 ;  xv,  18;  2  Kings  xi,  20 ; 
XV,  25;  Isa.  xxxii,  15;  Jer.  x,  13;  xvii,  19;  xl,  3;  Iii, 
32 ;  Lam.  i,  18 ;  Ezek.  xviii,  20),  or  from  the  insertion 
of  it  where  it  ought  not  to  be,  of  wliich  there  are  ten 
instances  (1  Sam.  xxvi,  12 ;  1  Kings  xxi,  8 ;  2  Kings 
vii,  12,  13;  xv,  25;  Eccles.  vi,  10;  x,  3,  20;  Isa.  xxix, 
11;  Jer.  xxxviii,  11);  or  from  the  dropping  of  the  tl 
after  ir:,  or  writing  XIH  instead  of  X^n  when  used  as 
feminine. 

7.  Errors  arising  from  the  wrong  division  of  words, 
c.  g.  the  first  word  having  a  letter  which  belongs  to  the 
second,  exhibited  by  the  Keri  in  three  instances,  and 
stated  in  the  :Masorah  on  2  Sam.  v,  2  (2  Sam.  v,  2 ;  Job 
xxxviii,  12;  Lam.  iv,  10),  or  the  second  word  having  a 
letter  whicli  belongs  to  the  first,  of  which  there  are 
two  instances  (1  Sam.  xxi,  12;  Ezra  iv,  12);  or  one 
word  being  divided  into  two  separate  words,  of  which 
the  ^lasorah  on  2  (Jhron.  xxxiv  mentions  eight- instan- 
ces (Judg.  xvi,  25 ;  1  Sam.  ix,  L;-  xxiv,  8 ;  1  Kings  xviii, 
5;  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  6;  Isa.  ix,  6;  Lam.  i,  6;  iv,  3),  or 
two  sei)arate  words  being  written  as  one,  exhibited  by 
the  Keri  in  fifteen  instances  (Gen.  xxx,  11;  Exod.  iv, 
2;  Deut.  xxxiii,  2;  1  Chron.  ix,  4;  xxvii,  12,  Neh.  ii. 


23 ;  Job  xxxviii,  1 ;  xl,  6 ;  Psa.  x,  10  ;  Iv,  16 ;  cxxiii,  4; 
Isa.  iii,  15 ;  Jer.  vi,  29  ;  xviii,  3  ;  Ezek.  viii,  6). 

8.  Exegetical  Kerls  or  marginal  readings  which  sub- 
stitute euphemisms  for  tlie  cacophonous  terms  used  in 
tlie  text,  in  accordance  with  the  injunction  of  the  an- 
cient sages,  that  *'all  the  verses  wherein  indecent  ex- 
pressions occur  are  to  be  replaced  by  decent  words  (e.  g. 
njp^w^'i  by  n233C''  [of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  four 
instances,  viz.  Deut.  xxviii,  30 ;  Isa.  xiii,  10 ;  Jer.  iii,  2 ; 
Zech.  xiv,  2]  ;  D^blS"  by  D'^lin:^  [of  which  the  Keri 
exhibits  six  instances,  viz.  Deut.  xxviii,  27 ;  1  Sam.  v, 
0,  9 ;  vi,  4,  5,  17 ;  omitting,  however,  1  Sam.  v,  12] ; 
D'i3'li"in  by  D*^3Ti31  [of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  one 
instance,  viz.  2  Kings  vi,  25];  Cnimn  by  nrj<i:i  [of 
which  the  Keri  exhibits  two  instances,  2  Kings  xviii, 
27;  Isa.xxxvi,  12];  Cn^ra  i72-i-2  by  Cnib:"!  i-^i^a 
[of  which  the  Keri  exhibits  two  instances,  2  Kings 
xviii,  27;  Isa.  xxxvi,  12]  ;  TlXinrb  by  niXri-l-^b  [of 
which  there  is  one  instance,  2  Kings  x,  27,  comp.  Me- 
ffilki,  25  b])." 

The  manner  in  which  this  general  class  of  various 
readings  is  indicated  is  as  follows :  The  variations  speci- 
fied under  1  and  2,  not  affecting  the  vowel  points,  are 
simply  indicated  by  a  small  circle  or  asterisk  placed 
over  the  word  in  the  text  (li'^T-),  which  directs  to  the 
marginal  reading  ("^Ip),  where  the  emendation  is  giv- 
en, as,  for  instance,  the  Kethib  in  Exod.  xxi,  8  is  X'?, 
in  1  Sam.  xx,  24  hb,  and  in  Prov.  xxi,  29  "pr^^  and 
the  marginal  gloss  remarks  IP  p,  PX  p,  "("^ni  p,  the 
p  being  an  abbreviation  for  "'"ip.  In  the  variations 
specified  under  3  and  4,  where  the  different  letters  of  the 
Kethib  and  the  Keri  require  different  vowel  points,  the 
abnormal  textual  reading,  or  the  Kethib,  has  not  only 
the  small  circle  or  asterisk,  but  also  takes  the  vowel 
points  which  belong  to  the  normal  marginal  reading,  or 
the  Keri,  e.  g.  the  appropriate  pointing  of  the  textual 
reading,  or  the  Kethib,  in  2  Kings  xvii,  21,  is  X'n|^^,  but 
it  is  pointed  X'^]^^,  because  these  vowel  signs  belong  to 
the  marginal  reading,  or  the  Keri,  UT^"],  which  it  is  in- 
tended should  accompany  the  vowel  points  in  the  text. 
The  same  is  the  case  with  the  textual  reading  in  2  Sam. 
xiv,  30,  which,  according  to  the  marginal  reading,  ex- 
hibits a  transposition  of  letters,  and  which  can  hardly 
be  pronounced  with  its  textual  points  nT.'^SJIill,  be- 
cause these  vowel  signs  belong  to  the  Keri,  iTir":itT!. 
Finally,  in  the  variations  specified  under  5,  C,  7,  and  8, 
which  involve  an  addition  or  diminution  of  letters,  and 
which  have  therefore  either  more  or  fewer  letters  than 
are  required  by  the  vowel  points  of  the  Keri,  a  vowel 
sign  is  sometimes  given  without  any  letter  at  all,  or  tv/o 
vowel  signs  have  to  be  attached  to  one  letter,  and  some- 
times a  letter  lias  to  be  without  any  vowel  sign ;  the 
variation  itself  being  either  indicated  in  the  margin  by 
the  exhibition  of  the  entire  word  which  constitutes  the 
different  reading,  or  by  the  simple  remark  that  such 
and  such  a  letter  is  wanting  or  is  redundant.  For 
instance,  in  Lam.  v,  7,  which,  according  to  the  Jlasorah, 
exhibits  two  of  the  twelve  instances  where  the  1  con- 
junctive has  boen  dropped  from  the  beginning  of  words 
(comp.  also  2  Kings  iv,  7;  Job  ii,  7;  Prov.  xxiii,  24; 
xxvii,  24;  Isa.  Iv,  13;  Lam.  ii,  2;  iv,  10;  v,  3,  5;  Dan. 
ii,  43),  the  textual  reading, or  Kethib,  is  C)3'iX°  ^3nDX*, 
and  the  marginal  reading,  or  Keri,  is  D3"iX1,  liniXI^ 
the  vowel  sign  of  the  conjunction  from  the  margin  being 
inserted  in  the  text  under  tlie  little  circle,  which,  con- 
sequently, has  no. letter  at  all;  in  Jer.  xlii,  0,  again, 
where  the  textual  reading  is  i:X,  and  the  marginal 
reading  linjX,  yet  the  Kethib,  which  has  only  three 
letters,  takes  the  vowel  signs  of  the  Keri,  which  has 
five  letters,  and  is  pointed  -13  X,  with  two  different  vow- 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


51 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


el  points  attached  to  the  one  "1 ;  whilst  in  2  Kuigs  vii, 
15,  where  the  reverse  is  the  case,  the  marginal  read- 
ing having  fewer  letters,  and  hence  fewer  vowels  than 
the  textual  reading,  which  takes  the  vowel  signs  of  the 
former,  the  Kethib  is  pointed  CTSriiia,  and  the  H  has 
no  vowel  sign  at  all.  There  is  a  peculiarity  connected 
with  the  marginal  indication  of  those  words  the  varia- 
tions of  which  consist  in  the  diminution  or  addition  of  a 
single  letter.  When  a  letter  is  dropped  from  a  word  in 
tlie  text,  the  whole  word  is  given  in  the  marginal  read- 
ing with  the  letter  in  question,  and  the  remark  "Read 
so ;"  as,  for  instance,  1  Sam.  xiv,  32 ;  Prov.  xxiii,  24, 
where  the  tl,  according  to  the  JNIasorah,  is  dropped  from 
^Vijn,  and  1  from  lbl"'1,  as  indicated  by  ??(i^_  and 
^^^''  ;  the  marginal  glosses  are  b^'l'tl  p?  ^h^^^  p; 
but  when  the  reverse  is  the  case,  if  a  letter  has  crept 
into  a  word,  the  whole  word  is  not  given  in  the  mar- 
ginal gloss,  but  it  is  simply  remarked  that  such  and 
such  a  letter  is  redundant  ("I'^n"'),  or  is  not  to  be  read 
("lip  xb),  as,  for  instance,  in  Eccles.  x,  20 ;  Neh.  ix,  17, 
where  the  n,  according  to  the  Masorah,  has  crept  in 
before  d'^S33,  and  1  before  ^DH,  the  marginal  gloss 
simply  remarks  n  "l^ni,  ^  ^in"^.  Upon  this  point, 
however,  the  greatest  inconsistency  is  manifested  in 
the  Masoretic  glosses ;  compare,  for  instance,  the  Kethib 
1^31:7  and  ""^Pi"!  in  Eccles.  iv,  8, 17,  both  of  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  Keri,  have  a  redundant  "i,  and  are  sin- 
gular nouns,  yet  the  Masoretic  note  upon  the  former  is 
13^"  p  exhibiting  the  whole  word,  whilst  on  the  latter 
it  simply  remarks    "^  Tin"!. 

h.  The  second  class  {insertions  directed),  which  com- 
prises entire  icords  that  have  been  omitted  from  the 
text,  exhibits  ten  such  instances  which  occur  in  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  as  follows  :  Judg.  xx,  13 ;  Euth  iii,  5,  17; 
2  Sam.  viii,  3;  xvi,  23;  xviii,  20;  2  Kings  xix,  31,  37; 
Jer.  xxxi,  38 ;  1,  29.  Besides  being  noted  in  the  mar- 
ginal glosses  on  the  respective  passages,  these  omissions 
are  also  given  in  the  INIasorah  on  Deut.  i  and  Ruth  iii, 
IG.  Tliey  are  also  enumerated  in  the  Talmud  (Tract 
Sopkerim,  vi,  8,  and  in  Nedarim,  37  b).  In  Nedurim, 
however,  the  passage  which  refers  to  this  subject  is  as 
follows:'  "The  insertion  of  words  in  the  text  ("pi^p 
piPD  Xbl)  is  exhibited  in  mS  [2  Sam.  viii,  3]; 
C-iX  [ibid,  xvi,  23]  ;  Cl"'S3  [Jer.  xxxi,  38]  ;  nb  [ibid. 

I,  21)];  PX  [Ruth  ii,  11];  ■^bs  [ibid,  iii,  5,  17];"  thus 
omitting  four  instances,  viz.  Judg.  xx,  13  ;  2  Sam.  xviii, 
20 ;  2  Kings  xix,  31,  37,  and  adding  one,  viz.,  Ruth  ii, 

II,  which  is  neither  given  by  the  Masorah  nor  in  <S'o- 
pherim. 

This  class  of  variations  is  indicated  by  a  small  circle 
or  asterisk  placed  in  the  text  with  the  vowel  signs  of 
tlic  word  which  is  wanting,  referring  to  the  margin, 
where  the  word  in  question  is  given.  Thus,  for  in- 
stance, in  Judg.  XX,  13,  where,  according  to  the  Keri,  the 
word  ■'D^  is  omitted,  the  Kethib  is  "("S'^pn  °  ^3X  i<b^ 
upon  which  the  marginal  gloss  remarks  N^T  "i^p  *i;3 

c.  Of  the  third  class  (omissions  suggested),  exhibiting 
entire  words  which  have  crept  into  the  text,  there  are 
eight  instances,  as  follows  :  Ruth  iii,  12  ;  2  Sam.  xiii,  33 ; 
XV,  21 ;  2  Kings  v,  18;  Jer.  xxxviii,  lO;  xxxix,  12;  Ii, 
3 ;  Ezek.  xlviii,  16.  These  variations  are  not  only  noted 
in  the  marginal  glosses  on  the  respective  passages,  but 
are  also  given  in  the  !Masorah  on  Ruth  iii,  12.  The 
passage  in  Nedarim,  27  b,  which  speaks  of  this  class  of 
variations,  remarking,  "Words  which  are  found  in  the 
text,  but  are  not  read  ("p"'^p  xbl  "pTs),  are  exhib- 
ited in  X3  [2  Kings  v,  18];  nXT  [Jer.  xxxii,  11];  "j'lTi 
[ibid.  Ii,  3];  ^li^n  [Ezek.  xlviii,  IG]  ;  tX  [Ruth  iii, 
12],"  omits  2  Sam.  xiii,  33 ;  xv,  21 ;  and  Jer.  xxxviii. 


16;  xxxix,  12;  and  adds  Jer.  xxxii,  11,  which  does  not 
exist  in  the  Masorah ;  whilst  Sopherim,  vi,  9,  which  re- 
marks ^izn  --,-11  bx"  nip-23  "I'lTXa  ■pSlSX,  refer- 
ring to  2  Sam.  xiii,  33  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  12  ;  2  Sam.  xv,  21 ; 
Ruth  iii,  12 ;  Jer.  Ii,  3 ;  p^zek.  xlviii,  IG  ;  omits  2  Kings 
V,  18,  and  Jer.  xxxviii,  16. 

This  class  of  variations  is  not  uniformly  indicated  in 
the  different  editions  of  the  Bible.  Generally  the  word 
in  question  has  no  vowel  signs,  but  an  asterisk  or  small 
circle  is  put  over  it,  referring  to  the  margin,  where  it  is 
simply  remarked  ''•^p  xbl  n"'n3,  written  [m  the  textr\, 
hut  not  \^to  6e]  read;  in  one  or  two  instances,  however, 
the  word  itself  is  repeated  in  the  margin,  as  in  2  Kings 
v,  18,  where  we  have  it  "^ip  xbl  aipD  X3,  [the  word] 
X3  [isl  ivritten  [in  the  text'\,hut  [is']  not  [to  be]  read. 

II.  Number  and  Position  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — A 
great  difference  of  opuiion  prevails  about  the  number 
and  position  of  these  various  readings.  The  Talmud, 
as  we  have  shown  above,  and  the  early  commentators, 
mention  variations  which  do  not  exist  in  the  Keris  and 
Ketlubs  of  the  ^Masorah.  This,  however,  is  beyond  the 
aim  of  the  [iresent  article,  which  is  to  investigate  the 
Keri  and  Kethib  as  exhibited  in  the  ]\Iasorah  and  in  the 
editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  From  a  careful  perusal 
and  collation  of  the  IMasorah,  as  printed  in  the  Rabbinic 
Bibles,  we  tind  the  following  to  be  the  number  of  the 
Keris  and  Kethibs  in  each  book,  according  to  the  order 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible : 


....    24 

Ilabakkuk 

2 

VI 

Zephaiiiah 

Ilaggai 

Zecliixriah 

Malachi 

1 

Leviticus 

5 

11 

1 

...   .      7 

Deuteronomy 

Joshua 

....     24 
....     .SS 
22 

1 

74 

Judges 

Proverbs 

Job 

Son"  of  Song.s 

70 

1  Samuel 

2  Samuel 

T.S 

....     99 
49 

54 

5 

1  Kin"? 

Ruth 

13 

SO 

....     28 

Isaiali 

Jeremiah 

....     5.5 

....   ]4S 
....    U3 
6 

Ecclesiastes 

Esther 

11 

14 

Ezekiel 

Hosea 

Pauiel 

Ezra 

129 

33 

Joel 

Amos 

....       1 
3 

Nehemiah 

1  Chronicles 

28 

41 

Obadiah 

....       1 

4 
4 

39 

Micah 

Nahum 

Total 

....  1353 

The  disparity  between  Abrabanel's  calculations  about 
the  number  of  Keris  and  Kethibs,  leading  him  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Pentateuch  has  65,  Jeremiah  81,  and 
1  and  2  Samuel  138  (Introduction  to  Jeremiah),  and  the 
numbers  which  we  have  stated  as  existing  in  these 
books,  is  easily  accounted  for  when  it  is  remembered 
that  this  erudite  commentator  died  fifteen  j-ears  before 
the  laborious  Jacob  b.-Chajim  collated  and  published 
the  Masorahs  on  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  therefore 
had  no  opportunity  of  consulting  them  carefully.  But 
we  lind  it  far  more  difficult  to  account  for  the  serious 
difference  in  the  calculations  of  later  writers  and  our  re- 
sults, as  may  be  seen  from  the  table  on  the  following 
page. 

For  the  collation  of  Bomberg's  Bible,  the  Plantin  Bi- 
ble, and  the  Antwerp  Bible,  we  are  indebted  to  the  ta- 
bles exhibited  in  Cappellus's  Critica  Sacra,  p.  70,  and 
Walton's /'?-oZe5ro?He«a  (ed.  Cantabrigire,  1828, i,  473) ;  and 
though  we  have  been  able  by  our  arrangement  to  cor- 
rect their  blunder  in  representing  Elias  Levita  as  sepa- 
rating the  Five  Megilloth  from  the  Hagiographa,  and 
giving  the  number  of  Keris  to  be  329  exclusive  of  the 
JMegilloth,  yet  we  were  obliged  to  describe  the  jMegU- 
loth  apart  from  the  Hagiographa,  to  which  they  belong 
acciinling  to  the  Jewish  order  of  the  Canon.  Elias  Le- 
vita's  own  words  on  the  numbers  are  as  follows:  "I 
counted  the  Keris  and  Kethibs  several  times,  and  found 
that  they  were  in  all  848  ;  of  these,  65  are  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, 454  in  the  Prophets,  and  329  in  the  Hagiographa, 
It  is  surprising  that  there  should  only  be  65  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch, 22  of  which  refer  to  the  single  word  n"1"3,  which 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


52  KERI  AND  KETHIB 

same  vie-H'.  It  is  in  accordance  with  this 
recondite  sense  ascribed  to  the  origin  of 
the  Keri  and  Kethib  that  llashi  remarks 
on  Gen.  viii,  16,  "The  Keri  is  jliltl,  the 
Kethib  XU^n,  because  he  was  first  to  tell 
tliem  to  go  out;  but  if  they  should  refuse 
to  go,  he  was  to  make  them  go."  Kimchi. 
however,  is  of  the  opposite  opinion.  &'o 
far  from  believing  that  these  variations 
proceeded  from  the  sacred  writers  them- 
selves, who  designed  to  convey  thereby 
various  mysteries,  he  maintains  that  the 
Keri  and  Kethib  originated  after  the  Bab- 
ylonian captivity,  when  the  sacred  books 
were  collected  by  the  members  of  the  Great 
Synagogue.  These  editors  of  the  long-lost 
and  mutilated  inspired  writings  ''found  dif- 
ferent readings  in  the  volumes,  and  adopt- 
ed those  which  the  majority  of  copies  had, 
because  these,  according  to  their  opinion, 
exhibited  the  true  readings.  In  some 
N.B.-In  this  table,  what  are  denoted  by  "Variations"  are  designated  P^'''^''*  ^^ey  wrote  down  one  word  in  the 
" Interpolations,"  n^^i ;  "Deficiencies,"    t*^^^'  ^"^'\"".^  P"""^S  the  vowel  signs  to  it, 

or  noted  it  in  the  margin  without  insert- 


BoniberK's 
Sec.  Edit, 
ofliiljle, 
1524,  16«. 

The  Plan- 
tin  Bible, 
1666. 

The  Ant- 
werp or 
Royal  Bi- 
ble", 15T.'. 

Elias 
Levitn. 

Our 
Results. 

Pent  A-      1 

TEtUMI.         j 

VaiiiUions 

Interpolations 
Deticieucies  . . 

7a 

1 

"74 

74 
1 
2 

7T 

69 
1 
1 

71 

05 

76 

Earlier     1 
Prophets,  j 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deticieucies  .. 

ba7 
11 

2 

350 

239 

25 

5 

2611 

277 

18 

5 

300 

.301 

Later      1 
Peoi'Uets.   1 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deficiencies  . . 

348 
2 

850 

250 

25 

1 

2T0 

347 
11 

358 

454 

377 

Five       \ 
Megilloth.J 

Variations 

Interpolations 

51 
11 

43 
14 
57 

48 

8 

"50 

71 

Hagiogra-  (. 
ruA.        1 

Variations 

Interpolations 
Deficiencies  . . 

362 
60 

1 

423 

1S7 

34 

1 

222 

242 

20 

1 

263 

329 

408 

total 

1'25U 

11(11 

1048      1    f<4S    1    1353  1 

by  the  llasorites  as  "^Ip; 
"lion. 


is  'n"3  in  the  Kethib,  and  n"i"3  in  the  Keri;  that  the 
book  of  Joshua,  which  in  quantity  is  about  a  tenth  part 
of  the  Pentateuch,  should  have  32 ;  and  that  the  books 
of  Samuel,  which  are  merely  about  a  fourth  the  size  of 
the  Pentateuch,  should  contain  133"  {Massoreth  II a- 
Mussonth,  ed.  Sulzbach,  1771,  p.  8  sq.).  It  will  be  seen 
from  tliis  extract  that  Elias  Levita  not  only  gives  si.x 
Keris  less  in  Joshua  than  we  ha\'e  given,  but  also  differs 
from  Abrabanel  in  the  number  of  Keris  to  be  found  in 
tlie  books  of  Samuel. 

III.  Orlffin  and  Bate  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib. — The 
Talmud  traces  the  source  of  these  variations  to  Moses 
himself,  for  we  are  distinctly  told  in  Nedarhn,  57  b,  that 
"  the  pronunciation  of  certain  words  according  to  the 
scribes  (C'lS'iO  X^p'O),  the  emendations  of  the  scribes 
(S'^^SID  "l^"),  the  not  reading  of  words  which  are 
in  the  text  ('^"ip  Stbl  3'^r:),  and  the  reading  of  words 
which  are  not  in  the  text  (3'^ri3  xbl  ''"ip),  etc.,  are 
a  law  of  Moses  from  Sinai."  Jacob  b.-Chajim  defends 
this  view  in  his  elaborate  Introduction  to  the  Pabbinic 
Bible.  Elias  h(fvita,  who  also  expresses  this  Talmudic 
declaration,  explains  it  as  follows :  "  The  Keri  and  Keth- 
ib of  the  Pentateuch  only  are  a  law  of  Moses  from 
jNIount  Sinai,  and  the  members  of  the  Great  Synagogue, 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi,  Daniel,  Hananiali,  INIishael, 
Azariah,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Mordecai,  and  Zcrubbabel, 
and  other  wise  men  from  the  craftsmen  and  artisans 
(1S0"^m  "iTTrin^)  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty,  wrote  down  the  Keri  and  the  Kethib  according 
to  the  tradition  which  they  possessed  that  our  teacher 
jNIo.ses  (peace  be  with  him !)  read  words  differently  from 
what  they  were  written  in  the  text;  this  being  one  of 
those  mysteries  which  they  knew,  for  Moses  transmitted 
this  mj'stery  to  Joshua,  Joshua  to  the  ciders,  the  elders 
to  the  prophet.i,  etc.,  and  these  were  put  down  in  the 
margin  as  his  readings,  Ezra  acting  as  a  scribe.  In  the 
same  manner  they  proceeded  in  the  Prophets  and  Ha- 
giograiiha  witli  every  word  respecting  which  they  had 
a  tradition  orally  transmitted  from  the  prophets  and  the 
.s.iges  that  it  was  read  differently  from  wliat  it  was  in 
the  text.  But  they  required  no  tradition  for  the  ]K)St- 
exilian  book.*,  as  the  authors  themselves  were  present 
with  them ;  hence,  whenever  they  met  with  a  word 
which  did  not  seem  to  harmonize  with  the  context  and 
the  sense,  the  author  stated  to  them  the  reason  why  he 
used  such  anomalous  expressions,  and  they  wrote  down 
the  weird  in  the  margin  as  it  should  Ijc  read"  (.Uassotxlh 
Ila-Massoreth,  fol.  8  b,  sq.).  JMeudelssohn,  in  his  valu- 
able introduction  to  his  translation  of  the  I'cntateuch, 
aud  most  of  the  ancient  Jewish  writers,  propounded  the 


ing  it  in  the  text,  whilst  in  other  places 
they  inserted  one  reading  in  the  margin  and  another 
in  the  text"  (Introduction  to  his  Commentary  on  Josh- 
ua). Ephodi  (flourished  1391-1403),  who  maintains  the 
same  view,  remarks  that  Ezra  and  his  followers  "  made 
the  Keri  and  Kethib  on  every  passage  in  which  they 
found  some  obliterations  and  confusion,  as  they  were  not 
sure  what  the  precise  reading  was."  Abrabanel,  who 
will  neither  admit  that  the  Keris  and  Kethibs  proceeded 
from  the  sacred  writers  themselves,  nor  that  they  took 
their  rise  from  the  imperfect  state  of  the  codices,  pro- 
pounds a  new  theory.  According  to  him,  Ezra  and  his 
followers,  who  undertook  the  editing  of  the  Scri]iturcs, 
found  the  sacred  books  entire  and  perfect ;  but  in  pe- 
rusing them  these  editors  discovered  that  they  con- 
tained irregular  expressions,  and  loose  and  ungrammat- 
ical  phrases,  arising  from  tlie  carelessness  and  ignorance 
of  the  inspired  writers.  "  Ezra  had  therefore  to  explain 
these  words  in  harmony  with  the  connection,  and  this 
is  the  origin  of  the  Keri  which  is  found  in  the  margin 
of  the  Bible,  as  this  holy  scribe  feared  to  touch  the 
words  which  were  spoken  or  written  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
These  remarks  he  made  on  his  ow^l  account  to  explain 
those  anomalous  letters  and  expressions,  and  he  put 
them  in  the  margin  to  indicate  that  the  gloss  is  his  own. 
Now,  if  you  examine  the  numerous  Keris  and  Kethibs 
in  Jeremiali,  and  look  into  their  connection,  yon  will 
find  them  all  to  be  of  this  nature,  viz.,  that  they  are  to 
be  traced  to  Jeremiah's  careless  and  blundering  writing. 
.  .  .  .  From  this  you  may  learn  that  the  books  which 
have  most  Keris  aud  Kethibs  show  that  their  authors 
did  not  know  how  to  speak  correctly  or  to  wriljg  jirop- 
erly"  (Introduction  to  his  Commentaiij  on  Jeremi^jji'). 
Though  Abnabanel's  hypothesis  has  more  truth  in  it 
than  the  other  theories,  yet  it  is  only  by  a  comliination 
of  the  three  views  that  the  origin  of  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  can  be  traced  and  explained.  For  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  some  of  the  variations,  as  the  Talmud, 
Kashi,  etc.,  declare,  have  been  transmitted  by  tradition 
from  time  immemorial,  and  have  their  origiii  in  some 
recondite  meaning  or  m3-steries  attached  to  tlie  passages 
in  question ;  that  some,  again,  as  Kimchi,  Ephodi,  etc., 
rightly  maintain,  are  due  to  the  blunders  and  corrup- 
tions which  have  crept  into  the  text  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  which  the  siiiritiial  guides  of  the  nation  tried 
to  rectify  by  a  comparison  of  codices,  as  is  also  admitted 
by  the  Talmud  (comp.  Jerusalem  Megillah,  iv,  2;  So- 
phe7-im,\i,4);  and"  that  others,  again,  as  Abrabanel  re- 
marks, arc  owing  to  the  carelessness  of  style,  ignorance 
of  idioms  and  provincialisms,  which  the  editors  and  suc- 
cessive interpreters  of  the  Hebrew  canon  discovered  in 
the  different  books,  or,  more  yiroperly  sjieaking,  which 
were  at  variance  with  the  grammatical  rules  and  exe- 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


53 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


getical  laws  developed  in  aftertime  by  the  ISrasorltcs. 
Such,  however,  was  their  reverence  for  the  ancient  text, 
that  these  Masorites  who  made  the  new  additions  to  it 
left  the  text  itself  untouched  in  the  very  piaces  where 
they  believed  it  necessary  to  follow  another  explanation 
or  reading,  but  simply  inserted  tlie  emendation  in  the 
margin.  Ilencc  the  distinction  between  the  ancient 
text  as  it  was  written,  or  Kethib  (l^n:),  and  the  more 
modern  emended  readinij,  or  Keri  ("'"ip) ;  and  hence, 
also,  the  fact  that  the  Keri  is  not  inserted  in  the  syna- 
gogal  scrolls,  though  it  is  followed  in  the  public  reading 
of  the  Scriptures. 

IV.  Importance  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib,  especially  as 
reluting  to  the  EnriU^h  Version  of  the  Hebreio  Scriptures. 
—Some  idea  of  the  importance  of  the  Keri  and  Kethib 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  analysis  of  the 
seventy-six  variations  which  occiur  in  the  Pentateuch. 
Of  the  seventy-six  Keris,  twenty-one  give  rn"3  in- 
stead of  "isa  (Gen.  xxiv,  li,  IG,  28,  55,  57;  xxxiv,  3 
[twice],  12;  Deut.  xxii,  15  [twice],  16,  20,  21,  23,  2-1, 
25,  2t3  [twice],  27,  28,  2D),  which  was  evidently  epicene 
in  earlier  periods  (comp.  Gesenius,  Granim.  sec.  23,  sec.  32, 
G  ;  Ewald,  Lehrbuch,  sec.  175,  b) ;  fifteen  have  the  plural 
termination  "11°  affixed  to  nouns  instead  of  the  singular 
1  in  the  text  (Gen.  xxxiii,  4;  Exod.  xxvii,  11 ;  xxviii, 
28;  xxxii,  10;  xxxix,  4,  33;  Lev.  ix,  22;  xvi,  21; 
Numb,  xii,  3;  Deut.  ii,  33  ;  v,  10;  vii,  9;  viii,  2  ;  xxvii^ 
10 ;  xxxiii,  9),  which  some  think  is  no  real  variation^ 
since  in  earlier  periods  the  termination  1  was  both  sin- 
gular and  plural,  just  as  11^3  stands  for  both  ■''n.)2  and 
■^■Ija ;  seventeen  give  more  ciurrent  and  m:ilbrm  forms 
of  words  (Gen.  viii,  17;  x,  19;  xiv,  8;  xxiv,  33  with  1, 
2G;  XXV,  23  with  xxxv,  11;  xxvii,  3  with  5,  7;  xxvii, 
29  with  the  same  word  in  the  next  clause;  xxxvi,  G,  14 
with  ver.  18 ;  xxxix,  20,  22  ;  xliii,  28  with  xxvii,  29  ; 
Exod.  xva,  2;  xvi,  7  with  Numb,  xvi,  11;  Numb,  xiv, 
36  with  XV,  24 ;  Numb,  xxi,  32  with  xxxii,  39 ;  xxxii, 
7  with  XXX,  G ;  Deut.  xxxii,  13  with  Amos  iv,  13)  ;  five 
substitute  the  termination  third  person  singular,  1  for  n 
(Gen.  xlix,  11  [twice];  Exod.  xxii,  26;  xxxii,  17; 
Numb.  X,  36),  which  is  a  less  common  pronominal  suf- 
fix (comp.  Gesenius,  Granitn.  sec.  91 ;  Ewald,  Lehrbuch, 
sec.  247,  a) ;  two  make  two  words  of  one  (Gen.  xxx,  11 ; 
Exod.  iv,  2);  two  have  lip^n  instead  of  ib':^  (Exod. 
xvi,  13;  Numb,  xi,  32);  three  give  plural  verbs  instead 
of  singular  (Lev.  xxi,  5 ;  Numb,  xxxiv,  4 ;  Deut.  xxxi, 
7),  which  are  no  doubt  an  improvement,  since  Numb. 
xxxiv,  4  is  evidently  a  mistake,  as  may  be  seen  from  a 
comparison  of  this  verse  with  verse  5 ;  three  substitute 
the  relative  pronoun  1?  for  the  negative  particle  XP 
(Exod.  xxi,  8 ;  Lev.  xi,  21 ;  xxv,  30),  which  is  very 
important;  two  substitute  euphemisms  for  cacophonous 
expressions  (Dent,  xxviii,  27,  30) ;  and  two  are  purely 
traditional,  viz.,  Numb,  i,  IG ;  xxvi,  9.  The  Pentateuch, 
however,  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  giving  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  importance  of  tlie  Keri  and  Kethib,  inasmuch 
as  the  Jews,  regarding  the  law  as  more  sacred  than  any 
other  inspired  book,  guarded  it  against  being  corrupt- 
ed with  greater  vigilance  than  tlie  rest  of  the  canon. 
Hence  the  comparatively  few  and  unimportant  Keris 
when  contrasted  with  those  occurring  in  the  other  vol- 
umes. Still,  the  Pentateuch  contains  a  few  specimens 
of  almost  all  the  different  Keris. 

As  to  the  question  how  far  our  English  versions  have 
been  influenced  by  the  Keri  and  Kethib,  this  will  best 
be  answered  by  a  comparison  of  the  translations  with 
the  more  striking  variations  whicli  occur  in  the  I'roph- 
ets  and  Hagiographa.  In  Josh,  v,  1,  the  textual  read- 
ing is  "till  ire  were  passed  over"  13"i3"),  the  Keri  has 
D"l3",  "untU  the//  passed  over;"  and  though  the  Sept., 
Vulg.,  Chaldee,  Luther,  the  Zurich  Bible,  Coverdale,  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  the  (Jeneva  Version,  etc.,  adopt  the  Keri, 
the  A.  v.,  foUowuig  Kimchi,  adheres  to  the  Kethib ; 


whilst  in  Josh,  vi,  7,  where  the  textual  reading  is  "and 
they  said  (ll'^X"''!)  unto  the  people,"  and  the  marginal 
emendation  is  "and  he  said"  ("I'CN'^I),  and  where  the 
Vulg.,  Chaldee,  Luther,  the  Zurich  Bible,  Coverdale,  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  and  the  Geneva  Version  again  adopt  the 
Keri,  as  in  the  former  instance,  the  A.  V.  abandons  the 
textual  reading  and  espouses  the  emendation.  In  Josh. 
XV,  47,  where  the  Keri  is  "the  borderimj  sea  (""^H 
binsn)  and  its  territory,"  and  the  Kethib  has  "  and  the 
fjreat  sea  (bi;\n  C^!!)  and  the  territory,"  which  is  again 
followed  by  the  ancient  versions  and  the  translations  of 
the  Reformers,  the  A.  V.,  without  taking  any  notice  of 
the  textual  reading  in  the  margin,  as  in  Josh,  viii,  16, 
adopts  the  emendation,  whereas  in  Josh,  xv,  53  the 
A.  V.  follows  the  textual  reading  (013^)  Janum,  noti- 
cing, however,  the  emendation  (012'')  Janus  in  the  mar- 
gin. AU  the  ten  emendations  of  the  second  class,  wliich 
propose  the  msertion  of  entire  words  into  the  text  C^p 
'2.T.'2  xbl),  are  adopted  in  the  A.  V.  without  the  slight- 
est indication  by  the  usual  italics  that  they  are  not  in 
the  text.  Of  the  eight  omissions  of  entire  words  in  the 
third  class  ('^"ip  5<bl  S'^nr)  nothing  decisive  can  be 
said,  inasmuch  as  six  of  them  refer  to  simple  particles, 
and  they  might  either  be  recognised  by  the  translators 
or  not  without  its  being  discernible  in  the  version.  The 
onlv  two  instances,  however,  where  there  can  be  no  mis- 
take (Jer.  xli,  3  ;  Ezek.  xlviii,  16),  clearly  show  that  the 
A.  V.  follows  the  marginal  gloss,  and  accordingly  re- 
jects the  words  which  are  in  the  text.  Had  the  limits 
of  this  article  alloAved  it,  we  could  have  shown  still  more 
unquestionably  that,  though  the  A.  V.  generally  adopts 
the  marginal  emendations,  yet  in  many  instances  it  pro- 
ceeds most  arbitrarily,  and  adheres  to  the  textual  read- 
ing ;  and  that,  with  very  few  exceptions,  it  never  indi- 
cates, l)y  italics  or  in  tlie  margin,  the  difference  between 
the  textual  and  the  marginal  readings. 

Inattention  to  the  Keri  and  Kethib  has  given  rise  to 
the  most  fanciful  and  absurd  expositions,  of  which  the 
following  may  serve  both  as  a  specimen  and  a  warning. 
In  looking  at  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  it  Avill  be 
seen  that  there  is  a  final  Mem  (D)  in  the  middle  of  the 
word  t^3'^Di,  Isa.  ix,  G.  We  have  already  alluded  to 
the  fact  that  it  exhibits  one  of  the  fifteen  instances 
where  the  Kethib,  or  the  textual  reading,  is  one  word, 
and  the  Keri,  or  the  emended  reading,  proposes  two 
words  (see  above,  sec.  1).  Accordingly,  H^^DP  stands 
for  il2"l  obi^idilb,  i.  c.  "?o  them  the  dominion  shcdl  be 
ffi-eat,"  corresponding  to  the  common  abbreviation  C3 
for  ens.  The  question  is  not  whether  sb  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  abbreviation  of  cnb,  seeing  there  are  no 
other  examples  of  it ;  suffice  it  to  say  that  Je^vish  scribes 
and  critics  of  ancient  times  took  it  as  such,  just  as  they 
regarded  Gbx~iX  (Isa.  xxxiii,  7)  as  a  contraction  of 
nXIX  Clnb  =  nb  (comp.  the  Sj^iac,  Chaldee,  Aquila, 
Symmachus,  Theodotion,  Vulgate,  Elias  Levita,  etc.) ; 
and  that  the  Sept.  read  it  as  tu-o  words  (i.  c.  Mm  tlP), 
Subsequent  scribes,  however,  found  it  either  to  be  more 
in  accordance  with  the  primitive  reading,  or  with  their 
exegetical  rules,  as  well  as  with  the  usage  of  the  prophet 
himself  (comp.  Isa.  xxxiii,  23),  to  read  it  as  one  word; 
but  their  extreme  reverence  for  the  text  prevented  them 
from  making  this  alteration  without  indicating  that 
some  C(idlces  have  two  -words.  Hence,  though  they 
joined  the  two  words  together  as  one,  they  yet  left  the 
final  Mem  to  exhibit  the  variation.  An  example  of  the 
reverse  occurs  in  Neh.  ii,  13,  where  D'^JT^E^rt  has  been 
divided  into  two  words,  CliTlS  "sn,  and  where  the 
same  anxiety  faithfully  to  exhibit  the  ancient  reading 
has  made  the  editors  of  the  Hebrew  canon  retain  the 
medial  Mem  at  the  end  of  the  word.  It  was  to  be  ex- 
pected that  those  Jews  who  rcgaril  both  readings  as 


KERI  AND  KETHIB 


54 


KERIOTH 


emanating  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  as  designed  tocon- 
^•(■y  some  recondite  meaning,  woidd  tind  some  mysteries 
in  this  tinal  Mem  in  the  midtUe  of  timcb.  Hence  we 
lind  in  the  Talmnd  (Stin/ieflriii,  04)  the  following  remark 
upon  it:  "Why  is  it  that  all  the  Mems  in  the  middle 
of  a  word  are  open  [i.  e.  "2]  and  this  one  is  closed  [i.  e. 
C]?  The  Holy  One  (blessed  be  he!)  wanted  to  make 
Hczekiah  the  Messiah,  and  Sennacherib  Gog  and  Ma- 
gog; whereupon  Justice  pleaded  before  the  presence  of 
the  Holy  One  (blessed  be  he !),  Lord  of  the  World, '  What ! 
Davitl  the  king  of  Israel,  who  sang  so  many  hymns  and 
praises  before  thee,  wilt  thou  not  make  him  the  ^Messiah; 
but  Ilezekiah,  for  whom  thou  hast  performed  all  those 
miracles,  and  who  has  not  uttered  one  song  before  thee, 
wilt  thou  make  him  the  Messiah?'  Therefore  has  the 
Mem  been  closed."  Aben-Ezra  again  tells  us  that  the 
scribes  (not  he  himself,  as  Gill  erroneously  states)  see  in 
it  an  allusion  to  the  recession  of  the  shadow  on  the  dial 
in  Hezekiah's  time;  whilst  Kimchi  will  have  it  that  it 
refers  to  the  "  stopping  up  of  the  breaches  in  the  walls 
of  Jerusalem,  which  are  broken  down  during  the  captiv- 
ity, and  that  this  will  take  place  in  the  days  of  salva- 
tion, wlien  the  kingdom  which  had  been  shut  up  tiU 
the  coming  of  the  ^Messiah  will  be  opened."  But  that 
Christian  expositors  should  excel  these  mystical  inter- 
pretations is  surpassing  strange.  What  are  we  to  say 
to  Galatinus,  who  submits  that  this  Mem,  being  the  ci- 
pher of  000,  intimates  that  six  hundred  years  after  this 
prophecy  the  birth  of  Christ  was  to  take  place  ?  or  to 
the  opinion  which  he  quotes,  that  the  name  D'^^.'a 
T\~\'^,  Maria  Domina,  or  even  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  INIary  is  thereby  indicated  (lib.  vii,  c.  xiii)  ?  or  to 
Calvin,  who  thinks  that  it  denotes  the  close  and  secret 
way  whereby  the  Messiah  shoidd  come  to  reign  and  set 
xx\i  his  kingdom?  or  to  the  opinion  which  he  mentions 
tliat  it  indicates  the  exclusion  of  the  Jews  from  the 
IMessiah's  kingdom  for  their  unbelief?  or  to  the  con- 
jecture of  Gin,  that  "  it  may  denote  that  the  govern- 
ment of  Christ,  which  would  be  for  a  time  straitened, 
and  kept  in  narrow  bounds  and  limits,  should  hereafter 
be  throughout  the  world,  to  the  four  corners  of  it,  so  as 
to  be  tirm  and  stable,  perfect  and  comjilcte,  which  the 
figure  of  this  letter,  being  shut  and  four-square,  may  be 
an  emblem  of?" 

It  should  be  added  that  there  are  some  M-ords  which 
are  always  read  differently  (^^p)  from  what  they  are 
written  in  the  text  (HTZ),  and  which,  from  the  fre- 
quency of  their  occurrence,  have  only  the  vowel  signs 
of  the  proposed  Keri,  without  the  latter  being  exhibited 
in  the  marginal  gloss.  Tliese  are,  a.  The  name  nw, 
which  has  always  the  voAvel  signs  of  '^3"1X,  and  is  pro- 
nounced with  these  vowels,  i.  e.  <^iri^,  except  when  it 
precedes  this  name  itself,  in  which  case  it  has  the  vowel 
signs  of  D'^ri'SX,  i.  e.  nifT^;  h.  The  name  Jerusalem, 
when,  as  in  the  earlier  books  of  Scripture,  it  is  written 
with  a  Yod  before  the  Mem,  has  never  its  own  points,  i.  e. 
Cb'i^n^  or  C~,  but  has  the  vowel  signs  of  C^?"'^"''"''?, 
and  is  read  so ;  c.  The  word  X^in,  which  was  epicene  in 
earlier  periods,  is  always  pointed  NW  in  tlie  Pentateuch, 
when  it  is  used  as  feminine,  to  make  it  conformable  to 
the  later  feminine  form  X'^n ;  and,  c.  The  name  "^ZU."  —  "^ 
is  always  furnished  with  the  vowels  belonging  to  the 
Keri,  iZ'viJI'  ^^'ith  one  Sinn. 

It  remains  only  for  us  to  say  under  this  head  that 
the  judicious  critic  will  often  lind  good  reason  for  dif- 
fering from  the  opinion  that  seems  to  be  implied  in 
these  Masoretic  notes,  and  will  in  such  cases,  of  course, 
prefer  the  Kethib  to  the  Keri.     See  Ciuticisji,  Bm- 

LICAL. 

V.  Literature.— Ono  of  the  earliest  attempts  freely  to 
discourse  upon  the  origin  and  value  of  the  Keri  and 
Kethib  is  that  of  D.  Kiuichi,  in  the  Introduction  to  his 


Commentary  on  Joshim ;  Abrabanel,  too,  has  a  lengthy 
disquisition  on  this  subject,  in  the  Introduction  to  his 
Commentary  on  Jeremiah.  He  was  followed  bj'  the  la- 
borious Jacob  ben-Chajim,who  fidly  discusses  the  Keri 
and  Kethib  in  his  celebrated  Introduction  to  the  Jiab- 
hinic  Bible,  translated  by  Ginsburg  in  the  Journal  of 
Sacred  Literature  for  July,  1863 ;  and  by  the  erudite 
and  bold  Elias  Levita,  who  gives  a  verj'  lucid  account 
of  the  Keri  and  Kethib  in  his  Massoreth  Ila-Massorelh, 
ed.  Sulzbach,  1771,  p.  8  a,  sq. ;  21  a,  sq.  Of  Christian 
writers  are  to  be  mentioned  the  masterly  treatises  by 
Cajipellus,  Critica  Sacra,  lib.  iii,  cap.  ix,  sq. ;  Buxtorf, 
Tiberias,  cap.  xiii ;  Buxtorf  the  j'ounger,  A  nticritica 
(Basileaj,  1653),  cap.  iv,  p.  448-509;  Hilleri  De  Arcano 
Kethib  et  Keri  (Tub.  1692) ;  AValton,  Biblia  Pohjrjlotta, 
Prole;].  (Cantab.  1828),  i,  412  sq.;  ^Vo\f,  Bibliotheca  He- 
brcea,  ii,  507-533 ;  Frankel,  Vorstudien  zu  der  Septua- 
r/inta  (Leipzig,  1841),  p.  219  sq. ;  Sticht,  Be  Keri  et 
Kethibh  (Altona,  1760 ;  and  against  him  Dreschler,  Sen- 
tentia  Stichii,  etc.  Lips.  1763) ;  Triigard,  De  I'npl  2^r3 
(Gryph.  1775);  WolfFradt,  Z)e  Keri  et  ChUhibh  (Kost, 
1739).     See  Various  Beadixgs. 

Keri,  Francis  Borgia,  a  learned  Hungarian  Jes- 
uit, born  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  centun,',  in  the 
county  of  Zemplin,  Hungary,  entered  the  Jesuitical  order 
when  yet  very  young,  and  became  an  instructor  of  phi- 
losophy and  mathematics  at  Tyrnau.  He  died  at  Buda 
in  17G9.  Keri  distinguished  himself  greatly  as  a  his- 
torian, especially  by  his  Imperatoi-es  Ottomuni  a  capita 
Constantinojwli  (Tyrnau,  1749,  9  pts.  folio).  He  wrote 
also  Lmjjeratoi-es  Orientis  compendia  exhibiti,  e  compluri- 
bus  Grcecis  pira>cipue  scrij^toi-ibus,  a  Constantino  Magna 
— ad  Constantinuni  ultimum  (Tyrnau,  1744,  folio).  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biocj.  Gener.  xxvii,  612 ;  Ilorangi,  Kova 
Memoria  Ilunriurorum,  ii,  332. 

Keri,  Janos,  a  noted  Hungarian  prelate,  born  in  the 
first  half  of  the  17th  century;  entered  as  a  mere  youth, 
in  1656,  the  order  of  St.  Paul,  became  afterwards  director 
of  the  establishment,  and  held  successively  the  bishop- 
rics of  Sirmium,Csanad,  and  Waitzen.  He  died  in  1685. 
Bishop  Keri  wrote  L^rocia  Martis  Tureici  (Pos.  1672, 
8vo): — Philosophicc  scholastica  (Presb.  1673,  3  vols,  fob), 
etc. — Hoefer,  N'ouv.  Biofj.  Gen.  xxvii,  612;  Czwittinger, 
Ilunyaria  Literata,  p.  203. 

Ke'rioth  (Heb.  Keriyoth',  TT^'lp,  cities ;  Sept.  in 
Jer.  Krtpiw^,  in  ver.  41  v.  r.  'AKKaptwB  and  'AKicapwv, 
elsewhere  TroXiig;  Yula;.  Cariofh;  Anth.  Vers.'' Klrioth" 
in  Amos  ii,  2 ),  the  name  of  two  places. 

1.  A  town  in  the  south  of  Jndah  (hence  probably  in- 
cluded within  Simeon\  mentioned  between  Iladattah 
and  llezron  (Josh,  xv,  25).  From  the  absence  of  the 
copulative  after  it,  Keland  {Pulnst.  p.  700, 708)  suggest- 
ed that  the  name  ought  to  be  joined  with  the  succeed- 
ing, i.  q.  cities  of  llezron,  i.  e.  Hazor  itself,  as  in  several 
ancient  versions  (but  see  Keil,  ad  loc.) ;  and  INIaurer 
{Comment,  ad  loc.)  has  defended  this  construction,  which 
the  enumeration  in  ver.  32  requires,  i.  e.  Kerioth-IIezron 
=  IIazor-Amam.  See  Jldaii,  Tkibe  of.  It  seems 
to  be  the  place  alluded  to  in  the  name  of  Judas  Iscariot 
('I(TKop((iir?;C)  !•  e- ^'i'""'p  'Ci''i^,  native  of  Kerioth').  Dr. 
IJobinson  conjectures  (7Jib!.  Iiesearchcs,  ii,472)  that  the 
site  is  to  be  found  in  the  ruined  foundations  of  a  small 
village  discovered  by  him  on  the  slope  of  a  ridge  about 
ten  miles  south  of  Hebron,  and  still  called  Ity  the  equiv- 
alent Arabic  name  el-Kuryetein  (comp.  De  Sanlcy's  Dead 
Sea,  i,  431 ;  Van  {k>  Yclde,  Xarrative,  ii,  82).  ^^'ith  this 
agree  thcpliiraH'urm  of  the  word,  the  associated  ejiifhets, 
and  the  frontier  position,  suggesting  that  the  jilace  was 
a  fortification  of  contiguous  hamlets  for  nomades  rather 
than  an  individual  city.     See  City;  Hazok. 

2.  A  strong  city  of  the  land  of  ]Moab,  mentioned  in 
connection  Avith  Beth-gamnl  and  Bozrah  (.ler.  xlviii, 
24).  in  the  |ir(iphetic  denunciations  of  its  overthrow  by 
the  Haliylonian  invaders  on  their  way  to  Palestine  (Jer, 
xlviii,  41 ;  Amos  ii,  2).     But  for  the  mention  of  Kiri- 


KERITHUTH 


55 


KERR 


athaim  in  the  same  connection  (from  which,  however,  it 
is  somewhat  dithcult  to  distinguish  it),  we  should  be  in- 
cUned  (see  Hitter's  Enlk.  xv,  583)  to  locate  it  at  Kureyat 
on  Jebel  Attarus,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  See  Kiiuatii- 
nuzoTir.  Porter  confidently  identirtcs  it  with  the  pres- 
ent Kureiijeh,  six  miles  east  of  Busrah,  in  the  plain  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain  range  of  Biishan,  where  are  very 
extensive  remains  of  former  edifices  {Dammcus,  ii,  191 
sri.)-  But  the  associate  names  (in  the  first  passage  of 
Jer.)  appear  to  indicate  a  locality  south-west  of  Bozrali, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  Mishor  (q.  v.)  of  Moab 
extended  so  far  as  this.  See  Bozuah.  The  Kerioth 
(cities)  in  question  may  therefore  be  "  the  ancient  cities 
to  the  north  of  Amman  and  south-west  of  Busrah,  still 
bearing  the  names  of  Kiriath  and  Kiriatin,  where  the 
edifices  are  of  such  gigantic  proportions  and  primitive 
forms  as  to  induce  a  strong  conviction  that  they  were 
the  work  of  the  early  Emim"  (Graham,  in  the  Jour,  of 
Sac.  Lit.  April,  1858,  p.  240). 

Kerithuth.     See  Talmud. 

Kerkaroth.     See  Camel. 

Kerkassandi,  in  Hindu  mythologj^,  is  the  name 
of  the  first  Buddha  who  appeared  (when  men  were  yet 
attaining  to  the  desirable  age  of  40,000  years)  to  take 
upon  himself  the  sins  of  the  world,  to  redeem  them,  and 
to  secure  them  the  continued  enjoyment  of  the  high  age 
mentioned. — Vollmer,  ifi/thol.  Wurterb.  s.  v. 

Kernel  (only  in  the  plur.  Q'^3^"in,  cliartsaimim',  so 
called  from  their  sharp  taste ;  Sept.  (jrtf^KpvXat,  Vulg. 
Ufcipussa)  is  understood  by  theTalmudists  (so  the  A.V.) 
to  mean  the  grape-stones  (Mishna,  Nasir.  vi,  2)  as  op- 
posed to  the  skin  ("  husk"),  i.  e.  the  entire  substance  of 
the  grape  from  the  centre  to  the  surface  (Numb,  vi,  4). 
The  ancient  versions,  however,  refer  it  to  the  sour  or 
unripe,  grapes  themselves,  and  this  signification  is  fa- 
vored by  the  use  of  kindred  words  in  the  cognate  lan- 
guages. (See  further  in  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileh.  p.  527.) 
See  Grape. 

Kero,  a  monk  of  St.  GaU,  who  lived  in  the  8th  cen- 
tury, is  considered  as  the  old  German  commentator  of 
the  rule  of  the  Benedictines.  His  work  appeared  in  the 
first  volume  of  SchUter's  Thesaurus  antiquitatuni  Teu- 
tonic, in  the  second  volume  of  Goldast's  Scriptores  re- 
rum  Aleman.,  and  in  the  first  volume  of  Hattemer's 
Denkmale  d.  Mittelalters.  He  is  also  considered  as  the 
author  of  the  translation  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
Apostles'  Creed  into  old  High-German,  and  is  said  to 
have  written  the  Glossarium  Keronis  (to  be  f<iund  also 
in  Hattemer's  Denkmale),  and  a  number  of  hymns,  etc. 
— Pierer,  Universal  Lex.  viii,  s.  v. 

Ke'ros  (Heb.  Kei/ros',  D"i'^I|5,  curved,  Neh.  vii,  47 ; 
Sept.  Kfiptic  V.  r.  YLiquq;  or  6"ijr,  A'ez-os',  Ezra  ii,  44; 
Sept.  Kj/padf  V.  r.  Kopsc,  Ka(!)?jt,'i  Vulg.  C'eros),  a  man 
whose  descendants  (or  a  place  whose  former  inhabit- 
ants) returned  as  Nethinim  from  Babj'lon  with  Zerub- 
babsl  (Ezra  ii,  44;  Neh.  vii,  47).     B.C.  ante  53G. 

Kerr,  George  (1),  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, particularly  eminent  as  a  Christian  educator,  was 
born  in  Antrim  County,  Ireland,  Dec.  18, 1814,  and  came 
to  this  country  with  his  parents  in  1823.  Early  attached 
to  the  Church,  he  decided  to  enter  the  ministry,  for  which 
he  sought  thorough  preparation,  first  by  a  full  classi- 
cal course  at  WOliams  College,  IMass.,  and  later  at  the 
Union  Theological  Seminary  of  New  York  City.  He 
was  licensed  and  ordained  in  1844,  and  began  his  ministe- 
rial labors  as  pastor  of  the  Kcformed  (Protestant  Dutch) 
Church  in  Conesville,  Schoharie  Co.,  N.  Y.  In  1840  he 
received  an  urgent  call  to  the  principalship  of  Franklin 
(N.  Y.)  Academy,  an  institution  then  hardly  deserving  a 
higher  place  than  the  district  school.  Kerr,  accepting 
the  position,  soon  made  this  academy  one  of  the  best 
in  the  state.  For  a  short  period  he  filled  a  chair  in 
the  New  York  State  Agricultural  College,  and  then  be- 
came principal  of  Watertown  Academy,  N.  Y.,  and  in 


1805  removed  to  Cooperstowii,  where  he  did  active  and 
valuable  service  for  the  large  seminary  then  located 
there.  In  1807  he  decided  to  return  to  Franklin  and 
to  resume  his  position  in  that  school,  but,  while  prepar- 
uig  for  the  removal,  died,  March  27.  "  Dr.  Kerr  was  a 
man  of  work ;  his  characteristics  were  prominent  and 
clearly  defined ;  all  through  life  he  was  intellectually  on 
the  alert;  everywhere,  on  all  worthy  subjects,  analyt- 
ical, independent,  discriminating.  He  was  a  thorough 
scholar,  especially  in  Greek  literature,  and  a  marvel  of 
enthusiasm  and  power  as  a  teacher"  (Wilson,  Prtsh.  His. 
Almanac,  1808,  p.  215).  He  aimed  not  only  to  educate 
the  mind,  but  had  particular  regard  for  the  education  of 
the  heart  of  all  his  students.     (J.  H.W.) 

Kerr,  George  (2),  a  Methodist  minister,  was  born 
in  Ireland  in  1819.  His  parents,  who  emigrated  to  Can- 
ada in  1822,  intended  him  for  the  mercantile  profession ; 
but,  converted  when  seventeen  years  old,  and  shortly 
after  impressed  with  the  conviction  that  lie  was  called 
to  preach,  he  came  over  to  the  States,  and  settled  at 
Winstead,  Conn.,  was  made  a  local  preacher,  and  in  1844 
joined  the  New  York  Conference.  In  1800  he  was  su- 
perannuated, and  made  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  his  residence.  He 
died  while  on  a  visit  to  his  friends  in  Ireland,  Sept.  8, 
1809.  He  was  much  esteemed,  not  only  by  members  of 
his  own  Church,  but  by  ministers  and  members  of  other 
evangelical  churches  of  the  city. — Smith,  Annuls  of  De- 
ceased Preachers  of  N.  Y.  and  N.  Y.  E.  Corf.  p.  119. 

Kerr,  Henry  M.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  York  District,  S.  C,  Dec.  oO,  1782.  In  very  early  life 
his  mother  had  consecrated  him,  as  Hannah  did  her 
Samuel,  to  the  Lord,  and  had  often  expressed  her  desire 
to  him  that  he  should  be  a  minister  of  the  Gospel  of  the 
blessed  Jesus.  His  parents  being  in  moderate  circum- 
stances, and  he  the  oldest  of  eleven  children,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  labor  for  their  maintenance ;  hence  his  educa- 
tion was  much  neglected  in  his  earlier  years.  lie  went 
first  to  an  academy  in  Roman  County,  N.  C. ;  the  ■;  he  re- 
paired to  Iredell  County,  and  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
instruction  under  the  celebrated  James  Hall,  D.D.  Here 
he  completed  a  very  extensive  course  of  scientific  study, 
and  was  readily  received  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry 
by  Concord  Presbytery  in  1811.  He  pursued  his  theo- 
logical course  part  of  the  term  with  the  Rev.  Dr.  Kilpat- 
rick,  and  part  of  it  with  James  ]\I'Kee,  D.D.  In  1 814  he 
was  licensed  by  Concord  Presbyter}'.  At  that  time  he 
was  residing  in  Salisburj',  N.  C.  He  remained  there, 
teaching  and  preaching,  until  the  spring  of  1810,  when 
he  removed  to  Lincoln  County,  and  he  was  ordained  in 
November  of  that  j'ear  pastor  of  Olney,  Long  Creek,  and 
New  Hope  churches.  In  1819  he  removed  to  Ruther- 
fordtown  to  take  charge  of  the  village  academy.  He 
preached  at  the  same  time  in  the  old  church  of  Little 
Britain,  and,  after  three  years,  removed  into  the  Ijounds 
of  this  church.  Here  he  spent  fourteen  years,  and  his 
laljors  were  again  blessed  in  a  remarkable  degree.  In 
1833  he  removed  to  Jonesboro',  East  Tennessee ;  but,  not 
finding  his  ministerial  associations  pleasant,  he  travelled 
further  west,  and  settled  in  Hardeman  County,  West 
Tennessee,  in  1835.  Here  he  performed  much  mission- 
ary labor  in  all  the  surrounding  counties,  and  organized 
many  churches.  The  infirmities  of  age  made  it  neces- 
sary for  him  to  abandon,  in  part,  his  evangelistic  labors, 
and  he  devoted  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  Bethel  and 
Aimwell  churches,  in  IM'Nairv  County.  In  the  fall  of 
1800  he  settled  near  AVatervalley,  in  the  Presbytery  of 
North  Mississippi,  where  he  finished  his  long  and  usefid 
career  January  28, 1805.  Trained  under  the  old  system, 
he  made  no  effort  at  rhetorical  display.  His  discourses 
were  pre-eminently  scriptural.  He  used  ''  the  sword  of 
the  Spirit,  which  is  the  Word  of  God,"  and  it  Avas  sharp 
in  the  heart  of  the  King's  enemies.  "  His  style  was  per- 
spicuous and  energetic,  and  he  was  often  truly  eloquent. 
The  providence  of  God  cast  his  lot  chiefly  in  destitute 
]iortions  of  the  land,  and  his  labors  were  evangelistic. 
He  organized  more  churches,  it  is  believed,  than  any 


KERR 


56 


KERR 


other  member  of  the  Presbytery.  For  many  years  he 
was  stated  derk  of  the  Presbytery  of  West  era  Tennessee 
District,  and  his  ac(iuaintancc  witli  the  form  of  govern- 
ment and  discipline  Avas  so  perfect  that  his  word  was 
taken  as  the  suhition  of  all  doubts  and  difficulties." — Wil- 
son, Presh.  Historical  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  338. 

Kerr,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  a  native  of 
Scotland,  was  born  in  1805,  and  was  educated  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  where  he  took  his  A.B.  in  1832. 
In  his  twenty-fifth  year  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  and  shortly  after  entered  the  Western  Theolog- 
ical Seminar}',  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Baltimore  April  27,  183G,  and  was  ordained  an  evan- 
gelist by  the  Presbyter}^  of  Winchester  at  IMartinsburg, 
Va.,  April  22, 1837.  He  labored  tirst  as  a  missionary  in 
Hampshire  County,  Va.,  for  two  years,  and  was  success- 
ful in  his  ministry,  planting  the  standard  of  the  Cross  in 
many  portions  of  that  hitherto  forsaken  country.  He 
was  next  invited  by  the  Church  of  Cadiz,  Ohio;  began 
his  ministerial  work  in  this  congregation  Dec.  2,  1838, 
and  was  regularly  installed  June,  1839.  He  died  April 
l',l,  1855.  Kerr  was  the  autlior  of  Mode  of  Baptism, 
and  a  small  work  on  Psalmodij.  '■  He  was  a  good  pres- 
byter, and  made  an  excellent  presiding  officer  of  an  ec- 
clesiastical court,  to  which  both  the  members  of  the 
Presbytery  and  SjTiod  can  testify.  His  decisions  were 
uniformly  correct,  and  his  thorough  acquaintance  with 
the  government  and  politj^  of  our  Church  gave  him  a 
superior  influence  in  all  her  judicial  meetings  upon 
which  he  ivas  called  to  attend.  He  was  remarkably 
conscientious  in  every  sphere  of  life,  whether  as  a  citi- 
zen, a  Christian,  or  a  minister.  So  decided  was  he 
against  reading  sermons,  or  even  taking  the  smallest 
abstract  into  the  pulpit,  that  he  invariably  voted  against 
the  licensure  and  ordination  of  any  young  man  that  did 
commit  this  '  great  mistake,'  as  he  sometimes  termed  it. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  clear  and  logical,  plain  and  inter- 
esting, in  his  statements  of  the  great  truths  of  the  Gos- 
pel. His  pulpit  productions  thoroughly  partook  of  his 
own  character,  and  came  forth  as  the  result  of  close  ap- 
plication and  much  study ;  and  on  no  occasion  would  he 
agree  to  preach,  if  it  could  at  all  be  avoided,  without 
special  preparation." — Wilson,  Prcsb.  Jlisiorical  Alma- 
«oc,  18G7,  p.  IGO. 

Kerr,  John,  a  Baptist  minister  of  Scottish  descent, 
was  born  in  Caswell  Comity,  N.  C,  Aug.  14,  1782,  con- 
verted in  18(10,  baptized  in  1801,  and  at  once  licensed  to 
preach.  "  Determined  to  avail  himself  of  every  means 
in  his  power  to  render  his  ministry  efficient  and  useful, 
the  young  evangelist  travelled  to  South  Carolina  to  see 
the  excellent  Marshall  and  listen  to  his  preaching,  and 
thence  to  Georgia  to  form  the  acquaintancG  of  the  dis- 
tinguished and  venerable  ]\Ierccr.  Returning  from  the 
South,  he  visited  Virginia,  and  became  jiersonally  known 
to  the  lamented  Semple  and  other  valuable  ministers 
of  the  state.  Wherever  he  went  his  preaching  pro- 
duced a  thrilling  effect.  His  youthful  appearance,  the 
ardor  and  gracefulness  of  his  manner,  and  the  beauty  of 
his  diction,  attracted  universal  attention.  There  are 
not  a  few  avIio  still  remember  his  visit  to  Eastern  Vir- 
ginia with  lively  emotion  after  the  lapse  of  almost  half 
a  century."  In  1811  he  embarked  on  the  stormy  sea  of 
politics,  consenting  to  become  a  candidate  for  Congress, 
and  he  was  twice  elected  thereto.  He  was  a  member 
of  that  ijody  during  the  War  of  1812,  and  served  his 
roimtry  at  that  critical  period  with  a  fervent  and  en- 
lightened patriotism.  At  the  close  of  his  Congressional 
career  he  returned  to  Halifax,  and  served  the  churches  at 
Arbor  and  at  ^lary  Creek.  In  Jlarch,  1825,  he  removed 
to  tlie  city  of  K'ichmonil,  and  l)ecame  the  jiastor  of  the 
First  I5aptist  Church.  Here  his  tine  pulpit  talents  were 
brought  into  active  and  succe.ssfuL  operation.  Crowds 
hung  with  dehght  on  his  ministry,  in  less  than  a  year 
more  than  live  hundred  members  were  added  to  the 
Church,  t^vo  hundred  and  seventeen  of  whom  were 
white.     This  successful  work  continued  until  dissension 


was  sown  among  his  parishioners  by  the  preaching  of 
Alexander  Campbell,  -whose  efforts  finally  drew  from 
Kerr's  church  nearly  half  of  its  members  (in  1831 ).  By 
the  close  of  1832  he  had  grown  weary  of  the  contentions 
to  which  the  division  had  given  rise,  and  resigned  his 
charge.  He  died  Sept.  29,  18'42.  He  was  naturally  of 
a  frank,  generous,  and  disinterested  disposition.  Inca- 
pable of  artifice  himself,  he  was  not  always  guarded 
against  it  in  others.  His  temperament,  peculiarly  ar- 
dent, sometimes  perverted  his  judgment.  His  manners 
were  uniformly  bland,  gentle,  and  conciliating.  In  so- 
cial intercourse  he  was  highly  gifted,  never  failing  to 
impart  an  interest  and  a  charm  to  conversation.  He 
was  dignified  without  ostentation,  and  cheerful  without 
levity.  "As  a  Christian,  he  imbibed  in  a  high  degree 
the  spirit  of  his  Master.  His  piety  was  not  the  d\varf- 
ish  and  stunted  growth  of  sectarianism — morose,  censo- 
rious, and  persecuting,  but  the  product  of  enlarged  and 
liberal  views — cheerful,  candid,  and  conciliatory.  Though 
he  was  firm  to  his  convictions  as  a  Baptist,  he  was  re- 
markably free  from  bigotry,  and  was  a  lover  of  good 
men  of  every  communion.  As  a  preacher  he  possessed 
commanding  talents.  A  fine  person,  a  sonorous  voice, 
and  a  graceful  manner  at  once  prepossessed  his  hearers 
in  his  favor.  His  apprehension  was  quick,  his  percep- 
tion clear,  and  his  imagination  remarkably  vivid.  He 
is  ranked  among  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  day 
in  Virginia,  and  for  more  than  thirty  years  he  rarely  if 
ever  failed  to  be  appointed  at  associations  and  other  im- 
portant meetings  to  preach  on  occasions  of  the  greatest 
interest." — Sprague,  Aimals,  vi,  4-10  sq. 

Kerr,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  prominent  minister  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Church,  was  born  in  Antrim  County, 
Ireland,  in  1778 ;  educated  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, and,  with  a  view  of  entering  the  ministry,  ptirsued 
theological  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  Associate 
Presbytery  of  Derry.  He  came  to  this  country  in  1801, 
and  Avas  licensed  by  the  Second  Presbyterj-  of  Pennsyl- 
vania shorth^  after.  His  appointment  lay  over  a  vast 
area  of  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  a  work  for 
which  he  seemed  to  have  been  endowed  by  nature.  In 
1804  he  was  called  to  Slifflin  and  St.  Clair  as  regular  pas- 
tor, and,  accepting,  was  installed  October  17.  When  the 
Presbyteiy  decided  to  establish  a  thcologicd  school  at 
Pittsburg,  they  looked  to  him  for  its  head,  and  felt  con- 
strained to  urge  his  removal  to  that  place,  and  ajipointcd 
him  professor  of  theology,  a  post  which  he  successfully 
filled  until  he  died,  Nov.*  15, 1829.  "The  death  of  Dr. 
Kerr  shed  a  gloom  not  only  over  the  large  circle  of  his 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  the  families  of  his  pas- 
toral charge,  but  over  the  entire  Synod  of  the  West,  as 
it  seemed  at  once  to  dash  the  brightening  prospects  of 
the  infant  theological  seminary  intrusted  to  his  super- 
vision. .  .  .  With  an  athletic  physical  constitution,  of 
more  than  ordinarily  prepossessing  appearance,  he  was 
endoAvcd  with  intellectual  powers  of  the  first  order,  high- 
ly cultivated,  and  possessed  of  all  the  essential  elements 
of  a  natural  orator.  With  undoubted  yet  unostenta- 
tious piety,  mild,  kind,  aftalile,  affectionate,  benevolent, 
liberal,  and  hos]iitablc  almost  to  a  faidt,  he  at  once  won 
the  friendship  and  affections  of  his  acquaintances,  and 
the  confidence  of  the  congregations  to  whom  he  minis- 
tered, and,  without  assuming  it,  or  even  being  aiijiarcnt- 
ly  conscious  of  it,  he  occupied  from  the  commencement 
of  his  ministry  tlie  position  of  a  master  si)irit.  which  was 
accorded  to  him  witliout  envy  and  without  ojiposition  by 
his  co-presbyters." — (A\'ilson,  Pn\<b.  Jlistoriad  A  Imanuc, 
1863,  p.  372  sq. 

Kerr,  Joseph  R.,  son  of  the  preceding,  and  also  a 
minister  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church, 
was  born  in  St.  Clair  ti>wnsliip,  Alleghany  Co.,  Pa.,  Jan. 
18, 1807,  and  was  educated  at  the  Western  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  graduated  in  1826  with  the 
highest  honors  of  his  class.  In  the  fall  of  1827  he  en- 
tered the  theological  seminar^'  at  Pittsburg,  founded 
then  only  a  short  time,  over  which  his  father  presided. 


KERR 


57 


KESITAH 


and  was  licensed  Sept.  2, 1829,  Only  two  and  a  half 
montlis  later  his  father  died,  and  young  Kerr  was  called 
to  liU  his  place  in  the  pastorate,  and,  accepting  the  prof- 
fered place,  was  ordained  July  29, 1830.  "  Thus  called 
by  Providence  to  till  the  pulpit  of  such  a  man  as  his  fa- 
ther, he  succeeded,  from  the  very  first,  in  giving  entire 
satisfaction  to  his  people,  and  soon  became  one  of  the 
most,  if  he  was  not  altogether  the  most,  popidar  of  the 
preachers  in  the  city,  but  it  was  at  the  expense  of  such 
exliausting  toil  as  contributed  slowly  but  surely  to  un- 
dermine a  constitution  at  best  but  deUcate.  From  being 
a  student  of  divinity,  and  without  any  experience,  he 
entered  at  once  on  the  pastoral  oversight  of  a  large  con- 
gregation, and  all  the  duties  connected  with  the  office  of 
the  Christian  ministry.  In  his  preparation  for  the  pul- 
pit he  was  a  close,  unwearying  student.  lie  was  ambi- 
tious of  excellence  in  whatever  he  attempted  connected 
with  his  office,  and  became  a  workman  that  needeth  not 
to  be  ashamed"  (Sprague,  Annals  [Associate  lief.  Presb. 
Church ],  ix,  162.  His  health,  however,  failed  him,  and 
in  1832  he  was  obliged  to  take  an  assistant,  Moses  Kerr 
(q.  v.),a  younger  brother.  His  liealth,  notwithstand- 
ing this  timely  precaution,  continued  to  fail,  and  he  died 
June  14, 1843.  Kerr  published  an  address,  Responsihil- 
iti)  of  Literary  Men  (183G),  and  a  sermon  on  Duelling 
(1838).     (J.li.W.) 

Kerr,  Moses,  a  minister  of  the  Associate  Ecformed 
Presbyterian  Church,  third  son  of  Dr.  Joseph  Kerr  (q. 
v.),  was  born  in  St. Clair,  Pa.,  June  30, 1811.  Naturally 
of  a  serious  and  thoughtful  cast  of  mind,  and  manifest- 
ing in  very  early  life  decided  liiety,  his  education  was 
directed  from  the  first  with  a  view  to  iiualifying  him  for 
the  sacred  ministry.  Signs  of  failing  health,  however, 
induced  him  to  devote  himself  to  mercantile  life,  but  it 
soon  proved  as  unfavorable  to  his  health  as  his  ajiplica- 
tion  to  study,  and  he  engaged  in  farm-work.  His  health 
becoming  restored,  he  entered  the  Western  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  graduated  in  1828.  In  the  fall  of  the 
same  year  hebegan  the  study  of  theology  ia  the  seminary 
then  under  the  care  of  his  fiitlver ;  was  licensed  to  preach 
on  the  28th  of  April,  1831,  and  shortly  after  was  called  as 
pastor  to  ^Vlleghany.  But  when  the  Presbytery  met  to  or- 
dain and  install  him,  he  returned  the  call  on  account  of  a 
hemorrhage  of  the  lungs.  The  Prcsb3'tery,  however,  pro- 
ceeded with  his  ordination  to  the  office  of  the  ministrj-. 
This  was  on  the  9th  of  October,  1832.  Shortly  after  he 
sailed  for  Europe,  and  on  his  return,  with  every  appear- 
ance of  restored  and  established  health,  resumed  preach- 
ing, and  finally  accepted  a  call  by  the  large  and  influen- 
tial congregation  of  Robinson's  Eun,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburg,  September  2, 1834.  But  a  little  more  than  six 
months  later  he  was  again  attacked  with  hemorrhage 
of  the  lungs,  and  demitted  his  pastoral  charge.  During 
a  vacancy  he  discharged  for  a  time  the  duties  of  pro- 
fessor of  languages  in  the  Western  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania; afterwards  of  Biblical  literature  and  criticism 
in  the  theological  seminary,  Alleghany.  But  his  tastes 
and  talents  were  for  the  pulpit,  and  he  again  accepted 
a  call  as  a  preaclier,  this  time  from  the  Third  Church, 
Pittsburg,  18th  of  October,  1S37.  Witli  that  congrega- 
tion he  closed  his  life  on  the  2Gth  of  January,  1840. 
Moses  Kerr  "  was  a  student  from  tlie  love  of  study,  and 
a  careful  reader  of  the  best  writings  not  only  in  theolo- 
gy, but  in  literature  generall}'.  With  a  becoming  ap- 
preciation of  the  demands  of  his  profession,  he  aimed  to 
store  his  mind  not  only  with  the  matter  of  text-books 
of  theology  and  the  works  of  past  ages,  but  the  fresh 
discussions  of  living  divines,  and  at  the  same  time  keep 
up  with  the  general  advance  of  literature  and  science  in 
the  world.  As  a  preacher  he  had  capabilities  which, 
with  ordinary  health  and  an  ordinary  length  of  life,  must 
have  rendered  him  eminent  in  his  profession." — Sprague, 
A  nnals,  ix,  16(3. 

Kersey,  Jesse,  a  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
was  born  at  York,  Pa.,  in  1708.  lu  Ids  early  youth  his 
heart  was  given  to  God.     In  his  seventeenth  j-ear  he 


experienced  a  call  to  the  Gospel  ministry,  but  still  re- 
mained an  apprentice  to  the  trade  of  a  potter  about  foiu: 
years,  and  afterwards  taught  school.  In  1804  lie  em- 
barked for  England  on  a  Gospel  mission.  In  1805  he 
returned  to  America,  and  in  1814  went  on  a  reUgious 
mission  to  the  Southern  States,  afterwards  returning  to 
his  home,  and  continuing  to  labor  and  preach.  He  died 
near  Kennet,  Pa.,  in  1845.  As  a  minister,  Mr.  Kersey's 
affability  of  laianners,  his  grave  and  dignified  deport- 
ment, the  soundness  of  his  principles,  the  beauty  and 
simplicity  of  his  style  of  address,  heightened  in  their  ef- 
fect by  the  depth  of  his  devotional  feelings,  gave  an  in- 
terest and  a  charm  which  gained  him  many  admirers. 
See  Janney,  Ili^t.  aj'the  Friends,  iv,  116.     (J,  L,  S.) 

Keryktik  (from  Kiipixraio,  to  jn-eacli),  i.  e.  the  art 
of  preachbuj,  is  a  modern  name  for  Ilomilefics,  first  intro- 
duced by  Stier  (^Kerijklik,  1830, 1846).    See  Homiletics. 

Kesepli.     See  Silver, 

Kesitah  (n::'^'wp,  A,V,  "piece  cf  money,"  '-piece 
of  silver").  The  meaning  and  derivation  of  this  word, 
which  only  occurs  thrice  in  the  0,T,,  has  been  a  subject 
of  much  controversy.  The  places  where  it  is  found — 
Gen.  xxxiii,  19,  recording  Jacob's  purchase  of  a  piece  of 
ground  at  Shechem  ;  Josh,  xxiv,  32,  a  verbal  repetition 
from  Genesis;  and  Job  xlii,  11,  where  the  presents  made 
to  .Tob  are  s])ecitied,  and  it  is  joined  with  rings  of  gold — 
indicate  either  the  name  of  a  coin  or  of  some  article  used 
in  barter.     The  principal  explanations  of  the  word  are : 

1.  That  of  the  Sept.  and  all  ancient  versions,  which 
render  it  '•  a  lamb,"  either  the  animal  itself  or  a  coin 
bearing  its  impress  (Ilottinger,  Diss,  cle  A'linim.  Orient.'), 
a  view  which  has  been  revived  in  modern  times  by  the 
Danish  bishop  iSIunter  in  a  treatise  published  at  Copen- 
hagen, 1824,  and  more  recently  still  by  Mr.  James  Yates, 
Proc.  ofNumism.  Society,  1837, 1838,  p.  141.  The  entire 
want  of  any  etymf)logical  ground  for  this  interpretation 
has  led  Bochart  (^IJiei-ozoic.  i,  1.  2,  c.  3)  to  imagine  that 
there  had  been  a  confusion  in  the  text  of  the  Sept.  be- 
tween iKaruv  {.n'wv  and  tKarvv  ufxvwi',  and  that  this 
error  has  passed  into  all  the  ancient  versions,  which 
may  be  supported  by  the  singular  fact  that  in  Gen.  xxxi, 
7, 41,  we  find  D"p2  TTb^  (A.Y."  ten  times,"  rt: -,  how- 
ever, more  usually  standing  for  a  particular  weight) 
translated  by  the  Sept.  Ciku  u^ivCji',  which  it  is  difficult 
to  account  for  on  any  supposition  save  that  of  a  mistake 
of  the  copyist  for  j^tvwv.     See  Sheep. 

2.  Others,  adopting  the  rendering  "lamb,"  have  imag- 
ined a  reference  to  a  weight  formed  in  the  shape  of  that 
animal,  such  as  we  know  to  have  been  in  use  among 
the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians,  imitating  bulls,  antelopes, 
geese,  etc.  (see  Wilkinson's  /l«c.  Egypt,  ii,  10;  Layard, 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  yi.  GOO -GO'2 ;  hcpshis,  Denhnale,  iii, 
plate  39,  No.  3). 

3.  Faber,  in  the  German  edition  of  IIarme>-''s  Obs.  ii, 
15-19,  quoted  by  Gesenius  (Tliescau:  p.  1241),  connects 
it  with  the  Syriac  hcsta,  Heb.  rD|?,  "a  vessel," an  ety- 
mology accepted  bj'  Grotefend  (see  below),  and  consid- 
ers it  to  have  been  cither  a  measure  or  a  sUver  vessel 
used  in  barter  (comp.  ^Elian,  1'.  //.  i,  22). 

4.  The  most  probable  view,  liowever,  is  that  su]iport- 
ed  by  Gesenius,  Kosenmiiller,  Jahn,  Kalisch,  and  the 
majority  of  the  soundest  interpreters,  that  it  was,  in 
Grotefend's  words  (Xiimism.  Chron.  ii,  248),  "merely  a 
silver  weight  of  undetermined  size,  just  as  the  most  an- 
cient shekel  was  nothing  more  than  a  piece  of  rough 
silver  without  any  image  or  device."  The  lost  root  was 
perhaps  akin  to  the  Arabic  fo/««/,  "he  divided  equally," 
Bochart,  however  {ut  sup.),  is  disposed  to  alter  the  punc- 
tuation of  the  Shin,  and  to  connect  the  word  witli  H-Cp, 
"  truth,"  adding  "  potuit  p  id  est  vera  dici  moneta  qua2- 
cunque  habuit  justum  pondus,  aut  etiam  moneta  sincera 
et  ciicilSCrjXoc." 

According  to  Rabbi  Akiba,  quoted  by  Bochart,  a  cer- 
tain coin  bore  this  name  in  comparatively  modern  times, 
so  that  he  would  render  the  word  by  "^pn,  odraKtc. — 


KESLER 


58 


KETURAH 


Kitto,  s.  V.     See  Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illustralions,  ad  loc. 
Job.     See  JIoxey. 

Kesler,  Andkeas,  a  German  theologian,  born  July 
17.  l."i',>.j,  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Jena,  and 
al'terwards  became  adjunct  professor  in  the  philosoph- 
ical faculty  of  AVittenberg.  In  1G23  he  was  called  to 
till  a  professorship  in  Coburg;  in  1G25  he  became  pastor 
and  superintendent  at  Eisfeld;  in  1033  director  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Schweinfurt,  whence  in  1635  he  was  re- 
called to  Coburg  to  fill  a  high  ecclesiastical  position. 
He  died  Blay  15,  lG-13.  His  writings  consist,  besides 
sermons,  of  polemical  works  against  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  for  a  list  of  which  see  Hagelhan,  Leichenrede. 
See  also  Kenning  Witte,  ^femol•ia;  Theolor/orum  (Decas 
5 ),  p.  557  sq. — Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vii,  518. 

Kessler,  Christian  Rudolph,  a  German  Re- 
i'lirnied  minister,  burn  February  'JO,  1823,  in  the  Canton 
of  Graubueuden,  Switzerland,  was  educated  in  the  best 
schools  of  his  native  land,  and  afterwards  sjjent  some 
time  at  the  University  of  Leipsic;  came  to  America 
with  his  parents  in  1841 ;  studied  theology  at  Mercers- 
burg,  Pa.;  was  licensed  and  ordained  in  the  spring  of 
1843,  and  took  charge  of  congregations  in  Pendleton 
County,  Ya.  In  1844  he  became  associated  with  Dr. 
Bibighaus  as  assistant  pastor  in  the  Salem  congrega- 
tion, Philadelphia.  His  health  failing,  in  1848  he  re- 
moved to  AUentown,  Pa.,  to  establish  a  female  seminarj'. 
In  this  enterprise  he  was  remarkably  successful.  He 
died  JIarch  4, 1855,  leaving  the  institution  he  had  found- 
ed in  a  flourishing  condition. 

Kessler  (Aiienarius),  Johann  Jacob,  was  bom 
at  St.  Gall  in  1502,  and  studied  theology  at  Basle.  In 
1522  he  went  to  Wittenberg  to  hear  Luther,  and  on  his 
way  fell  in  with  him  at  Jena,  yet  without  knowing  him. 
In  1523  he  returned  to  St.  Gall,  but  his  inclination  to  the 
reform  doctrines  would  not  conscientiously  permit  him 
to  enter  the  priesthood,  and  he  became  a  saddler.  At 
the  request  of  his  compatriots,  he  finr'ly,  in  1524,  began 
Sunday  evening  meetings  for  the  study  of  Scripture, 
which,  on  account  of  the  general  interest,  were  in  1525 
transferred  to  the  Church  of  St.Lawrencc.  He  was  some- 
what opposed  at  first  by  a  few  narrow-minded  theolo- 
gians, and  at  their  request  even  discontinued  his  meet- 
ings for  a  time ;  but  the  public,  determined  to  hear  the 
preaching  of  Kessler,  induced  him  finally  to  enter  the 
ministry,  and  he  became,  in  1535,  evangelical  pastor  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  dean  of  St.  Gall  in  1573. 
He  died  JMarch  15, 1574.  Kessler  wrote  Sahhtttha,  St. 
Gallische  lieformutionschronik.  See  J.  J.  Bernet,  J. 
Ke.'fs/er  (St. 'Gall,  182G) ;  Herzog,  Eeal-KncyUop.  vii, 
618  ;  Pierer,  Universal  Lex.  s.  v. 

Kethem.     See  Gold. 

Kethib.     Sec  Keri. 

Kethubim.     See  Hagiographa. 

Kethuboth.     See  Talmud. 

Ketsach.     See  Fitches.    • 

Ketsiyah.     Sec  Cassia. 

Kett,  Hknuy,  B.D.,  a  learned  English  divine,  was 
born  at  Norwich  in  17G1 ;  studied  at  Trinity  CoUege, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  became  fellow,  and  afterwards  ob- 
tained the  living  of  Charlton,  (Jloucestersliire.  He  was 
drowned,  while  bathing,  in  1K25.  His  principal  works 
are:  Ui.-<ton/,  l/ic  Interpreter  nf  Propheey  (London,  4th 
ed.,  with  ailditional  notes,  1801,  2  vols.  8vo): — Sermons 
preached,  17!)0,  at  the  Lectures  founded  hy  the  late  Rev. 
John  Brvmpton,  M.A.  (London,  2d  cd.  17!)2,  8vo)  : — Ele- 
ments  of //eni-rtd,  Knowledr/e  (Lond.  8th  edit.  181.5,  2  vols. 
8vo). — Allibone,  Diet.  Enijl.  and  A  mer.  A  uthor.i,  s.  v. 

Kettfe^ler.AViLiiEL.M, bishop  of^MUnster  from  1553 
to  1557,  thougli  a  layman,  was  promoted  lo  the  prelatieal 
dignity  liy  sjucial  request  of  the  duke  of  Clcvc.  He  was 
one  of  the  most  enlightened  minds  of  this  jieriod  in  tlie 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  himself  inclining  to  tlic  Ref- 
ormat ion,  in  concert  with  the  duke  of  Cleve,  persuaded 


Cassander  (q.  v.)  to  use  his  influence  and  his  pen  to 
prevent  further  schism  in  the  Church,  and  to  bring  back 
those  who  had  left  the  Romanists.  At  Rome  he  was 
disliked  for  his  mildness  towards  the  Reformers,  and 
finally  quitted  the  bishopric. 

Kettenbach,  Heixkich  von,  an  eminent  German 
writer  of  the  jieriod  of  the  Reformation,  was  jirobably 
of  French  extraction.  Little  is  known  of  his  life.  He 
became  a  Franciscan,  and  in  1521  went  to  Ulm  in  the 
place  of  one  of  the  brethren  expelled  by  the  general  of 
the  order  for  holding  evangelical  opinions.  Ketten- 
bach, however,  soon  followed  the  example  of  his  prede- 
cessor :  he  preached  against  the  papacy  and  the  monks, 
and,  having  thus  aroused  the  enmity  of  the  Dominicans, 
was  in  turn  obliged  to  leave  L'lm  the  same  year.  He 
then  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  openly  joined  the 
Reformation,  took  part  in  all  the  movements  in  favor 
of  emancipation  from  Rome,  and  was  probably  killed  in 
the  peasants'  war.  Kettenbach  was  a  very  popular 
preacher,  and  made  many  converts  from  Romanism, 
which  he  attacked  in  Verrjleichung  lies  Alkrheiliysten 
Ilerrn  v.  Vuters  Papst  gegen  d.  seltsamen  u.fremden  Gast 
in  d.  Christtnheit,  rjenanni  Jesus,  etc.  (Wittenb.  1523) : — 
Praciica;  Neue  Apoloyie  it.  VeraiitworttuK)  Martini  Im- 
thers  wider  d.  Papisien  Mordyeschrei  (1523).  It  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  Kettenbach  wrote  largely,  but  that 
his  works  have  been  lost.  His  influence  among  the 
Reformers  must  have  been  great,  or  he  would  not  have 
been  among  the  persons  cited  by  Eck  to  appear  with 
Luther  before  the  Reichstag  at  Augsburg.  See  Pierer, 
Univ.  Lex.  s.  v. ;  Yecsenmeyer,  Beitrdye  z.  Gesch.  d.  Lii- 
eratur  u.  Ref.  p.  70  sq. ;  Keim,  in  Herzog,  Reul-Ency- 
klopddic,  s.  V. 

Kettle  (1^'^,  dud,  so  called  from  hoiliny'),  a  large 
jwt  for  cooking  purposes  (1  Sam.  ii,  14;  elsewhere  ren- 
dered "pot,"  Psa.  Ixxxi,  G;  Job  xli,  20;  "caldron,"  2 
Chron.  xxxv,  13).  The  same  term  in  the  original  also 
signifies  "  basket"  (2  Kings  x,  7 ;  Jer.  xxiv,  2 ;  probably 
Psa.  Ixxxvi,  G).  From  tjie  passage  in  1  Sam.  ii,  13, 14, 
it  is  evident  that  the  kettle  was  emploj'ed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preparing  the  peace-offerings,  as  it  is  said  (verse 
14),  "All  that  the  flesh-hook  brought  up  the  priest  took 
for  himself."  In  the  various  processes  of  cookery  rep- 
resented on  the  momnnents  of  Egypt,  we  frequently  sec 
large  bronze  pots  placed  over  a  tire  in  a  similar  manner. 
See  Flesii-pot. 

Kettlewell,  John,  B.D.,  an  eminent  English  di- 
vine (nonjuror),  was  born  at  Northallerton,  Yorkshire, 
March  10,  1653;  studied  at  St.  Edmund's  Hall,  Oxford, 
and  in  1G75  became  fellow  of  Lincoln  College.  Still  but 
a  youth,  he  distmguislied  himself  liy  the  publication  of 
his  celebrated  work,  Measures  of  Christian  Obedience. 
He  was  generally  noticed,  and  in  1G82  lord  Digby  pre- 
sented j'oung  Kettlewell  with  the  vicarage  of  Coleshill, 
Warwickshire,  but  he  was  deprived  of  it  soon  after  the 
Revolution  on  account  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of 
obedience  to  AVilliam  and  IMary.  He  removed  to  Lon- 
don, and  died  there  April  12, 1695.  His  principal  works 
have  been  collected  and  published  under  the  style, 
Worl-s  printed  from  Cojnes  revised  and  improved  by  the 
Author  a  little  'before  his  Death  (Lond.  1719,  2  vols,  fol.) : 
—The  Duty  of  Moral  Rectitude  (Tracts  of  Angl.  Fathers, 
iv,  219). — Darling,  Cyclopcedin  Bihliofp-aphira,  ii,  1725; 
Macaulav,  Hist.  ofEnyland,  vol.  iv  (185G)  ;  Nelson,  Life 
of  Kettlewell  (Lond.  1718). 

Kettner,  Fuiedricii  Ernst,  a  German  theologian, 
was  liiirn  at  Leipzig  .Ian.  21,  1671,  and  educated  at  the 
imivcrsity  of  that  ]ilace.  He  was  licensed  in  1697,  and 
became  shortly  after  superintendent  in  Qne(Ilinburg,and 
first  court  preacher.  He  died  July  21, 1722.  His  writ- 
ings are  mainly  confined  to  local  Church  History. — All- 
gemeines  /list.  Lex.  iii,  22. 

Ketu'rah  {Heh.  Keturah',  fi'^^'.Z'^,  girdled,  other- 
wise incense  ;  Sept.  Xf  rro/'fjo),  "  the  second  wife,  or,  aa 
she  is  caUed  in  1  Chron.  i,  32,  the  concubine  of  Abra- 


KEUCHENIUS 


59 


KEY 


ham ;  by  her  he  had  six  sons,  whom  he  lived  to  see 
grow  to  man's  estate,  and  whom  he  estabHslied  '  in  the 
east  countrj','  that  they  might  not  interfere  with  Isaac 
(Gen.  XXV,  1-G).  B.C.  cir.  l'J'J7  et  post.  As  Abraham 
was  100  years  old  when  Isaac  was  born,  who  was  given 
to  him  by  the  special  bounty  of  Providence  when  '  he 
was  as  good  as  dead'  (Heb.  xi,  12) ;  as  he  was  140  years 
old  when  Sarah  died ;  and  as  lie  himself  died  at  the  age 
of  175  years,  it  has  seemed  improbable  that  these  six 
sons  should  have  been  born  to  Abraham  by  one  woman 
after  he  was  140  years  old,  and  that  he  should  have  seen 
them  all  grow  up  to  adult  age,  and  have  sent  them  forth 
to  form  independent  settlements  in  tliat  l^st  and  feeble 
period  of  his  life.  It  has  therefore  been  suggested  that, 
as  Keturah  is  called  Abraham's  '  concubine'  in  Chroni- 
cles, and  as  she  and  Hagar  are  probably  indicated  as  his 
'  concubines'  in  Gen.  xxv,  G,  Keturah  had  in  fact  been 
talieu  by  Abraham  as  his  secondary  or  concubine  wife 
before  the  death  of  Sarah,  although  the  liistorian  relates 
the  incident  after  that  event,  that  his  leading  narrative 
might  not  be  interrupted.  According  to  the  standard 
of  morality  then  acknowledged,  Abraham  might  quite 
as  properly  have  taken  Keturah  before  as  after  Sarah's 
death"  (Kitto) ;  althougli,  it  is  true,  this  would  hardly 
have  been  in  keeping  with  his  usual  regard  for  Sarah's 
feelings,  and  would  have  been  likely  to  introduce  into 
the  family  another  scene  of  discord  such  as  he  had  seen 
with  Hagar.  In  opposition  to  these  and  similar  argu- 
ments, however,  which  are  maintained  by  Prof.  Bush 
(A'o/e  on  Gen.  xxv,  1),  Dr.  Turner  justly  lu-ges  (Com- 
2utnion  to  Geiiesis,  p.  293  sq.)  the  evident  order  of  the 
narrative,  the  occasion  offered  by  the  death  of  Sarah, 
wliich  preceded  Abraham's  demise  thirty-six  \-ears,  and 
the  emphatic  manner  in  which  Keturah  is  introduced 
as  a  fidl  ^cij'e,  with  lawful  heirs,  although  of  less  esteem 
than  Sarah.  As  to  the  objection  drawn  from  the  impo- 
tence of  Abraham  in  consequence  of  advanced  age,  it  is 
readily  removed  by  the  implied  renewal  of  his  vigor  at 
the  promise  of  an  heir  by  Sarah  (compare  Ilcb.  xi,  11) ; 
and,  if  sound,  it  would  prove  too  much,  for  it  would  re- 
quire the  birth  of  all  the  six  sons  bj-  Keturah  to  be  dated 
before  that  of  Isaac.     Sec  Abkahaji. 

On  tlie  Arabian  affinities  of  Keturah,  see  the  Journal 
Aniutique,  Aug.  1838,  p.  197  sq.  '"  Her  sons  Avere  ' Zim- 
ran,  and  Jokshan,  and  Jlcdan,  and  Jlidian,  and  Ishbak, 
and  Shuah'  (Gen.  xxv,  2) ;  besides  tlie  sons  and  grand- 
sons of  Jokshan,  and  the  sons  of  Midian.  They  evi- 
dently crossed  the  desert  to  tlie  Persian  Gulf,  and  occu- 
pied the  whole  intermediate  country,  where  traces  of 
their  names  are  frequent,  while  Midian  extended  south 
into  the  peninsida  of  Araljia  I'roper.  In  searching  the 
works  of  Arab  writers  for  any  information  respecting 
these  tribes,  we  must  be  contented  to  find  tlicm  named 
as  Abrahamic,  or  even  Ishmaelitish,  for  under  the  latter 
appellation  almost  all  the  former  are  confounded  by  their 
descendants.  Keturah  herself  is  by  them  mentioned 
xcry  rarely  and  vaguely,  and  evidently  only  in  quoting 
from  a  rabbinical  writer.  (In  the  Kdnn'is  the  name  is 
said  to  be  that  of  the  Turks,  and  that  of  a  young  girl 
[or  slave]  of  Abraham  ;  and,  it  is  added,  lier  descendants 
are  the  Turks!)  jNI.  Caussin  de  Perceval  {Essai.  i,  179) 
has  enileavored  to  identify  her  witli  the  name  of  a  tribe 
of  the  AmaleUites  (the  1st  Amalek)  called  Katihri,  but 
his  arguments  are  not  of  any  weight.  They  rest  on  a 
weak  etymology,  and  are  contradicted  by  the  statements 
of  Arab  authors,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  tliat  the  early 
tribes  of  Arabia  (of  wliich  is  Katura)  have  not,  with  the 
single  exception  of  Amalek,  been  identified  with  any 
historical  names;  while  the  exception  of  Amalek  is  that 
of  an  apparently  aboriginal  people  whose  name  is  re- 
corded in  the  Bible  ;  and  there  are  reasons  for  supposing 
that  these  early  tribes  were  aboriginal"  (Smith).     See 

AlSAI'.IA. 

Keuchenius,  Pktrus,  a  learned  Dutch  theologian, 
was  born  at  Bois-le-Duc  August  22, 1654,  and  studied  at 
Leyden  and  Utreclit.  He  was  successively  minister  at 
Alem,  Tiel,  and  Arnheim.     He  died  ]\Iarch  27, 1G89.    He 


wrote  A  nnotata  in  omnes  A\  T.  lihros,  the  second  and 
only  complete  edition  of  which,  superintended  by  Al- 
berti,  appeared  at  Leyden  in  1755.  "  The  author's  aim 
in  these  annotations  is  to  throw  light  on  the  N.  Test,  by 
determining  the  sense  in  which  -words  and  phrases  were 
used  at  the  time  it  was  written,  and  among  those  with 
whom  its  writers  were  famihar.  For  this  purpose  he 
compares  the  language  of  the  N.  Test,  with  that  of  the 
Septuagint,  and  calls  in  aid'from  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac 
versions.  His  notes  are  characterized  by  sound  learn- 
ing and  great  good  sense.  Alberti  commends  in  strong 
terms  his  erudition,  his  candor,  solidity,  and  impartial- 
ity."— Kitto's  Bihlicul  Cijdop(ediu,  ii,  729. 

Kewley,  John,  D.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  was 
by  birth  an  Englishman,  and  of  Roman  Catholic  parent- 
age. He  was  educated  at  St.  Omar's,  and  was  in  early 
hfe  a  Jesuit.  He  afterwards  renounced  the  doctrines 
and  communion  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  joined  "  Lady 
Huntingdon's  persuasion,"  preached  somewhat  among 
that  body  and  the  Methodists,  and,  coming  to  the  United 
States,  was  admitted  to  holy  orders  in  the  I'rotcstant 
Episcopal  Church  by  bishop  Claggett  (about  1804) ;  iii 
1809  became  rector  of  an  Episcopal  Church  in  Middle- 
town,  Conn.,  and  in  1813  of  the  parish  of  St.  George's, 
New  York,  where  he  continued  till  he  sailed  for  Europe 
in  1816.  He  afterwards  became  reconciled  to  the  Church 
of  Rome,  and  returned  to  his  original  ecclesiastical  con- 
nection, in  which  he  continued  till  his  death.  Kewley 
was  a  man  of  great  meekness  and  gentleness,  always  im- 
tiring  in  tlie  discharge  of  his  holy  functions,  and  fervent 
and  effective  in  his  preaching.  He  published  a  Sermon 
delivered  at  the  opening  of  the  Convention  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  in  Marj-land  in  1806;  also  a 
sermon  entitled  Messiah  the  Physician  of  Souls,  preach- 
ed at  Middletown  and  Cheshire  in  1811.  See  Sprague, 
A  muds  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  v,  545.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Key  is  a  common  heraldic  bearing  in  the  insignia  of 
sees  and  religious  houses,  particularly  such  as  are  under 
the  patronage  of  St.  Peter.  Two  ke3-s  in  saltire  are  fre- 
quent, and  keys  are  sometimes  interlaced  or  linked  to- 
gether at  the  loics,  1.  c.  rings.  Keys  indorsed  are  placed 
side  by  side,  the  wards  away  from  each  other. 

Key  (HriS'5,  maphte'dch,  an  op)ener,  Judg.  iii,  25 ; 
Isa.  xxii,  22;  "opening,"  1  Chron.ix,  27  ;  (cXt/c,  from  its 
use  in  shutting.  Matt,  xvi,  19;  Luke  xi,  52;  Rev.  i,  18; 
iii,  7 ;  ix,  1 ;  xx,  1),  an  instrument  frequently  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  as  well  in  a  literal  as  in  a  figurative  sense. 
The  keys  of  the  ancients  were  very  different  from  ours, 
because  their  doors  and  trunks  were  generally  closed 
with  bands  or  bolts,  which  the  key  served  only  to  loosen 
or  fasten.  Chardin  saj-s  that  a  lock  in  the  East  is  like 
a  little  harrow,  which  enters  half  way  into  a  wooden 
staple,  and  that  the  key  is  a  wooden  handle,  with  points 
at  the  end  of  it,  which  are  pushed  into  the  staple,  and 
so  raise  this  little  harrow.  See  Lock.  Indeed,  early 
Oriental  locks  probably  consisted  merely  of  a  -wooden 
slide,  drawn  into  its  place  by  a  string,  and  fastened  there 
by  teeth  or  catches ;  the  key  being  a  bit  of  wood,  crook- 
ed like  a  sickle,  which  lifted  up  the  slide  and  extracted 
it  from  its  catches,  after  which  it  was  drawn  back  by 
the  string.  But  it  is  not  diflicidt  to  open  a  lock  of  this 
kind  even  without  a  key,  viz.  with  the  finger  dipped  in 
paste  or  other  adhesive  substance.  The  passage  Cant. 
V,  4,  5  is  thus  probably  explained  (Harmer,  Obs.  iii,  31 ; 
vol.  i,  394,  cd.  Clarke ;  Eauwolft",  ap.  Ray,  Irav.  ii,  17). 
Ancient  Egyptian  Ivcj-s  are  often  found  figured  on  the 
monuments.  The}'-  were  made  of  bronze  or  iron,  and 
consisted  of  a  straight  sliank,  about  five  inches  in  length, 


Iron  Key.    (From  Ancient  Thebes,  iu  Egypt.) 

with  three  or  more  projecting  teeth  ;  others  had  a  near- 
er resemblance  to  the  wards  of  modern  keys,  with  a  short 


KEY 


60 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


shank  about  an  inch  long ;  and  some  resembled  a  com- 
mon ring,  with  the  wards  at  its  back.  The  earliest 
mention  of  a  key  is  in  Judg.  iii,  '23-25,  where  Ehud  hav- 
ing gone  "through  the  porch  and  shut  tlie  doors  of  the 
parlor  upon  him,  and  locked  them,"  it  is  stated  that  Eg- 
lon's  "  servants  took  a  kei/  and  opened  them.'"  Among 
the  Assyrian  monuments  are  extant  traces  of  strong 
gates,  consisting  of  a  single  leaf,  which  was  fastened  by 
a  huge  modern  lock,  like  those  still  used  in  the  East,  of 
which  the  key  is  as  much  as  a  man  can  conveniently 
carry  (Isa.  xxii,  22),  and  also  by  a  bar  which  moved  into 
a  square  hole  in  the  wall.     See  Door. 

Tlie  term  key  is  frequently  used  in  Scripture  as  the 
symbol  of  goi'ernment,  poicer.  and  authority.  Even  in 
modern  times,  in  transferring  the  governinent  of  a  city, 
tlie  keys  of  the  gates  are  delivered  as  an  emblem  of  au- 
thority. In  some  parts  of  the  P^ast,  for  a  man  to  march 
along  with  a  large  key  upon  his  shoulder  at  once  pro- 
claims him  to  be  a  person  of -consequence.  The  size 
and  weight  of  these  oftentimes  require  them  to  be  thus 
carried  (Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  493).  So  of  Christ 
it  is  said,  "  And  tlu  key  of  the  house  of  David  will  I  lay 
upon  his  shoidder ;  so  he  shall  open,  and  none  shall  shut ; 
and  he  shall  shut,  and  none  shall  open"  (Isa.  xxii,  22; 
Kev.  iii,  7).  He  also  has  the  "  keys  of  hell  and  of  death" 
(liev.  i,  18;  comp.  ix,  1;  xx,  1).  Our  Saviour  said  to 
I'eter,  as  the  representative  of  the  apostles  generally, 
upon  whom  collectively  the  same  prerogative  was  on 
another  occasion  conferred,  "And  I  ^vill  give  unto  thee 
the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven :  and  whatsoever 
thou  shalt  bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven ;  and 
^vliatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in 
heaven"  (Matt,  xvi,  19;  xviii,  18) — that  is,  the  power 
of  preaching  the  Gospel  officially,  of  administering  the 
sacraments  as  a  steward  of  the  mysteries  of  God,  and 
as  a  faithful  servant,  whom  the  Lord  hath  set  over  his 
household.  This  general  authority  is  shared  in  common 
by  all  ministers  and  officers  in  the  Church.  The  grant 
doubtless  likewise  included  the  authority  to  establish 
rules  and  constitutional  orders  in  the  Church,  to  which 
Christ  himself  gave  no  special  ecclesiastical  form,  but 
left  it  to  be  organized  by  the  apostles  after  his  oivn  res- 
urrection. This  power,  too,  in  a  subordinate  degree,  is 
delegated  to  the  Church  of  later  times ;  for  it  is  notewor- 
tliy  that  even  the  apostles  have  not  delinitely  prescribed 
a'iiy  specilic  form  of  Church  polity,  and  this  is  therefore, 
in  a  great  measure,  left  to  the  discretion  of  each  body  of 
Christians.  Indeed,  the  settlement  of  the  cardinal  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  as  a  basis  of  Church-membership 
and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  appears  to  be  the  only  ex- 
plicit clement  of  the  authority  conferred  in  these  pas- 
sages by  Christ  to  his  apostles — and  this  exclusively 
belonged  to  them,  inasmuch  as  their  office  was  not  trans- 
missible ;  so  that  the  canon  of  Scripture,  as  well  as  the 
essential  points  of  Church  constitution,  have  been  com- 
jilcted  by  them  for  all  time.  See  Succession.  As  to 
Peter  himself,  it  is  a  gratuitous  assumption  on  the  part 
of  Romanists  tliat  the  authority  was  conferred  upon  him 
personally  above  his  fellow-disciiiles,  since  in  the  other 
passage  the  general  "ye"  is  used  in  plaCe  of  the  individ- 
ual "  thou."  It  is  true,  however,  that  as  Peter  was  here 
addressed  as  the  foreman,  so  to  speak,  of  the  apostolical 
college,  he  was  eventually  honored  as  the  instrument  of 
the  introiluction  of  the  first  Gentile  as  well  as  Christian 
nu'mljcrs  into  the  Church  (sec  Acts  ii,  xl.  a  fact  to  which 
Peter  himself  alludes  in  a  very  unassuming  way  (Acts 
XV,  7 ).  The  association  of  this  authority  wit  h  the  power 
of  absolution  is  another  unauthorized  gloss  of  the  Koman 
Catholic  Church;  for  the  passage  in  which  this  is  con- 
ferred (John  XX,  23,  "  Whosesoever  sins  ye  remit,  they 
are  remitted  unto  them;  and  whosesoever  sins  ve  re- 
tain, tliey  arc  retained")  stanils  in  a  very  different  con- 
nection, and  is  evidently  to  l)e  i+itcr])reted  of, the  exclu- 
sively apostolical  right  to  jtronouuce  upon  the  religious 
state  of  those  to  whom,  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  they 
imparted  the  peculiar  miraculous  gifts  of  the  primitive 
age  (see  Acts  viii,  li-17;  xix,  0).     In  accordance  with 


the  above  analogies,  the  "key  of  knowledge"  is  the 
means  of  attaining  to  true  knowledge  in  respect  to  the 
kingdom  of  God  (Luke  xi,  25;  comp.  Matt,  xxiii,  13; 
Luke  xxiv,  32).  It  is  said  that  authority  to  explain 
the  law  and  the  prophets  was  given  among  the  Jews 
by  the  delivery  of  a  key..  See  Bind.  The  Kabbins  say 
that  God  has  reserved  to  himself  four  keys— the  key  of 
rain,  the  key  of  the  grave,  the  key  of  fruitfulness,  and 
the  key  of  barrenness.     See  Keys,  Poweh  of  the. 

Keyes,  Josiaii,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  at  Canajoharie,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  30, 1799;  converted  at 
the  age  of  twelve;  entered  the  Genesee  Conference  in 
1820 ;  in  1831-34  was  presiding  elder  on  Black  Kivcr 
•District,  and  in  1835  on  Cayuga  District,  where  he  died 
April  22, 1836.  j\Ir.  Keyes  possessed  a  grasping  intellect 
and  great  application.  AVithout  regular  instruction,  he 
acquired  "  a  respectable  knowledge  of  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew,  and  as  a  general  scholar,  a  theologian,  and  a 
preacher,  he  stood  eminent  among  the  ^Methodist  minis- 
try of  the  day.  He  was  a  very  useful  man,  a  sincere 
Christian,  and  main-  souls  were  converted  through  his 
labors." — Minutes ofConf€r€nces.\\,A\2\  Geo. Peck,D.D., 
Early  Methodism  (N.  Y.  1860, 1 2mo) ,  p.  473.     (( i.  L.  T.) 

Keys,  John,  a  Presbyterian  minister  of  English  de- 
scent, was  born  at  AVilton,  N.  II.,  in  1778.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  1803,  and 
afterwards  taught  school  for  several  years.  He  studied 
theology  at  INIorristown,  N.  J.,  under  James  Eichards, 
D.D. ;  was  licensed  in  1805,  and  in  1807  ordained  by  the 
New  York  Presbytery  at  Orangedale,  N.  J.,  and  in  1808 
installed  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Sand  Lake,  near  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.  In  1814  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  Congre- 
gational Church  of  Wolcott,  Conn. ;  in  1824  removed  to 
Tallmadge,  Ohio,  as  pastor  of  a  Congregational  Church, 
and  afterwards  preached  successively  at  Dover,  New- 
burg,  Ohio;  at  Peoria,  111. ;  at  St.  Louis,  Mo. ;  and  at  Ce- 
dar Kapids  and  Elkader,  Iowa.  At  last  he  returned  to 
Dover,  Ohio,  where  he  died  January  27, 1867.  Mr.  Keys 
was  an  industrious  student.  As  a  preacher  he  took  the 
greatest  delight  in  his  work;  as  a  Christian  he  had 
great  faith  in  the  jiower  of  special  prayer.  See  "Wilson, 
Presh.  Historical  A  Imanac,  1868,  p.  216.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Keys,  Power  of  the,  a  term  which  in  a  general 
sense  denotes  the  extent  of  ecclesiastical  power,  or,  in  a 
narrower  sense,  the  right  to  authorize  or  prohibit  abso- 
lution ;  and  it  is  upon  the  interpretation  in  the  one  sense 
or  the  other  that  the  Protestant  and  Romish  churches 
differ  from  each  other.  "We  base  this  article,  in  the 
main,  upon  that  in  Herzog,  lieal-Encyklop.  xiii,  579  sq. 

I.  New-Testament  Doctrine. — The  expression  ririE"? 
TlTTi^a,  or  "  key  of  the  house  of  David"  (Isa.  xxii,  22), 
denotes  the  power  which  was  given  to  the  king's  officer 
over  the  royal  household.  In  literal  symbolism.  K\t'i^ 
Aaind  (Rev.  iii,  7)  denotes  the  authority  which  Christ 
as  King  exercises  over  his  realm  with  special  regard  to 
his  right  of  admission  or  dismission.  When  Jesus  (^latt. 
xvi,  19)  solemnly  intrusted  to  I'eter,  as  a  representative 
of  the  apostles,  the  keys  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,  lie 
invested  him  by  that  act  simply. with  his  apostolical 
station,  which  involves  the  founding  of  the  Christian 
Church  by  the  preaching  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  (Luke 
xxiv,  47)  and  tlie  establishment  of  the  Gospel  doctrine 
(JIatt.  XX,  19).  In  this  sense  the  commission  (John  xx, 
23)  to  the  other  eleven  apostles  must  likewise  be  inter- 
jvreted,  for  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  ajios- 
tles  ever  exercised  the  authority,  as  Jesus  did,  of  reliev- 
ing the  sinner  of  his  guilt ;  and  yet,  even  if  proofs  could 
be  adduced  to  show  that  the  apostles  did  exercise  such 
authority,  all  evidence  that  such  authority  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Church  after  the  apostolic  age  is  surely 
wanting.  Besides,  it  is  proper  to  make  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  power  of  the  keys  claimed  for  Peter  as  an  ex- 
pression of  apostolical  authority,  and  the  power  "  to  bind 
and  to  loose"  which  Jesus  (Matt,  xvi,  19)  also  conferred 
not  only  upon  his  other  apostles,  but  upon  the  whole 
Church  (Matt,  xviii,  18).    Both  expressions,  to  bind  and 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


CI 


KEYS,  POAVER  OF  THE 


to  loose,  which  in  New-Testament  usage  do  not  require 
a  personal,  but  an  impersonal  object,  mean,  according  to 
Kabinnical  language,  to  permit  and  io  forbid,  to  confirm 
and  to  revoke  (see  Lightloot,  ad  loc.  Matt.,  and  corap.  the 
art.  Bind)  ;  and  in  the  N.-T.  passages  quoted  they  can 
refer  only  to  the  sphere  of  Christian  social  life.  Against 
the  opinion  of  the  later  Church,  that  Paul  (1  Cor.  v,  3-5) 
made  use  of  the  apostolic  authority  to  forgive  and  to 
retain  sins,  Eitschl  (.4  It-Kathol.  Kirche,  2d  edit.,  p.  337 
sq.)  argues  that  in  this  passage  onl}'  a  disciplinary  reg- 
ulation is  referred  to ;  that  Paul  conceded  to  the  Church 
the  right  of  discipline,  and  only  exercised  authority 
when  he  supposed  himself  to  act  in  harmony  with  the 
wish  of  the  Church ;  and  that,  if  the  apostle  (2  Cor.  ii, 
G-10)  held  a  contrarj^  doctrine,  he  would  be  subject  to  the 
charge  of  simulation.  The  apostolical  writings,  more- 
over, do  not  allude  to  any  other  agency  in  the  Church 
for  the  remission  of  sins  than  that  spoken  of  by  Paul 
himself,  2  Cor.v,  18  sq.,  namely,  reconciliation  by  Christ 
and  the  prayers  of  believers  (1  John  v,  IG;  James  v,  10). 

II.  Doctrine  of  the  Patristic  Period. — The  misconcep- 
tion of  the  meaning  of  the  power  to  hind  and  to  loose  was 
early  manifested  in  the  Chiu"ch.  The  Jewish-Christian 
Clementine  Homilies,  it  is  true,  stiE.  evince  a  knowledge 
of  the  original  signification  of  the  words  to  hind  and  to 
loose,  inasmuch  as  they  stQl  supply — in  the  N.-T.  sense 
— simply  an  impersonal  object;  but,withal,  they  have  so 
far  enlarged  iqion  the  meaning  of  the  expression  as  to 
find  comprehended  in  tlie  power  to  which  it  alludes  all 
privileges  of  the  episcopal  ofrice  as  a  continuation  of  the 
apostolical  office  (iii,  72).  Quite  the  opposite  was  held 
in  the  Gentile-Christian  Church  of  the  2d  centurj-.  It 
interjireted  the  power  "  to  bind  and  to  loose"  as  author- 
ity to  retain  and  to  forgive  sin,  and  supplied  the  two 
verbs  with  personal  objects;  yet  regarded— in  the  sp^it 
of  the  apostolic  Church — as  the  authorities  vested  with 
the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  the  society  (Church),  and 
not  the  bishop. 

In  so  far  as  from  a  heathen-Christian  stand-point  the 
power  of  the  "  keys"  v:as  identified  with  the  power  "  to 
bind  and  to  loose,"  the  f<irmer  was  held  to  express  in  one 
conception  both  the  latter  acts,  viz.  excommunication 
and  readmittance  to  the  Church;  but  as  the  keys  of 
Peter  were  taken  also  to  comprehend  all  rights  of  Church 
government,  and  especially  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
we  need  not  wonder  that  among  the  Church  fathers  of 
the  patristic  period  all  these  different  views  were  some- 
what mixed  (comp.  Tcrtullian,  De  Pudic.  21 ;  Cj'prian, 
iJe  unit,  eccles.  cap.  4).  It  was  in  the  period  of  scholas- 
ticism that  a  really  strict  distinction  was  aimed  at,  and 
yet  to  this  day  Koman  Catholics  have  failed  to  recog- 
nise generally  this  discrimination. 

The  whole  Church  was  at  first  regarded  as  bearers  of 
the  keys,  i.  e.  of  the  power  to  Mud  and  to  loose,  evidently 
because  Christ  works  and  has  his  abode  there.  (For 
this  reason,  also,  the  martyrs  were  accorded  the  position 
of  "prrecipua  ecclesia;  membra,"  in  whom  Christ  is  active 
for  his  own  glorification.  Comp.  Eusebius,  v,  2,  5 ;  Ter- 
tuUian,  T)e  Pudic. ;  Idem,  Apolor/.  39). 

The  first  decided  change  of  view  is  found  among  the 
Montanists.  TertuUian  (in  his  De  Pudicitia)  limits  the 
promise  of  ^Matt.  xvi,  18  sq.  simply  to  the  person  of  Pe- 
ter as  the  apostolical  founder  of  the  Church ;  the  power 
to  forgive  sin  he  regards  as  the  right  of  the  Church  in 
so  far  as  she  is  identical  with  the  Holy  (ihost.  The 
bearer  of  this  right  he  holds  to  be  the  spiritual  man 
(spiritualis  homo),  but  that  the  latter,  in  the  interests 
of  the  Church,  abstains  from  exercising  this  prerogative. 
His  opponent,  the  Koman  bishop,  however,  interpreted 
it  in  favor  of  all  the  bishops  (bishopric  =  numcrus  epis- 
coporum,  chap.  xxi).  This  thought  Cj-prian  enlarged 
upon  ^^-ith  a  free  use  of  the  Montanistic  thesis,  holding 
that  the  episcopate  is  the  inheritor  (heir)  of  the  aj^os- 
tolic  power,  the  seat  and  the  organ  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  therefore  possessed  of  power  to  hind  or  to  loose  of  its 
own  accord.  Of  course,  from  such  a  stand-point.  Cyprian 
was  forced  to  reject  as  presumption  the  claim  of  the 


martjTS  to  the  power  of  the  keys ;  he  only  conceded  to 
them  the  right  of  intercession  for  the  fallen.  To  prove 
the  ideal  unity  of  the  Church,  Cyprian  advances  the  ar- 
gument that  the  power  of  the  ke3'S  was  first  intrusted 
by  Christ  to  Peter,  and  only  afterwards  to  the  other 
apostles  {De  unit,  eccles,  cap.  iv).  In  the  writings  of 
Optatus  Milevitanus  this  thought  takes  the  form  that 
Christ  intrusted  the  keys  to  Peter,  and  that  Peter  him- 
self surrendered  them  to  the  other  apostles.  The  power 
of  the  keys  in  this  sense  evidently  denotes  the  episcopal 
power  in  aU  its  extent,  i.  e.  the  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment. AMth  Cyprian,  to  bind  and  to  loose  already  means 
to  retain  or  forgive  sins  forever,  yet  he  only  uses  these 
expressions  when  speaking  of  the  forgiveness  of  sins  by 
baptism  (e.  g.  Epist.  73,  c.  7).  Later,  however,  they  are 
used  in  a  narrower  sense,  and  refer  to  great  sins  com- 
mitted after  baptism ;  in  short,  they  denote  the  right  of 
exercising  penance-discipline,  a  power  in  principle  con- 
ceded to  the  bishop,  but  which  actually  he  was  permit- 
ted to  exercise  only  in  union  with  aU  his  clergy.  Not 
all  sins  committed  after  baptism  were  subject  to  the 
power  of  the  keys,  only  the  greater  ones,  as  Augustine 
has  it, "  committed  against  the  Decalogue"  (Serm.  351,  i, 
"De  poenit."  c.  4).  This  declaration,  however,  is  to  be 
taken  with  the  exception  of  all  inward  sins,  i.  e.  tress- 
passes against  the  ninth  and  tenth  commandments; 
moreover,  in  the  older  practice,  onl}-  the  different  species 
of  idolatry,  murder,  and  unchastity  were  punished  by 
ecclesiastical  courts.  It  is  incorrect  to  argue,  as  has 
been  done  on  the  part  of  Protestants,  that  only  the  pub- 
lic sins — those  which  caused  trouble  to  the  Church,  were 
taken  account  of  by  the  Church.  As  to  the  sins  alluded 
to  above,  whether  committed  in  secret  or  publicly,  it 
was  supposed  that  they  did  injurj'  to  the  gifts  of  regen- 
eration, and  entangled  the  soul  in  the  meshes  of  spirit- 
ual death  ;  they  were  therefore  called  pecccita  (delicta  or 
crimina)  moi-talia,  also  cajntcdia ;  the  others  were  regard- 
ed as  simply  daily  experiences  of  the  remains  cf  weak- 
ness cleaving  to  the  believer,  of  which  it  seems  almost 
impossible  to  be  rid  in  this  life.  For  the  former  only 
the  power  of  the  keys  and  the  exercise  of  penance  were 
regarded  as  in  force ;  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
supposed  to  be  atoned  for  by  the  daily  penance  of  a  be- 
lieving heart,  by  the  fifth  request  in  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
by  oblation  and  the  eucharist,  etc.  They  were  called 
iieccata  renialia. 

Actually  the  power  of  the  keys  was  exercised  by  the 
whole  clerical  body,  under  the  presidency  of  the  bishop. 
In  formal  inquisitorial  proceedings,  the  fact  of  the  com- 
mission of  a  mortal  sin  was  determined  either  by  the 
voluntary  confession  of  the  perpetrator  or  by  indictment 
and  hearing  of  witnesses,  followed,  in  case  of  established 
guilt,  by  the  declaration  of  excommunication  ;  but  the 
excommunicated  retained  the  privilege  of  praying  for 
admission  to  the  exercise  of  penance  in  the  Church. 
This  last,  in  early  days,  was  in  all  cases  public,  especially 
after  the  time  of  Augustine,  at  least  in  cases  of  public 
crime;  but  after  the  beginning  of  the  4th  centurj'  it 
was  regiUated  by  steps  corresponding  to  catcchumcnical 
grades.  Upon  the  expiration  of  tlie  term  of  penance,  the 
length  of  which,  in  the  early  Church,  was  discretionarj- 
v.-ith  the  bishop,  but  in  later  times  was  determined  by 
ecclesiastical  laws,  the  excommunicated  was  again  re- 
ceived into  Church  membership.  This  act,  which  was 
consummated  by  imposition  of  hands,  prayer,  and  the 
kiss  of  peace  hv  the  bishop,  with  the  assistance  of  the 
clergy  before  tlie  altar  (ante  apsidem),  in  presence  of 
the  membership  of  the  Church,  was  called  reconciliation, 
or  the  bestowal  of  peace  (pacem  dare).  Penitent  souls, 
however,  in  danger  of  immediate  death,  coidd  be  recon- 
ciled even  before  the  expiration  of  their  period  of  pen- 
ance, in  presence  of  the  bishop,  by  any  presbyter,  or,  if 
such  a  one  was  not  accessible,  even  bj^  a  deacon  (Cyp- 
rian, Epist.  xviii,  1 ;  Cone.  Eliberit.  can.  32) ;  a  practice 
which  we  find  even  as  late  as  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
which  clearly  proves  that  in  the  early  Churcli  reconcil- 
iation was  more  an  act  of  jurisdiction  than  of  order. 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


62 


KEYS,  POWEll  OF  THE 


In  the  earliest  days  of  the  Church,  the  exercise  of  its 
prerogative  of  the  ])ower  '•  to  loose,"  in  reconciliation, 
coincided  completely  witli  (ihsolution,  except  that  to  this 
term  there  was  not  fciven  the  meaning  which  it  re- 
ceived in  tlie  Middle  Ages.  Above  all,  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  tliat  the  Church  fathers  did  not  place  the 
atoning  power  in  the  reconciling  activity  of  the  Church, 
but  in  the  activitj'  of  the  penitent  himself;  from  the 
Church  the  penitent  received  only  instruction  how  to 
heal  the  wound  he  had  created  by  sin :  hence  they  fre- 
quently designated  penance  as  the  medicine,  and  the 
clerus  imposing  it  as  the  physician ;  he  (the  penitent) 
was  to  repair  himself  from  his  crime  by  his  good  -works, 
anil  merit  the  divine  forgiveness.  Thus  must  be  un- 
derstood Cyprian's  frequent  demand  of  "justa  pceniten- 
tia,"  which  consists  in  the  congruity  of  the  guilt  with 
the  penance  offered  as  reparation.  That  God  alone  ab- 
solved from  sin  was  the  accepted  axiom  of  the  early 
Church.  Yet  the  Church  hesitated  not  to  consider  it- 
self one  of  the  means  of  grace,  competent  to  assist  in 
the  work  of  salvation,  acting  upon  the  theory  laid  down 
by  Cyprian:  "Extra  ecclesiam  nulla  salus."  So  long 
as  the  mortally  sinning  one  saw  himself  inwardl}'  and 
outwardly  separated  from  the  Church,  the  absolute  way 
to  salvation,  divine  forgiveness,  seemed  to  him  inacces- 
sible ;  there  was  no  need  of  judgment  by  the  courts,  he 
was  already  judged.  If  the  Church  again  admitted 
him  to,  membership  among  the  purified,  he  was  not  nec- 
essarily among  the  number  of  the  saved,  but  he  had  at 
least  the  prospect  of  salvation ;  he  now  belonged  to  the 
number  of  those  over  whom  the  Lord  on  the  final  day 
woidd  sit  in  judgment,  from  whom  he  would  select  his 
own.  Upon  this  point  Cyprian  (Ep.  Iv,  15, 24)  and  Pa- 
cian  {Epkl.  ad  Si/mpron.  in  tine)  are  very  clear.  As  the 
absolving  judgment  of  the  Church  thus  becomes  rather 
luicertain,  depending  upon  approval  or  rejection  in  the 
final  judgment,  there  was  need  of  further  elucidation. 
Reconciliation  was  therefore  joined  with  prayer  by  a 
petition  that  God  would  forgive  the  penitent  his  sins, 
accept  as  sufficient  his  repentance,  which  of  course  could 
only  afford  a  limited  satisfaction  for  the  committed  of- 
fence, and  restore  to  him  the  lost  sjiiritual  gifts.  For 
tliis  reason  the  act  was  accompanied  by  the  imposition 
of  hands ;  compare  Augustine,  Be  Baptism,  iii,  c.  IG,  who 
says  of  this  ceremony  that  it  is  "  oratio  super  hominem," 
i.  e.  the  sj-mbolic  pledge  that  the  answer  of  prayer 
should  benefit  the  penitent,  and  that  with  it  was  be- 
stowed the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  this  sense  Cyp- 
rian speaks  of  a  "remissio  facta  per  sacerdotes  apud 
Dominum  grata" — for  he  knows  only  a  forgiving  activ- 
ity of  God;  and  with  him  all  alisolving  action  of  the 
("nurch  confines  itself  to  the  restitution  of  external  com- 
munion, and  the  prayerful  intercession  of  the  Church, 
viz.  of  tlie  priests,  martyrs,  and  believers.  However 
greatly  I'acian  and  Ambrosius  may  differ  in  their  de- 
fence against  the  Novatians  on  the  right  of  the  priest 
to  absolve  from  sin,  they  never  claimed  for  the  priest 
more  than  the  power  of  intercession — a  privilege  which 
they  believed  lie  held  in  common  with  the  congregation. 

It  is  in  the  Augustinian  period  that  wo  first  discover 
an  endeavor  to  delinc  the  jjiace  of  the  priest  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  power  of  the  keys.  The  older  fathers,  Cyp- 
rian and  Amlirose,  had  limited  the  effect  of  mortal  sins 
by  holding  that  they  infiicted  a  mortal  wound  upon  the 
fallen— calling  to  mind  the  man  who,  on  his  way  from 
.leni-iakMn  to  .lericho.  fell  among  murderers;  and  so  ec- 
cli'siastical  penance  was  regarded  simjily  as  a  remedy 
for  the  atHicted.  In  the  Augustinian  jieriod,  however. 
sin  was  held  to  be  a  deatli-intlicting  agent,  implying 
that  the  fallen  was  dead,  and  had  to  be  restored  to  life. 
But,  as  the  Church  did  not  possess  this  power,  a  change 
of  heart  was  supjjosed  to  precede  the  exercise  of  the 
p  )W('r  of  the  keys — in  slKtrt,  th'at  a  divine  intluence  vis- 
it ;'d  the  heart  before  any  human  agency  could  be  effec- 
tually applied.  Augustine,  in  several  passages  of  his 
v.-ritings  ( e.  g.  Traci  22  in  Ei:  Joh. ;  Tract.  40,  No.  24") 
finds  the  process  exemplified  in  the  resurrection  of  Laz- 


arus :  the  siimer,  like  Lazarus,  is  dead,  and,  so  to  speak, 
rests  spellbound  in  the  grave ;  Mercy  awakens  him,  and 
restores  him  to  life  by  w<junding  him  inwardly,  and, 
amid  great  pain,  brings  him  to  a  consciousness  of  his 
offences ;  upon  Slercy's  call  he  arises,  like  Lazarus,  from 
the  grave,  and  comes  to  light,  bowed  down  by  his  guilt, 
and,  with  an  acknowledgment  to  the  bishop,  seeks  the 
means  of  salvation  in  the  jiractice  of  penance ;  he  is  at 
last  freed  by  the  activity  of  the  priests,  as  Lazarus  was 
freed  by  the  disciples.  This  picture  we  find,  from  this 
time  forward,  in  most  representations  of  the  penance- 
process,  down  to  the  Middle  Ages;  and  especially  did 
the  Yictorinians  form  their  conception  of  absolution 
upon  it.  If  in  this  picture  the  act  of  loosing  can  only 
designate  the  united  action  of  the  Church  on  the  fallen, 
viz.  the  imposition  of  penance,  intercession,  the  removal 
of  excommunication,  and  the  admission  to  the  means 
of  grace,  it  would  seem  that  in  other  places  Augustine 
holds  that  the  forgiveness  of  sin  is  to  be  mediated  by 
the  Church ;  yet  even  here  he  does  not  speak  of  the 
Church  as  a  professed  institution  of  mercy,  but  rather 
the  community  of  saints,  or  of  the  predestined,  by  whom 
the  Spirit  of  God  performs  its  work.  Thus  lie  says 
{Serm.  99,  cap.  9) :  "  The  Spirit  forgives,  not  the  Church ; 
this  Spirit  is  God.  God  dwells  in  his  temple,  i.  e.  in  his 
saintly  believers,  in  his  -C'hurch,  and  he  forgives  sin  by 
this  agency,  because  it  is  the  living  temple."  But  even 
this  forgiveness  is  considered  only  as  the  fruit  of  pray- 
ers pleasing  to  God,  and  therefore  answered  by  him. 
While,  therefore,  Augustine  traces  forgiveness  in  recon- 
ciliation mainly  to  the  prayerful  intercession  of  the 
faithful,  Leo  the  Great  argues  that  the  priests  alone  are 
specific  intercessors  for  the  fallen,  and  that  without  their 
intercession  forgiveness  cannot  bo  secured  (''nt  indid- 
gentia  nisi  supidicationibus  sacerdotura  nequeat  obtiiie- 
ri").  He  bases  this  exclusive  intercession  prerogative 
of  the  priests  upon  the  fact  that  the  Saviour,  according 
to  his  promise  (Matt,  xxviii,  29),  which  Leo  refers  sim- 
ply to  the  clerus,  always  assists  the  action  of  his  priests, 
I  and  that  he  makes  them  the  channel  of  his  spiritual 
gifts  (£>).  82,  al.  108 ;  ad  Theod.  cap.  2).  It  is  thus  that 
the  Catholic  notion  of  the  clerical  priesthood,  which, 
independent  of  the  laity,  communicates  God's  mercy, 
and  regards  this  mediatorship  as  essential,  has  taken 
definite  shape;  and  what  has  been  added  in  later  times 
is  simply  a  more  complete  or  perfect  development  of  the 
idea  as  it  originated  with  Leo.  But  even  he  does  not 
make  the  assertion  that  the  priest,  instead  of  being  a 
mediator  by  prayer  for  forgiveness,  has  himself  the  au- 
thority, by  virtue  of  his  office,  to  absolve  from  sin. 

We  do  not  possess  an  absolution-fonnula  of  the  first 
ages  of  the  Church,  but  we  have  every  reason  to  sup- 
pose, upon  the  premises  stated,  that  it  could  only  have 
been  deprecative.  Augustine  even  denounced  the  ex- 
pression "  I  forgive  thj^  sins,"  of  the  Donatists,  as  heret- 
ical {Serm.  99,  c.  7-9).  If,  in  our  last  allusion  to  the 
reconciliation  of  the  siimer  by  means  of  prayerful  inter- 
cession, the  priest  alone  seemed  to  be  entitled  to  be  dep- 
recator,  we  find  a  very  different  view  was  entertained 
by  other  Church  fathers.  In  accordance  with  Lev.  xiv, 
2,  Jerome  says  that  the  priests  cannot  make  the  leper 
clean,  nor  the  reverse;  they  can  simply  distinguish  be- 
tween the  clean  and  the  unclean  (Comm.  in  J\I nit .  lib. 
iii).  Not  understanding,  therefore,  JNIatt.  xvi,  19  to  con- 
cede to  the  bishops  and  the  elders  any  other  power,  it 
follows  that  he  concedes  to  the  ecclesiastical  office  sim- 
ply the  authority  of  distinction,  i.  e.  the  judicial  |iower 
of  pronouncing  those  as  loosed  who  by  the  mercy  of  God 
had  l)een  inwardly  loosed,  and  those  as  bound  who  have 
not  yet  been  loosed  by  God's  mercy — a  judicial  decision 
whose  validity  is  essentially  confine<l  to  the  forum  of 
the  Church,  and  dues  not  extend  to  the  forum  of  God. 
Just  so  says  (iregory  the  (ireat  {Horn.  2(),  in  Ev.  No.  6), 
'•  It  must  be  determined  what  guilt  has  preceded  and 
what  penitence  has  followed  guilt  in  order  that  the 
shepherd  may  loose  those  whom  the  Lord  in  his  mercy 
visits  with  a  sense  of  repentance.     Only  when  the  judg- 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


63 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


ment  of  the  inner  judge  is  obeyed  can  the  action  of  the 
officer  to  loose  be  a  correct  and  real  one."  Adding,  as 
he  does,  like  Augustine,  the  narrative  of  the  resurrection 
of  Lazarus,  it  is  evident  that  Gregory  did  not  consider 
the  bishop's  action  in  mortal  sins  as  anything  more  than 
constituting  a  recognition  of  the  inner  condition  of  the 
sinner ;  those  into  whose  heart  God  has  breathed  the 
spirit  of  life  the  ecclesiastical  judge  is  to  pronounce  as 
loosed,  those  yet  spiritually  dead  as  bound. 

As  in  the  early  Church  great  penitence  was  conceded 
only  once,  so  reconciUation  by  the  Church  was  not  re- 
peated a  second  time.  In  the  writings  of  Sozomen  (lib. 
vii,  1<3)  we  first  find  a  witness  ft)r  the  principle  of  ad- 
mitting also  backsliders  to  penance  and  reconciliation. 
This  change  of  practice  was  a  necessary  consequence  of 
the  enactment  of  penitential  laws  which  extended  the 
use  of  the  term  mortal  sin  also  to  such  offences  as  had 
formerly  been  considered  simply  venial. 

III.  Doctrine  of  the  Middle  Ar/es  and  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. — The  ancient  Church  classified  her  mem- 
bers into  three  sections — the  faithful,  the  catechumens, 
and  the  penitent.  The  power  of  the  keys  was  exercised 
upon  the  last,  and  in  a  certain  sense  also  upon  the  sec- 
ond class :  these  two  only  were  in  any  need  of  reconcil- 
iation or  absolution  by  the  Church.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  evidence  or  reason  to  believe  that  the  faithful 
were  obliged  to  make  confession  of  sins  to  the  priest, 
even  before  communion.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find, 
after  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages,  a  tendency 
among  the  newly-converted  Germanic  nations  to  en- 
large the  practice  of  penance  into  a  general  institution 
in  the  Church,  and  to  make  the  power  of  the  keys, 
which  concerned  the  penitent  alone,  a  general  court  of 
appeal  and  of  mercy  for  all  the  faithful.  This  was  done 
first  by  subjecting  also  mental  sins  to  the  power  of  the 
keys,  wliile  in  the  earlier  Church  such  a  thing  had  nev- 
er been  dreamed  of.  The  origin  of  this  innovation  has 
been  demonstrated  with  full  evidence  by  Wasserschle- 
ben  {Bvssordmwff  d.  abendldndischen  Kirche,  p.  108  sq.). 
Monachism  was  the  exercise  of  penance  for  all  life.  In 
the  monastery  it  was  early  considered  an  act  of  asceti- 
cism to  disclose  to  the  brethren  the  most  secret  mani- 
festations of  sin.  In  the  old  British  and  Irish  Church 
education  was  directed  especially  to  the  order  and  in- 
terests of  practical  Church  life ;  morals  and  discipline 
were  generally  regulated  by  monastic  rule,  which  thus 
penetrated  society  at  large,  and  more  or  less  influenced 
all  civil  legislation.  As  early  as  the  penance-canons  of 
Vinniaus,  who  flourished  towards  tlio  end  of  the  5th 
century,  the  order  is  given  that  mental  sins,  even  though 
prevented  from  execution,  should  be  atoned  for  by  ab- 
stinence from  meat  and  wine  for  the  period  of  twelve 
months.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Pa-nifentiale,  which  bears 
the  name  of  Theodore  of  Canterbury,  prescribes  for  lusts 
of  fornication  twenty  to  forty  days'  abstinence.  The 
rules  of  penance  of  the  Irish  monk  Columban  (died  A. 
D.  G15)  imported  these  regulations  to  the  Continent, 
and  ordered  that  all  sinful  lusts  of  the  mind  should  be 
atoned  for  by  penance  with  bread  and  water  from  forty 
days  to  six  months  (compare  Wasserschleben,  Bussord- 
minfi,  p.  108, 100, 185,353).  In  the  5th  century  the  semi- 
Pelagian  John  Cassian,  of  Marseilles,  established  eight 
principal  or  radical  sins  (vitia  principalia),  from  which 
spring  the  actual  sins,  namely,  intemperance,  licentious- 
ness, avaricionsness,  anger,  sadness,  bitterness,  vanity, 
pride  (CoW.  S.  S.  Patritm  V,  "  de  octo  principalibus  vi- 
tiis'').  In  the  instructions  of  Columban  {Biblioth.Patr. 
maxim,  xii,  23)  they  are  mentioned  under  the  name  of 
"  crimina  capitalia,"  by  which  the  early  Church  desig- 
nated simplj'  those  actual  mortal  sins  that  were  subject 
to  public  penitence,  and  under  this  name  they  were  in- 
troduced into  several  Anglo-Saxon  and  Frankish  pen- 
ance-regulations. The  Synod  of  Chalons,  in  the  j'ear 
813,  directs  the  priest,  in  canon  32,  to  pay  special  regard 
to  the  principal  sins  of  the  confessors,  a  commendation 
which  Alcuiu  already  made  in  his  De  dicinis  officiis,  cap. 
13.     From  these  eight  radical  sins  the  seven  death-sins 


of  scholasticism  were  developed.  In  these  regulations 
of  penance  we  find  also  already  penance  reflemptions,  so 
important  to  the  historj'  of  absolution,  which  originated 
simply  by  a  transfer  of  the  old  Germanic  composition 
system  to  ecclesiastical  life. 

The  extension  of  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  over 
aU  Christians  was  a  necessary  consequence  of  such  in- 
fluences as  those  just  alluded  to.  In  the  instructions 
for  penance  of  the  abbot  Othman,  of  St.  Gall  (died  A.D. 
761),  we  have  the  principle  laid  down  that  without  con- 
fession there  is  no  forgiveness  of  sin.  In  Columban's 
book  of  confession  (can.  30),  on  the  borders  of  the  Gth 
and  7th  centuries,  it  is  ordered  that  before  every  com- 
munion there  should  be  confession,  especially  of  mental 
excitements.  According  to  Regino  of  Prum  (died  915) 
{De  discipl.  eccles.  ii,  2),  every  person  ought  to  confess 
at  least  once  a  year.  The  first  provincial  synod  which 
makes  confession  a  general  obligation  is  that  of  Aenham, 
A.D.  1109  (canon  20,  in  two  very  var\'ing  recensions). 
Innocent  III  is  really  the  originator  of  the  general  pen- 
ance law  [see  Penance],  and  thus  likewise  of  the  reg- 
idar  periodical  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys  over  all 
Christians.  His  regulation  had  no  doubt  the  intention 
of  staying,  by  ecclesiastical  shackles  on  the  conscience, 
a  spreading  heresy,  as  seems  evinced  by  the  similarity 
of  canon  29  of  the  fourth  Lateran  synod  with  the  twelfth 
canon  of  the  celebrated  Synod  of  Toulouse  in  1229. 

Notwithstanding  the  opposition  which  manifested 
itself  in  the  Prankish  realm  against  the  penitential 
books  and  those  of  its  rules  not  corresponding  to  the 
regulations  of  the  older  canons,  its  principles  took  effec- 
tual hold,  and  caused  a  decided  revolution  in  the  prac- 
tice of  penance  and  reconciliation.  Even  though,  after 
the  4th  century,  by  the  side  of  the  public  penance,  pri- 
vate penance  for  secret  offences  had  been  practiced,  rec- 
onciliation had  remained  public ;  now  a  distinction  was 
made  between  public  and  private  penance;  the  latter 
was  inflicted  on  voluntary  confession,  the  former  for  of- 
fences publicly  proved  against  the  perpetrator ;  and  for 
great  crimes,  such  as  murder,  pidjlic  penance  was  fol- 
lowed by  public  reconciliation,  which  was  gradually 
called  absolution.  But  as,  moreover,  the  extension  and 
enlargement  of  the  practice  of  penance  and  confession 
greatly  increased  the  confessional  business,  the  imposi- 
tion of  public  penance,  and  the  grant  of  a  corresponding 
reconciliation,  remained  the  prerogative  of  the  bishop, 
while  private  confession  and  private  absolution  fell  to 
the  presbyter,  who,  however,  exercised  the  right  to  for- 
give sin  merely  as  the  bishop's  delegate.  In  the  early 
Church  reconciliation  was  granted  only  upon  the  expi- 
ration of  penance ;  the  penance  regulations  of  Gildas, 
however,  jiermittcd  private  reconciliation  upon  comple- 
tion of  half  of  the  penitential  period  ;  the  rules  of  Theo- 
dore of  Canterbury  granted  it  at  the  expiration  of  a 
year,  or  even  after  six  months.  Boniface  ordered  in  his 
statutes  that  it  should  be  granted  immediately  after 
confession  (Gicseler,  Ch.  Ilint.  ii,  1,  §  19,  note  b).  All 
these  changes  became  prevalent  in  the  Carlovingiaii 
Age. 

Public  reconciliation  of  the  penitents  was  practiced 
in  the  Romish  Church  as  early  as  the  5th  century  on 
Green-Thursday  {Epist.  Innocentii  1,  ad  Decentium,  c. 
7) ;  in  the  Milanese  and  Spanish  on  Char-Friday  {Mo- 
rin.  lib.  ix,  cap.  29).  After  the  penitents  on  Ash- 
Wednesday  had  received  ashes  upon  their  head,  and 
had  been  solenmly  expelled  from  the  Church,  they  were, 
according  to  the  Pontificale  Romarmm,  again  solemnly 
led,  on  Green-Thursday,  to  the  cathedral,  where  they 
were  relieved  of  their  excommunication  and  blessed  by 
the  bishop  after  the  mercy-seat  had  been  implored  and 
the  person  sprinkled  with  holy  water  and  incense.  I'ub- 
lic  reconciliation  and  public  penance  naturally,  in  the 
course  of  the  Middle  Ages,  graduallj'  gave  place  to  pri- 
vate confession  and  private  absolution.  Since  the  Ref- 
ormation it  has  become  obsolete,  and  the  formulas  for 
the  same  find  a  resting-place  in  the  Episcopal  ritual 
(comp.  Daniel,  Codex  Uturf/icus,  i,  279-288). 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


64 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


Upon  the  theological  importance  of  absolution,  and 
the  relation  v'hich  the  priest  in  the  administering  of  it 
sustains  to  it,  the  same  opposite  opinions  which  we  found 
in  the  patristic  period  were  entertained  in  the  first  half 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  the  view  of  which 
Jerome  and  tJregory  the  Great  must  be  especially  des- 
ignated as  representatives,  the  priest  is  judge  in  foro 
eccleske,  and  may  by  his  judgment  simply  determine  and 
certify  for  the  Church  the  manifestation  of  divine  mer- 
cy in  the  penitent's  heart.  Thus,  in  the  JlomUics  of 
Eligius  of  Noyon,  which,  in  all  pmbabilit}-,  belong  to 
the  Carlovingian  period,  we  read  that  the  priests,  who 
are  in  Christ's  stead,  must  by  their  office,  in  a  visible 
manner  (externally  or  ecclesiastically),  absolve  those 
whom  Christ,  by  an  invisible  (inwardly  effected)  abso- 
hition,  declares  worthy  of  his  reconciliation  (atonement). 
Thus  says  Haymo  of  Hallterstadt  (died  853),  in  a  ser- 
mon (7/o;».  in  Octav.  Pnsch.),  after  alluding  to  the  prac- 
tices of  the  O.-T.  priests  towards  lepers :  "  Those  whom 
he  recognises  by  repentance  and  worthy  improvement 
as  inwardly  loosed,  the  shepherd  of  souls  may  absolve 
by  his  declaration."  According  to  this  view,  divine  for- 
giveness not  only  precedes  priestly  absolution,  but  also 
confession ;  it  is  the  portion  of  the  sinner  from  the  mo- 
ment when  he  repents  in  his  heart  and  turns  to  God. 
Absolution  of  the  Church  in  this  instance  is  simply  the 
confirmation  of  what  God  has  already  done.  A  proof 
that  this  was  the  stand-point  in  the  12th  century  is  fur- 
nished in  (Jratian's  treatment  of  the  Decretals  (cans, 
xxxiii,  qu.  iii).  lie  there  proposes  the  question  wheth- 
er anybody  can  give  satisfaction  to  God  by  simple  re- 
pentance without  confession  (and  consequently,  also, 
without  absolution).  He  first  adduces  the  reasons  and 
authorities  that  must  compel  an  affirmative  answer  to 
this  question,  then  those  that  would  answer  it  in  the 
negative ;  at  the  close  he  leaves  it  to  the  reader  to  de- 
cide for  himself  in  favor  of  the  one  or  the  other,  as  both 
opinions  have  the  favor  and  disapproval  of  wise  and 
pious  men.  Peter  the  Lombard,  Gratian's  contempo- 
rary, says  {Sent.  lib.  iv,  dist.  17)  that  the  sense  of  for- 
giveness is  felt  before  the  confession  of  the  lips,  indeed, 
from  the  moment  when  the  holy  desire  fills  the  heart. 
The  priest  has  therefore  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose 
only  in  the  sense  that  he  declares  men  bound  or  loosed, 
just  as  the  disciples  declared  Lazarus  free  from  his 
bonds  only  after  Christ  had  restored  him  to  life.  The 
declaration  of  the  priest  has  therefore  simply  the  effect 
of  releasing  before  the  Church  the  person  already  loosed 
by  God.  According  to  cardinal  Kobert  Pulleyn  (died 
1115),  the  death-sinner  enjoys  divine  forgiveness  as  soon 
as  he  repents ;  absolution  is  a  sacrament,  i.  e.  the  sym- 
bol of  a  sacred  cause,  for  it  externally  represents  forgive- 
ness already  secured  in  the  heart  by  repentance,  not  as 
if  the  priest  actually  forgave,  hut  hy  the  external  symbol, 
for  the  sake  of  greater  consolation,  he  makes  the  penitent 
doubly  sure  of  forgiveness,  although  it  has  already  become 
manifest  (Sentoit.  lib.  vii,  1).  If,  at  the  same  time,  the 
anxiety  still  remaining  in  the  heart  is  lessened  or  re- 
lieved, this  is  the  effect  of  absolution,  not  depending  so 
much  ui)on  the  activity  of  the  priest  as  upon  God,  from 
whom  it  springs.  By  the  exercise  of  divine  forgive- 
ness the  sinner  is  simply  relieved  of  the  ultimate  conse- 
quences of  his  guilt,  i.  e.  eternal  damnation;  yet  earhcr 
or  more  immediate  punishment  can  ouly  be  prevented 
by  his  future  efforts  to  atone  for  the  act.  Hence  the 
priest  imposes  a  certain  measure  of  satisfaction,  a  com- 
pUance  with  which  can  alone  free  the  transgressor  from 
punishment  corresponding  to  the  greatness  of  his  guilt; 
if  the  satisfaction  is  too  moderate,  the  penitent  must  not 
fancy  himself  absolved  before  (iod;  he  will  have  to 
atone  to  the  fulness  of  the  measure  cither  in  this  world 
or  in  purgatory.  The  direct  bestowal  of  complete  abso- 
lution before  God  we  evidently  do  not  find  here  con- 
ceded to  be  the  prerogative  of  the  Church;  her  judg- 
ment is  competent  only  to  free  the  sinner  after  compli- 
ance with  her  imposition  of  punishment;  on  divine 
punishments  she  has  no  judgment. 


Nearest  in  view  to  Robert  Pidleyn  comes  Peter  of 
Poicticrs,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris  (he  died 
about  1204),  who  (in  his  five  Libri  Sententiurum')  lays 
down  the  ductrine  that  forgiveness  of  sin  precedes  con- 
fession, and  that  it  is  secured  by  repentance.  He  ear- 
nestly contends  that  the  priest  cannot  relieve  the  con- 
fessing one  of  his  guilt  or  of  eternal  punishment;  both 
he  asserts  to  be  the  prerogative  of  (Jod  alone.  The 
jiriest  has  simjily  the  authority  to  indicate  or.  to  declare 
that  God  has  forgiven  the  penitent  his  sin.  God,  how- 
ever, relieves  of  eternal  punishment  only  on  condition 
of  definite  satisfactions,  which  the  priest  has  to  deter- 
mine as  to  measure,  and  to  impose  according  to  the 
greatness  of  the  crime;  and  on  this  account  the  priest 
must  possess  not  simply  the  power  to  loose,  but  also  the 
power  of  discretion  (clavis  discretionis),  which  is  not 
granted  to  everybody.  The  penitent  is  therefore  ad- 
vised in  all  cases  to  go,  if  possible,  beyond  the  measure 
of  satisfaction  imposed  by  the  priest,  lest  in  piu-gatory 
the  offender  may  be  obliged  to  make  satisfaction  for  his 
neglect  here.  It  is  quite  characteristic  that  this  scho- 
lastic regards  confession  as  a  sacrament  of  the  O.  T.,  for 
the  whole  process  of  penance  he  bases  upon  the  personal 
activity  of  the  penitent  {Sent,  iii,  cap.  13  and  IG ). 

Alongside  of  this  view,  according  to  which  the  pos- 
sessor of  the  po\ver  of  the  keys  officiates  essentially  as 
judge  in  foro  ecclesiw,  another  is  entertained,  which  finds 
its  strongest  exponent  in  Leo  the  Great,  according  to 
whom  the  priest  is  intercessor  and  mediator  for  the  pen- 
itent before  God.  This  particular  view,  in  its  successive 
developments,  has  exerted  the  greatest  influence  in  ex- 
panding the  priestly  power  of  the  keys.  This  position 
is  assigned  to  the  priest  in  all  late  penitential  books. 
Its  nature  is  clearly  defined  by  Alcuin,  who,  from  the 
analogy  of  Leviticus  (v,  12),  in  which  the  sinner  is  ad- 
vised to  seek  the  priest  with  his  sacrifice,  draws  the  con- 
clusion that  Christian  penitents  also  must  bring  their 
sacrifice  of  confession  to  God  by  way  of  the  priest,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  pleasing  to  and  secure  the  forgive- 
ness of  the  Lord  {Adfratr.  inprorinc.  Gothorum,  ep.  96). 
For  this  very  reason  he  calls  (in  his  De  officiis  divinis) 
the  priest  "sequester  ac  medius  inter  Deum  et  peccato- 
rem  hominem  ordinatus,  pro  peccatis  intercessor."  This 
sacertlotal  intercession  received  a  higher  import  in  the 
11th  or  12th  century  by  the  De  vera  et  falsa  p)(enitentia, 
a  work  attributed,  though  incorrectly,  to  Augustine.  It 
develops  the  following  doctrines:  1.  That  the  priest  in 
confession  stands  in  God's  stead — his  forgiveness  is  God's 
forgiveness ;  for  does  not  Christ  say, "  Whom  j-e  hold  to 
be  loosed  and  bound,  but  on  whom  ye  practice  the  work 
of  justice  or  of  mercy?"  (cap.  xxv).  2.  Gregory  the 
Great  had  already  laid  down  the  dogma  that  by  pen- 
ance (but  not  by  absolution),  sin,  which  m  itself  was  ir- 
remissible,  became  remissible,  i.  e.  became  an  expiable 
guilt  by  the  personal  activity  of  the  penitent.  This 
thought  was  modified  in  the  work  just  alluded  to,  so 
that  in  confession,  it  is  true,  the  sinner  is  not  cleared  be- 
fore God,  but  the  committed  offence  is  changed  from  a 
mortal  to  a  venial  sin  (cap.  xxv).  3.  Such  sins  no 
longer  incur  eternal,  but  simply  temporal  punishment, 
and  may  be  atoned  for,  cither  in  this  world  Ijy  works  of 
confession,  or  after  death  in  purgatory,  where  the  jiain 
to  be  endured  fur  them  shall  far  exceed  any  torments 
which  the  martyrs  ever  suffered  in  tliis  life.  This 
thought  was  taken  up  by  the  Yictorinians,  and  from  it 
was  developed  a  complete  system.  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
regarded  the  priest  as  the  visible  medium  which  man, 
spellbound  by  his  senses,  needs  in  his  approaches  to 
God,  and  which  God  uses  to  pour  upon  the  human  heart 
his  mercies ;  yea,  in  virtue  of  this  position  he  does  not 
hesitate  to  refer  the  passage  in  Exodus  xxii,  28  to  the 
priests,  and  to  call  them  gods  (comp.  lib.  ii,/)c  sacr.  \-)t.  xiv, 
cap.  1).  And  why  should  he  not?  Had  not  pope  John 
VIII,  in  the  year  878  (Epist.  G6),  already  assumed  for 
himself  the  power,  in  virtue  of  his  authority  from  Peter, 
to  bind  and  to  loose,  to  absolve  from  all  sius,  those  who 
had  fallen  in  battle  for  the  Church  ?  and  had  not  bishop 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


65 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


Jordanus,  of  Limoges,  in  1031,  at  the  council  held  in  that 
city,  developed  the  principle  that  Christ  had  intrusted  to 
his  Cliurch  such  a  power,  that  slie  may  loose  after  death 
those  whom  in  life  she  had  bound?  (Mansi,  xix,  539; 
Gieseler,  Ch.  lligi.  ii,  1,  §  35,  note  K").  Hugo's  principles 
quickly  spread  among  his  contemporaries.  Cardinal  Tul- 
leyn  says  that  confession  made  to  the  priest  means  vir- 
tually (quasi)  confession  to  God ;  and  Alexander  III  de- 
clares that  what  the  priest  learns  in  confession  he  does 
not  learn  as  judge,  but  as  God  ("ut  Deus,"  cap.  2,  ap. 
Greg.  De  offic.judicis  ordin.  i,  31).  Now  if  we  behold  in 
the  priest  an  intermediate  being  between  God  and  man, 
surrounded  by  a  splendor  before  which  the  laj'man's  eye 
is  blinded,  it  is  no  more  than  reasonable  to  expect  that 
his  acts  must  gain  in  importance,  and  his  position  ap- 
proach nearer  and  nearer  to  the  office  of  God's  repre- 
sentative. Hugo  beholds  the  sinner  bound  by  a  twofold 
bondage — by  an  internal  and  external,  by  hardness  and 
by  incurred  damnation  ;  the  former  God  loosens  by  con- 
trition, the  latter  by  the  assistance  of  the  priest,  as  the 
instrument  by  which  he  works.  Here  also  the  resur- 
rection of  Lazarus  serves  both  as  example  and  as  proof 
(lib.  ii,  pt.  xiv,  cap.  8).  His  pupil,  Richard  of  St.Victor, 
goes  a  step  further  in  his  tract  De  potesiate  lif/tmdi  e( 
solvendi.  Loosing  from  guilt,  the  effects  of  which  are 
manifest  in  imprisonment  (impotency)  and  servitude 
(sin  service),  God  alone  performs,  either  directly,  or  indi- 
rectly by  men,  who  need  not  necessarily  be  priests ;  it  is 
done  even  before  confession,  by  contrition.  The  loosing 
from  etei-nal  punishment  God  performs  by  the  priest,  to 
whom,  for  this  purpose,  the  power  of  the  keys  has  been 
intrusted;  he  changes  it  (i.  e.  the  punishment)  into  a 
transitory  one,  to  be  absolved  either  iqion  earth  or  in 
purgatory.  The  loosing  from  tirinsitor//  punishment  is 
effected  by  the  priest  himself  by  changing  it  into  an  ex- 
ercise of  penance,  which  is  done  by  the  imposition  of  a 
corresponding  satisfaction. 

If  hitherto  we  find  independently,  side  by  side,  two 
opinions,  namely,  that  tlie  administrator  of  the  power  of 
the  keys  either  judges  infuro  ecclesim  or  as  an  interced- 
ing mediator,  we  need  not  wonder  that  the  advance  of 
doctrinal  development  soon  effected  a  dialectical  union 
of  the  two.  Eichard  of  St.  Victor  evidently  aimed  at 
such  a  fusion ;  the  great  scholastics  of  the  13th  century 
accomplished  it ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas  is  to  be  especially 
regarded  as  the  author  of  the  doctrine  defined  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Alexander  of  Hales,  in  his  Summn 
Theolori'ia  (pt.  iv,  qu.  20,  membr.  iii,  art.  2),  opens  with 
the  sentence,  "  The  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  really 
belongs  only  to  God ;  the  priest  can  simply  co-operate." 
But  wherein  shall  this  co-operation  consist?  Never 
would  the  priest  take  the  liberty'  to  absolve  any  one  did 
he  not  suppose  him  to  be  loosed  by  God.  Alexander  is 
the  first  writer  who  meets  the  alternative  as  to  whether 
the  priest  is  to  be  regarded  as  deprecator  or  as  judge. 
He  holds  him  to  bo  both  in  one  person ;  the  former  he 
is  before  God,  the  latter  before  the  penitent.  But  the 
power  to  loose  he  can  exercise  only  after  God  has  loosed. 
He  is  to  the  sinner  simply  an  interpreter  of  what  God 
has  already  accomplished  in  him,  or  is  doing  in  reply  to 
priestly  intercession.  Alexander  of  Hales  then  proceeds 
to  the  question  whether  the  priest  can  remit  eternal  pun- 
ishment. He  replies  (membr.  ii,  art.  2),  that  as  eternal 
pnnislmient  is  infinite,  and  cannot  be  severed  from  the 
offence,  the  priest  does  not  possess  any  power  to  remit 
it;  only  God, whose  powers  have  no  bounds,  can  do  this. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  power  of  the  keys  can  extend  to 
temporal  (or  finite)  punishments,  inasmuch  as  the  priest 
is  God's  instituted  arbitrator.  He  explains  this  in  detail 
thus  :  God's  mercy  forgives  so  that  it  does  not  affect  his 
justice.  His  justice  would  require  a  measure  of  punish- 
ment exceeding  our  powers  of  endurance  ;  therefore  he 
has  instituted,  in  his  mercy,  the  priest  as  arbitrator,  and 
given  him  authority  to  levy  the  divine  punishment,  and 
also,  in  virtue  of  Christ's  sufferings,  to  remit  a  portion  of 
it,  for  which  God's  justice  need  not  be  exercised.  To 
the  question  whether  the  kevs  have  authority  also  over 
v.— E 


purgator}-,  he  replies,  otAj  per  accident,  inasmuch  as  the 
priest  may  change  the  purgatorial  pmiishment  into  a 
temporal  one,  i.  e.  into  an  exercise  of  penance.  Just  so 
reason  Bonaventura  (lib.  iv,  dist.  xviii,  art.  ii)  and  Albert 
the  Great  {Comment,  lib.  iv,  dist.  xviii,  art.  xiii),  the  for- 
mer often  in  the  verj'  words  of  Alexander. 

Upon  this  basis  Thomas  Aquinas  completed  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Komish  Church  on  the  power  of  the  keys.  As 
Thomas  generally  distinguishes  in  ecclesiastical  "  pow- 
er" between  potestas  ordinis  and  jwtestas  jurisdictionis 
(Supi)l.  part  iii,  Summce,  qu.  20,  a.  1,  resp.),  so  there  ex- 
ists also  a  twofold  "  key,"  namely,  clavis  07-dinis  and 
cluvis  jurisdictionis  (qu.  19,  art.  3).  The  keys  of  the 
Church  themselves  are  the  power  to  remove  the  obsta- 
cle interposed  by  sin,  and  thus  make  admission  to  heaven 
possible  (qu.  17,  art.  1).  The  clavis  ordinensis,  so  called 
because  the  priest  receives  it  at  ordination,  directly  opens 
heaven  to  the  person  by  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (sacra- 
mental absolution),  while  the  clavis  jurisdictionis  only 
indirectly  causes  this  result,  namely,  by  the  intercession 
of  the  Church  through  excommunication  and  absolu- 
tion in  the  ecclesiastical  forum.  It  is  therefore  not  in  a 
strict  sense  a  clavis  caeli,  but  simply  quadam  dispositio 
ad  ipsam  (qu.  19,  art.  3).  To  the  acts  of  clavis  jurisdic- 
tionis belong  furthermore  also  the  grant  of  indulgence 
(qu.  25,  art.  2,  ad  1  m.).  Only  the  clavis  ordinis  is  of  a 
sacramental  nature  (ibid.) ;  hence  also  laymen  and  dea- 
cons may  possess  and  exercise  the  clavis  jimsdiciionis, 
like  the  judges  inforo  ecclesice,  for  instance,  the  arch- 
deacons (quest.  19,  art.  3)  and  the  papal  legates  (quest. 
26,  art.  2).  On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  the  sacra- 
mental clavis  ordinis  necessarily  presupposes  the  posses- 
sion of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis,  as  the  priest  receives  at 
ordination  simply  the  authority  to  forgive  sins,  while 
for  the  exercise  of  it  a  definite  circle  of  men  (so  to  speak, 
the  material  or  the  object  of  the  power  of  the  keys),  who 
are  subjected  to  his  jurisdiction  ("plebs  subdita  per  ju- 
risdictionem,"  qu.  17,  art.  2,  ad  2  m.),  is  necessar}\  The 
clavis  o?-dinis  can  therefore  not  be  exercised  until  after 
the  possession  of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis  (qu.  20,  art.  1 
and  2)  ;  and,  vice-versa,  a  bishop  may,  by  the  withdrawal 
of  the  clavis  jurisdictionis,  deprive  a  schismatic,  heretic, 
excommunicated,  suspended,  or  degraded  person  of  his 
inferiors  (subjects),  as  well  as  of  the  possibility  of  exer- 
cising the  clavis  ordinis  (qu.  19,  art.  C). 

The  sacramental  power  of  the  keys  (clavis  ordinis) 
comes  into  practice  in  priestly  absolution,  and  it  is  par- 
ticularly due  to  Thomas  Aquinas  that  in  the  Ki>mish 
doctrine  this  power  of  the  keys  has  gained  so  much  im- 
portance, that  all  parts  of  the  sacrament  of  penance  se- 
cure their  unity  in  it.  Thomas  himself  argues  that  God 
alone  relieves  of  guilt  and  eternal  punishment  on  condi- 
tion of  mere  contrition  ;  but  this  contrition  can  only  as- 
sure the  heart  and  afford  evidence  of  forgiveness  when 
followed  by  the  fidness  of  love  (as  an  attendant  oi  fides 
formata^,  and  furthermore  must  be  accompanied  with  a 
desire  for  sacramental  confession  and  absolution.  To 
him  who  thus  repents,  guilt  and  eternal  punishment  are 
already  remitted  before  confession,  because  in  the  con- 
comitant desire,  while  repenting,  to  subject  himself  to 
the  power  of  the  keys,  the  latter  at  once  exerts  its  influ- 
ence {in  voto  existit,  although  not  in  actu  se  exercet^.  If 
such  a  person  comes  into  the  penance-chair,  the  grace 
showered  upon  him  is  greatly  increased  (augetur  gra- 
tia) by  the  exercise  (in  actu)  of  the  jwwer  of  the  keys. 
But  if  contrition  does  not  sufHciently  fill  the  sinner's 
heart  (for  want  of  love,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  the 
simple  attritio),  and  therefore  his  disposition  docs  not 
admit  the  actual  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  then 
the  latter  supplements  his  disposition  by  removing  any 
still  existing  hinderance  to  the  inpouring  of  sin-forgiv- 
ing grace,  provided  he  does  not  himself  bar  all  access  to 
his  heart.  In  all  these  relations  the  priest  has  that 
place  in  the  sacrament  of  penance  which  water  holds  in 
the  sacrament  of  baptism ;  the  former  is  instrumenium 
animcitum,  as  the  latter  is  instrumentum  inanimaium. 
His  power,  whether  simply  in  vuto  requested  or  in  actu 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  TPIE 


66 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  TPIE 


exerted,  makes  way  for  the  overflowing  stream  of  mer- 
cy, and  secures  the  necessary  disposition  for  its  recep- 
tion {ibi(/.  qii.  18,  art.  1  and  2).  The  power  of  the  keys 
is  consecjuently  the  red  thread  whicli  is  threaded  at  con- 
trition, drawn  through  penance,  and  becomes  visible  to 
the  outwaril  eye  also  in  absolution.  It  gives  the  real 
form,  tlic  frame  that  secures  to  all  acts  of  penance 
(which  by  it  lirst  become  partes  sacrameiiti,  and  receive 
a  sacramental  character)  their  inner  connection,  and 
supplies  to  all  what  is  still  needed  for  their  completion 
(comp.qu.  10,  art.  1).  This  is  manifest  in  the  effects  of 
absolution  by  the  power  of  the  keys ;  for  example  (ac- 
cording to  qu.  18,  art.  2),  temporal  punishment  is  remit- 
ted (just  the  opinion  of  Kichard  of  St.Yictor).  Yet  this 
is  not  completely  done  as  in  baptism,  but  only  so  in  part; 
the  portion  still  remaining  must  be  atoned  for  by  the 
personal  satisfactions  of  the  penitent,  by  his  prayer,  by 
almsgiving,  by  fasting  to  the  fulness  of  the  measure 
meted  out  by  the  priest  (qu.  18,  art.  3).  The  imposi- 
tion of  satisfactions  Thomas  calls  binding,  i.  c.  obliging 
to  atone  for  punishments  still  in  reserve.  The  satisfac- 
tions have  the  twofold  object  of  appeasing  divine  jus- 
tice and  of  counteracting  any  tendency  in  the  soul  to 
sin.  Punishment  stiU  in  reserve  (poena;  satisfactoriaj) 
again  can  be  remitted  in  virtue  of  the  clavis  jurisdic- 
tionis  by  means  of  indulgence  (qu.  25,  art.  1),  which  in 
the  forum  of  God  has  the  same  value  as  in  that  of  the 
Churcli ;  and  this,  according  to  the  idea  of  substituting 
satisfaction  on  which  it  rests,  may  be  of  benefit  even  to 
souls  in  purgator}\ 

By  this  further  development  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
power  of  the  keys  the  form  of  absolution  also  was  nec- 
essarily considerably  altered.  Alexander  of  Hales  says 
that  in  his  day  the  deprecative  formula  preceded  and 
was  followed  by  the  indicative;  and  this  he  justifies 
from  his  stand-point  by  the  sentence, "  Et  deprecatio  gra- 
tiam  impetrat  et  absolutio  gratiara  supponit"  (comp.  pt. 
iv,  (iu.21,membr.  1).  The  indicative  form  of  absolution, 
however,  must  have  been  an  innovation,  for  the  un- 
named opponent  of  Thomas  alluded  to  in  his  opuscidum 
xxiii  (others  xxii)  actually  asserts  that  to  within  thirty 
j-ears  the  absolution  formula  usedb}''  all  priests  was  Ab- 
solutionem  et  remissioneni  tibi  trihuat  Dcus.  Thomas  de- 
fends with  special  emphasis  the  formula  Ego  te  absolvo, 
etc.,  because  it  has  in  its  favor  the  analogy  of  other  sac- 
raments, and  because  it  precisely  expresses  the  effect  of 
the  sacrament  of  penance,  namely,  the  removal  of  sin,  as 
an  exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys.  He  interprets  its 
contents  in  the  following  words :  "  Ego  impendo  tibi  sac- 
rament um  absolutionis."  But  he  also  advises  that  the 
indicative  form  be  preceded  by  the  deprecative,  lest  on 
the  part  of  the  penitent  the  sacramental  effects  may  be 
prevented  (comp.  Daniel,  Cod.  Liturg.  i,  297). 

The  doctrine  of  Thomas  had  in  its  essentials  already 
been  dogmatically  defined  by  Eugenius  IV  in  1439  at 
the  Council  of  Florence  (Mansi,  xxxi,  1057),  and  in  its 
different  rules  more  minutely  at  the  Council  of  Trent, 
at  its  fourteenth  session,  Nov.  25, 1551.  The  Council  of 
Trent,  in  its  decree  and  the  canons  appended,  had  sim- 
ply pronounced  autlioritatively  the  exclusive  right  of 
the  priest  to  absolve,  and  it  explained  the  spirit  of  the 
latter  to  be  not  merely  an  announcement  of  forgiveness, 
but  a  judicial  and  sacramental  act.  The  Koman  cate- 
chism enters  far  more  into  detail  on  this  particular  point: 
as  the  i)riest  in  all  sacraments  performs  Christ's  office, 
the  penitent  has  to  honor  in  him  the  person  of  Christ. 
Absolution  announced  by  him  does  not  simply  mean,  but 
actually  jirocures  forgiveness  of  sin  (pt.  ii.  cap.  v,  qu.  17 
and  11),  for  it  causes  the  blood  of  Christ  to  flow  unto  us, 
and  washes  away  sins  committed  after  baptism  (tpi.  10). 
If,  in  contrition,  confession,  and  satisfaction,  the  personal 
activity  of  the  penitent  (the  opus  operans)  is  pre-emi- 
nent, on  the  other  hand,  in  absolution  (by  which,  as  the 
forma  sacranwnti,  those  acts  of 'penance  firsfreally  as- 
sume a  sacramental  character,  and  become  partes  sacra- 
r.ienti),  he  must  become  perfectly  passive  (for  it  operates 
altogether  ex  opere  operato).    From  this  stand-point  the 


objection  frequently  raised  on  the  Eoman  Catholic  side 
against  Protestant  polemics  seems  in  some  sort  reasona- 
ble, namely,  that  absolution  is  neither  hypothetical  nor 
absolute,  and  that  it  is  a  sacramental  act  to  which  this 
distinction  cannot  actuaUj'  be  apjjlied;  and  it  must  be 
conceded  on  our  part  that,  with  the  conditions  under- 
stood to  be  concurrent,  it  furnishes  such  a  degree  of  cer- 
tainty that  its  effects  cannot  fail  to  be  manifest  in  every 
one  who  does  not  intentionally  frustrate  it. 

This,  however,  is  only  one  side,  in  which  the  priest 
stands  as  intercessor  between  God  and  the  penitent,  no 
longer  (as  formerly  regarded)  as  a  deprecant  simply,  but 
as  dispenser  of  mercies.  The  Eoman  Catholic  concep- 
tion of  absolution  furnishes  for  consideration  still  anoth- 
er side,  according  to  which  the  priest  is  essentially ^m;///?, 
not  simply  inj'oro  ecclesice,  but  also,  at  the  same  time,  in 
foro  Dei,  i.  e.  judge  in  God's  stead.  As  such,  he  inves- 
tigates sin  to  determine  a  corresponding  punishment, 
and  examines  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  confidant  in 
order  to  know  whether  to  bind  or  to  loose.  lie  is  there- 
fore not  simply  executor  of  the  opus  opera  turn,  but  also 
judge  of  the  opus  operans.  Now,  as  such,  he  gives  a 
judgment,  and  this  must  be  either  hypothetical  or  ab- 
solute. If  we  look  at  the  form  of  the  sacramental  prac- 
tice, "Ego  to  absolvo,"  and  compare  with  it  the  assur- 
ances of  the  Iioman  catechism  that  the  voice  of  the  ab- 
solving priest  is  to  be  looked  upon  as  if  he  heard  the 
words  of  Christ  to  the  leper,  "Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee'' 
{l.  f.  qu.  10),  we  cannot  do  otherwise  than  regard  the 
priestly  decision  as  absolute,  both  by  its  form  and  con- 
tents, as  an  infallible  divine  decision.  But  if,  on  the 
other  hand,  we  consider  that  the  jiricst — and  this  is  con- 
ceded on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics — may  also  be 
fallible ;  that  the  confessor  is,  after  all,  a  very  imperfect 
surrogate  on  account  of  his  want  of  omnipotence ;  yea, 
that  but  very  rarely  he  can  attain  to  an  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  the  spiritual  condition  of  the  confidant,  his 
judgment  must  necessarily  become  conditioned;  the 
whole  sacrament  becomes  equally  hypothetical,  as  upon 
this  rests  its  basis.  Thus  the  Eoman  Catholic  doctrine 
fluctuates  between  two  opposite  poles  of  assurance  and 
contingency.  This,  indeed,  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  its  development  as  we  have  followed  it  in  historj',  in 
which  two  separate  originally  distinct  views  as  to  the 
position  of  the  priest  in  absolution  had  been  combined, 
without,  however,  really  agreeing  with  each  other. 

IV.  Doctrine  of  the  Reformation  and  Protestantism. — 
A  very  new  development  was  given  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  power  of  the  keys  by  the  Eeformers.  Especially 
noteworthy  is, 

1.  Luther s  Attitude. — He  retained  private  confession 
and  private  absolution,  although  he  knew  them  to  be 
innovations  of  the  ^Middle  Ages ;  he  even  never  wholly 
abolished  the  sacramental  character  of  absolution.  Vet, 
notwithstanding  this  ai)parent  adherence  to  Eomish 
practices,  it  will  be  found  that  he  changed,  so  to  speak, 
regeitcrated  the  whole  institution  in  a  refonnatory  spir- 
it. With  Luther  also  the  power  of  the  kej-s  is  identical 
with  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose.  The  keys  he  re- 
gards as  nothing  else  than  the  authority  or  office  by 
which  the  "Word  is  jiracticed  and  propagated.  As  the 
Word  of  God,  from  the  nature  of  its  contents,  is  both 
law  and  gospel,  so  the  sermon  has  the  t^\•ofokl  task  of 
alarming  the  secure  sinner  by  threats  of  the  law,  and  of 
giving  peace  to  the  troubled  conscience  by  the  consola- 
tions of  the  Gospel,  i.  e.  by  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  The 
former  is  denoted  by  the  binding  key,  the  latter  by  the 
loosing  key,  which  are  both  equalh'  essential  to  keep 
Christians  in  the  narrow  path  of  spiritual  life.  1-2 ven 
the  sermon  Luther  therefore  considers  as  an  act  (the 
essential  act)  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  and  the  consola- 
tion afforded  by  it  as  a  perfectly  effectual  absolution. 
From  the  latter,  however,  is  to  be  particularly  distin- 
giushed  common  absolution,  accorded  at  the  close  of 
the  sermon,  to  which  Luther  assigns  the  task  of  admon- 
ishing all  hearers  to  obtain  for  themselves  forgiveness 
of  sin ;  also^^ru'tj^e  absolution,  to  be  received  only  at  the 


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67 


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confessional,  and  which  is  notliing  more  nor  less  than 
a  sermon  contined  to  one  auditor.  The  existence  of 
these  different  modes  of  exercising  tiie  power  of  the 
keys  he  ascribes  partly  to  God's  riches,  who  did  not 
wish  to  manifest  any  littleness  in  the  matter,  and  partly 
to  the  wants  of  an  abashed  conscience  and  a  timid  heart, 
which  greatly  need  this  strength  and  stimulant  against 
the  devil.  The  value  of  private  absolution  he  places  in 
its  quasi  sacramental  character,  for,  like  the  sacrament, 
it  also  affords  a  real  advantage  in  confining  the  ^Vord  to 
a  particular  person,  and  thus  more  securely  strikes  home 
than  in  the  sermon.  It  is  true,  for  this  reason,  private 
absolution  camiot  be  regarded  as  an  absolute  necessity  to 
forgiveness  of  sin ;  but  he  views  it  as  unquestionably  ben- 
eficial and  advisable  {Stcitz,  I'ricatbeicltte  u.Privatabso- 
lutioi),  p.  7-1-1).  As  Luther,  moreover,  did  not  look  upon 
the  confessional  as  a  judicial  authority,  but  simply  as  a 
mercy-seat,  so  he  looked  upon  absolution,  which  he  rec- 
ognised as  the  most  important  feature  of  confession,  not 
as  a  judicial  decision,  but  as  the  simple  announcement  of 
the  Gospel :  "  Thy  sins  arc  forgiven  thee" — the  apportion- 
ment of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  to  a  ;;ar?z«<fa7- person,  the 
confinement  of  its  consolation  to  the  most  individual 
needs  of  a  single  heart.  The  power  and  effect  do  not 
depend,  according  to  Luther,  upon  the  priestly  character 
or  upon  the  priestly  utterance  of  him  who  administers  it, 
but  upon  the  word  of  Christ,  which  is  announced  by  it, 
and  upon  the  command  of  Christ,  which  is  executed  by 
it.  For  this  very  reason,  all  distinction  of  human  and  di- 
vine activity  disappears  from  it ;  neitlier  is  the  sentence 
of  the  person  absolving  afterwards  ratified  by  God,  nor 
docs  the  absolver  announce  upon  earth  the  judgment 
of  heaven;  but  in  the  forgiveness  at  absolution  God's 
forgiveness  is  directly  afforded.  The  only  condition 
upon  which  the  effect  of  absolution  depends  is  that  upon 
which  rests  the  effect  likewise  of  the  Word  of  God,  i.  e. 
of  the  sermon,  namely,  faith ;  for  by  faith  it  is  received. 
Repentance  is  efficacious  only  so  far  as  it  is  the  indis- 
pensable preparation  for  the  reception,  but  in  itself  can- 
not insure  forgiveness,  as  without  faith  it  remains  sim- 
ply sin  come  to  life  and  experienced  in  the  heart,  a 
Judas-pain  of  despair  (Steitz,  vt  sirpra,  §  6,  13,  15-18). 
Notwithstanding  this  irremissible  necessity  of  faith,  Lu- 
ther is  far  from  basing  upon  it  the  power  of  absolution; 
a  weak  faith  may  receive  strength  also ;  yea,  even  to 
the  unbeliever  it  is  truly  offered,  and  affords  him  for- 
giveness on  account  of  the  indwelling  of  the  "Word  of 
God,  at  least  for  the  moment,  but  if  repelled  by  unbelief 
it  only  adds  to  his  responsibility  before  the  judge.  The 
result  of  absolution  is  consolation  to  the  conscience  and 
peace  with  God  in  forgiveness  of  sins  and  restitution  in 
innocence  of  the  baptismal  pledge.  Private  absolution, 
Luther  holds,  must  be  administered  to  every  individual 
M'ho  demands  it ;  and  on  this  account  the  power  to  loose 
in  private  absolution  is  not  accompanied  by  the  power 
to  bind.  Upon  this  rests  the  importance  of  the  distinc- 
tion between  private  absolution  and  private  confession ; 
for  to  confess  does  not  mean  anything  else  than  inward- 
ly to  desire  absolution  for  our  sins  and  for  our  guilt: 
confession  can  therefore  not  be  offered  to  any  one,  for 
God  liimself  does  not  offer  it;  it  must  be  an  inward 
want.  For  this  reason,  again,  no  remuneration  can  be 
demanded  of  the  person  confessing.  Luther  makes  no 
distinction  between  the  absolution  of  the  layman  and  that 
of  the  priest.  It  is  also  his  opinion  tliat  man  cannot 
too  frequently  enjoy  absolution  and  the  consolation  of 
forgiveness,  hence  God,  in  the  riches  of  his  mercy,  has 
so  ordered  it  that  this  cfnisolation  may  be  experienced 
wherever  the  Cluirch  of  tlio  faithful  exerts  her  influ- 
ence. He  holds,  finally,  that  while  it  may  be  well  to 
confess  all  one's  different  sins,  it  is  most  important  to 
confess  those  that  particidarly  oppress  the  heart. 

The  key  to  bind,  for  which  Luther  found  no  place  in 
private  confession,  he  assigned  particularly  to  jurisdic- 
tion ;  it  found  its  application,  therefore,  in  the  ban.  Lu- 
ther's opinions  on  this  point  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  the  ban  can  be  exercised  only  in  cases  of  public 


sin  and  reproach,  and  for  notorious  disinclination  to  re- 
pentance ;  it  is  tlie  public  declaration  of  the  Church  that 
tlie  sinner  has  bound  himself,  i.  e.  has  deprived  himself 
of  aU  association  of  love,  and  surrendered  himself  to  the 
devO.  It  excludes  simply  from  the  public  association 
with  the  Churcli  and  her  sacraments,  not  from  the  inner 
membership  of  the  Cluirch,  from  which  the  sinner  him- 
self only  can  cut  loose.  It  is  merely  a  public  punish- 
ment of  the  Church,  and  has  no  other  object  than  to 
improve  the  sinner.  For  this  reason  he  is  simply  ex- 
cluded from  the  sacrament,  not  from  the  sermon,  nor 
even  from  the  intercession  of  the  Church  on  his  behalf. 
The  loosing  from  the  ban  is  the  public  declaration  of 
the  Church  that  the  person  hitherto  under  ban  has  been 
reconciled  to  and  is  again  accepted  by  the  Church. 
This  loosing  is  to  be  granted  to  any  one  who  seeks  it  in 
repentance  and  faith ;  and  this  absolution  of  the  Church, 
in  virtue  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  is  God's  absolution. 
A  ban  unjustly  imposed  can  do  tlie  person  so  pmiished 
no  harm,  and  should  be  borne  patiently ;  nor  must  it  be 
forgotten  that  external  membership  in  the  Church  may 
be  coexistent  with  exclusion  from  inner  membership. 

2.  MelaiKthon  coincided  generally  with  Luther  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  but  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  he  regarded  the  keys  as  an  essential  attri- 
bute of  the  episcopal  or  ministerial  office.  Yet  we  find 
in  ecclesiastical  regulations  made  under  his  supervision, 
as  early  as  1543,  some  decided  deviations  from  Luther's 
doctrines.  It  is  there  directed  to  admit  no  one  to  com- 
munion "  unless  he  have  previously  received  private 
absolution  from  his  pastor  or  some  other  competent  per- 
son" (Richter,  Kirchenordnunc;,  ii,  45).  Furthermore, 
the  right  is  conceded  to  the  absolving  minister,  under 
certain  conditions,  to  deny  absolution  to  the  confessing. 
The  ban  itself,  however,  in  consequence  of  its  abuse,  was 
early  taken  from  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  and  its  impo- 
sition left  to  the  Consistory.  Absolution  was  bestowed 
in  the  church  at  Sunday  vesper  service  by  imposition 
of  hands.  The  formulas  of  absolution  are  partly  exhib- 
itory ;  not  unfrequently  both  stand  side  by  side  for  se- 
lection. 

Chemnitz  is  the  first  who  disputes  that  absolution 
can  be  regarded  as  a  sacrament  in  the  same  manner  as 
baptism  and  communion,  and  assigns  for  his  reason  that 
it  rests  simply  uiwn  the  Word  of  God,  and  has  received 
no  additional  external  sign.  He  also  regards  the  exer- 
cise of  absolution  as  a  specific  prerogative  of  the  sacred 
office,  although  he  still  holds  to  the  old  Protestant  prin- 
ciple that  the  keys  were  given  to  the  Church  herself. 
(See  Schmidt,  Dogmatik,  §  53,  note  5 ;  Heppe,  Dogmatik,. 
iii,  25();  Kliefoth  [see  below],  p.  278.)  Moreover,  he 
argues  that  it  must  be  left  to  the  absolving  clergymani 
to  use  his  judgment  and  cognition  in  the  refusal  or  grant 
of  absolution. 

Quite  differently  teach  Quenstedt  and  Hollaz.  They 
explicitly  speak  of  the  power  to  forgive  sin  as  an  official 
prerogative  of  the  serv-ants  of  the  divine  Word,  and  the 
latter  even  teaches,  in  a  quite  un-Protestant  manner,  that 
the  servants  (ministers)  relatively  and  effectually  con- 
vert, renew,  and  bless  the  sinner  by  the  Word  of  God;, 
so  thev  also  relatively  and  effectually  forgive  sin  (Heppe, 
p.  252). 

As  a  misconstruction  of  the  original  Protestant  view 
on  this  doctrine,  we  must  certainly  regard  Baler's  posi- 
tion that  absolution  is  a  juridical  act;  and  he,  in  con- 
sequence, distinguishes  tlie  potestas  ordinis  and  the  ])0- 
tesfas  clavium  or  jui-isdictionis,  and  determines  the  former 
to  be  a  potestas  publicc  docendi  et  sacramehta  adminis- 
traruU,  and  the  latter  a  potestas  remittendi  et  retinendi 
peccata  (comp.  Schmidt,  §  50,  note  9). 

3.  The  Swiss  reformers,  from  the  very  commence- 
ment, interpreted  the  power  of  the  keys  to  refer  espe- 
cially to  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  government,  and 
rnore  particularly  to  Church  discipline,  and  in  this  sense 
they  have  formulated  in  their  confessions  the  rules  per- 
taining to  this  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  Calvin  re- 
ferred tlie  power  of  the  keys  altogether  to  the  preaching 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


68 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


of  the  Gospel  and  the  exercise  of  Church  discipline,  disre- 
garding the  sacramental  idea,  lie  taught :  1.  Absolution 
is  twofold :  one  part  serves  faith,  the  other  belongs  to 
Church  discipline.  2.  Absolution  is  nothing  else  than  the 
witness  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin  based  upon  the  forms  of 
the  Gospel  (Instif.  lib.  ili,  cap.  iv,  §  23).  3.  Absolution  is 
conditional;  its  conditions  are  repentance  and  faith.  4. 
As  to  the  existence  of  these  conditions  men  must  neces- 
sarily be  uncertain,  so  that  the  certainty  of  binding  and 
loosing  does  not  depend  upon  the  judicial  decision  of  a 
human  court.  The  servants  of  the  divine  Word  can 
therefore  absolve  only  conditionally  (§  1«) :  in  virtue, 
viz.  of  this  Word  they  can  promise  forgiveness  to  all 
who  believe  on  Christ,  and  threaten  damnation  to  those 
wlio  do  not  lay  hold  of  Christ  (§  21).  5.  In  tliis  exer- 
cise of  their  functions  they  can,  for  this  reason,  not  fall 
into  error,  for  they  do  not  promise  more  than  the  Word 
of  God  commands  them ;  while  the  sinner  can  seciure 
for  himself  certain  and  complete  absolution  with  perfect 
assurance  whenever  he  will  lay  hold  upon  the  mercy  of 
Christ  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  Bible  prom- 
ise, "According  to  thy  faith  be  it  unto  thee"  (§  22).  6. 
Tlie  other  absolution,  which  forms  a  constituent  of 
Church  disciphne,  has  nothing  to  do  with  secret  sins;  it 
extinguishes  only  any  offence  which  may  have  been 
given  to  the  Church  (§  23).  In  this  also  the  Church 
follows  the  infallible  rule  of  the  divine  Word :  in  virtue 
of  this  word  she  announces  that  all  adidterers,  thieves, 
murderers,  misers,  and  the  unjust  shall  have  no  part  in 
the  kingdom  of  God;  and  in  this  binding  she  cannot 
err.  With  this  same  AYord  she  looses  the  repenting 
ones,  to  whom  she  brings  consolation  (§  21).  Accord- 
ing to  these  principles,  which,  with  utter  disregard  of 
the  sacramental  idea,  designate  absolution  simply  as  a 
s]iecies  of  sermon,  and  with  it  reproduce  the  doctrine  of 
German  Protestantism  in  an  improved  form,  Calvin 
could  not  cast  aside  private  absolution ;  yet  he  declined 
to  recognise  in  it  a  general  institution  of  the  Church, 
and  made  its  administration  dependent  upon  the  indi- 
vidual need  of  those  who  should  demand  it.  Its  value 
to  the  end  in  view  he  speaks  of  very  much  in  the  strain 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  :  '•  It  happens  sometimes  that 
some  one  hears  the  promises  given  to  all  the  faithfid, 
and  nevertheless  remains  in  doubt  whether  to  him  also 
his  sins  are  forgiven.  When  such  a  one  uncovers  his 
secret  wound  to  his  pastor,  and  hears  that  voice  of  the 
Gospel,  '  Be  of  good  cheer,  thy  sins  are  forgiven  thee' 
(Matt,  ix,  2),  addressed  to  himself,  his  heart  is  quieted 
and  freed  from  all  fear.  Nevertheless  we  must  take 
care  lest  we  should  dream  of  a  power  of  the  keys  not  in 
accordance  with  the  doctrine  of  the  gospels"  (§  1-1).  It 
is  true,  this  does  not  look  exactly  like  Lutheran  private 
absolution,  but  it  is  certainly  the  only  evangelical  sense ; 
and  of  this  alone  the  Scriptures,  the  apostolic  Church, 
and  the  following  centuries  down  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
know  anything. 

4.  Private  absolution,  as  a  whole,  could  be  a  blessing 
only  so  long  as  that  specific  religious  interest  which  the 
IJeformation  awakened  in  all  circles  remained  fresh  and 
full  of  life;  with  a  lassitude  of  the  latter,  the  former  also, 
togetheV  with  confession,  its  offspring,  necessarily  dete- 
riorated to  a  dead  ecclesiastical  form,  and,  instead  of 
encouraging  faith,  favored  a  false  security.  In  several 
Lutheran  churches  its  exercise  was  ignored,  and  finally 
resulted  in  a  complete  change  of  the  manner  of  confes- 
sion and  absolution  (Steitz,  ]).  159  sq.).  The  fresh  and 
living  spirit  of  the  Keformation  had  fled,  private  con- 
fession and  "private  absolution  had  sunk  to  a  mere 
thoughtless  form.  Church  ban  had  become  a  punish- 
ment, public  reconciliation  a  public  restitution;  this  ec- 
clesiastical punishment  was  pronounced  only  by  the  con- 
sistories, and  simply  in  cases  of  offences  of  the  flosli. 

h.  Siiildenly  Pietism  came  forwjird  with  a  loud  protest, 
and  demanded  a  decided  reform  in  the  exercise  of  the 
power  of  the  keys.  The  forerunner  in  this  direction  was 
Thcophllus  Grossgebauer,  professor  at  Kostock  (IVdch- 
tersiimme  aus  dem  vericiiMelen  Zion,  IGGl),  who  regard- 


ed as  essential  for  private  sins  only  confession  before 
God,  but  for  public  sins,  to  wliich  alone  he  referred  the 
power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  iiublic  confession  and  recon- 
ciliation in  i)resence  of  the  offended  Church.  Spener, 
although  in  favor  of  retaining  private  confession  and 
private  absolution,  advocated  a  modified  form,  viz.,  an- 
nouncement to  the  pastor,  and,  as  its  object,  advice  for 
and  examination  of  the  condition  of  the  confidant's  soul; 
and  he  insisted  that  the  confessor,  whose  choice  he  left 
to  personal  confidence,  should  absolve  only  those  truly 
rejienting,  but  shoidd  impress  the  sinner  with  his  guilt, 
and  should  turn  over  the  doubtful  ones  to  a  college  of 
elders  for  them  to  judge  and  to  exercise  the  authority 
of  the  ban.  With  special  emphasis  he  declared  the  pow- 
er of  the  keys  to  be  a  right  of  the  whole  Church  or  of  the 
brotherhood,  which,  by  way  of  abuse,  had  fallen  exclu- 
sively into  the  hands  of  the  ecclesiastics.  With  far 
greater  decision  his  adherents  opposed  the  institution 
of  private  confession  :  the  attacks  of  pastor  Johann  Kas- 
par  Schade,  of  Berlin,  on  the  confessional,  which  he  call- 
ed an  institution  of  Satan,  and  his  abolition  of  private 
absolution  of  his  own  accord,  resulted  first  in  an  investi- 
gation of  the  merits  of  the  question  (Nov.  IG,  1G98),  and 
finall}'  in  an  electoral  resolution  (shortly  afterwards  fol- 
lowed by  a  like  regulation  on  tlie  part  of  other  states), 
which  ordered  confession  and  absolution  of  all  confidants 
in  common,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  left  private  confes- 
sion and  private  absolution  to  be  determined  by  the 
needs  of  the  individual.  The  war  thus  opened  between 
Pietism  and  Lutheran  orthodoxy  led  the  latter  to  de- 
clare private  confession  and  private  absolution  a  divine 
institution,  and  thus  only  brought  some  credit  to  the 
old  Lutheran  institutions,  while  it  greatly  increased  the 
fervor  of  their  opponents. 

6.  In  the  sphere  of  dogmatics  Schleiermacher  Avas  the 
first  among  German  Protestant  divines  to  reintroduce 
the  idea  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  but  he  confines  its 
application,  after  special  exclusion  of  the  sermon,  to 
the  law-giving  and  judicial  (administrative)  power  of 
the  Church,  which  he  regards  as  tlie  essential  outgrowth 
of  the  ecclesiastical  office  of  Christ,  and  whose  exist- 
ence he  ascribes  to  the  association  of  the  Church  with 
the  world  (§  144,  145).  When  we  consider,  however, 
how  vague  and  contradictory  are  the  confessional  IjoolvS 
of  the  evangelical  churches  on  this  point  (we  need  in- 
vite OJily  to  a  comparison  of  the  passages  collected  by 
Schleiermacher  in  §  145),  how  things  altogether  distinct 
are  there  joined,  and  how  difficult  it  is  in  an  exegetical 
way  to  define  the  subject  with  any  degree  of  certainty, 
it  seems  the  most  proper  course  to  ignore  the  attempt 
altogether  of  introducing  into  dogmatics  such  figurative 
terms  as  ''  keys  of  the  heavenly  kingdom,"'  to  "bind  and 
loose."  What  has  thus  far  been  written  upon  these 
phrases  would  have  been  much  more  in  place  in  defining 
"forgiveness  of  sin"  and  "justification"  when  alluding 
in  practical  theology  to  preparation  for  communion  (as 
has  been  done,  with  a  good  deal  of  tact,  by  Nitzsch  in 
his  Prakf.  Tlieol.  ii,  2,428),  and  in  ecclesiastical  law  un- 
der discipline  without  any  cause  for  fear  of  complication. 

As  regards  the  idea  of  absolution  so  prominent  in  the 
exercise  of  the  power  of  the  keys,  it  has,  during  the  last 
twenty  years,  again  become  (in  Germany)  matter  of 
general  investigation.  The  beginning  was  made  by  the 
court  preacher,  Dr.  Ackermann  (at  the  Church  diet  in 
Bremen  in  1852),  on  private  confession.  Altliough  he 
did  not  lay  particular  stress  upon  absolution,  but  simply 
justified  confession  on  its  own  account  and  as  a  psyclio- 
logical  need,  it  naturally  led  to  a  debate  on  absolution 
by  the  Church  diet,  followed  by  a  lively  discussion  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  ministers.  On  the 
part  of  the  Lutherans  every  possible  effort  was  made  to 
reinvest  private  absolution  with  its  former  rights,  and 
to  pave  the  way  at  least  for  its  early  reintroduction. 
They  went  so  far  as  to  vindicate  it  as  a  divine  institu- 
tion, argued  for  general  absolution  as  a  duty,  and,  well 
knowing  its  origin  in  the  IMiddle  Ages,  appealed  to  it 
as  an  institution  sanctified  by  tradition  of  the  Church, 


KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE 


69 


KHAN 


Even  the  assertion  was  not  wanting  that  absolution,  un- 
der all  circumstances,  possesses  divine  power,  so  as  act- 
ually to  free  the  sinner  from  his  f^uilt,  quite  in  contra- 
diction to  the  new  Lutheran  doctrine.  See  Luther.vn- 
iSM,  New. 

V.  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Church.— The  Greek  Church 
entertains  views  on  the  doctrine  of  the  power  of  the 
keys  and  on  absolution  very  similar  to  those  entertain- 
ed by  the  Latin  Church  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  sub- 
ject is  treated  in  full  in  Covel,  Account  of  the  Greek 
Church  (Cambridge,  1722,  foL),  p.  229  sq.;  iieale,  East- 
ern Church,  Introd.  ii.     See  Gueek  Church. 

YI.  Doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England  ami  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church. — On  the  question  of  abso- 
lution, as  involved  in  the  so-called  "power  of  the  keys," 
there  is  a  division  of  opinion  similar  to  that  noticed 
above  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Germany.  This  dif- 
ference is  but  part  of  a  wide  divergency  of  views  on  the 
whole  question  of  ministerial  functions,  and  is  generally 
denoted  by  the  opposite  terms  the  Iligh-Church  and  the 
Low-Church  party.     See  Kitualism. 

VIL  Literature. — J.  Morinus,  7)6  disciplina  in  admin- 
istratione  sacramenti  panitentice  (Paris,  1G51,  Antwerp, 
1682) ;  Daille,  De  poenis  et  satisfactionibus  humanis 
(Amst.  1G49) ;  De  sacramentali  sive  auriculari  Latino- 
rum  confessione  (Gen.  1661);  Hottinger,  »S^me(7mrt  exerci- 
tat.  de  pcenilentia  antiquioris  Romance  ecclesice  (Tigurini, 
1706) ;  Wernsdorf,  De  uhsolutione  non  mere  declarativa 
(Yitt.  17G1);  Abicht,  De  confsdone  privata  (Gedan. 
1728);  Fix,  Gesch.  d.  Beichie\Chemmtz,  1800);  Dens, 
Theolofjia,  torn,  vi ;  De  Sacrament.  Panit.  No.  14,  torn, 
ii.  No.  91,  De  Primatu  Peti-i ;  Mohnike,  Das  Sechste 
JIauptstiick  im  Katechismus  (Strals.  1830) ;  Barron,  On 
the  Supremacij  (in  Works,  vii,  134  sq.,  Oxf.  1830)  ;  Chas. 
Elliott,  Delineation  of  Roman  Catholicism  (3d  ed.,  by  Dr. 
Hannal),  Lond.  1851),  p.  195  sq.,  613  sq. ;  jMohler,  Sipn- 
holism  (transl.  by  Kobertson,  3d  ed.,  N.  Y.  Cathol.  Publ. 
House,  1870),  p.  217  sq.;  H.  C.  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist. 
(Phila.  18C9),  p.  153,  223  sq.;  Haag  (Romish),  Ilistoire 
des  Dogmes  Chretiens,  vol.  ii,  §  20;  London  Reriew,  1864 
(JiUy),  p.  86  sq. ;  Ecang.  Quart.  Rev.  1869  (April),  p.  69, 
269;  (July)  p.  69,  341 ;  Martigny,  Dictiunnaire  des  An- 
tiquith,  p.  156.  Among  the  early  monographs  on  the 
keys  we  may  mention  those  of  Wigand,  De  dace  ligante 
(Francof.  1561);  Schmid,  De  clavibus  ecclesice  (Argent. 
1667) ;  Botface,  De  clavibus  Petri  (Haf.  1707) ;  Luther, 
Von  d.  Schliisseln  (ed.  Wiesing,  Frankft.  and  Lpz.  1795). 
Of  late  (chietly  German)  treatises  specially  on  the  sub- 
ject we  may  name  Eothe,  A  mt  d.  Schliissel  (Gorl.  1801); 
Brascms,  A  mt  d.  Schliissel  (Breslau,  1820);  Steitz,  Das 
Bussacrament  (Frankft.  1854) ;  idem,  Die  Privatbeichte 
und  Privatabsolution  (Frankft.  185 1)  ;  Kliefoth,  Beichte 


und Absolution  (Schwer.  1856) ;  F^terer, Luther's  Lehre 
von  der  Beichte  (Stuttg.  1857).  See  also  Absolution; 
Lay  Kei'kesextation  ;  Kock. 

Keyser,  Leoniiakd,  a  Baptist  martyr,  originally  a 
Roman  Catholic  priest,  tiourished  iu  the  first  half  of  the 
16th  century.  He  joined  the  Baptists  in  1525,  and  im- 
mediately began  preaching  the  Reformation  doctrine,  un- 
dismayed by  all  the  tyranny  exerted  against  the  faith- 
ful by  water,  fire,  antl  swonl.  In  the  second  j'ear  of  liis 
ministry  (1527)  he  was  ajiprehended  at  Scherding,  on 
the  River  Inn,  and  condemned  to  the  flames.  '■  The 
chief  heads  of  accusation  against  him  were,  that  faith 
alone  justifies,  without  good  works;  that  there  are  only 
two  sacraments ;  that  the  (iospel  was  not  preached  by 
the  papists  in  Germany;  that  confession  is  not  God's 
command ;  that  Christ  is  the  only  satisfaction  for  sin ; 
that  there  is  no  purgatory ;  that  Christ  is  the  only  Me- 
diator; and  that  all  days  (alluding  to  feast  or  saints' 
days)  are  alike  with  God." — Baptist  Martyrs,  p.  60. 

K!ezi'a  (Ileb.  Ketsiah',  T^V^'^'p,  cassia,  as  in  Psa. 
xlv,  9  ;  Septuag.  Karraia  v.  r.  Kacr/a),  the  name  of  .Job's 
second  daughter,  born  to  him  after  the  return  of  his 
prosperity  (Job  xlii,  14).     B.C.  cir.  2220. 

Ke'ziz  {llchrovf  Ketsits',Y''^'p,ab>-iipt ;  only  with 
p^I-',  e'mek,  valleij,  prefixed;  Septuag.  both  ' AjiiKKacriQ, 
Yulg.  Vallis  Casis),  or  rather  Emek-Keziz  (Yalo  of  Ke- 
ziz),  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  mentioned  between 
Beth-hoglah  and  Beth-arabah  (Josh,  xviii,  21),  and 
therefore  probably  situated  in  a  steep  ravine  of  the  same 
name  leading  to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  See  Beth- 
BASi.  M.  De  Saulcy  found  a  small  valley  by  the  name 
of  Kaaziz  about  an  hour  and  a  half  distant  from  Beth- 
any, in  the  direction  of  Jericho  {Nai-rative,  ii,  17),  which 
he  conjectures  (p.  26)  was  the  ancient  Yalley  of  Keziz. 
So  also  Van  de  Yelde  {Memoir,  p.  328)  calls  it  Wady  el- 
Kaziz. 

IChadijah  is  the  name  of  t\'\(i  first  wife  of  the  Is- 
lamite prophet.     See  Mohammed. 

Khan  is  the  more  common  Arabic  name  for  the  pub- 
lic establishments  which,  under  the  less  imposing  title 
of  menzil,  or  the  more  stately  one  of  caravanserai  (q.  v.), 
correspond  to  our  Occidental  ideas  of  an  inn  (cj.  v.). 
These  afford  lodging,  but  not  usually  food,  for  man  and 
beast.  They  are  generally  found  near  towns,  but  some- 
times in  the  open  country  on  a  frequented  route.  They 
are  mentioned  in  the  N. Test.  (TiavloxCiov,  Luke  x,  34) 
and  Talmud  (p'lilS,  Lightfoot,  0pp.  p.  799),  and  some- 
thing of  the  kind  seems  to  occur  in  the  later  books  of 
the  O.  T.  (r.iinj,  Jer.  xli,  17 ;  the  ica-aXvpa  of  Luke  ii, 
7  is,  however,  thought  by  some  to  have  been  of  a  more 


Interior  of  Vizir  Khan  at  Aleppo. 


KIIATCHADUR 


70 


KHLESL 


private  character).  The  earlier  Hebrews  knew  of  no  I 
such  provision  for  travellers  (Gen.  xlii,  27 ;  Exod.  iv, 
24;  2  Kings  xix,  23;  the  "jlb^  being  merely  the  stop- 
ping-place over  night;  the  tlJTT  of  Josh,  ii,  1  indicating 
rather  a  brothel,  and  the  TT'D  of  1  Sam.  xix,  18  the 
home  of  the  prophet-scholars).  Entertainment  was 
generally  furnished  by  individual  hospitality  (q.  v.). — 
Winer,  i,  479. 

Khatchadiir,  an  Armenian  theologian,  flourished 
in  tlie  opening  of  the  17th  century.  He  was  bishop  of 
Dehiiugha,  and  in  1G30  was  sent  by  the  Armenian  patri- 
arch Michael  HI  to  Constantinople  on  an  ecclesiastical 
mission,  and  later  to  Poland.  He  is  particularly  cele- 
brated, however,  as  a  poet.— Hoefer,  iVc<(»-.  £'io^.  6'e«er. 
xxvii,  075. 

Khatchid  I,  elected  patriarch  of  Armenia  in  972,  is 
noted  in  tlie  annals  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Arme- 
nia for  the  interest  he  manifested  toward  literature  and 
the  fine  arts,  and  for  the  establishment  of  a  number  of 
monasteries.  He  died  at  his  residence  in  Arkina  in  992. 
— Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gemrale,  xxvii,  G7G. 

Khatchid  II  was  patriarch  of  Armenia  in  1058,  but 
was  oppressed  by  the  Byzantine  emperor  Constantine 
Ducas,  who  imprisoned  him  for  some  three  years,  and 
then  banished  him  to  Cappadocia.  He  died  in  1064. — 
Hoefer,  Xoia:  Biog.  Generak,  xxvii,  670. 

Khazars  or  Khozars  is  the  name  of  a  Finnish 
people,  a  rude  Ijut  powerful  nation,  north  of  the  Cauca- 
sus, related  to  the  Bulgarians  and  Hungarians,  which 
in  the  8th  century  embraced  Judaism.  After  the  disso- 
lution of  the  empire  of  the  Huns  they  settled  on  the 
borders  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  at  one  time  possessed  a 
realm  near  the  mouth  of  the  Wolga  (by  thera  called 
Itil  or  Atel),  on  the  Caspian  Sea  (after  them  sometimes 
called  Khazar  Sea),  where  the  Kalmucks  (q.  v.)  now 
live.  They  gave  much  uneasiness  to  the  Persians,  es- 
pecially during  the  reign  of  Khosru  I  (q.  v.),  and  in  the 
7th  century,  after  the  downfall  of  the  Sassanians,  the 
Khazars  went  across  the  Caucasus,  invaded  Armenia, 
and  conquered  the  Crimea,  hence  called  at  one  time 
Khnzuri  or  Cho(a)zar{.  The  Byzantine  emperors  trem- 
bled before  the  warlike  skill  of  the  Khazars,  and  paid 
large  tributes  to  keep  them  at  a  respectful  distance 
from  Constantinople ;  the  Bulgarians  and  other  peoples 
■were  their  vassals ;  the  Russians  (Kievians)  appeased 
their  desire  for  conquest  by  an  annual  tribute,  and 
with  the  Arabs  they  -were  waging  constant  warfare. 
But  by  degrees,  as  they  abandoned  their  nomadic  hab- 
its, their  warUke  spirit  decreased,  and  they  largely 
fostered  commercial  intercourse  with  the  outer  world. 
They  exchanged  dried  fish,  the  furs  of  the  north,  and 
slaves  for  the  gold  and  silver  and  the  luxuries  of  south- 
ern climates.  JMerchants  of  all  religions — Jews,  Chris- 
tians, and  jMohammedans — were  freely  admitted,  and 
their  superior  intelligence  over  his  more  barbarous  sub- 
jects Liduced  one  of  their  kings,  Bulan,  to  forsake  their 
coarse,  idolatrous  worship,  greatly  mixed  with  sensu- 
ousness  and  licentiousness,  and  to  embrace  (A.D.  740) 
the  Jewish  religion.  "By  one  account,"  says  Milman 
(Jews,  iii,  138),  "he  was  admonished  by  an  angel;  bj' 
another,  he  decided  in  this  singular  manner  between 
the  claims  of  Christianity,  IMoslemism.  and  Judaism. 
He  examined  the  diflerent  teachers  apart,  and  asked 
the  Christians  if  Judaism  were  not  better  than  IMoham- 
medanism  ;  the  Moliammedan,  whether  it  was  not  bet- 
ter than  Christianity,  lioth  replied  in  tlie  afiirmative; 
on  which  the  monarch  decided  in  favor  of  Judaism." 
According  to  one  statement  secretly,  to  another  openly, 
lie  embraced  the  faith  of  IMoses,  and  induced  learned 
teachers  of  the  law  to  settle  in  his  dominions.  Of  Course, 
at  first,  the  change  of  religious  belief  was  confined  to  the 
royal  household,  and  the  four  thousand  nobles  of  the 
land,  who.  with  Bulan,  embraced  Judaism ;  but  soon  the 
new  religion  spread,  and  ere  long  tlie  majority  of  the 
nation  bowed  in  adoration  to  the  one  and  ever-livintr 


God.  Judaism  actually  became  a  necessary  condition 
to  the  succession  to  the  throne,  but  there  was  the  most 
Uberal  toleration  to  all  other  forms  of  faith.  See  Oba- 
DiAii.  liabbi  Hasdai,  a  learned  Jew,  who  was  in  the 
highest  confidence  with  Abderrahman,  the  caliph  of 
Cordova,  first  receiveil  intelligence  of  this  sovereignty 
possessed  by  his  brethren  through  the  ambassadors  of 
the  Byzantine  emperor.  After  considerable  difficulty, 
Hasdai  succeeded  in  establishing  a  correspondence  with 
Joseph,  the  reigning  king.  The  letter  of  Hasdai  is  ex- 
tant, and  an  answer  of  the  king,  which  does  not  possess 
equal  claims  to  authenticity.  The  Avhole  history  has 
been  wrought  out  into  a  religious  romance,  entitled 
Cosri  [see  Jehuda  ha-Levi],  which  has  involved  the 
question  in  great  obscurity.  Basnage  rejected  the  whole 
as  a  fiction  of  the  Kabbins,  anxious  to  prove  that  "  the 
sceptre  had  not  entirely  departed  from  Israel."  Jost 
inclines  to  the  belief  that  "  there  is  a  groundwork  of 
truth  under  the  veil  of  poetic  embellishment."  The 
latest  writers  upon  the  subject  admit  without  hesita- 
tion, and  Jewish  writers  almost  boast  of  the  kingdom 
of  Khazar.  Comp.  Friihn's  Commentary  of  Ibn-Foszlan 
"Z>e  ChazuTis"  (in  the  Memoires  de  V Academic  Tmperi- 
ale  des  Sciences  de  Peteishoitr-g,  1822,  vol.  viii) ;  D'Hos- 
son,  Peuples  dti  Cciucase;  Dufremery,  in  the  Journal 
A  siatique,  1849,  p.  470  sq. ;  Eeinaud,  A hulfeda,  Introd.  p. 
299;  "\'ivien  de  St.  Martin,  Les  Khazars  (in  the  Mhn.  a 
VAcademie  des  Inscriptions  et  des  BeUes-Lettres,  Paris, 
1851).  The  Khazars  became  extinct  as  a  nation  in  A. 
D.  945,  when  they  were  conquered  by  Swaitoslaw  [duke 
of  Kiev  (q.  v.)],  and  their  name,  otherwise  almost  for- 
gotten, was  preserved  in  the  archives  of  the  jMuscovite. 
See  Schweitzer,  JtidrUssiclie  ViJlker ;  Carmoly,  Itine- 
raires  de  la  Terre  Sainte  (Brux.  1847),  ]x  1-104;  Ilapo- 
port,  Kerem  Chemed,  v,  197  sq. ;  Cassel,  in  Ersch  und 
GrulDcr,  Encyklopadie ;  Griitz,  Geschichfe  d.  Juden,  v,  211 
sq. ;  Rule,  Karaites,  p.  79  sq.     See  Kief.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Khedr,  Al,  is  the  name  which  figures  in  the  Koran 
(chap,  xviii.  Sale's  edition,  p.  244)  as  that  of  a  person 
whom  the  ^Mohammedans  assert  the  Lord  pointed  out 
to  Moses  as  superior  in  wisdom  to  any  other  living  per- 
son, !Moses  included.  The  story  the  Mohammedans  tell 
is  thus  given  by  Sale :  "  JNIoses  once  preaching  to  the 
people,  they  admired  his  knowledge  and  eloquence  so 
much  that  they  asked  him  whether  he  knew  any  man 
in  the  world  who  was  wiser  than  himself,  to  which  he 
answered  in  the  negative ;  whereupon  God,  in  a  revela- 
tion, having  reprehended  him  for  his  vanity  (though 
some  pretend  that  Closes  asked  God  the  question  of  his 
o;vn  accord),  acquainted  him  that  his  servant  Al  Khedr 
was  more  knowing  than  he;  and,  at  ]\Ioses's  request, 
told  him  that  he  might  find  that  person  at  a  certain 
rock  where  the  two  seas  met,  directing  him  to  take  a 
fish  with  him  in  a  basket,  and  that  Avhere  he  missed  the 
fish  that  was  the  place.  Accordingly  Moses  set  out, 
with  his  servant  Joshua,  in  search  of  Al  Khedr."  See 
Sale's  Koran,  p.  244. 

Khlesl,  jMelciiiou,  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Vienna  in  1553  of  Protestant  parents,  was  induced  to 
enter  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  joined  the  Jes- 
uits. After  studying  five  years  under  the  Jesuits  he 
took  the  first  four  orders,  then  continued  his  studies  for 
two  years  at  Ingolstadt,  and  was  ordained  jiriest  in  1579. 
He  became  successively  provost  of  the  cathedral  at  \i- 
enna,  administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Neustadt  in  1588, 
and  bishop  of  Vienna  in  1598.  The  loose  conduct  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  having  greatly  contriliuted 
to  the  rapid  spreading  of  Protestant  doctrines,  Khlesl 
showed  himself  a  zealous  partisan  of  reform  in  this  re- 
spect, while,  on  the  other  hand,  he  did  his  utmost  to 
bring  Protestants  back  into  the  fold  of  Romanism.  Yet 
he  was  still  more  iiK-lined  to  mingle  in  politics  than  in 
Church  affairs.  He  attached  himself  to  the  grand  duke 
Jlatthias,  eldest  brother  of  the  emperor  Rudolph  II, 
whom  the  latter  particularly  disliked  on  account  of  a 
prediction,  according  to  which  this  brother  was  to  de- 
pose him.     The  emperor  contemplated  exiling  Khlesl, 


KHLESTOVSHCHICKI 


VI 


KIILISTIE 


but  the  latter  succeeded  in  organizing  a  conspiracy,  and 
Matthias  was  made  emperor  in  1-iudolph's  place.  The 
Protestant  princes  had  a  part  in  this  revolution,  but 
Khlesl  took  good  care  that  they  should  not  derive  any 
benefit  from  it  to  fiurther  their  religion.  Under  empe- 
ror Matthias  he  became  ])resident  of  the  privy  coun- 
cil in  1611,  and  cardinal  in  IGIG.  Notwithstanding  his 
opposition  to  Protestantism,  wliich  he  rigorously  perse- 
cuted in  1616-18,  he  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Ger- 
man party,  and  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  grand  duke 
Ferdinand  as  heir  to  the  throne.  Ferdinand  revenged 
himself  by  arresting  Khlesl  at  Vienna,  July  20,  1618, 
and  confining  him  first  at  the  castle  of  Ambras,  and 
then  at  the  convent  of  Georgenberg,  in  Tyrol.  In  1622 
a  requisition  from  the  pope  caused  him  to  be  transferred 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  imprisoned  for  seven  months  in 
the  castle  of  St.  Angelo.  After  his  liberation  he  return- 
ed to  Vienna  in  1627,  and  was  restored  to  the  possession 
of  his  property  and  his  offices.  lie  gave  np  politics  to 
attend  exclusively  to  the  management  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  and  died  Sept.  18,  1630.  His  fortune,  amount- 
ing to  over  half  a  million,  he  left  to  the  bishopric  of  Vi- 
enna; 100,000  ilorins  to  Neustadt  and  Vienna  for  a  yearly 
mass  for  his  soul ;  100,000  florins  to  the  convent  of  Hira- 
melspforte,  20,000  to  the  .Jesuits,  and  46,000  to  his  rela- 
tives. Khlesl's  motto  was  "Strong  and  mild:"  strong 
in  action,  mild  in  manner;  the  latter  was  somewhat 
difficult  for  him  to  submit  to,  as  he  was  naturally  hasty. 
He  had  not  received  a  classical  education,  but  was  vre]l 
versed  in  the  Bible,  in  patristics,  and  in  homiletics.  See 
Hammer  -  Purgstall,  Lehensheschreihunfi  des  Cardinals 
Kldc'sl  (Vienna,  1847-51, 4  vols.  8vo) ;  Pierer,  Univ.  Lex. 
s.  V. ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirch.-Lex.  vi,  225. 

Klilestovslichicki.     Sec  Skoptzi. 

Khlistie  (Lashers),  also  called  Danielites,  is  the 
name  of  a  powerful  Russian  sect.  They  call  themselves 
"  people  of  God,"  "  Tribe  of  Israel,"  "  worshippers  of  the 
true  God,"  or  "  Brothers  and  Sisters."  They  originated 
in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Alexis  (A.D. 
1645).  According  to  their  tradition,  there  descended,  in 
the  days  of  Alexis,  upon  Mt.  Gorodin,  in  the  district  of 
Wladimir,  in  great  power,  on  a  wagon  of  fire  surrounded 
by  a  cloud, "  God  the  Father,"  accompanied  by  the  hosts 
of  heaven.  The  latter  returned  again  to  the  other  world, 
but  the  Lord  himself  remained  on  the  earth,  and  mani- 
fested himself  in  the  flesh  in  the  person  of  Daniel  Phil- 
ippon  (or  Philippitch).  This  they  hold  to  have  been 
the  second  manifestation  of  God  the  Father  in  the  flesh, 
and  as  in  his  first  manifestation  Jerusalem  was  enlight- 
ened, so  at  this  time  Russia  was  blessed  with  special  di- 
vine favor;  and,  corresponding  to  Jerusalem,  they  point 
out  as  their  Zion,  or,  as  they  call  it, "  the  higher  region," 
the  province  Kostroma,  in  which  Daniel  Philippon  was 
born.  The  historical  facts  in  the  case,  as  related  bj' 
Dixon  (Free  Jiiissia,  p.  139),  however,  are,  that  Daniel 
was  a  peasant  in  the  province  of  Kostroma,  and,  after 
serving  for  a  time  in  the  Russian  army,  ran  away  from 
his  flag  in  battle,  declared  himself  the  Almighty,  and 
wandered  about  the  empire,  teaching  those  who  would 
listen  to  his  voice  his  doctrine,  inculcated  in  the  follow- 
ing twelve  commandments : 

1.  I  am  the  God  of  whom  the  prophets  spoke.  I  came 
for  the  second  time  into  the  world  to  redeem  the  souls  of 
men.    There  is  no  God  besides  me. 

2.  There  is  no  other  doctrine,  and  no  other  is  to  be 
songht. 

3.  In  what  you  are  taught,  therein  also  remain. 

4.  Keep  the  commandments  of  your  God,  and  become 
fishers  of  men  in  general. 

5.  Drink  no  strong  drinks,  and  do  not  fulfil  the  lust  of 
the  flesh. 

G.  Do  not  get  married,  and  whosoever  is  married  let  him 
live  with  his  wife  as  with  his  sister.  This  is  the  sense  of 
the  Old-Testament  Scriptures.  The  unmarried  should  not 
marry,  and  those  who  are  married  should  separate. 

7.  No  abusive  word  (diabol)  is  to  be  used. 

8.  Not  to  attend  wedding  or  baptism  festivities,  or  drink 
at  parties. 

0.  Not  to  steal ;  and  if  any  one  takes  of  another  the 
smallest  coin,  it  will  have  to  rnelt  on  his  head  at  the  judg- 


ment day  from  the  heat  of  punishment  before  he  can  he 
pardoned. 

10.  These  commandments  are  to  he  kept  secret,  not  to 
he  revealed  even  to  father  or  mother.  The  sufi'eriug  from 
tire  and  the  knout  must  he  endured, because  for'it  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  and  bliss  on  earth  are  obtained. 

11.  Friends  are  lo  visit  friends,  to  give  suppers  of  friend- 
ship, to  exercise  love,  to  keep  these  commands,  and  pniy 
to  God. 

12.  To  believe  in  the  Iloly  Spirit. 

Their  own  tradition  asserts  that  Daniel  himself  did 
not  issue  these  commands,  but  that  a  son  was  born  to 
him  fifteen  years  before  his  appearance  in  this  world,  in 
the  person  of  Ivan  Timofejen,  in  the  village  Blaksakon, 
of  a  woman  one  hmulrcd  years  old.  That  this  Ivan, 
when  thirty-three  years  old,  M'as  summoned  by  Daniel 
to  the  village  Staraja,  and  there  received  his  godhead, 
and  that  thereupon  father  and  son  ascended  into  heav- 
en, and,  after  a  short  tarry,  from  the  same  place  de- 
scended Jesus  the  Christ,  in  the  person  of  Ivan,  who  at 
once  commenced  to  preach,  assisted  by  twelve  disci;  les, 
the  doctrines  embodied  in  the  twelve  commandments 
above  cited,  and  entered  into  the  state  of  holy  matri- 
mony with  a  j'oung  female,  whom  they  call "  the  daugh- 
ter of  God."  To  add  to  the  romance  of  the  storj-,  the 
persecutions  to  which  these  fanatical  religionists  were 
subject  has  given  rise  to  an  imitation  of  the  resurrection 
narrative  of  the  N.-T.  Scriptures.  After  suffering  per- 
secution under  various  forms  and  of  divers  kinds,  Ivan 
was  partly  burned  and  then  crucified  ;  but,  after  remo- 
val from  the  cross,  and  his  burial  on  a  Friday,  he  rose 
again,  and  on  the  Sunday  after  appeared  in  the  midst  of 
his  foOowers.  Again  seized  by  the  authorities,  he  was 
tried  and  crucified  a  second  time,  and  his  skin  taken  off; 
one  of  his  female  followers  standing  by  then  wrapped 
the  body  in  a  sheet,  out  of  which  a  new  skin  formed  it- 
self, and  after  l)urial  he  again  rose  and  commenced 
anew  the  preaching  of  his  doctrines,  and  made  many 
followers.  Thereafter  Ivan  took  up  his  residence  at 
Moscow,  and  openly  taught  his  new  religion.  The  house 
which  he  occupied  was  called  the  "  New  Jerusalem."  He 
died  on  the  day  of  St.  Tichon,  after  living  some  forty- 
five  j'ears  at  IMoscow,  and  ascended  to  heaven  in  pres- 
ence of  his  disciples,  to  join  his  father  and  the  saints. 
Notwithstanding  the  frenzy  of  this  fabulous  narrative, 
the  sect  is  numerous,  and  has  among  its  members  many 
of  the  nobles  of  the  land. 

Like  the  Skoptzi,  the  sect  of  the  Khlistie  also  observe 
some  of  the  practices  of  the  regular  Church,  to  ward  oflf 
suspicion  and  to  shield  themselves  from  persecution. 
From  their  usages  it  is  known  that  before  they  go  to 
communion  in  the  church  they  first  partake  of  it  accord- 
ing to  their  own  form.  They  also  have  a  separate  form  of 
baptism.  They  have  pictures  of  their  god  Daniel  Phil- 
ippon, their  Jesus  Christ,  their  mother  of  God,  saints, 
prophets,  and  teachers  whom  they  adore.  The  orthodox 
church  edifices  they  call  "  ant-nests,"  and  their  priests 
"  idolaters  and  adidterers."  IMarriage  is  considered  au 
impurity,  and  all  entering  this  state  are  lost,  yet  they 
permit  one  of  the  nearest  relatives  of  Daniel  Philippon 
and  Ivan  Timofejen  to  enter  this  state  to  prevent  the 
interruption  of  the  lineage.  The  water  from  a  wcU  in 
the  village  Staraja,  near  Kostroma,  is  in  the  winter  sent 
about  in  the  shape  of  ice,  and  used  by  them  to  bake 
their  communion  bread.  In  the  same  village  lived  in 
1847  a  girl,  Uliana  Visilijewa  by  name,  who  was  adored 
as  the  last  of  the  lineage  by  many  from  all  parts,  among 
them  nobles  and  merchants  of  ]\Ioscow,  and  though  for 
this  reason  the  government  passed  unnoticed  her  sacri- 
legious acts,  she  was  at  last  arrested  and  sent  to  a  mon- 
asterj'. 

Their  mode  of  worship  is  very  much  like  that  of  the 
Skoptzi,  except  that  after  service  they  partake  of  au 
ordinary  meal  in  common,  which  is  prolonged  till  late 
in  the  evening,  and  often  becomes  the  occasion  of  licen- 
tious sins.  This  sect  is  known  in  various  hicalitics  by 
different  names ;  in  some  parts  they  are  called  LJad// 
(useless"),  in  others  Chorashij  (hypocrites,) ,Vertiini  (turn- 
ers),  Kiipidomj  (Cupido,  the  god  of  love).     Great  num- 


KHOLBAII 


KHONDS 


bers  of  these  heretics  have  been  sent  uito  the  Caucasus 
and  Siberia,  whore  many  of  tliem  have  been  forced  to 
enter  the  armies  and  the  mines.  See  Dixon,  Fj-ee  Rus- 
s'm,  chap.  xxiv. 

Kholbah  (Arabic),  a  peculiar  form  of  prayer  used 
iu  ]\[ciliammedan  countries  at  the  commencement  of 
iiiiblic  worship  in  the  great  mosques  on  Friday  at  noon. 
It  was  originally  performed  by  the  Projjhct  himself,  and 
by  his  successors  up  to  A.D.  930,  since  which  time  special 
ministers  are  appointed  for  the  purpose.  The  Kholbah 
is  chiefly  '•  a  confession  of  faith,"  and  a  general  petition 
for  the  success  of  the  Mohammedan  religion.  It  is  di- 
vided into  two  distinct  parts,  between  ■which  a  consid- 
erable pause  is  observed,  which  the  Mussulman  regards 
as  the  most  solemn  and  important  part  of  his  worship. 
The  insertion  of  the  sultan's  name  in  this  prayer  has  al- 
ways been  considered  one  of  his  chief  prerogatives.  See 
Brande  and  Cox,  Did.  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,  ii, 
28-2. 

Khonds.  There  are  throughout  India  manifest 
traces  of  a  rude  primitive  stock  of  people  who  occupied 
the  country  anterior  to  the  Aryo-Scythian  races,  and 
there  are  still  great  divisions  of  the  people  bearing  na- 
tional characteristics  which  distinguish  them  from  the 
Hindus.  The  earliest  knowledge  we  have  of  these  peo- 
])le  is  through  the  great  epic  poems  of  the  Hindus,  the 
Mahuhharata  and  the  Ramayana,  which  describe  the 
wars  of  the  Aryans,  as  the  invading  race,  with  the  ab- 
original inhabitants  of  these  impenetrable  forests.  Suc- 
cessive wars  of  invaders,  however,  subdued,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  some  of  these,  and  modified  their  views 
and  usages ;  but  these,  in  tiun,  affected  the  religion  and 
manners  of  their  conquerors. 

Dicisions. — Some  of  these  races  have  attached  them- 
selves to  Hindu  society,  and  serve  in  a  condition  of 
degradation  as  Chandals  or  Mlechas,  i.  e.  outcasts  or 
pariahs.  Thej'  often  hold  offices  of  trust  and  responsi- 
bility in  village  communities,  but,  according  to  Hindu 
Lxw,  they  should  live  outside  of  villages,  and  own  no 
j)roperty  but  dogs  and  asses.  Their  customs  and  insti- 
tutions are,  however,  everywhere  tUfferent  from  those 
of  the  Hindus. 

There  are  others  of  tliese  aboriginal  tribes  who  have 
not  mingled  with  Hinduism  at  all,  or  only  very  partial- 
Iv.  Among  these  are  the  A'ti^*-  of  Bengal  and  Eastern 
Nagpoor,  the  Khonds  of  Central  India,  the  Bheels  of  the 
Yindhya  Mountains,  the  Khaudesh  IMalwah,  etc.,  of  Cen- 
tral India,  and  others  in  the  south  amid  the  forests  of 
the  Neilgherry  Hills,  in  Guzerat,  and  other  places  (see 
Edinh.  Review,  April,  18(U).  These  preserve  their  own 
habits,  even  where  Hinduism  most  presses  them.  They 
have  no  castes,  their  widows  are  allowed  to  remarry, 
they  have  no  objection  to  any  kind  of  flesh,  and  other- 
wise differ  greatly  from  the  Aryan  peoples. 

The  least  raised  above  their  primitive  condition  are 
the  Khonds  of  Orissa,  who  '•  occupy  a  district  about  two 
hundred  miles  long  by  one  himdred  and  seventy  broad, 
in  liampur,  in  the  district  of  Gunjam"  (Brace,  p.  1-1:2),  a 
tract  of  land  back  from  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
where  it  trends  eastward  to  Calcutta  and  southward  to 
Madras,  and  embracing  the  plateaux  of  the  Vindliya 
and  other  mountains. 

Name. — They  term  themselves  Knee,  Kui,  Koinga, 
Kivinr/u,  but  are  known  to  Europeans  by  their  Hindu 
name  of  Khorul  or  Kond.  Their  language  is  affiliated 
with  the  Uriya  (Ooriya),  but  the  dialects  are  many,  and 
often  "a  Khond  of  one  district  has  been  found  unable 
to  hold  communication  with  one  of  a  neighboring  tribe." 
The  speech  has  "  a  peculiar  pectoral  enunciation."  Eth- 
nologicaUy,  all  these  tribes  are  Turanian  or  jMongolian. 

Domestic  Relations. — jMarriage  may  only  take  jilace 
without  the  tribe,  but  never  with  strangers,  the  tribes 
intermarrying.  Boys  often  op- twelve  year^  of  age  are 
married  to  girls  of  liftcen  or  sixteen,  the  arrangements 
being  always  made  by  the  parents.  The  father  of  the 
bridegroom  generally  pays  twenty  or  thirty  '"  hves"  of 
cattle  to  the  bride's  father.     The  marriage  rite  itself  is 


very  simple.  The  father  of  the  bridegroom,  with  his 
family  and  friends,  bears  «  quantity  of  rice  and  liquor  in 
procession  to  the  house  of  the  parents  of  the  girl.  The 
priest  takes  it,  and  dashes  the  bowl  down,  and  pours 
out  a  libation  to  the  gods.  The  parents  of  the  parties 
join  hands,  and  declare  the  contract  completed.  An  en- 
tertainment follows,  with  dancing  and  song.  Late  at 
night  the  married  pair  are  carried  out  on  the  shoulders 
of  their  respective  uncles,  when,  the  burdens  being  sud- 
denly exchanged,  the  boy's  uncle  disappears,  and  the 
company  assembled  divides  into  two  parties,  who  go 
through  a  mock  conflict ;  and  thus  the  semblance  of  a 
forcible  abduction,  remains  or  indications  of  which  are 
found  so  frequently  in  widely  separated  quarters,  are 
preserved  among  the  Khonds  of  Orissa  (see  M'Lennan's 
Primitive  Marriage).  The  marriage  contract  is,  how- 
ever, loosely  held.  If  chikllcss,  the  wife  may  return  to 
her  father  at  any  time,  or,  in  any  event,  within  six 
months  of  the  marriage  if  the  money  given  at  her  mar- 
riage be  restored  to  her  father.  She  cannot  be  forcibly 
retained,  however,  even  if  the  money  be  not  returned. 
If  her  withdrawal  be  voluntary  she  cannot  contract  an- 
other matrimonial  alliance.  A  man  maj'  ally  himself 
with  another  woman  than  his  wife,  with  the  wife's  con- 
sent. Concubinage  is  not  disgraceful,  fathers  of  re- 
spectable families  allowing  their  daughters  to  contract 
such  marriages.  An  unmarried  woman  may  become  a 
mother  without  disgrace. 

Births  arc  celebrated  on  the  seventh  day  by  a  feast 
given  to  the  priests  and  villagers.  The  name  is  deter- 
mined by  a  peculiar  rite,  in  \vhich  grains  of  rice  are 
dropped  into  a  cup  of  water. 

Death. — After  the  death  of  a  private  person  his  body 
is  burned,  without  any  ceremony  other  than  a  drinking 
feast.  If,  however,  a  chief  die,  "  the  heads  of  society" 
are  assembled  from  every  quarter  by  the  beating  of 
gongs  and  drums ;  the  body  is  placed  on  the  funeral  pile; 
a  bag  of  grain  is  laid  on  the  ground,  a  staff  being  plant- 
ed in  it ;  and  all  the  personal  effects  of  the  deceased,  his 
clothes,  arms,  and  eating  and  drinking  vessels,  being 
first  placed  by  the  flag,  are  afterwards  distributed,  when 
the  pile  is  fired,  and  the  company  dance  round  the  flag- 
staff. 

Social  Organization  and  Government. — The  family  is 
the  unit  of  organization  and  the  government  patriar- 
chal, all  the  members  of  the  family  living  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  head,  the  eldest  son  succeeding  to  his  au- 
thority. All  property  belongs  to  the  father,  the  married 
sons  having  separate  houses  assigned  them,  except  the 
youngest,  who  ahvays  remains  with  the  father.  This 
father,  or  patriarch,  is  called  .1  hbaya. 

A  number  of  families  constitute  a  village,  which  gen- 
erally numbers  forty  or  fiftv  houses,  over  whom  there  is 
a  village  abbaya  or  patriarch.  A  number  of  villages 
are  organized  into  a  district,  superintended  by  a  district 
abbaya,  who,  however,  must  be  lineally  descended  from 
the  head  of  the  colony.  A  number  of  districts  consti- 
tute a  tribe,  with  a  tribal  abbaya,  and  a  number  of  tribes 
constitute  a  federal  group,  with  a  federal  abbaya  or 
chief.  This  chieftainship  is  immemoriaUy  hcreditarj'' 
in  particular  families,  but  is  elective  as  to  persons.  The 
head,  however,  is  only  the  first  among  equals,  and  his 
rule  is  without  external  jiomp,  or  castle,  or  fort.  The 
chief  receives  no  tribute,  but  he  takes  part  in  all  impor- 
tant discussions,  whether  social  or  religious,  and  leads 
his  people  in  war.  His  influence  is  very  great.  Orig- 
inally and  theoretically,  the  abbaya  is  the  priest.  This 
is  not  so  no^v  in  all  cases,  yet  he  is  religiously  venerated. 
The  family  and  the  religious  principles  are  tbus  com- 
bined. The  theory  of  government,  as  above  sketched, 
is  not,  however,  often  completely  realized,  there  being 
every  possible  deviation  from  it,  and  the  tribes  being 
raucii  intermingled.  These  tribes  bear  names  resem- 
bling those  adopted  by  the  North  American  Indians,  e. 
g.  "  Spotted  Deer,"  "  Bear,"  "  Owl,"  etc. 

Personal  and  Social  Characteristics. — These  people, 
like  almost  all  known  rude  races,  are  "  given  to  hospi' 


KHONDS 


73 


KHONDS 


tality."  For  the  safety  of  a  guest  life  and  honor  are  | 
pledged.  He  is  "  before  a  child."  A  murderer  even 
may  not  be  hurt  in  the  house  of  his  enemy ;  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  he  may  be  even  starved  in  it.  The  Khond  phys- 
iognomy is  clearly  Turanian.  The  color  varies  from 
that  of  hght  bamboo  to  a  deep  copper;  the  forehead  is 
full,  the  cheek-bones  high,  the  nose  broad  at  the  point, 
the  lips  fidl,  but  not  thick,  and  the  mouth  large.  The 
Khonds  are  of  great  bodily  strength  and  symmetry,  well 
informed  on  common  subjects,  of  quick  comprehension, 
and  otherwise  show  considerable  intellectual  capability. 
Their  mode  of  salutation  is  with  the  hand  raised  over 
the  head.  Their  natural  moral  qualities  are  of  mixed 
cliaracter.  They  are  personally  courageous  and  reso- 
lute. They  have  so  great  a  love  of  ]iersonal  liberty  that 
it  is  affirmed  they  have  been  known  to  tear  out  their 
tongues  by  the  roots  that  they, might  perish  rather  than 
endure  confinement.  They  are  not  very  intensely  at- 
tached to  their  tribal  institutions,  but  have  great  devo- 
tion to  the  persons  of  their  patriarchal  chiefs.  They 
have,  however,  a  great  spirit  of  revenge,  and  are  given 
to  seasons  of  periodical  intoxication.  They  drink  a 
liquor  made  of  the  Mow  flower,  this  tree  being  found 
near  every  hut  and  in  the  jungles.  They  are  a  "na- 
tion of  drunkards,"  and  will  drink  any  intoxicating  bev- 
erage, the  stronger  the  better. 

Laws. — They  have  no  code  by  which  they  are  gov- 
erned, but  follow  custom  and  usage.  The  right  of  prop- 
erty is  recognised.  Murder  is  left  to  private  revenge 
or  retaliation.  In  case  of  matrimonial  unfaithfulness, 
the  seducer  maj'  be  put  to  death  if  the  husband  choose, 
or  he  may  accept  the  entire  property  of  the  criminal  in 
lieu  of  his  right  to  put  him  to  death.  Property  stolen 
must  be  returned,  or  its  equivalent  given.  There  are 
seven  judicial  tests;  common  oaths  are  administered  on 
the  skin  of  a  tiger  or  lizard.  Ordeals  of  boiling  water 
and  oil  are  likewise  resorted  to. 

Arts  and  Marmf act  tars. — The  Khonds  manufacture 
axes,  bows  and  arrows,  a  species  of  ]ilough,  and  other 
implements ;  they  distil  liquor,  extract  oil,  work  in  clay 
and  metals,  and  dye  their  simple  garments.  Their 
houses  are  formed  of  strong  boards,  plastered  inside. 

A  rms  and  Agricidture. — They  use  the  sling,  bow  and 
arrows,  and  a  broad  battle-axe,  and  adorn  themselves 
for  battle  as  for  a  feast.  They  raise  rice,  oils,  millet, 
pulse,  fruits,  tobacco,  turmeric,  mustard,  etc.  No  money 
other  than  "  cowries"  (shells)  was  until  recently  known, 
all  property  being  estimated  in  "  lives,"  as  of  bullocks, 
buffaloes,  goats,  fowls,  etc.  Women  share  in  the  work 
of  harvest  and  sowing. 

Diseases  and  Remedies.  —  For  external  wounds  they 
resort  to  a  poultice  of  warm  mud,  made  of  the  earth  of 
the  ant-hills.  They  also  cauterize  with  a  hot  sickle 
over  a  wet  cloth.  For  internal  ailments  they  have  no 
medicines.  They  consider  all  diseases  to  be  supernatu- 
ral, and  the  priest,  being  the  physician,  must  discover 
the  deity  that  is  displeased.  He  divides  rice  into  small 
heaps,  ^\•hich  he  dedicates  to  sundry  gods ;  then  he  bal- 
ances a  sickle  with  a  thread,  jjuts  a  few  grains  upon 
each  cud  of  it,  and  calls  upon  the  names  of  the  gods, 
who  answer  by  agitating  the  sickle,  whereupon  the 
grains  are  counted,  and  if  the  number  of  them  be  odd 
he  is  offended.  The  priest  becomes  "  fidl  of  the  god," 
shakes  his  head  frantically,  utters  wild  and  incoherent 
sentences,  etc.  Deceased  ancestors  are  invoked  in  the 
same  way,  when  offerings  of  fowls,  rice,  and  liquor  are 
made,  which  subsequently  become  the  priest's  portion. 

Marjical  ami  Swpersiitious  Usarjes.  —  Spells,  charms, 
incantations,  etc.,  are  substituted  for  medicines;  wiz- 
ards, witches,  ghosts,  sorcerers,  augurs,  astrologers,  con- 
jurors, and  all  like  means  are  in  constant  use.  Death 
is  not  a  necessity,  not  the  appointed  lot  of  man;  it  is  a 
special  penalty  of  the  gods,  who  destroy  through  war, 
or  assume  the  shapes  of  wild  beasts  to  destroy  mankind. 
Magicians  may  take  avvay  life. 

Mythnlngij. —  (I.)  The  catalogue  of  gods  worshipped 
among  the  Khonds  is  extensive.     (1.)  At  the  head  of 


the  pantheon  is  the  Earth-Goddess,  who,  with  the  sun, 
receives  the  principal  worship.  The  Earth-Goddess  is 
the  superior  power,  and  presides  over  the  productive 
energies  of  nature.  She  is  malevolent,  and  is  invoked 
in  war.  Slie  controls  the  seasons,  and  sends  the  period- 
ical rains.  To  her  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  There 
are,  besides  her,  (2.)  a  (iod  of  Limits,  who  fixes  bounda- 
ries, and  whose  altar  is  on  the  highways.  (3.)  The  sun 
and  moon  ;  ceremonially  worshipped.  (4.)  The  God  of 
Arms,  to  whom  a  grove  is  devoted.  (5.)  The  God  of 
Hunting,  worshipped  by  parties  who  hunt  in  companies 
of  thirty  or  forty,  and  siuround  their  game,  (G.)  The 
God  of  Births,  worshipped  in  case  of  barrenness.  (7.) 
The  God  of  Small-pox,  who  ''sows"  that  disease  as  men 
do  the  earth  with  seeds.  (8.)  The  Hill-god,  without 
formal  worship.  ('J.)  The  Forest-god,  to  whom  birds, 
hogs,  and  sheep  are  offered.  (10.)  The  God  of  liain. 
(li.)  Of  Fountains.  (12.)  Of  Elvers.  (13.)  Oi'  Tanks ; 
and  (1-i.)  the  village  gods,  who  are  the  guardians  of  lo- 
calities, and  of  domestic  and  familiar  worship. 

(II.)  Besides  the  above  principal  gods  there  are  infe- 
rior local  or  partially  ackno-wledged  gods,  worshipjied 
under  sj'mbols  of  rude  stone  smeared  with  turmeric,  etc. 
The  great  conservative  principle  is  worshipped. 

Priesthood.— The  abbayas  are  the  priests,  but  tliis  of- 
fice may  be  assumed  by  others.  Priests  eat  only  with 
priests ;  take  part  in  marriages,  elections,  political  coim- 
cils,  etc.  They  are  of  about  the  same  level  of  culture 
as  those  of  other  tribes  among  Turanian  races. 

Religious  Rites  and  iSac?-iJices. — Nothing  was  definite- 
ly known  of  the  tribes  of  Gumsur  until  the  British  army 
was  brought  into  colUsion  with  them  in  1836,  subse- 
quently to  which  the  custom  of  human  sacrifices  was 
discovered  to  exist  among  them.  The  British  govern- 
ment, after  a  long  series  of  efforts,  succeeded  in  abolish- 
ing it.  ]\Iajor  Campbell  says,  "  The  Khonds  generally 
propitiated  their  deity  (the  Earth-Goddess)  with  human 
offerings  (p.  38,  30).  This  had  been  handed  down 
through  successive  generations,  and  was  regarded  as  a 
national  duty.  In  Giimsur  it  is  offered  mider  the  effigy 
of  a  bird,  in  other  locrlitics  as  an  elephant  (p.  51).  The 
victim,  called  Ahriuh,  must  be  purchased,  may  be  of 
any  age,  sex,  or  caste,  adidts  being  best,  and  the  more 
costly  the  more  acceptable.  These  are  purchased  from 
relations  in  time  of  famine  or  poverty,  or  are  stolen 
from  other  regions  hy  professed  kidnappers  of  the  Panoo 
caste  (p.  52).  In  some  cases  Jleriah  women  -were  al- 
lowed to  live  until  they  had  borne  children  to  Khond 
fathers,  the  children  being  reared  for  sacrifice.  .  .  .  The 
sacrifice,  to  be  efficacious,  must  be  public  (p.  53).  In 
Giimsur  it  was  offered  annuallj'.  The  priest  officiates. 
For  a  month  previous  there  is  much  feasting,  dancing, 
intoxication,  etc.  One  day  before,  the  victim  is  stupe- 
fied with  toddy,  and  bound,  sitting,  at  the  bottom  of  a 
post  bearing  an  effigy.  The  crowd  dance,  and  say,  'O 
god,  we  offer  this  sacrifice  to  you ;  give  us  good  crops, 
seasons,  and  health.'  To  the  victim  they  say,  'AVe 
bought  you  with  a  price,  and  did  not  seize  you ;  now 
we  sacrifice  you  according  to  our  custom,  and  no  sin 
rests  with  us'  (p.  55).  Various  other  ceremonies  are 
performed,  after  which  they  return  to  the  post  near  the 
village  idol,  always  represented  by  three  stones,  a  hog 
is  sacrificed,  the  blood  tlows  into  a  pit,  the  human  vic- 
tim, having  been  intoxicated,  is  thrown  in  and  suffoca- 
ted in  the  bloody  mire.  Tlie  priest  cuts  a  piece  of  the 
flesh  and  buries  it ;  others  do  likewise,  carrying  the 
flesh  to  their  own  villages.  In  some  cases  the  flesh  is 
cut  wliile  the  victim  is  yet  alive,  and  buried  as  a  sacred 
and  supernatural  manure." 

Cognate  Tribes.  —  These  and  other  aboriginal  races 
have  received  so  much  attention  from  ethnographers, 
philologers,  and  other  scientific  men  that  furtlicr  details 
are  not  needed  here.  The  prominence  given  to  these 
aboriginal  races  of  late  years  might  justify  full  articles 
on  the  kindred  tribes,  but,  as  they  are  of  substantially 
of  the  same  level,  we  have  chosen  to  make  a  tolerably 
full  sketch  of  the  Khonds,  as  typical  of  the  aboriginal 


KHORSABAD 


KIBZAIM 


Turanian  element  in  Hindustan.  The  following  copious 
literature  will  enable  persons  to  make  a  pretty  exhaus- 
tive study  of  what  is  known  concerning  them. 

Literature. — Edinhurf/h  Review,  A\\ri\,  18G4;  Calcutta 
Review,  \o\.  V,  vi,  x;  Calcutta  Christian  Observer,  April, 
Julv.  1837;  Transactions  of  Ethnolof/ical  Society,  i,  15; 
vi,  24-27;  also  for  1865,  p.  81 ;  B.  H.  Hodgson,  Aborig- 
ines of  the  Eastei-n  Frontier;  Chepawj  and  Busunda 
Tribes;  Aborigines  of  Southern  India  (Calcutta,  1849); 
Aborigines  of  India  (Calcutta,  1847);  M'Pherson's  Re- 
jmrts  upon  the  Khoiuls  of  the  Districts  ofGunjam  ami 
Cubhack  (Calcutta,  1842) ;  A  personal  Narrative  of  thir- 
teen Years  among  the  wild  Tribes  of  Khondistan  for  the 
Suppression  of  human  Sacrifices,  by  jMajor  Gen.  John 
Campbell,  C.  B.  (Loud.  18G4) );  Sonthalia  aiul  the  Son- 
thnls,  by  E.  G.  Man  (Loud.  1868) ;  IMetz,  The  Tribes  of 
the  Neilgherries ;  Lewin,  Hill  Tracts  of  Chittagong ; 
ll&rl'inass;  Aborigines  of  the  Neilgherries  (London,  1832) ; 
The  People  of  India,  by  J.  F.Watson  and  J.  W.  Kaye, 
vol.  i;  History  of  the  Suppression  of  Infanticide,  etc.,  by 
John  Wilson,  D.D.,  F.R.S.  (Bombaj^  and  London,  1855) ; 
Tylor,  Primitive  Culture,  vol.  i  and  ii  (London,  1871); 
Lubbock,  Origin  of  Civilization,  etc.  (Lond.  1871) ;  Brace, 
Races  of  the  Old  World  (New  York,  1863)  ;  Latham, 
Elements  of  Comparative  Philology  (Lond.  1862);  Ander- 
son, Foreign  Missions  (New  York,  1869);  M'Lennan, 
Primitive  Marriage;  Hunter,  Rural  Bengal.    (J.  T.  G.) 

Khorsabad.     See  Nixeveit. 

Khosru,  or  Khusni  I,  surnamed  Nushirvan  {the 
nohle  soul),  and  known  in  Byzantine  history  as  Chosroes 
I,  the  greatest  monarch  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty,  a  son 
of  Kobad,  king  of  Persia,  mounted  the  throne  in  A.D.  531. 
He  is  noted  in  ecclesiastical  history  for  his  contests  with 
Justinian  (q.  v.),  and  gave  shelter  to  great  numbers  of 
those  whom  Justinian,  the  B}-zantine  emperor,  perse- 
cuted for  their  religious  opinions.  He  also  waged  war 
with  Justin  II  (570),  and  Justinian,  grand-nephew  of 
the  emperor  of  that  name.  Khosru,  however,  did  not 
live  to  see  the  end  of  the  contest,  as  he  died  in  579.  His 
government,  though  very  despotic,  and  occasionally  op- 
pressive, was  yet  marked  by  a  firmness  and  energy  rare- 
ly seen  among  the  Orientals.  It  was  during  the  reign 
of  this  prince  that  the  fanatical  followers  of  Mazdak, 
■who  had  obtained  numerous  proselytes  to  the  inviting 
doctrine  of  a  communism  of  goods  and  women,  were  ban- 
islicd  from  the  lands  of  the  Sassanidre.  Persia,  during 
his  reign,  stretched  from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indus,  and 
from  the  Arabian  Sea  far  into  Central  Asia.  "  The  vir- 
tues, and  more- particularly  the  justice  of  this  monarch, 
form  to  the  present  day  a  favorite  topic  of  Eastern 
panegyric,  and  the  glories  and  happiness  of  his  reign 
are. frequently  extoUed  by  poets  as  the  golden  age  of 
the  Persian  sovereignty.  His  reign  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  the  historj'  of  science  and  literature :  he  found- 
ed colleges  and  libraries  in  the  principal  towns  of  his 
dominions,  and  encouraged  the  translation  of  the  most 
celebrated  Greek  and  Sanscrit  works  into  the  Persian 
language.  A  physician  at  his  court,  of  the  name  of 
Barznyeh,  is  said  to  have  brought  into  Persia  a  Pehlvi 
translation  of  tliose  cebbrated  fables  which  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Bldpai  or  Pilpay,  and  it  was  from 
this  translation  of  tlie  Indian  tales  that  these  fables 
found  their  Avay  to  nearly  every  other  nation  of  West- 
ern Asia  and  Europe.  The  conquests  of  Khosru  were 
great  and  numerous;  his  empire  extended  from  the 
shores  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  Indus;  and  the  monarchs 
of  India,  China,  and  Thibet  are  represented  by  Oriental 
historians  as  sending  aml)assadors  to  his  court  with  val- 
uable presents  to  solicit  his  friendship  and  alliance" 
(English  Cyclopwdia').  Sec  Ewald,  Zcilschrift  fiir  die 
Kuiide  des  Morgenlandcs,  i,  185  sq. ;  ilalcolm.  History  of 
Persia  (see  Index).     Sec  Persia. 

Khosru  II,  grandson  of  the  preceding,  surnamed 
Pu^,^•I/.  (the  Generous),  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  590. 
In  the  first  years  of  the  7th  century  he  opened  war  upon 
the  Romans,  and  for  seventeen  years  intlicted  upon  the 


Byzantine  Empire  a  series  of  disasters  the  like  of  which 
they  had  never  before  experienced.  Syria  was  con- 
quered in  611, 1'alestine  in  614,  Egj^irt  and  Asia  Minor 
in  616,  and  the  last  bulwark  of  tlie  capital,  Chalcedon, 
fell  soon  after.  '•  The  Roman  Empire  was  on  the  Itrink 
of  ruin  ;  the  capture  of  Alexandria  had  deprived  the  in- 
habitants of  Constantinople  of  their  usual  supply  of  corn, 
the  northern  barbarians  ravaged  the  European  prov- 
inces, while  another  powerful  Persian  army,  already  ad- 
vanced as  far  as  the  Bosporus,  was  making  prepara- 
tions for  the  siege  of  the  imperial  city.  Peace  was  ear- 
nestly solicited  bj'  Heraclius,  who  had  succeeded  Phocas 
in  610,  but  without  success.  Khosru,  however,  did  not 
cross  the  Bosporus,  and  at  length,  in  621,  he  dictated 
the  terms  of  an  ignominious  peace  to  the  emperor.  But 
Heraclius,  who  had  hitherto  made  very  few  efforts  for 
the  defence  of  his  dominions,  rejected  these  terms,  and 
in  a  series  of  brilliant  campaigns  (A.D.  622-627)  recov- 
ered all  the  provinces  lie  had  lost,  repeatedly  defeated 
the  Persian  monarch,  and  advanced  in  his  victorious  ca- 
reer as  far  as  the  Tigris.  Khosru  was  murdered  in  the 
spring  of  the  following  year,  028,  by  his  son  Siroes"  (Eng- 
lish Cyclopwdia).     See  Persia. 

Khozars.     See  Kiiazars. 

Kibby,  Epaphras,  a  IMethodist  minister,  was  born 
in  Somers,  Connecticut,  in  1777,  In  1793  he  joined  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  at  New  London,  and  imme- 
diately became  active  in  religious  duties,  and  in  1798 
entered  the  ministrj-.  Through  his  labors  jMethodism 
was  introduced  into  Bath  and  Hallowell,  Elaine.  Jlel- 
ville  B.  Cox,  the  first  foreign  missionary  of  the  !M.  E. 
Church,  was  converted  imder  his  preaching  in  the  latter 
place.  He  also  formed  the  first  Methodist  society  in 
New  Bedford.  He  was  a  local  preacher  eleven  years ; 
returned  superannuated  in  1841,  in  which  relation  he 
continued  till  his  death,  Sept.  8, 18G4.  Kibby's  habits 
of  study  were  careful  and  close,  as  shown  in  his  accu- 
rately-trained reasoning  powers,  as  well  as  his  elegant 
and  forcible  diction.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  choice 
literature  and  poetrj-,  and  was  himself  a  poet  of  taste 
and  considerable  ability.  His  pulpit  talents  were  of  a 
superior  order,  his  judgment  cool  and  clear,  his  piety 
deep  and  uniform.  See  Coif .  Minutes,  1865,  p.  60;  Ste- 
vens, History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  iv,  35, 
72,73,481.    (J.L.S.) 

Kib'roth-hatta'avah  (Heb.  Kibroth'-hat-Taii- 
vah',  iT'XFltl  JTnSiT,  graves  of  the  longing ;  Sept.  Mr/;- 
/tarn  -j/c  i-i'bviuaQ,  Vulg.  Sepulchra  concujriscentice), 
the  fifteenth  station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  of  Si- 
nai, between  Taberah  and  Ilazeroth,  so  called  from  be- 
ing the  burial-place  of  the  midtltudes  that  died  from 
gorging  themselves  with  the  preternatural  supply  of 
tiuail-flcsh  (Numb,  xi,  34,  35;  xxxiii,  16,  17;  Dent,  ix, 
22;  comp.  Psa.  Ixxviii,  30,  31 ;  1  Cor.  x,  6).  From  the 
omission  of  Taberah  in  the  list  at  Numb,  xxxiii,  16,  and 
the  absence  of  any  statement  of  removal  in  Numb,  xi, 
it  lias  been  by  some  inferred  that  Taberah  and  Kibroth- 
hattaavah  were  but  different  names  for  the  same  jjlace ; 
but  in  Dent,  ix,  22  they  are  clearlj-  distinguished,  al- 
though they  apparently  lay  not  far  apart.  Kibroth- 
hattaa^'ah  was  probably  situated  in  wady  Murrah,  not 
far  N.E.  from  Sinai  (Robinson,  Res.  i,  221  sq.), correspond- 
ing in  position  to-  the  Eru-eis  el-Eberig,  where  Palmer 
has  found  traces  of  an  ancient  encampment  {iJcsert  of 
the  Exodus,  p.  212  sq.).  Schwarz's  identification  {Pahs- 
tine,  p.  213)  v,-ith  Ain  esh-Shehabeh,  in  the  interior  of  the 
desert  (Robinson,  i,  264),  is  far  astray.     See  Exoue. 

Kibza'im  [mauy  Kib'zalm]  {Hchicvf  Kibtsa'yim, 
D'^S^iT,  two  heaps;  Sept.  Ka/Sffai'/i).  a  Levitical  city 
of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  assigned  to  the  Kohathitcs,  and 
appointed  a  city  of  refuge  (.losh.  xxi,  22,  where  it  is 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Gezer  and  Bcth-horon,  as 
if  lying  on  the  edge  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim) ;  oth- 
erwise called  Jokmeasi  (1  Chron.  vi,  68),  which,  how- 
ever, is  elsewhere  (Josh,  xxi,  34)  assigned  to  the  IMe- 
rarites  m  Zebulon,  probably  by  a  slight  diversity  arising 


KID 


15 


KIDRON 


from  its  contiguity  to  the  Kishon,  which  formed  the 
bouiulary-liuc  between  those  tribes  (Josh,  xix,  11). 

Kid  (properly  ""IJ,  fjedi',  so  called  from  crop2nnr/  the 
herbage;  more  fully,  'C'j}  I'lJ,  "kid  of  the  goats;" 
fem.  'Pr'''}'^,  gediyah' ,  a  sAe-^*^W, Cant,  i,  8 ;  also  t>~")3,  son 
of  a  goat,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  7,  orig. ;  sometimes  for  TS,  a 
goat,  itself,  Numb,  xv,  11 ;  1  Kings  xx,  27 ;  likewise 
"l''"'il3,  sai>,/(«t>^,i.e.agoat,Gen.xxxv,31;  Lev.iv,23; 
ix,  3 ;  xvi,  5 ;  xxiii,  19,  etc. ;  fem.  t^~\'>"'C,  se'ira/i.  Lev. 
iv,  28;  V,  6;  Greek  tpi(poc,  Luke  xv,  29;  "goat,"  Matt. 
XXV,  32,  ver.  33  toKpiov,  diminutive),  the  young  of  the 
goat,  reckoned  a  great  delicacy  among  the  ancients; 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  served  lor  food  in  preference 
to  the  lamb  (Gen.  xxvii,  9;  xxxviii,  17;  Judg.  vi,  19; 
xiv,  (J ;  1  Sam.  xvi,  20).  It  still  continues  to  be  a  choice 
dish  among  the  Arabs.  By  the  Mosaic  law,  the  Hebrews 
were  forbidden  to  dress  a  kid  in  the  milk  of  its  dam ; 
and  this  remarkable  prohibition  is  repeated  three  several 
times  (Exod.  xxiii,  19 ;  xxxiv,  2G  ;  Deut.  xiv,  21)_.  This 
law  has  been  variously  understood.  However,  it  is  gen- 
erally supposed  that  it  was  intended  to  guard  the  He- 
brews against  some  idolatrous  or  superstitious  Y'ractice 
of  the  neighboring  heathen  nations.  The  practice  is 
quite  common  with  modern  Orientals  (Thomson,  Land 
and  Book,  i,  135).  Kids  were  also  among  the  sacrificial 
offerings  (Exod.  xii,  3,  margin;  Lev.  iv,  23-2G;  Numb, 
vii,  10-87).     See  Goat. 

Kidd,  Benjamin,  a  noted  (Quaker  minister,  was  born 
in  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1092 ;  entered  the  minis- 
tr)'  at  the  age  of  twenty-one,  emigrated  to  this  coun- 
try about  1722,  and  labored  here  successfully  for  some 
time.  He  afterwards  returned,  ho\vever,  to  lingland, 
and  settled  at  Banbury,  Oxfordshire,  "  where  his  exem- 
plary conduct  gained  him  the  esteem  of  all  ranks  and 
persuasions."  He  died  March  21,  1751.  Kidd  served 
his  generation  in  "  turning  many  from  darkness  to  light, 
and  from  the  paths  of  disobedience  to  tlie  ^visdom  of  the 
just." — Janney,  Hist,  of  the  Friends,  iii,  287. 

Kiddah.     See  Cassia. 

Kiddei',  Richard,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  prelate 
and  learned  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Brighthelmstone,  in 
Sussex.  He  studied  at  Emanuel  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1055.  He  afterwards 
became  vicar  of  Stanground,  Huntingdonshire,  but  was 
ejected  in  1G62  for  nonconformitj-.  He,  however,  con- 
formed some  time  after,  and  became  rector  of  llaiuc,  Es- 
sex, in  1004,  and  successively  rector  of  St.  IMartin's  Out- 
wick,  London,  in  1074;  prebendary  of  Norwich  in  1081; 
dean  of  Peterborough  in  1089 ;  and  finally  bishop  of 
Bath  and  Wells  in  1091.  He  died  in  1703.  He  was 
considered  one  of  the  best  divines  of  his  time,  and  a 
clear  and  elegant  writer.  His  principal  works  are  Dem- 
onstration of  the  Messias,  etc.  (London,  1084, 1099, 1700, 
3  vols.;  another  edit.  1720, fol.,  and  often  since): — The 
Judgment  ofpi-ivate  Discretion  in  Matters  of  Religion  de- 
fended— a  sermon  on  1  Thess.  v,  21  (Lond.  1087, 4to)  : — 
A  Sermon iireached  before  the  King  and  Queen  at  White- 
k(d/,Xor.  5, 1092  [on  2  Sam.  xxiv,  14]  (Lond.  1093, 4to)  : 
— Sermon,  Zech.  vii,  5,  of  Fasting  (Lond.  1094, 4to) : — A 
Commentary  on  the  Five  Boohs  of  Moses,  etc.  (London, 
1694, 2  vols.  8vo)  : — Bellarmine  examined  (Gibson's  Pre- 
servative, iv,  55) : — On  Repentance  (Tracts  of  Angl.  Fa- 
thers, ii,  300). — Darling,  Kncyclop.  Bihliograph.  vol.  ii,  s. 
V. ;  Birch,  Life  of  Tillotson;  Hook,  Kccles.  Biog.  s.  v. 

Kidderminster.     See  Kydehminstek. 

Kiddushim.     See  Talmud. 

Kidney  (only  in  plur.  riT^bs,  helayoth',  prob.  from 
the  idea  of  its  being  the  seat  of  longing'),  the  leaf-fat 
around  which  was  specially  to  be  a  burnt-offering,  sig- 
nificant of  its  being  the  richest  and  most  central  jiart  of 
the  victim  (Exod.  xxix,  13,  22;  Lev.  iii,  4,  10,  15;  iv, 
9;  vii,  4;  viii,  10,  25;  ix,  10,  19;  Isa.  xxxiv,  3).  Spo- 
ken also  of  the  "  7-eins"  of  a  human  being,  i.  e.  the  in- 
most sold,  which  the  ancients  supposed  to  be  seated  in 


the  \-iscera  (compare  the  Homeric  (ppr'jT,  midriff,  hence 
mind),  both  in  a  physical  sense  (Job  xvi,  13;  xix,  27; 
Psa.  cxxxix,  13  ;  Lam.  iii,  13),  and  figuratively  (Psa.  vii, 
9  ;  xvi,  7  ;  xxvi,  2 ;  Ixxiii,  21 ;  Prov.  xxiii,  10  ;  Jcx.  xi, 
20;  xii,  2;  xvii,  10;  xx,  12).  Sometimes  applieil  to 
lernels  of  grain,  from  their  kidney-like  shape  and  rich- 
ness (Deut.  xxxii,  14). 

Kid'ron  (Heb.  Kidron',  'ill'lp!  hirUd,  compare  Job 
vi,  10 ;  Sept.  Kstipwv,  N.  T.  Kttptui^,  John  xviii,  1,  where 
some  copies  erroneously  have  'Kicpwv,  and  the  Auth. 
Version  "  Cedron ;"  Josephus  Kicpwv,  Gen.  -Cjvoq),  the 
brook  or  winter  torrent  whicli  flows  through  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat  (as  it  is  now  called),  on  the  east  side  of 
Jerusalem  (see  1  Mace,  xii,  37).  "  The  brook  Kidron" 
is  the  only  name  by  which  "  the  valley"  itself  is  known 
in  Scripture,  for  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  name 
"Valley  of  Jehoshaphat"  in  Joel  (iii,  12)  was  intended 
to  apply  to  this  valley.  The  word  rendered  "  brook"  (2 
Sam.  XV,  23  ;  1  Kings  ii,  37 ;  xv,  13 ;  2  Kings  xxiii,  6, 
12;  2  Chron.  XV,  10;  xxix,  10;  xxx,  14;  Jer.  xxxi,40; 
compare  Neh.  ii,  15 ;  Amos  vi,  14)  is  ^HJ,  ndchal,  which 
may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  the  Arabic  wady,  mean- 
ing a  stream  and  its  bed  or  valley,  or  properly  the  val- 
ley of  a  stream,  even  when  the  stream  is  dry.  The 
Septuagint  and  evangelist  (in  the  above  passages\  as 
wen  as  Josephus  {Ant.  viii,  1,  5;  but  (pdnay'i  in  ix,  7,3; 
War,  V,  0, 1),  designate  it  x^'Mcppoc,  a  storm  brook,  or 
winter  torrent.  But  it  would  seem  as  if  the  name  were 
formerly  applied  also  to  the  ravines  surrounding  other 
portions  of  Jerusalem,  the  south  or  west,  since  Solo- 
mon's prohibition  to  Shimei  to  "  pass  over  the  torrent 
Kidron"  (1  Kings  ii,  37  ;  Josephus,  ^  ?^^  viii,  1,  5)  is  said 
to  have  been  broken  by  the  latter  when  he  went  in  the 
direction  of  Gath  to  seek  his  fugitive  slaves  (ver.  41,42). 
Now  a  person  going  to  Gath  would  certainly  not  go  by 
the  way  of  the  Moimt  of  Olives,  or  approach  the  eastena 
side  of  the  city  at  all.  The  route — whether  Gath  were 
at  Beit-Jibrin  or  at  Tell  es-Safieh  —  would  be  by  the 
Bethlehem  gate,  and  then  nearly  due  west.  Perliaps 
the  prohibition  may  have  been  a  more  general  one  than 
is  implied  in  ver.  37  (comp.  the  king's  reiteration  of  it 
in  ver.  42 ),  the  Kidron  being  in  that  ease  specially  men- 
tioned because  it  was  on  tlie  road  to  Bahurim,  Shimei's 
home,  and  the  scene  of  his  crime.  At  any  rate,  beyond 
the  passage  in  question,  there  is  no  evidence  of  the 
name  Kidron  having  been  applied  to  the  southern  or 
western  ravines  of  the  city. 

The  Kidron  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  Scrip- 
ture history,  being  the  memorable  brook  which  David 
crossed  barefoot  and  weeping  when  fleeing  from  Absa- 
lom (2  Sam.  XV,  23,  30) ;  and  Jesus  must  often  have 
crossed  it  on  his  way  to  the  Mt.  of  Olives  and  Bethany 
(see  John  xviii,  1).  According  to  the  Talmud,  the  blood 
of  the  animals  slaughtered  in  the  Temple,  and  other  ref- 
use (probably  the  impurities  from  the  citj',  A'azir,  Ivii, 
4),  were  carried  through  a  sewer  into  the  lower  Kidron, 
and  thence  sold  as  manure  to  gardeners  (Joma,  Iviii,  2). 
For  earlv  notices  of  the  Kidron,  see  AVUliam  of  Tyre, 
viii,  2 ;  Brocardus,  p.  8 ;  IJeland,  p.  294  sq.  The  dif  tin- 
guishing  peculiarity  of  the  Kidron — that  in  respect  to 
which  it  is  nx>st  frequently  mentioned  in  the  O.  T. — is 
the  impurity  which  appears  to  have  been  ascribed  to  it. 
Excepting  the  two  casual  notices  already-  quoted,  we 
first  meet  with  it  as  the  place  in  which  king  Asa  demol- 
ished and  burnt  the  obscene  phallic  idol  (see  Asiierah) 
of  his  mother  (1  Kings  xv,  13 ;  2  Chron.  xv,  10).  Next 
we  find  the  wicked  Athaliali  hurried  thither  to  execu- 
tion (Joseph.  .1  nt.  ix,  7,  3  ;  2  Kings  xi,  10).  It  then  be- 
comes the  regular  receptacle  for  the  impurities  and 
abominations  of  the  idol-«orship,  when  removed  from 
the  Temple  and  destroyed  by  the  adherents  of  Jcliovah 
(2  Chron.  xxix,  10;  xxx,  14;  2  Kings  xxiii,  4,  G,  12). 
In  the  course  of  tliesc  narratives  the  statement  of  Jose- 
phus just  quoted  as  to  the  death  of  Athaliah  is  support- 
ed by  the  fact  that  in  the  time  of  Josiah  it  was  the  com- 
mon cemetery  of  the  city  (2  Kings  xxiii,  0 ;  comp.  Jer. 


KIDRON 


ro 


KIDRON" 


xxvi,  23,  "  graves  of  the  common  people"),  perhaps  the 
"  valley  of  dead  bodies"  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  (xxxi, 
40 )  in  close  connection  with  the  '■  fields"  of  Kidroii,  and 
the  restoration  of  which  to  sanctity  was  to  be  one  of  the 
miracles  of  future  times  (ibid.)-  It  Avas  doubtless  the 
Kidron  valley  which  was  in  the  mind  of  the  prophet 
Ezekifl  when  he  described  the  vision  of  the  holy  and 
healing  waters  flowing  from  the  Temple  through  the 
desert  into  the  sea  (xlvii,  8) ;  and  this  very  contrast 
■with  its  customary  uses  serves  to  add  emphasis  to  his 
pro])hecy  (comp.  Wilson,  Lo«cZs  of  the  Bible, '\\,o2.\  Stan- 
ley, Sip:  and  Pal.  p.  288).  How  long  the  valley  contin- 
ued to  be  used  for  a  burying-place  it  is  very  hard  to  as- 
certain. After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  in  1099  the 
bodies  of  the  slain  were  buried  outside  the  Golden  Gate- 
way (Mislin,  ii,  487;  Toblcr,  VnKjehwvjm,  p.  218) ;  but 
what  had  been  the  practice  in  the  interval  the  writer 
has  not  succeeded  in  tracing.  To  the  date  of  the  mon- 
uments at  the  foot  of  Olivet  we  have  at  present  no  clew ; 
but,  even  if  they  are  of  pre-Christian  times,  there  is  no 
proof  that  they  are  tombs.  From  the  date  just  men- 
tioned, however,  the  burials  ajipear  to  have  been  con- 
stant, and  at  present  it  is  the  favorite  resting-place  of 
Moslems  and  Jews,  the  former  on  the  west,  the  latter  on 
the  east  of  the  valley.  The  Moslems  are  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  narrow  level  spot  between  the  foot  of  the 
wall  and  the  commencement  of  the  precipitous  slope, 
while  the  Jews  have  possession  of  the  lower  part  of 
tlie  slopes  of  Olivet,  where  their  scanty  tombstones  are 
crowded  so  thick  together  as  literally  to  cover  the  sur- 
face like  a  pavement. 

Tlie  Kidron  is  a  mountain  ravine,  in  most  places  nar- 
row, with  precipitous  banks  of  naked  limestone;  but 
here  and  there  its  banks  have  an  easy  slope,  and  along 
its  bottom  are  strijis  of  land  capable  of  cultivation.  It 
contains  the  bed  of  a  streamlet,  but  during  the  whole 
.summer,  and  most  of  the  winter,  it  is  perfectly  drj';  in 
fact,  no  water  runs  in  it  except  when  heavy  rains  are 
falling  in  the  mountains  round  Jerusalm.  The  resident 
missionaries  assured  Dr.  Kobinsoa  that  they  had  not 
during  several  years  seen  a  stream  running  through  the 
valley  (see  Bibl.  Researches,  1,396-402).  On  the  broad 
summit  of  the  mountain  ridge  of  Jud;ra,  a  mile  and  a 
quarter  north-west  of  Jerusalem,  is  a  sUght  depression; 
tills  is  the  head  of  the  Kidron.  The  sides  of  the  de- 
pression, and  the  elevated  ground  around  it,  are  whiten- 
ed by  the  broad,  jagged  tops  of  limestone  rocks,  and  al- 
most every  rock  is  excavated,  partly  as  a  quarry,  and 
partly  to  form  the  f;ii,'ade  of  a  tomb.  The  vaUey  or  de- 
pression runs  fur  about  half  a  mile  towards  the  city;  it 
is  shallow  and  broad,  dotted  with  corn-fields,  and  sprink- 
led with  a  few  old  olives.  It  then  bends  eastward,  and 
in  another  half  mile  is  crossed  by  the  great  northern 
road  coming  down  from  the  hill  Scopus.  On  the  east 
side  of  the  road,  and  south  bank  of  the  Kidron,  are  the 
celebrateil  Tombs  of  the  Kings.  The  bed  of  the  valley 
is  here  about  lialf  a  mile  due  north  of  the  city  gate.  It 
continues  in  the  same  course  about  a  ([uartcr  of  a  mile 
fan  her,  and  then,  turning  south,  opens  into  a  wide  basin 
containing  cultivated  fields  and  olives.  Here  it  is  cross- 
ed diagonally  by  the  road  from  Jerusalem  to  Anathoth. 
As  it  advances  southward,  the  right  bank,  forming  the 
side  of  the  hill  Bezetha,  becomes  higher  and  steeper, 
with  occasional  precipices  of  rock,  on  wliicli  niay  be  seen 
a  few  fragments  of  the  ancient  city  wall;  while  on  the 
left  the  base  of  Olivet  projects,  greatly  narrowing  the 
valley.  Opposite  St.  Stephen's  gate  tlie  depth  is  fully 
100  feet,  and  the  breadth  not  more  than  400  feet.  The 
olive-trees  in  the  bottom  are  so  thickly  clustered  as  to 
fjrai  a  shady  grove;  and  their  massive  trunks  and 
gnarled  boughs  give  evidence  of  great  age.  This  spot 
is  shut  out  from  the  city,  from  the  view  of  public  roads, 
an<l  from  the  notice  and  interrfiption  ol'  wayfarers.  See 
(■i;riisi;MAXii.  A  zigzag  path  descends  the  steep  bni-.k 
from  St.  Stephen's  gate,  crosses  the  bed  of  the  valley  by 
an  old  l)ridge,  and  then  branches.  One  branch  leads 
direct  over  the  top  of  Olivet,    This  path  has  a  deep  his- 


torical interest ;  it  was  by  it  that  David  went  when  he 
tied  from  Absalom :  "  The  king  passed  over  the  brook 
Kidron,  and  all  the  people  passed  over,  towards  the  way 
of  the  wilderness''  (2  Sam.  xv,  23).  See  Olivet.  An- 
other branch  runs  round  the  southern  shoulder  of  the 
hill  to  Bethany,  and  it  has  a  deep  sacretl  interest,  for  it 
is  the  road  of  Christ's  triumphal  entry  (Matt,  xxi,  1  sq. ; 
Luke  xix,  37).  Below  the  bridge  the  Kidron  becomes 
still  narrower,  and  here  traces  of  a  torrent  bed  first  be- 
gin to  appear.  Three  hundred  yards  farther  down,  the 
hiUs  on  each  side — iMoriah  on  the  right  and  Olivet  on 
the  left — rise  precipitously  from  the  torrent  bed,  which 
is  spanned  by  a  single  arcli.  On  the  left  bank  is  a  sin- 
gular group  of  tombs,  comprising  those  of  Absalom,  Je- 
hosha])hat,  and  St.  James  (now  so  called)  ;  while  on  the 
right,  150  feet  overhead,  towers  the  south-eastern  angle 
of  tlie  Temple  wall,  most  probably  the  "pinnacle"  on 
which  our  Lord  was  placed  (Matt,  iv,  5).  The  ravine 
runs  on,  narrow  and  rocky,  for  500  yards  more ;  there, 
on  its  right  bank,  in  a  cave,  is  the  fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin ;  and  higher  up  on  the  left,  perched  on  the  side  of 
naked  cliffs,  the  ancient  village  of  Siloam.  A  short  dis- 
tance farther  down,  the  valley  of  the  Tyropceon  falls  in 
from  the  right,  descending  in  terraced  slopes,  fresh  and 
green,  from  the  waters  of  the  Pool  of  Siloam.  The  Kid- 
ron here  expands,  affording  a  level  tract  for  cultivation, 
and  now  covered  willi  beds  of  cucumbers,  melons,  and 
other  vegetables.  Here  of  old  was  the  "  King's  Garden" 
(Neh.  iii,  15).  The  level  tract  extends  down  to  the 
mouth  of  Hinnom,  and  is  about  200  yards  wide.  A 
short  distance  below  the  junction  of  Hinnom  and  the 
Kidron  is  the  fountain  of  En-Rogel,  now  called  Bir  Ayiib, 
"  the  Well  of  Job,"  or  "  Joab."  The  length  of  the  valley 
from  its  head  to  En-Kogel  is  2f  miles,  and  here  the  his- 
toric Kidron  may  be  said  to  terminate.  Every  refer- 
ence to  the  Kidron  in  the  Bible  is  made  to  this  section, 
David  crossed  it  at  a  point  opposite  the  city  (1  Sam.  xv, 
23) ;  it  was  the  boundary  beyond  which  Solomon  for- 
bade Shimei  to  go  on  pain  of  death  (1  Kings  ii,  37) ;  it 
was  here,  probably,  near  the  mouth  of  Hinnom,  that  Asa 
destroyed  the  idol  which  Maachah  his  mother  set  up 
(xv,  13) ;  and  it  seems  to  have  been  at  the  same  spot, 
"  in  the  fields  of  Kidron,"  that  king  Josiah  ordered  the 
vessels  of  Baal  to  be  burned  (2  Kings  xxiii,4).  It  woidd 
seem,  from  2  Kings  xxiii,  6,  that  a  portion  of  the  Kid- 
ron, ajiparently  near  the  mouth  of  Hinnom,  was  used  as 
a  burying-ground.  The  sides  of  the  sun'ounding  cUffs 
are  fiUcd  with  ancient  rock  tombs,  and  the  greatest  boon 
the  dying  .Tew  now  asks  is  that  his  bones  be  laid  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehoshajihat.  The  whole  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Kidron,  opposite  the  Temple  area,  far  up  the  side  of 
Olivet,  is  paved  with  the  white  tombstones  of  Jews. 
This  singidar  longing  is  doubtless  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
opinion  which  the  Jews  entertain  that  the  Kidron  is 
the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  mentioned  by  Joel  (iii,  2). 
See  Jehoshaphat,  Valley  of.  Below  En-I!ogel  the 
Kidron  has  little  of  historical  or  sacred  interest.  It  runs 
in  a  winding  course  cast  by  south,  through  the  AMlder- 
ness  of  Juda?a,  to  the  Dead  Sea.  For  about  a  mile  be- 
low En-Eogel  the  bottom  of  the  valley  is  cultivated  and 
thickly  covered  with  olive-trees.  Farther  down  a  few 
fields  of  corn  are  met  with  at  intervals,  but  these  soon 
disajipear,  and  the  ravine  assumes  the  bleak  and  deso- 
late aspect  of  the  surrounding  hills.  About  seven  miles 
from  Jerusalem  tlie  features  of  the  valley  assume  a  much 
wilder  and  grander  form.  Hitherto  the  banks  have 
been  steep,  with  here  and  there  a  high  precipice,  and  a 
jutting  cUff,  giving  variety  to  the  scene.  Now  they 
suddenly  contract  to  precipices  of  naked  roclv  nearly  300 
feet  in  height,  which  look  as  if  the  mountain  had  been 
torn  asunder  by  an  earthquake.  About  a  mile  farther, 
on  the  side  of  this  frightful  chasm,  stands  the  convent 
of  St,  Saba,  one  of  the  most  remarkaule  buildings  in  Pal- 
estine, founded  by  the  saint  whose  name  it  bears,  in  the 
vear  A.D.  439.  The  sides  of  the  chasm  both  above  and 
"below  the  convent  are  filled  with  caves  and  grottoes,  once 
the  abode  of  monks  and  hermits,  and  from  these  doubt- 


KIEF 


KIFFIN 


less  this  section  of  the  A'alley  has  got  its  modern  name, 
Wudi/  er-R(theb,  ^•Monk's  Valley"  (Wolcott, Researches 
in  Pal.,  in  Biblical  Caljinet,  xliii,  38).  Below  Mar  Saba 
the  valley  is  called  Wadij  en-Nur,  "Valley  of  Fire" — a 
name  descriptive  of  its  aspect,  for  so  bare  and  scorched 
is  it  that  it  seems  as  if  it  had  participated  in  the  doom 
of  Sodom.  It  runs  on,  a  deep,  narrow,  wild  chasm,  until 
it  breaks  through  the  lofty  line  of  cliffs  at  Kas  el-Fesh- 
khah,  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  will  thus  be 
seen  that  the  head  of  the  Kidron  is  just  on  the  verge  of 
the  water-shed  of  the  mountain-chain  of  Judah,  about 
2600  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  length,  as  the  crow  tlies,  is 
only  twenty  miles,  and  yet  in  this  short  space  it  has  a 
descent  of  no  less  than  3912  feet— the  Dead  Sea  having 
a  depression  of  1312  feet  (Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  p.  179, 
182).— Ivitto;  Smith.  In  1848  the  levelling  party  of  the 
Dead  Sea  Expedition,  under  command  of  Lieut.  Lynch, 
worked  up  the  wady  en-Nar,  the  bed  of  the  Kidron,  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  Jerusalem.  They  encountered  several 
preciiiices  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  high, down  which  cat- 
aracts plunge  in  winter.  They  found  the  ravine  shut 
in  on  each  side  by  high,  barren  cliffs  of  chalky  lime- 
stone, and  the  dry  torrent-bed  interrupted  by  boidders, 
and  covered  with  fragments  of  stone  l^Narrutive,  p.  38-1, 
387).  The  place  where  it  empties  into  the  Jordan  is  a 
gorge  1200  feet  deep,  narrow  at  the  bottom,  with  a  bed 
tilled  with  confused  fragments  of  rock,  much  worn,  but 
perfectly  dry  (ib.).  For  furtlier  notices,  see  lUtter's  Erd- 
kuwle,  XV,  000 ;  Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  ut  sup. 

Kief  or  Kiev,  the  name  of  the  chief  town  of  the 
government  of  that  name,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Dnie- 
per, one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Russian  towns,  and  formerly 
the  capital  (containing  G0,000  inhabitants,  with  a  uni- 
versity and  a  theological  school),  was  in  8G4  taken  from 
the  Khazars  by  two  Norman  chiefs,  companions  of  Ru- 
ric,  and  conquered  from  them  by  Oleg,  Ruric's  success- 
or, wlio  made  it  his  capital.  In  1240  (when  it  ceased  to 
be  the  capital)  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  Batu,  khan 
of  Kiptcliak.  Christianity  was  first  proclaimed  hi  Rus- 
sia at  Kief  in  988.  In  the  14th  century  it  was  seized 
by  Gedimin,  grand  duke  of  Lithuania,  and  annexed  to 
Poland  in  15G9,  but  in  1G8G  was  restored  to  Russia. 
Kief  is  the  oldest  Russian  metropolitan's  residence,  the 
cradle  of  Russian  Christianity.  It  is  also  noted  on  ac- 
count of  two  Church  (Greek)  councils  that  have  been 
hel<l  there.     See  Landon,  Manual  of  Church  Councils. 

(a)  The  first  of  these  convened  about  1147,  and  is 
noted  for  the  manner  in  which  the  bishops  elected  a  me- 
tropolitan in  the  place  of  Michael  II.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Niphont  of  Novogorod,  they  all  agreed  to  take  the 
election  into  their  own  hands,  without  allowing  to  the  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople  the  exercise  of  his  right  either 
to  nominate  or  confirm.  Niphont  strongly  protested 
against  the  step,  but  without  effect.  The  choice  of  the 
synod  fell  upon  Clement,  a  monk  of  Smolensk.  As  a 
substitute  for  the  patriarchal  consecration,  Onuphrius 
proposed  that  the  hand  of  St.  Clement  of  Rome,  -(vhose 
relics  had  been  brought  from  Cherson,  should  be  placed 
upon  his  head.  Tliis  election  led  to  great  disorder,  and 
subsequently  the  patriarch  Luke  Chysoberges  consecra- 
ted Constantine  metropolitan,  who  condemned  the  acts 
of  this  synod,  and  suspended  for  a  time  all  the  clergy 
ordained  by  Clement. — Mouravieff's  Ilisf.  Russ.  Church 
(by  Blackmore),  p.  35. 

(b)  Another  council  was  convened  here  in  1622.  Me- 
letius,  archbishop  of  Polotsk,  at  one  time  a  most  zealous 
defender  of  the  orthodox  Church  in  Russia,  had  been 
obliged  to  liee  into  Greece  upon  a  groundless  suspicion 
of  having  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Jehoshaphat, 
Uniate  archbishop  of  Polotsk,  and,  urged  by  fear,  liad 
given  himself  up  to  the  Uniate  party,  and  written  an 
apology  in  censure  of  the  orthodox  Church ;  in  this 
council  he  was  called  to  account,  made  to  perform  open 
penance,  and  to  tear  his  book.  Soon  after  he  entirely 
apostatized ;  and,  going  to  Rome,  had  the  title  of  arch- 
bishop of  Hieropolis  conferred  on  him. — jNIouravieff,  p. 
179. 


In  the  neigliborhood  of  Kief  is  the  convent  of  Kievo- 
Petchersk,  a  celebrated  Russian  sanctuary,  which  an- 
nually attracts  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  the  most  re- 
mote corners  of  the  empire.  In  the  daj's  of  king  "Wlad- 
imir,  the  river  Bug,  near  this  city,  was  considered  sa- 
cred by  many  Russian  sects,  and  in  many  respects  Kief, 
in  those  days,  resembled  the  citj'  of  Benares  in  India. 
The  reader  can  best  obtain  a  vie^v  of  the  worship  of  riv- 
ers in  the  East  by  turning  to  the  article  G^vnges  (comp. 
VoUmer,  MijthoLWM-terbuch,  p.  1049). 

Kiernander,  Joiix  Zachariah,  a  Swedish  Prot- 
estant missionary,  was  born  at  Axtadt,  Ostrogothia  (now 
the  lien  Lindkiiping),  Dec.  1, 1710.  He  studied  at  the 
school  of  Lindkiiping,  and  afterwards  at  the  universities 
of  Upsal  and  Halle.  Professor  Franke  recommended 
him  to  the  English  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Chris- 
tian Knowledge,  and  he  was  sent  to  India  in  1740.  Here 
he  labored  zealously  for  sixty  years,  and  acquired  such 
reputation  that  the  shah  of  Persia  intrusted  to  him  the 
Arabic  translation  of  the  Psalms  and  the  N.  T.  In  1767 
he  established  at  Calcutta  a  church,  which  was  opened 
in  1770,  but,  as  he  was  obliged  to  bear  the  expense  al- 
most exclusively  himself,  he  was  reduced  to  povertj-. 
Kiernander  was  successively  connected  with  the  Dutch 
Church  at  Chinsurah,  Bengal,  and  when  that  town  was 
taken  by  the  Enghsh  in  1795  he  was  made  prisoner,  but 
afterwards  permitted  to  settle  at  Calcutta.  He  died  in 
1799.  See  \^'alch,  Neueste  Religionsyesch. ;  A  eta  Jlis- 
torico-ecclesiastica  ;  A  sialic  A  nnual  Register  ;  Rose,  Xew 
Bioqraphical  Dictionary  ;  Hoefer,  Xvuv.  £ioff.  Gencrale, 
xxii,  715.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kiesliiig,  JoHAXN  Rudolph,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Erfurt,  Oct.  21,  170G;  became 
first  deacon  of  Wittemberg  in  1738,  extraordinary  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  at  Leipzig  in  1740,  professor  of  Ori- 
ental languages  in  the  same  university  m  174G,  and, 
finally,  professor  of  theologj^  at  Erlangen  in  17G2.  He 
retained  this  latter  position  until  his  death,  April  17, 
1778.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of  works,  the  most  re- 
markable of  wliich  are,  Exercitationes  in  quibus  J.  Chr. 
Tromhelli  Dissertationes  de  cultu  sanctorum  modeste  dilu- 
untur  (Lpzg.  1742-1746,  3  pts.  4to) : — Historia  de  Usu 
,  Symbolorum  (Lpzg.  1753,  8vo) : — De  Discijilina  Clerico- 
rum,  ex  epistolis  ecclesiast.  conspicua,  Liber  (Lpzg.  and 
Nuremberg,  1760,  8vo)  : — Program,  antiquoris  Ecclesim 
Christianm  hereticos  contra  immaculatam  Jfajice  I 'irginis 
conceptionem  testes  sistit  (Erlangen,  1775,  4to) : — Lehrge- 
bdude  d.  WiedertduJ'er  (Revel,  177G,  8vo).  He  also  pub- 
lished during  the  j'ears  1756-61  the  theological  journal 
entitled  Neue  Beitrdge  von  alten  v.  neuen  theolog.  Sachen, 
established  by  J.  E.  Knapp  in  1751  (Lpzg.  8vo).  See 
Winer,  Handb.  d.  iheologischen  Literaiur  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxvii,  716.      (J.  N.  P.) 

KifBn.WiLLi  AM,  a  distinguished  English  Baptist  min- 
ister, born  in  1616,  originally  a  merchant,  by  his  wealth 
exerted  great  infiuence  at  the  courts  of  king  Charles  II 
and  James  II,  and  thereby  indirectly  secured  many  favors 
to  his  brethren.  By  his  means  the  false  and  scurrilous 
pamphlet  entitled  Baxter  Baptized  in  Blood  was  exam- 
ined and  condemned ;  and  by  his  intercession,  also,  twelve 
Baptists  who  had  been  condemned  to  death  at  Ayles- 
bury received  the  king's  pardon.  In  1G83,  two  of  his 
grandsons,  Benjamin  and  William  Hewling,  young  gen- 
tlemen of  great  fortunes,  accomplished  education,  and 
eminent  piety,  were  concerned  in  the  ill-timed  and  ill- 
fated  expedition  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  destruction  of  almost  all  who  had  any 
hand  in  it,  including  the  two  Hewlings,  though  every 
effort  was  made  by  Kiffin  to  save  their  lives.  Kiffin 
was  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church,  Devonshire  Square, 
London,  from  1639  to  1701.  He  died  in  the  latter  year, 
at  an  advanced  age,  "leaving  behind  him  a.  character 
of  rare  excellence,  tried  alike  by  the  fire  of  prosperity 
and  adversity  in  the  most  eventful  times."  He  wrote 
in  favor  of  strict  communion  in  reply  to  John  Bunyan, 
opposed  Dr.  Featley  in  the  famous  disputation  at  South- 


KIKAYON 


78 


KILHAM 


wark,  aiid  Avas  handled  with  severity  by  Edwards  in  his 
Caiii/nediia.  lie  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  the  "  Par- 
ticular iSaptists."  An  estimate  may  be  forined  of  the 
high  position  Kiffin  must  have  occupied  in  his  day  if 
IMacaulay  {[lUtory  of  Englaml,\o\.  ii)  coidd  say,  "  Great 
as  was  the  authority  of  Buuyan  with  Baptists,  that  of 
"William  Kiriin  was  still  greater.  Kiffin  was  the  first 
man  among  them  in  wealth  and  station."  "  His  por- 
trait," says  Skeats  {Hist.  English  Free  Churches,  p.  15-i), 
"docs  not  bear  out  the  once  current-impression  concern- 
ing the  Baptists  of  that  age.  With  skull-cap  and  flow- 
ing ringlets,  with  mustache  and  '  imperial,'  with  broad 
lace  collar  and  ample  gown  (see  his  portrait  in  Wilson's 
Dissentiuf)  Churches,  i,  403),  he  resembles  a  gentleman 
Cavalier  rather  than  any  popidar  ideal  of  a  sour-visaged 
and  discontented  Anabaptist."  See  Crosby,  Ilkt.  Enyl. 
Baptists;  and  Lives  (Lond. lG59,4to,and  one  by  Joseph 
Gurney,  1833,  8vo ;  also  his  Autobiography,  edited  by 
Orme.  Lond.  1823,  8vo).     (J.  II.  W.) 

Kikayoii.     See  Gourd. 

Kilburn,  David,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
born  at  Gilsum,  N.  H.,  October  24,  1784,  was  converted 
when  seventeen  years  old,  licensed  to  preach  in  1805, 
and,  after  three  years'  labor  as  a  local  preacher,  was  re- 
ceived into  the  New  England  Conference,  and  obtained 
his  first  appointment  at  Union,  Me.  His  subsequent 
stations  were  Keadticld,  jNIc. ;  Stanstead,  Canada ;  Dan- 
ville, Barnard  and  White  lUver,  Needham,  Boston,  Port- 
land, Me. ;  Wethersfield  and  Barre,Yt. ;  Providence,  E. 
I. ;  Lowell,  Lynn-Common,  Bridgewater,  North-west 
Bridgewater,  WaUham,  Barre,  Ashburnham,  South  Koy- 
alston,  Enfield,  and  Southampton.  He  travelled  also 
tlie  following  districts  as  presiding  elder:  Portland  Dis- 
trict, Maine  Conference ;  New  Hampshire,  Boston, 
Springfield,  and  Providence  Districts,  in  the  New  Eng- 
lantl  Conference.  In  1851  he  became  superannuated,  in 
1852-53  eifective,  in  1854  supernumerary,  in  1856  effec- 
tive, in  1858  again  supernumerary,  and  in  1859  he  again 
became  superannuated,  in  which  relation  he  remained 
till  the  time  of  his  death,  July  13, 18G5.  Kilburn  "  was 
a  man  of  great  endurance,  anil  constitutionally  qualified 
lor  the  immense  labor  he  performed;  of  sound  judg- 
ment, clear  understanding,  strong  will;  earnest  and  con- 
scientious in  the  performance  of  duty.  During  his  la- 
borious ministry  he  sustained  a  high  reputation  and 
exerted  a  powerfid  influence.  .  .  .  His  prudent  fore- 
sight, his  comprehensive  views,  his  knowledge  of  men, 
his  almost  intuitive  perception  of  character,  his  urban- 
ity, his  high  moral  and  Christian  virtues,  entitled  him 
to  an  honorable  social  and  official  position  in  the  Church 
which  he  so  faithfidlv  served.'" — Couf.  Minutes,  18G6,  p. 
5G. 

Kilbye,  Richard,  an  English  theologian,  was  born 
at  liatcliffe  in  the  second  half  of  the  IGth  century,  and 
was  educated  at  Oxford  University,  with  which  he  was 
identified  throughout  life ;  he  was  its  rector  in  1590,  and 
held  a  professorship  of  the  Hebrew  language.  He  died 
Nov.  7, 1G20.  Richard  Kilbye  was  one  of  the  transla- 
tors of  king  James's  version  of  the  Bible.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  Sermmis  (1G13,  etc.)  and  a  Commenta7-y  on 
Exodus. 

Another  English  divine  of  the  same  name  flourished 
about  the  same  time  in  Warwickshire.  He  died  in  1617, 
and  is  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  Burthen  of  a  load- 
cned  Conscience  (1616,  8vo ;  often  reprinted). — Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biofjr.  Diet,  xxvii,  720 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English 
and  A  merican  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kildare,  an  ancient  church  in  central  Ireland,  found- 
ed A.I). 481),  derived  its  name  from  the  Irish  celle,  church, 
and  deiir,  the  oak,  and  ■Nvas  at  lirst  estabUshed  by  St. 
Bridget  as  a  Christian  school,  and  afterwards  called  a 
imnnerj^,  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  pagan  women, 
married  or  single,  the  doctrines  and  duties  ol  Christian- 
ity. Soon  a  town  or  city  grew  up  around  it,  and  in  la- 
ter times  it  formed  an  extensive  diocese.  In  the  early 
period  of  Ireland's  history  it  is  nothing  remarkable  to 


find  woman  assuming  the  position  of  public  instructor ; 
Druidism,  the  former  religion  of  Ireland,  assigned  ofHces 
to  females.  In  the  early  history  of  the  Irish  Church  we 
have  several  intimations  that  Christian  women  were 
employed  in  its  services.  St.  Patrick,  in  his  Confession, 
sect,  xviii,  writes  about  a  woman  of  noble  birth,  of  the 
daughters  of  tlie  minor  king,  and  even  handmaids  in 
servitude,  who  were  active  in  the  cause  of  Cliristianity. 
The  Book  of  Armagh,  an  accredited  manuscript  of  the 
7tli  century,  in  speaking  of  an  earlier  period,  says  ex- 
pressly, "  The  early  Irish  Christians  did  not  reject  the 
fellowship  and  help  of  woman,  for  they  were  founded  on 
the  rock,  and  did  not  fear  the  blast  of  temptation."  St, 
Bridget,  the  founder  of  this  church  and  female  semi- 
nar}', tradition  says,  died  about  A.D.  515,  at  an  advanced 
age,  loved  in  life  and  lamented  in  death.  In  honor  of 
her  memory,  through  an  extent  of  fourteen  centuries,  in 
different  countries  and  in  different  languages,  millions 
have  been  called  by  her  name ;  more  children,  perhaps, 
than  after  any  other  Christian  woman  whose  name  is 
not  in  the  inspired  records.  Her  memory  was  cherish- 
ed by  the  Picts  and  the  British  Scots,  but  in  no  ]ilace 
except  Kildare  was  it  more  honored  than  in  the  Heb- 
rides, where  at  a  later  and  less  pure  age  she  became 
the  patroness  of  their  churches.  Several  lives  of  her 
have  been  M'ritten  by  foreigners  and  in  different  lan- 
guages, but  the  best  and  the  fullest  is  said  to  Ije  that  by 
St.Ultan,  the  materials  for  which  he  obtained  from  a 
manuscript  in  the  monastery  of  Katisbon,  Germany.  See 
j\Ioore.  Hist,  of  Ireland;  Ware's  Dish  Antiquities ;  Todd, 
Irish  Church,]-).  "18.     (D.D.) 

Kilham,  Alex.vnder,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
characters  in  the  history  of  Methodism,  the  founder  of 
the  "New  Connection  of  Wesleyan  JNIethodists,"  fre- 
quently called  simply  "  Kilhamites,"  and  really  the  first 
man  in  the  Methodist  connection  who  advocated  the 
representation  of  the  lay  element  in  the  government  of 
the  Chiu-ch,  was  born  at  Eiiworth,  England,  Jidy  10, 
1762.  His  parents  were  Methodists,  and  he  enjoyed  a 
training  strictly  in  accordance  with  their  own  religious 
convictions.  Vacillating  in  character  and  impetuous  in 
temper  in  his  youthful  days,  he  struggled  hard  against 
aU  religious  impressions,  Ibut  was  finally  converted  at 
the  age  of  eighteen,  and  shortly  after  began  preaching. 
Brackenbury,  one  of  Wesley's  right-hand  men,  met 
yomig  Kilham  one  day  at  Epworth  whUe  himself  on  a 
preaching  excursion,  and  engaged  him  at  once  as  his 
travelling  companion.  In  Brackenbury's  missionary 
visit  to  the  Channel  Islands,  Kilham  jjroved  himself  an 
able  assistant.  In  1785,  shortly  after  their  return  from 
the  islands,  Wesley  received  Kilham  into  the  regular 
itinerant  ministry.  Like  aU  other  laborers  of  early 
Methodism,  his  ministrations  frequently  met  with  op- 
position, and  an  encounter  with  a  mob  was  almost  a 
daily  experience.  At  Bolton  his  chapel  was  stoned ;  at 
Afford  market-place  he  was  attacked  by  a  clergyman 
and  a  constable ;  at  Spilsby  he  was  assailed  with  dirt 
and  eggs.  In  another  place  gunpowder  was  laid  under 
the  spot  where  he  expected  to  preach,  with  a  train  ex- 
tending some  distance,  but  without  effect,  for  he  took 
his  stand  elsewhere  and  escaped  the  danger.  It  was 
amid  such  difficulties  and  trials  that  Kilham  zealously 
labored  for  the  cause  of  his  Slaster.  In  1791  the  found- 
er of  INIethodism  expired.  During  the  life  of  Wesley 
there  had  been  no  actual  separation  of  the  Weslcyans 
from  the  Established  Church.  He  had  been  careful  to 
avoid  religious  meetings  during  the  hours  for  public 
worship  in  the  Establisliment.  He  had  never  allowed 
the  celebration  of  the  ordinances  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  Su]iper  by  his  own  preachers ;  his  jieojde  received 
these  at  the  hands  of  the  ministers  of  the  Established 
Church.  Frequently  a  voice  dissenting  from  this  course 
was  heard  from  among  the  AVesleyan  ministers.  Kil- 
ham himself  had  dared,  three  years  before  the  death  of 
Weslej',  to  record  the  wish,  "  Let  us  have  the  lilterty  of 
Englishmen,  and  give  the  Lonl's  Supper  to  our  socie- 
ties."    About  the  time  of  Wesley's  death  he  wrote,  "  I 


KILHAM 


T9 


KILIAN 


have  had  several  warm  contests  with  a  friend  because  I 
woiilil  not  liave  my  child  baptized  in  the  usual  way. 
The  storm,  however,  soon  blew  over.     I  hope  God  will 
open  the  eyes  of  the  JNIcthodists  to  see  their  sin  and  fol- 
ly in  their  inconsistent  connection  with  the  Church." 
The  opposition  against  ecclesiastical  subservienc}'  to  the 
laws  of  the  Church  of  England  became  more  determined 
after  the  decision  of  the  Conference  at  ilanchester,  July 
20,  17'J1,  the  first  after  Mr.  Wesley's  death,  to  "  take  the 
plan  as  ]Mr.  Wesley  had  left  it."     '"  The  controversy 
could  not,"  says  Stevens  {Ulstorij  of  Methadhm,  iii,  38), 
"but  be  resumed,  and  more  definite  results  must  be 
reached  before  the  Church  could  be  at  rest.     Partisans 
of  the  national  Church  regarded  the  pledge  as  binding 
the  jMethodists  to  the  Establishment ;  the  advocates  of 
progress  dissented,  and,  in  the  language  of  Pawson,  de- 
clared, '  Not  so ;  our  old  plan  has  been  to  follow  the 
openings  of  Providence,  and  to  alter  or  amend  the  plan 
as  we  saw  it  needful,  in  order  to  be  more  useful  in  the 
hand  of  God."     Hanby,  whom  Wesley  had  authorized 
to  administer  the  sacraments,  still  claimed  the  right  to 
do  so  wherever  the  societies  wished  him.      Pawson 
wrote  the  same  year  that  if  the  people  ^vere  denied  the 
sacraments  they  woidd  leave  the  connection  in  many 
places.     Taylor  was  determined  to  administer  them  in 
Liverpool;   and  Atmore  wrote  that,  having  'solemnly 
promised  upon  his  knees  before  God  and  his  people  that 
he  would  give  all  diligence  not  only  to  preach  the  word, 
but  to  administer  the  sacraments  in  the  Church  of  God,' 
he  woultl  do  so  wherever  required  by  the  people.     '  We 
were  as  much  divided,'  he  later  wrote, '  in  our  views  and 
practice  as  before ;'  and  numerous  disputes  occurred  dur- 
ing the  year  respecting  the  administration  of  the  sacra- 
ments and  a  total  separation  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land.   Circular  letters  in  great  abundance  were  sent  into 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  minds  of  the 
people  were  much  diverted  from  the  pursuit  of  more 
sublime  objects  by  others  which  tended  but  little  to  the 
profit  of  the  soul.'     The  diversified  opinions  of  the  con- 
nection were,  in  fine,  resolving  themselves  into  three 
classes,  and  giving  rise  to  as  many  parties,  composed 
respectively  of  men  who,  from  their  attachment  to  the 
EstaliUshment,  wished  no  change,  unless  it  might  be  a 
greater  subordination  to  the  national  Church  by  the 
abandonment  of  the  sacraments  in  those  cases  where 
Wesley  had  admitted  them ;  of  such  as  wished  to  main- 
tain Wesley's  plan  intact,  with  official  provisions  which 
might  be  requisite  to  administer  it ;  and  such  as  desired 
revolutionarjr  changes,  with  a  more  equal  distribution 
of  powers  among  laymen  and  preachers."     Kilham  be- 
longed to  the  third  party,  and  used  all  the  means  at 
his  command  to  influence  the  leaders  in  that  direction. 
At  the  next  Conference,  however,  he  was  severely  crit- 
icised for  his  assertion  of  the  popular  rights,  and  for  the 
pulilication  of  a  pamjihlet  on  the  Progress  of  LiherUj.  in 
which  he  urged  a  distribution  of  the  power  of  govern- 
ment between  the  clerical  and  the  lay  elements.    In  the 
course   of  the   controversy  severe   remarks  had  been 
thrown  out  by  Kilham,  which  were  construed  by  the 
preachers  into  defamations  of  the  society,  and  at  the 
London  C(3nference  of  1790  he  was  formally  arraigned, 
and  expcUed  from  the  connection.     Tliis  sunimarj'  pro- 
cess precipitated  the  division  of  sentiment,  and  residted 
in  the  estabUshment  of  an  independent  body  (now  known 
as  the  New  Connection  Methodists)  in  1797  at  Ebenezer 
Chapel.    Sec  Methodists,  New  Connection.    A  writ- 
er in  the  Wesleyan  Times  of  May  \i,  1802,  furnishes  doc- 
uments wliich  go  to  prove  that  Kilham's  course,  both  in 
1793-4,  and  even  as  late  as  1790,  had  the  approval  of  the 
most  celebrated  leaders  of  Methodism.     At  that  time 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  Pawson,  Bromwell,  and  Cownley,  all 
earnestly  indorsed  the  movement.     Kilham  himself  did 
not  long  survive  the  ecclesiastical  censure  of  his  breth- 
ren.    He  died  in  1798.     It  is  but  just  to  his  memory  to 
say  that  he  is  acknowledged  by  all  to  have  been  a  man 
of  fervent  piety,  and  that  he  was  animated  by  great 
zeal  for  the  success  of  the  Weslcvan  cause.     What  he 


actually  sought  to  accomplish  was  the  entire  separation 
of  the  Methodists  from  the  Established  Church,  with  a 
due  representation  of  the  lay  element  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  new  Church,  to  be  formed  at  once.  See,  for 
a  fuller  discussion  of  this  subject,  besides  the  article 
New  Connection  Methodists,  and  the  authorities  al- 
ready quoted.  Smith,  Hist,  of  Wesleyan  Methodism  (new 
edition),  ii,  30  sq. ;  Cooke,  Ilisf.  of  Kilham.  (J.  H.  W.) 
Kilhamites.     See  Kilham. 

Kiliaii  or  Kyllina,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  bishop  of  AV'urzburg  in  the  7th  centurj-,  was 
a  native  of  Ireland,  and  a  member  of  that  distinguished 
body  of  Irish  missionaries  among  the  Teutonic  nations 
to  whose  labors  in  the  Gth  and  7th  centuries  Chris- 
tianity and  civilization  were  so  largely  indebted  in  the 
southern  and  south-eastern  countries  of  Europe.  He 
was  of  a  noble  family,  and  while  yet  young  entered  the 
monastic  life  in  his  native  country.  Having  under- 
taken, in  company  with  several  of  his  fellow-monks,  a 
pilgrimage  to  Rome,  he  was  seized,  on  his  journey  (A.D. 
665)  through  the  still  pagan  province  of  Thuringia,  with 
a  desire  to  devote  himself  to  its  conversion,  and  with  his 
fellow-pilgrims,  the  presbyter  Colman  and  the  deacon 
Donatus,  he  secured  for  the  project  at  Rome,  in  687,  the 
sanction  of  pope  Conon,  by  \vhom  he  was  ordained  bish- 
op. On  his  return  he  succeeded  in  converting  the  duke 
Gosbert,  with  many  of  his  subjects,  and  in  opening  the 
way  for  the  complete  conversion  of  Thuringia.  L^nfortu- 
nately,  however,  Kilian  provoked  the  enmity  of  Geilana, 
who,  although  the  widow  of  Gosbert's  brother,  had  been 
married  to  Gosbert,  by  declaring  the  marriage  invalid, 
and  having  induced  Gosbert  to  separate  from  her,  he  was 
murdered  at  her  instigation,  during  the  absence  of  Gos- 
bert in  789,  together  with  both  his  feUow-missionaries, 
and  the  Bible,  Church  monuments,  and  ecclesiastical 
vestments  consigned  to  the  flames.  After  Gosbert's  re- 
turn Geilana  denied  the  deed,  but  both  she  and  the  mur- 
derer feU  a  prey  to  insanity,  and  Gosbert  himself  fell  by 
the  hands  of  a  murderer,  his  son  Hedan  II  was  deposed, 
and,  indeed,  his  whole  family  became  extinct.  Such  are 
the  oldest  legends  concerning  Kilian's  fate.  One  of 
them,  written  in  the  10th  or  1 1  th  centurj',  is  to  be  found 
in  Mabillon,  A  ct.  Sanct.  (ii,  991) ;  another,  with  some  ar- 
bitrary variations,  in  Surius  (iv,  131).  Yet  this  legend 
appears  somewhat  doubtful,  since  no  mention  is  other- 
wise made  of  any  British  missionaries  before  Boniface. 
Rhabanus  jNIaurus  (Canisius,  Lect.  A  ntiq.  ii,  2,  p.  333) 
claims  that  Gosbert  himself  condemned  Kilian  in  847  on 
account  of  his  preaching.  As  to  the  punishment  said 
to  have  overtaken  all  the  family  of  Gosbert,  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  history,  for  Hedan  II  was  yet  in  peaceful 
possession  of  his  dukedom  in  716,  remained  in  relation 
with  the  British  missionaries,  and  gave  St.  Willcbrord 
some  land  at  Arnstadt  and  jMtihlberg,  near  Gotha.  The 
facts  may  be  that  Kilian  belonged  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Roman  Church,  and  that  his  death  was  caused  by  his 
strict  enforcement  of  the  rules  concerning  matrimony. 
Before  his  appointment  to  Thrjingia  Kilian  seems  to 
have  already  distinguished  himself  in  the  ministry. 
Ttlosheim  says, ''  He  exercised  his  ministerial  functions 
with  great  success  among  the  Franks,  and  vast  numbers 
of  them  embraced  Christianity"  {Eccles.  History,  i,  441). 
Hence  he  is  sometimes  denominated  "  the  Apostle  of 
Franconia."  The  Rev.  Mr.  De  Yinne,  a  AVTiter  on  the  early 
Church  history  of  Ireland,  gives  credence  to  the  legend 
concerning  Kilian's  missionary  efforts  in  Germany,  and 
his  sad  fate,  on  the  ground  that "  towards  the  close  of  the 
7th  century  there  appear  to  have  been  a  great  number 
of  Irish  ecclesiastics  and  scholars  in  Germany  and  oth- 
er parts  of  Central  Europe.  IMany  of  these,  that  they 
might  be  the  more  useful  to  the  people,  translated  their 
names  into  Latin  or  German,  and  in  all  things  not  sin- 
ful identified  themselves  with  the  different  nationalities 
among  whom  they  lalxired.  To  this  class  belong  Wiro, 
Rumbold,  bishop  of  Mechlin,  Florentius,  bishop  of  Stras- 
burg,  Colman,  Albinos,  Clementus,  and  many  others,  of 
whom  Mosheim  said  there  were  '  French  and  Irish  who 


KILLIGREW 


80 


KIMCHI 


refusptl  a  blind  subnii^simi,  and  gave  much  trouble  to 
Konie""'  (_comp.  De  "N'innc,  Priinit.  Irish  Ch.X  See  Ign. 
Group,  Lebensbesch.d./ui/i'/t-ii  Kiliani  Bisckojf'cns  tt.dessen 
Gesellm  (Wurtzburg,  1738, 4t()l ;  J,  Kion,  Liben  u.  Tod  d. 
hnLKUian  (Aischaffenburg,  1834);  J.Ch.  A.Seiters,J5on- 
ijacius,  etc.  (^layenoe,  1845),  p.  97  sq. ;  F.  W.  Kettberg, 
Ktrchc-nfiesrh.  Deutschl.  ((iiittingen,  1848),  ii,  303 ;  Todd, 
Irish  Church,  p.  70  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Killigrew,  Hknry,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was  i 
born  in  Itlli,  and  educated  at  Christ  Cliuroh,  Oxford, 
wliorc  lie  graduated  in  1Gl'8.  He  was  made  chaplain 
to  James,  duke  of  York,  and  prebend  of  Westminster,  in 
1G4-2,  and  died  about  1685.  His  Sermons  were  pub- 
lished (1GG6,  4to;  1G85,  4to;  1G89,  4to;  and  1695,  4to: 
the  last  edition  was  b}'  bishop  Patrick,  who  highly  eu- 
logized the  abilities  of  Killigrew  as  a  pulpit  orator). — 
Allibone,  Diet,  of  Engl,  and  Anier.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kilvert.FRAN'cis,  an  English  theologian  and  teach- 
er, was  born  in  Bath  in  1793.  His  early  education  was 
under  the  instruction  of  Dr.  Rowlandson,  at  Hungerford; 
afterwards  he  was  at  the  Bath  Grammar  School,  where, 
because  of  his  superior  acquirements,  he  was  engaged  as 
one  of  the  assistant  masters  prior  to  his  entering  Oxford. 
He  went  to  Worcester  College  in  1811,  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1816,  and  priest  in  1817.  His  first  curacy  was 
that  of  Claverton,  near  Bath.  In  1837  he  became  pos- 
sessor of  Claverton  Lodge,  in  which  he  continued  to 
teach  privately  until  his  death,  Sept.  19, 18G3.  Kilvert 
was  a  man  of  uncommon  purity  of  life,  and  as  an  in- 
structor of  the  youth  his  precepts  and  holy  example 
were  invaluable.  He  piibhshed  a  volume  of  Sermons 
(preached  in  St. Mary's  Church,  Bathvvick,  1827): — Se- 
lection from  unpublished  Papers  of  Bishop  Warburton 
(1841)  : — Collection  of  original  Latin  Inscriptions;  and 
Memoirs  of  Bishop  Ilurd  (I860).  See  Appleton,  Amer- 
ican A  nnual  Cyclopcedia,  18G3,  p.  571.      (J.  L.  S.) 

KilTwardeby,  Robeht,  a  noted  English  prelate, 
flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  13th  century.  He 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Paric. 
In  1272  he  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  in 
1277  was  made  cardinal.  He  died  in  1279.  Cardinal 
Kihvardeby  is  said  to  have  written  as  many  as  39  dif- 
ferent works,  but  none  of  these  were  ever  printed.  See 
Hoe  fur,  Xour.  Biog.  Gen.  xxvii,  730. 

Kimashon.     See  Tiiorx. 

Kimber,  Isaac,  an  English  dissenting  minister, 
born  at  Wantage,  Berkshire,  in  1G92,  was  educated  at 
Circsham  College,  London,  and  the  Dissenters'  Academy, 
and  in  1724  became  pastor  at  Namptwich,  Cheshire,  but 
resigned  in  1727  on  account  of  some  dilhcidties  with  his 
congregation,  and  returned  to  London,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  periodical  which  lived  some  four  years.  He 
was  also  employed  by  booksellers  in  various  literary 
undertakings,  compihng  a  number  of  historical  works, 
among  which  we  remark  the  Life  of  Oliver  Cromwell 
(London,  1714,  8vo).  He  wrote  also  the  Life  of  bishop 
Beveridgc  prefixed  to  the  folio  edition  of  that  prelate's 
works,  of  which  he  was  editor: — Sermons,  etc.,  to  which 
is  prefixed  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Au- 
thor (London,  1756, 8vo).  He  died  in  1758.  See  Chal- 
mers, GV«er«^  Biographicid  Dictionari/  ;  Allibone,  i>2C- 
tiiiiian/  of  English  and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 
(J.N.'P.) 

Kimchi,  David,  ben- Joseph  (by  the  Jews  fre- 
(lucnily  called  Itedak,  from  the  initial  letters  p  T1  = 
TT^p  nn  ~),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Jewish 
writers  of  the  ^Midtlle  Ages,  the  great  exponent  of  He- 
Ijrew  grammar  and  lexicography,  was  Ixirn  at  Narbonne, 
ill  the  south  of  France,  in  1160.  Very  little  is  known 
of  his  private  life.  He  must  certainly  have  enjoyed, 
even  among  his  contemporaries,  considerable  influence, 
gained  perhaps,  in  a  measure,  by  his  masterly  defence 
of  Moses  Maimonidcs;  form  1232  we  find  him  acting  as 
the  arljiter  to  settle  the  dispute  then  existing  between 
the  Spanish  and  French  rabbis  respecting  the  opinions 


advanced  in  the  More  Xebohim  of  JIaimonides.  He 
died  about  1240.  His  works  are:  (1.)  Commentary  on 
the  Pentateuch  (tTnm  hv  CT^S),  only  Genesis  has 
been  published  by  A.  (iinsburg  (Pressburg,  1842),  cap. 
i,  1-10  being  supplied  by  Kirehheim  from  the  writings 
of  Kimchi,  as  the  MS.  was  defective  : — (2.)  Commentary 
on  the  earlier  Projihets  (U^:r::H'  U^ii^Zi  h'J  •CS^-\Z),\. 
e.  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  printed  in  the 
Rabbinical  Bibles  edited  by  Jacob  ben-Chajim  (Venice, 
1525, 1548),  Buxtorf  (1619),  and  Frankfurter  (1724^27) : 

—  (3.)  Commentai-y  on  the  later  Prophets  (pV  TUIIS 
D'^;i~nx  CX'^z;),  i.  e.  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 
the  minor  prophets;  also  given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles: 

—  (4.)  Commentary  on  the  Pscdms  (D''5nn  P"  C1"1E), 
first  printed  in  1477,  reprinted  several  times,  and  also 
given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles  of  Jacol)  ben-Chajim, 
but  not  in  those  edited  by  Buxtorf  and  Frankfurter: — 
(5.)  Commentary  on  Path  (m  rh-^^Q  h:!  UI^S),  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time  by  Mercier  (Paris,  15G3) : — (6.) 
Commentary  on  Chronicles  (Di-a^H  "iiaT  bv  Ullli:), 
given  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles: — (7.)  Commentary  on 
Job  (^T^N  h"  UJTlS),  which  has  not  yet  been  publish- 
ed:—(8.)  The  celebrated  work  called  Miklol  (^''hzt), 
or  Perfection,  which  consists  of  two  parts — a.  A  Hebrew 
Grammar  (pTlp^n  p?n),  usually  bearing  the  name 
Miklol,  edited,  with  notes,  by  Elias  Levita  (Yen.  1545), 
and  by  :\I.  Hechim  (Furth,'l793) :— and  (9.)  b.  A  He- 
brew Lexicon  ("i":"!!  ppJl),  commonly  called  The  Book 
of  Roots  (D"'iD"i->l  125),  the  best  editions  of  which  are 
by  Elias  Levita  (Venice,  1546),  and  Biesenthal  and  Leb- 
recht  (BerUn,  1847): — (10.)  Refutation  of  Christianity 
(D"'"iUi;b  ni3Vyl"n),  in  which  he  denies  that  !Messian- 
ic  predictions  are  embodied  in  the  Psalms;  printed  to- 
gether with  Lippmann's  celebrated  Nitsachon  ("|''n:i3) 
(Amst.  1709,  1711;  Kiinigsberg,  1847):— and  (11.)  An- 
other polemical  work  called  mil,  also  printed  with  the 
Nitsachon.  Kimchi,  as  he  himself  frankly  says  in  his 
introduction  to  the  Miklol,  did  not  so  much  furnish 
new  and  startling  criticism  as  an  exhibit  of  the  results 
of  the  manifold  and  extensive  labors  of  his  numerous 
predecessors.  His  lexicon  is,  to  a  great  extent,  a  trans- 
lation of  Ibn-Ganach's  Book  of  Roots  [see  Ibn-G  anach], 
and  he  freely  quotes  the  great  Jewish-Arabic  commen- 
tators, grammarians,  and  lexicographers,  Saadia,  Ibn- 
Koreish,  Chajug,  Ibn-Ganach,  Ibn-Gebirol,  Ibn-Giath, 
Ibn-Balaam,  Gikatilla,  and  many  other  celebrities.  "  But, 
though  his  claims  are  modest,"  says  Ginsburg,  in  l\itto 
{Cyclop.  Bihl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v.),  "  yet  his  merits  are  great. 
He  was  the  first  who  discovered  the  distinction  between 
the  long  and  the  short  vowels,  whereby  the  understand- 
ing of  the  changing  of  vowels  has  been  greatly  facilitated. 
He  moreover  defended  a  simple,  natural,  and  grammat- 
ical exegesis,  at  a  time  when  most  of  his  Jewish  breth- 
ren were  enamored  of  Hagadic,  Cabalistical,  and  astro- 
logical interpretations.  It  is  therefore  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  he  became  so  eminent  among  his  brethren  that 
they  applied  to  him.  by  a  play  of  words,  the  saying  in 
theMishna  {Aboth,  iii,  17),  mm  "pX  n-^p  ^X  CX, 
No  Kimchi,  no  understanding  of  the  Scriptures.'^  Among 
Christian  scholars  also  Kimchi  enjoyed  great  celebrity, 
more  especially,  ho>vever,  among  the  precursors  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  Reformers  themselves,  "  notwith- 
standing his  hostility  to  Christianity,  which  is  displayed 
throughout  his  commentaries,  and  which  arose  from  the 
persecutions  that  the  Jews  had  to  endure  at  the  hands 
of  the  Crusaders."  ^lany  passages  obnoxious  to  adher- 
ents of  the  Christian  faith  were  struck  out  by  the  In- 
(juisition,  and  are  omitted  in  later  editions  of  Kimchi's 
Commentaries.  Pococke  collected  all  the  passages  which 
had  been  omitted  from  the  Prophets  in  Not.  ad  Portam 
MosL^,  in  his  theological  works  (ed.Lond.  1740  ).i,  241  sq. 
The  first  efforts  of  Christian  scholars  in  compiling  Heb. 


KIMCHI 


81 


KINAH 


lexicons,  or  glossaries,  and  grammars,  were  based  on  the 
labors  of  Kimclii,  and  the  notes  accompanying  the  Latin 
Bibles  of  Mmister  and  Stephen  are  derived  from  him. 
Excerpts  of  his  Commentary  on  Isaiah  were  translated 
into  Latin  by  Minister,  and  a  Latin  version  of  the  whole 
of  it  was  published  by  Malanimeus  (Florence,  1774). 
Leusden  published  Latin  versions  of  Joel  (Utrecht,  1656) 
and  Jonah  (Utrecht,  1657).  De  Muis  published  a  Latin 
translation  of  Malachi  (Paris,  1618).  Yehe  published  a 
German  translation  of  Amos  (Col.  1581),  and  Dr.M'Caul 
translated  the  Commentary  on  Zechariah  and  the  Pref- 
ace to  the  Psalms  into  English  (London,  1837).  A  Lat- 
in translation  of  the  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  was 
made  by  Janvier  (Constanz,  1544).  His  grammatical 
labors  embraced  in  the  Miklol  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  Guidacier  (Paris,  1540),  and  a  Latin  version  of  the 
Roots  was  published  in  1535.  See  Steinschneider,  Cata- 
lof)us  Lib.  Hebr.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana,  col.  868-875 ; 
Flirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica,  ii,  183  sq.,  and  his  Litrod.  to 
Ilabi-ew  Dictionary ;  the  masterly  biography  of  Kimchi 
by  Geiger  in  Ozar  Nechmad  (Vienna,  1857),  p.  157  sq. ; 
Dukes,  Die  Familie  Kimchi  (^Literaturblatt  des  Orients, 
1850) ;  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juden,  vi,  236  sq.;  Kitto,  Bibl. 
Ci/clop.  s.  V. 

Kimchi,  Joseph,  Ben-Isaac,  a  distinguished 
Jewish  liabbi,  father  of  the  preceding  (David),  was  born 
in  Spain  in  the  latter  half  of  the  11th  centiurj',  but  was 
obliged  to  quit  Spain  during  the  terrible  persecutions 
by  tlic  Mohammedans,  and  settled  at  Narbonne,  France. 
Just  as  little  is  known  of  his  personal  history  as  of  his 
son's.  lie  ^vas  well  versed  in  the  science  of  the  He- 
brew language  and  Biblical  exegesis,  and  by  the  intro- 
duction into  Southern  France  of  that  thorough  scholar- 
ship for  which  the  Spanish  Jews  in  his  day  are  so  cele- 
brated, gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  study  of  the  O.-Test. 
Scriptures  in  the  original.  As  has  been  pithily  said,  he 
became  the  Aben-Ezra  of  Southern  France.  He  died 
about  1180.  He  wrote  a  number  of  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  exegetical  theology,  but  it  is  as  a  theologian, 
especially  as  a  polemic,  that  Joseph  Kimchi  excelled. 
His  most  important  works  are:  ri'i"i3ri  ^£&  (^Booh  of 
the  Covenant^,  a  treatise  against  Christianity,  in  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  Jew  (iMaamin  or  believ- 
er) and  a  Christian  (Min  or  heretic),  and  which  was 
published  in  the  Milchemeth  hu-iihem  (Constantinople, 
1710,8vo):— dtrn  Th^nb-q  "iS&,againstaJewnamed 
Peter  Alphonse,  who  had  become  a  Christian :  this  work 
was  never  published.  He  also  wrote  in  Hebrew  verse  the 
maxims  of  Solomon  ben-Gabirol  (of  this  fragments  ap- 
peared in  the  Zion  [Francf.  1842, 8vo],  ii,  07-100) ;  some 
Hebrew  hymns,  which  were  inserted  in  the  Aijalcth  ha- 
(SAac/iH?- (published  by  Mard.Jare  [Mantua,  1612, 8vo]); 
a  Hebrew  translation  of  Bachia  ben-Joseph's  morals, 
printed  in  the  works  of  the  latter  (Leipzig,  1846, 12mo)  ; 
besides  commentaries  on  most  of  the  books  of  the  O.  T. 
The  last  are  as  follows:  (1.)  Commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, entitled  min  ^30  {The  Book  of  the  Laic) ;  frag- 
ments are  extant  in  MS.,  De  Eossi  166,  and  in  the  quo- 
tations of  his  son  D.  Kimchi: — (2.)  Commentary  on  the 
earlier  Prophets,  called  n3p"2i"i  "13D,  The  Bill  of  Pur- 
chase, in  allusion  to  Jer.  xxxii,  11: — (3.)  Commentary 
on  the  later  Prophets,  called  ^^^mI  13D  {The  unfolded 
Bool;  in  allusion  to  Jer.  xxxii,  14).  These  works,  too, 
have  not  as  yet  come  to  light,  and  we  only  know  them 
through  the  numerous  quotations  from  them  dispersed 
through  David  Kimchi's  Commentaries  on  the  I'roph- 
ets : — (4.)  Commentary  on  Job,  of  which  defective  IMSS. 
are  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library  and  at  Jlunich, 
260:  —  (5.)  Commentary  on  Proverbs,  a  perfect  IMS.  of 
which  exists  in  the  Munich  Library,  No.  242 :  —  (6.) 
Hebrew  Grammar,  called  "jliaT  'n£&  (The  Booh  of  Re- 
membrance),  which  is  the  first  written  "by  a  Jew  in  a 
Christian  country,  and  is  quoted  by  D.  Kimchi  in  the 
Miklol,  X5p,  6; — (7.)  Another  grammatical  work,  en- 
V,— F 


titled  Xiphil  11:20  ISO,  also  quoted  in  the  3Iiklol, 
1  bp,  a.  "  Both  as  a  commentator  and  a  grammarian," 
says  Ginsburg  (in  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.),  "Jo- 
seph Kimchi  deserves  the  highest  praise;  and,  though 
his  works  still  remain  unpublished,  his  contributions  to 
Biblical  literature  produced  a  most  beneficial  influence, 
inasmuch  as  they  prepared  the  way  in  Christian  comi- 
tries  for  a  literal  and  sound  exegesis.  His  son,  David 
Kimchi,  who  constantly  quotes  him,  both  in  his  com- 
mentaries and  vuider  almost  every  root  of  his  Hebrew 
Lexicon,  has  familiarized  the  Hebrew  student  with  the 
grammatical  and  exegetical  principles  of  this  deservedly 
esteemed  Hebraist."  See,  besides  the  works  cited  under 
David  Kimchi,  Biesenthal  and  Lebrecht's  edition  of  D. 
Kimchi's  Radicum  Liber  (Berlin,  1847),  col.  xxiv  sq. ; 
and  Geiger's  excellent  treatise  in  Ozar  Nechmud  (Vien- 
na, 1856),  i,  p.  97-110 ;  Bartolocci,  May.  Biblioth.  Rabbin. 
iii,  327;  LiteraturblaU  des  Orients,  1850;  'Suxst,  Biblioth- 
eca Judaica,  ii,  186  sq.      (J.  H.W.) 

Kimchi,  Moses,  ben-Josepii  (also  called  Remak, 
from  the  initial  letters  p'nl  =  in^p  ntJa  S),  eldest 
son  of  the  preceding  (Joseph),  flourished  about  1160- 
1170.  Though  far  inferior  in  ability  to  his  father  and 
brother,  he  has  earned  an  honorable  place  as  a  commen- 
tator and  grammarian.  His  works  are :  (1.)  Commenta- 
ry on  Proverbs  (or  "^"C^  "ISD  513113)  (prmted  in  the 
Rabbinic  Bibles  of  Jacob  ben-Chajim,Ven.  1526,  1548; 
Buxtorf,  Basel,  1619;  and  Frankfurter,  Amst.  1724-27). 
This  work  has  been  falsel}'  ascribed  to  Aben-Ezra.  Com- 
pare Reifmann,  in  Literatui-blatt  des  Orients,  1841,  p.  760, 
751 ;  Zion  (F.  a.  JI.  1841),  i,  76 ;  Lippmann,  in  Zion  (F. 
a.  M.  1842),  ii,  113-117,  129-133, 155-157, 171-174, 185- 
188: — (2.)  Commentary  on  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  (also 
printed  in  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  erroneously  at- 
tributed to  Aben-Ezra) : — (3.)  A  grammatical  work,  en- 
titled ri"in  "ib^n'iJ  ibriTO  (or  Joumey  on  the  Paths  of 
Knowledye'),  which  became  a  manual  for  both  Jews  and 
Christians  beginning  the  study  of  Hebrew  grammar. 
It  was  highly  commended  by  Elias  Levita,  ^vho  anno- 
tated and  edited  it  in  1508.  It  was  afterwards  publish- 
ed, with  a  Latin  translation,  by  Seb.  IMmister  (Basel, 
1531),  and  since  frequently,  with  diverse  additions  and 
modifications.  '■  The  chief  merit  of  this  little  volume 
consists  in  the  fact  that  j\I.  Kimchi  was  the  first  to  em- 
ploy therein  the  word  IpS  as  a  paradigm  of  the  regular 
verbs,  instead  of  the  less  appropriate  verb  meditc  guttu- 
ralis  b"3,  which  had  been  used  by  his  predecessors,  in 
imitation  of  Arabic  grammarians :" — (4.)  A  grammati- 
cal treatise  on  the  anomalous  expressions,  entitled  "l3D- 
!n01!irir!,  quoted  by  D.  Kimclii  in  the  Miklol.  See 
Biesenthal  and  Lebrecht's  edition  of  D.  Kimchi's  Radi- 
cum Liber  (Berlin,  1847),  col.  xxxviii  sq. ;  FUrst,  Bibli- 
otheca Judaica,  ii,  187  sq. ;  Steinschneider,  Catalogus 
Lib?:  Hebr.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana,  col.  1838-1844;  by 
the  same  author,  Bihlioyraphisches  Handbuch  (Leipzig^ 
1859),p.74sq. ;  Ge'igcr s  Ozar  Xechmad, ii,  17  sq.;  Gins- 
burg, in  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  ii,  s.  v. 

Kimmcsh,  Kimosh.     See  Nettle. 

Ki "nah  (Ilcb.  Kinah',  ni'^p,  an  eler/y,  as  iu  Jer.  ix,, 
9,  etc. ;  Septuag.  Kii/a  v.  r.  'Iicrt/i),  a  city  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Judah  (hence  prob.  includefl  within  the  terri- 
tory of  Simeon),  mentioned  between  Jagur  and  Dimo- 
nah  (Josh,  xv,  22).  "  Stanley  {Sinai  and  Pal.  p.  100)  in- 
geniously connects  Kinah  with  the  Kenites  (ijip),  who 
settled  in  this  district  (Judg.  i,  16).  But  it  should  not 
be  overlooked  that  tlie  list  in  Josh,  xv  purports  to  re- 
cord the  to^vnis  as  they  were  at  the  conquest,  while  the 
settlement  of  the  Kenites  probably  (though  not  certain- 
ly) did  not  take  place  till  after  it.  It  is  mentioned  in 
the  Onomasticon  of  Eusebius  and  Jerome  (s.  v.  Kivd, 
Cina),  but  not  so  as  to  imply  that  they  had  any  actual 
knowledge  of  it.  Witli  the  sole  exception  of  Schwarz 
{Palest,  p. 99), it  appears  to  be  unmentioned  by  any  trav- 


KINANAII 


82 


KING 


eller,  and  the  '  town  Chidh,  situated  near  the  wilderness 
of  Zin,'  with  which  lie  woulil  identify  it,  is  not  to  be 
found  in  liis  own  or  any  other  map"  (Smith).  The  true 
position  of  Kinali  can  only  be  conjecturally  located  as 
not  far  from  the  Dead  Sea,  possibly  in  wady  Fikreh. 

Kiuanah.     See  IMakuaii. 

Kindervater.CiiuiSTiANYicTOR,  a  German  preach- 
er and  philosopher  of  the  Kantian  school,  was  born  at 
Neuenheilii^en,  Thuringia,  in  1758,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leipzig.  lie  became  pastor  at  Pedel- 
witz,  near  Leipzig,  in  1790 ;  in  1804,  general  superintend- 
ent at  Eisenach,  and  died  May  9, 180(5.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are,  An  homo  qui  animum  neyet  esse  im- 
moiiakm,  aninio  possit  esse  tranquillo  (Lips.  1785, 4to)  : 
— Gicht  es  unerschutterliche  Beruhigung  in  Leiden  ohne 
den  aiif  Moralitdt  gegiiindeten  Glaitben  an  die  Unsterb- 
lichkoit  (1797): — Gesprdche  iiber  das  Wesen  der  Goiter 
(1787): — Adumhratio  qua'stionis,  an  Fi/n-konis  doctri- 
na  omiiis  tollatur  virtus  (1789,  4to): — Hkejitische  Dialo- 
gen  iiber  die  Vortheile  der  Leiden,  vnd  Widerv-drtigkeiten 
dieses  Lebens  (1788, 8vo) : — Geschichte  der  Wirkungen  der 
rerschiednen  Religionen  auf  die  Siitlichkeit  und  Gliicksc- 
ligkeit  des  Menschengeschlechts  in  dltern  und  neuern  Zei- 
ten  (1793,  8vo) : — Geist  des  reinen  Christenthunis  (1795, 
8v'o)  : — iJarstellung  der  Leidensgesch.  Jesu  (1797, 8vo)  : — 
De  indole  afque  forma  regni  Messice  e  mente  Johannis 
BapfistiB  Disserlatio  (1803,  4to). — King,  Encgklop.  Lex. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Diiring,  Deutsche  Kanzelredner  d.  18'™  und 
19'"'  Jiihrh.  p.  155  sq. 

Kindred.  I.  The  following  are  the  Hebrew  terms 
thus  rendered  in  the  English  Bible  : 

1.  nr!2'i"3,  mishpachah' ,  usually  rendered  "family," 
answering  to  the  Latin  gens,  except  that  it  more  dis- 
tinctly includes  the  idea  of  original  affinity  or  deriva- 
tion from  a  common  stock ;  it  corresponds  exactly  ^vith 
our  word  clan.  It  is  used  of  the  different  tribes  of  the 
Canaanitcs  (Gen.  x,  18) ;  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  He- 
brew people  (Exod.vi,  14;  Numb.i,  20,  etc.) ;  sometimes 
for  one  of  the  tribes  (Josh,  vii,  17;  Judg.  xiii,  2,  etc.), 
and  in  the  later  books  tropically  for  a  people  or  nation 
(.ler.  viii,  3  ;  xxv,  9 ;  Ezek.  xx,  32 ;  Micah  ii,  3).  It  is 
translated  kindred  in  the  A.  V.  at  Gen.  xxiv,  41 ;  Josh. 
vi,23;  Ruthii,  3;  Job  xxxii,2 — in  all  of  which  it  refers 
to  relationship  by  consanguinity,  more  or  less  remote. 

2.  rribTO,  mole'deth,  conveys  primarily  the  idea  of 
birth,  natiritg ;  hence  a  person  born,  a  child  (Gen.  xxviii, 
9;  Lev.  xviii,  9, 11),  awd  persons  of  the  same  family  or 
/i««7^e  (Gen.  xii,  1 ;  xxiv,  4;  xxxi,  3  ;  xliii,  7;  Numb. 
X,  30 ;  Esth.  ii,  10 ;  viii,  G — in  all  which  passages  it  is 
translated  kindred  in  the  A.  V.).  In  some  of  these  in- 
stances, however,  the  kinship  is  only  the  remote  one  of 
common  nationality  arising  out  of  common  descent. 

3.  r>'^TO,  moda'ath,  literally  knowledge,  is  used  to  ex- 
press blood-relationship  in  Ruth  iii,  2 ;  compare  "'1T2 
(Ruth  ii,  1 ;  I'rov.  vii,4). 

4.  n?i<?,  gcUllah',  redemption,  a  word  which  properly 
designated  such  near  relationship  by  blood  as  would  con- 
fer the  rights  and  obligations  of  a  bxh,  or  kinsman, 
avenger,  and  redeemer,  on  the  party.  See  GoiJL.  As 
commonly  used,  however,  it  denotes  either  the  thing  re- 
deemed (Ituth  iv,  tJ),  or  the  right  of  redeeming  (Lev. 
xxv,  29,  etc.),  or  the  redemption  price  (Lev.  xxv,  26, 
etc.).  The  only  passage  in  which  it  is  translated  kin- 
dred in  the  A.  V.  is  Ezek.  xi,  15.  Ilengstenberg  (Chris- 
tol.  iii,  9,  E.  T.)  and  Iliivernick  (Comment,  ad  loc.)  con- 
tend that  ri?S5  is  to  be  taken  here  not  in  the  sense  of 
relations/lip,  but  in  that  of  suretyship  or  substitution- 
ary action,  and  they  would  translate  the  passage, '•  Thy 
brethren  are  the  men  of  thy  suretyship,"  or '' redemp- 
tion," i.  e.  the  men  whom  it  lies  on  them  to  redeem  or 
act  for.  The  Sept.  seems  to  hs\-e  read  V^r^ij,  for  they 
give  ai'xpaXwaiag  here. 

5.  nx,  acli,  which  pro]ierly  means  brother,  occurs  only 
once  ^vith  the  rendering  kindi-ed  in  the  A,  \.,  m  1  Chron. 


xii,  29.  It  is  frequently  used  elsewhere  in  a  wide  sense, 
and  may  be  nndiTstcxid  of  nearly  all  collateral  relation- 
ships whatever,  whether  by  consanguinity,  affinity,  or 
simple  association.  From  this  comes  iTiriX,  brotherhood 
(Zech.  xi,  14). 

Besides  these  terms,  the  Hebrews  expressed  consan- 
guinity by  such  words  and  phrases  as  1t33,y?esA  (Gen. 
xxxvii,  27 ;  Isa.  Iviii,  7) ;  "^"i  w^^  '^'?^?j  '"^V  ^one  and 
my  Jlesh  (Gen.  xxix,  14  ;  Judg.  ix,  2 ;  2  Sam.  v,  1,  etc.) ; 
'^Vi':i,Jlesh  (Lev.  xviii,  12,  13,  etc. ;  Numb,  xxvii,  41), 
with  niNd,  coll.  kinswomen  (Lev.  xviii,  17) ;  and  "IX'J 
i'\'Ci^, Jlesh  of  his  flesh  (A.V.  near  of  kin,  Lev.  xviii,G; 
nigh  (fkin,  xxv,  49). — Ejtto. 

II.  In  the  New  Test,  we  have  the  following  Greek 
words  thus  rendered:  ykvoc,  the  most  general  and  fre- 
quent term,  our  kin,  i.  e.  birth  relationship,  with  its  de- 
rivative avyysveia,  co-relationship;  TraTpia  (Acts  iii, 
25),  descent  in  a  direct  line  ("  lineage,"  Luke  ii,  4 ;  '•  fam- 
ily," Eph.  iii,  15);  and  tf>vX//(Rev.v,9;  vii,  9;  xi,9;  xiii, 
7 ;  xiv,  6),  a  tribe  (as  elsewhere  rendered). 

In  addition  to  these  lleb.  and  Greek  words,  various 
others  of  cognate  derivation  or  similar  signilication  are 
frequently  rendered '' kin,"  "kinship,"  etc. 

III.  The  terms  expressive  of  immediate  relationship 
are  father,  siotuki!,  brother,  sister,  son,  daugh- 
ter ;  those  expressing  collateral  consanguinity  are  un- 
cle, aunt,  nephew  (niece  does  not  occur  in  the  A.V., 
but  brother's  or  sister's  daughter),  cousin;  those  ex- 
pressive of  affinity  are  p\\theu-in-law,  jiother-in- 
LAw,  son-in-law,  daughter-in-law,  brother-in- 
law,  siSTER-iN-L.\w.     See  each  of  these  in  their  place, 

IV.  The  relations  of  kindred,  expressed  by  few  words, 
and  imperfectly  defined  in  the  earliest  ages,  acquired  in 
course  of  time  greater  significance  and  Avider  infiuence. 
The  full  list  of  relatives  cither  by  consanguinity,  i.  e.  as 
arising  from  a  common  ancestor,  or  by  affinity,  i.  e.  as 
created  by  marriage,  may  be  seen  detailed  in  the  Cor- 
pus Juiis  Civ.  Digest,  lib.  xxxviii,  tit.  10,  de  Gradibus; 
see  also  Corp.  Jur.  Canon.  Deer,  ii,  c.  xxxv,  9,  5.  See 
Affinity. 

The  domestic  and  economical  questions  arising  out  of 
kindred  may  be  classed  imder  the  three  heads  of  JIak- 
RiAGE,  Inheritance,  and  Blood -Revenge,  and  the 
reader  is  referred  to  tlie  articles  on  those  subjects  for  in- 
formation thereon.  It  is  clear  that  the  tendency  of  the 
jNIosaic  law  was  to  increase  the  restrictions  on  marriage, 
by  defining  more  precisely  the  relations  created  by  it,  as 
is  shown  bj'  the  cases  of  Abraham  and  IMoses.  For  in- 
formation on  the  general  subject  of  kindred  and  its  obli- 
gations, see  Selden,  De  Jure  Ncdurali,  lib.  v ;  INIichaelis, 
Lairs  of  Moses,  ed.  Smith,  ii,  3G  ;  Knobel  on  Lev.  xviii ; 
Philo,  he  Spec.  Leg.  iii,  3, 4, 5,  vol.  ii,  p.  301-304,  ed,  ;Man- 
gey;  Burckhardt,  .1  ?y;6  Tribes,  i,  150;  \\^ci\,Bibl.  Arch. 
ii,  50,  §  106, 107.— Smith.     See  Kinsman. 

Kine  (T\^'^.j}arah,'  i.  q.  fruitful,  a  heifer,  Gen.  xxxii, 
15;  xli,  2-27;  and  so  rendered  in  Numb,  xix,  2-9;  also 
a  young  milch-cow,  1  Sam,  vi,  7-14 ;  "  cow,"  Job  xxi,  10 ; 
Isa,  xi,  7;  a  "heifer"  just  broken  to  the  yoke,  Hos.  iv, 
16 ;  put  as  a  symbol  of  a  voluptuous  female,  Amos  iv,  1 : 
sometimes  in  the  Auth.Vers.  for  r|bx,  c'leph,  usually  an 
or,  as  rendered  in  Psa.  viii.  8;  Prov.  xiv,  4;  Isa.  xxx, 
24;  but  fcm.  in  Dent,  vii,  13  ;  xxviii,  4, 18,  51 ;  also  for 
"Ip2,  i(;/iY//-',  Dent,  xxxii,  14;  2  Sam,  xvii,  29;  a  beeve 
or  one  of  a  herd  of  cattle,  elsewhere  without  distinction 
of  sex,  and  rendered  "  ox,''  '■  bullock,"  "  herd,"  etc).  See 
Cow. 

King  (Ileb.  and  Chald.  Tyi'2,  me'hk,  ruler;  ftaai- 
\iv<j),  the  most  general  term  for  an  absolute,  indepen- 
dent, and  life-long  sovereign. 

1.  Scriptural  Applications  of  the  Title. — In  the  Bible 
the  name  does. not  always  imply  the  same  degree  of 
pov.-er  or  importance,  neither  does  it  indicate  the  magni- 
tude of  the  dominion  or  territory  of  the  national  ruler 
thus  designated  (Gen.  xxxvi,  31).     Many  persons  are 


KING 


83 


KING 


called  "  kings"  in  Scripture  whom  we  should  rather  de- 
nominate chiefs  or  leaders ;  and  many  single  towns,  or 
towns  with  their  adjacent  villages,  are  said  to  have 
kings.  Hence  we  need  not  be  surprised  at  seeing  that 
so  small  a  country  as  Canaan  contained  thirty-one  kinr/s 
who  were  conquered  (Josh,  xii,  9, 24),  besides  many  wlio 
no  doubt  escaped  the  arms  of  Joshua.  Adonibezek  him- 
sslf,  no  very  po\verful  king,  mentions  seventy  kliif/s  whom 
he  had  subdued  and  mutilated  (Judg.  i,  7 ;  1  Kings  iv, 
21 ;  XX,  1,  16).  Ii^ven  at  the  present  day  the  heads  of 
Arab  tribes  are  often  called  "  king,"  which  in  this  case 
also  means  no  more  than  sheik  or  chief.  In  like  man- 
ner, in  the  New  Test.,  owing  to  the  peculiar  political  re- 
lations of  the  Jews,  the  title  "  king"  has  very  different 
significations:  (1.)  The  Roman  emperor  (1  Pet.  ii,  13, 
17);  and  so  the  "  seven  kings"  (Rev.  xvii,  10)  are  perhaps 
the  first  seven  Caesars  (comp.  Thilo,  Apocr.  579).  (2.) 
Herod  Antipas  (Matt,  xiv,  9 ;  Mark  vi,  22),  although 
only  tetrarch  (compare  Luke  iii,  19).  (3.)  8o  also  the 
ten  provincial  representatives  of  the  Roman  government 
(Rev.  xvii,  12),  as  being  supreme  within  their  respective 
jurisdictions.     See  Governor,  etc. 

"  King,"  in  symbolical  language,  signifies  the  possess- 
or of  supreme  power,  whether  lodged  in  one  or  more  per- 
sons (Rrov.  viii,  15,  IG).  It  is  applied  in  the  Scriptures 
to  (iod,  as  the  sole  proper  sovereign  and  ruler  of  the 
universe  (1  Tim.  i,  17),  and  to  Christ,  the  Son  of  God, 
the  sole  Head  and  Governor  of  his  Church  (1  Tim.  vi, 
15,16;  Matt. xxvii,  1 1 ;  Lukexis,38;  John  i, 49;  xvili, 
33, 34) ;  also  to  men,  as  invested  with  regal  authority  by 
their  fellows  (Luke  xxii,  25;  1  Tim.  ii,  1,  2;  1  Pet.  ii, 
13-17) ;  so  also  the  people  of  God  are  called  kinr/s  and 
priests  (Psa.  xlix,  14;  Dan.  vii,  22,  27;  Slatt.  xix,  28; 
Luke  xxii,  29,  30 ;  1  Cor.  vi,  2,  3 ;  2  Tim.  ii,  12 ;  Rev.  i, 
6 ;  ii,  26,  27 ;  iii,  21 ;  v,  10 ;  xxii,  5).  In  Job  xviii,  14 
it  is  applied  to  Death,  who  is  there  called  the  "  king  of 
terrors."  In  Job  xli,  34,  leviathan,  or  the  crocodile,  is 
thus  designated :  "  he  is  a  king  over  all  the  children  of 
pride."     (See  AVemyss's  Symbol.  Did.) 

The  application,  however,  of  the  term  "  king,"  with 
which  we  are  here  particularly  concerned,  is  that  of  the 
name  of  the  national  ruler  of  the  Hebrews  during  a  pe- 
riod of  about  500  years  previous  to  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  B.C.  588.  It  was  borne  first  by  the  ruler  of 
the  Twelve  Tribes  united,  and  then  by  the  riders  of 
Judali  and  Israel  separately.     See  Kings,  Book  of. 

2.  Orii/in  of  the  Ilebre^n  Monarchy. — Regal  authority 
was  altogether  alien  to  the  institutions  of  Moses  in  their 
original  and  unadulterated  form.  Their  fundamental 
idea  was  that  Jehovah  was  the  sole  king  of  the  nation 
(1  hSam.  viii,  7) ;  to  use  the  emphatic  words  in  Isa. 
xxxiii,  22,  "  the  Lord  is  our  judge,  the  Lord  is  our  law- 
giver, the  Lord  is  our  king."  Although  Moses  ventured, 
witli  his  half-civilized  hordes,  on  tlie  bold  experiment 
of  founding  a  society  without  a  Iving,  and  in  doing  so 
evinced  a  rare  patriotism  and  self-denial,  for  without 
doubt  the  man  who  rescued  the  Je^vs  from  bondage  and 
conducted  them  to  the  land  of  Canaan  might,  had  he 
chosen,  have  kept  the  dominion  in  his  own  hands,  and 
transmitted  a  crown  to  his  posterity,  yet  he  well  knew 
what  were  the  elements  with  which  he  had  to  deal  in 
framing  institutions  for  tlie  rescued  Israelites.  Slaves 
they  had  been,  and  the  sjiirit  of  slavery  was  not  yet 
wholly  eradicated  from  their  souls.  They  had  witness- 
ed in  Egypt  the  more  than  ordinary  pomp  and  splendor 
which  environ  a  throne.  Not  improliably  the  ]irospcrity 
and  abundance  which  they  had  seen  in  Egypt,  and  in 
which  they  had  been,  in  a  measure,  allowed  to  partake, 
might  have  been  ascribed  by  them  to  the  regal  form  of 
the  Egyptian  government.  Moses  may  well,  therefore, 
have  appreliended  a  not  very  remote  departure  from 
the  fundamental  type  of  his  institutions.  Accordingly 
he  makes  a  special  provision  for  this  contingency  (Deut. 
xvii,  14),  and  labors,  by  anticipation,  to  guard  against 
the  abuses  of  royal  power.  ShoiUil  a  king  be  demanded 
by  the  people,  then  he  was  to  be  a  native  Israelite  :  lie 
was  not  to  be  drawn  away  by  the  love  of  show,  especial- 


ly by  a  desire  for  that  regal  display  in  which  horses 
have  always  borne  so  large  a  part,  to  send  down  to 
Egypt,  still  less  to  cause  the  people  to  return  to  that 
land;  he  was  to  avoid  the  corrupting  influence  of  a 
large  harem,  so  common  among  Eastern  monarchs ;  he 
was  to  abstain  from  amassing  silver  and  gold ;  he  was 
to  have  a  copy  of  the  law  made  expressly  for  his  own 
studj' — a  study  which  he  was  never  to  intermit  till  the 
end  of  his  days,  so  that  his  heart  might  not  be  lifted  up 
above  his  brethren,  that  he  might  not  be  turned  aside 
from  the  living  God,  but,  observing  the  divine  statute?, 
and  thus  acknowledging  himself  to  be  no  more  than  tie 
vicegerent  of  heaven,  he  might  enjoy  happiness,  ar.d 
transmit  his  authority  to  liis  descendants. 

The  removal  of  Moses  and  Joshua  by  death  soon  left 
the  people  to  the  natural  residts  of  their  own  condition 
and  character.  Anarchy  ensued.  Noble  minds,  indeed, 
and  stout  hearts  appeared  in  those  who  were  termed 
judges;  but  the  state  of  the  countrj^  was  not  so  satis- 
factory as  to  prevent  an  unenlightened  people,  having 
low  and  gross  affections,  from  preferring  the  glare  of  a 
crown  and  the  apparent  protection  of  a  sceptre  to  the 
invisible  and,  therefore,  mostly  imrecognised  artn  of 
Omnipotence.  A  king  accordingly  is  requested  (1  Sam. 
viii).  The  misconduct  of  Samuel's  sons,  who  had  been 
made  judges,  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  demand 
being  put  forth.  The  request  came  with  authority, 
for  it  emanated  from  all  the  elders  of  Israel,  who,  after 
holding  a  formal  conference,  proceeded  to  Samuel,  in 
order  to  make  him  acquainted  with  their  wish.  Samuel 
was  displeased ;  but,  having  sought  in  prayer  to  learn  the 
divine  will,  he  was  instructed  to  yield  to  the  demand; 
yet  at  the  same  time  he  was  directed  to  "  protest  sol- 
emnly unto  them,  and  show  them  the  manner  of  the 
king  that  shall  reign  over  them."  Faithfully  did  the 
prophet  depict  the  evils  which  a  monarcliy  would  inflict 
on  the  people.  In  vain ;  they  said,  "  Nay,  but  we  will 
have  a  king  over  us."  Accordingly,  Said,  the  son  of 
Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was,  by  divine  direction, 
selected,  and  privately  anointed  by  Samuel  "  to  be  cap- 
tain over  God's  inheritance;"  thus  he  was  to  hold  only 
a  delegated  and  subordinate  authoritj'  (1  Sam.  ix ;  x, 
1-16).  Under  the  guidance  of  Samuel,  Said  was  subse- 
quently chosen  by  lot  from  among  the  assembled  tribes ; 
and  though  his  personal  appearance  had  no  influence  in 
the  choice,  yet,  when  he  was  plainly  pointed  out  to  he 
the  individual  designed  for  the  sceptre,  Samuel  called 
attention  to  those  personal  qualities  which  in  less  civ- 
ilized nations  have  a  preponderating  influence,  and  are 
never  without  effect,  at  least,  in  supporting  the  physical 
dignity  of  a  reign  (1  Sam.  x,  17-27).  (For  a  fuller  dis- 
cussion of  this  change  in  the  Hebrew  constitution,  see 
Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illustrations  under  the  portion  of 
history  in  question.)     See  Samuel. 

The  special  occasion  of  the  substitution  of  a  regal 
form  of  government  for  that  of  the  judges  seems  to 
have  been  the  siege  of  Jabesh-Gilead  by  Nahash,  king 
of  the  Ammonites  (1  Sam.  xi,  1 ;  xii,  12),  and  the  re- 
fusal to  allow  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  to  capitulate 
except  on  humiliating  and  cruel  conditions  (1  Sam.  xi,  2, 
4-6).  The  conviction  seems  to  have  forced  itself  on 
the  Israelites  that  they  could  not  resist  their  formidable 
neighbor  unless  they  placed  themselves  under  the  sway 
of  a  king,  like  surrounding  nations.  Concurrently  with 
this  conviction,  disgust  had  been  excited  by  the  corrupt 
administration  of  justice  under  the  sons  of  Samuel,  and 
a  radical  change  was  desired  by  them  in  this  respect 
also  (1  Sam.  viii,  3-5).  Accordingly,  the  original  idea 
of  a  Hebrew  king  was  twofold :  1st,  that  he  should  lead 
the  people  to  battle  in  time  of  war;  and,  2dly,  that  he 
should  execute  judgment  and  justice  to  them  in  war  and 
in  peace  (1  Sam.  viii,  20).  In  both  respects  the  desired 
end  was  attained.  The  righteous  wrath  and  military 
capacity  of  Saul  were  immediately  triumphant  over  the 
Ammonites ;  and  though  idtimately  he  was  defeated 
and  slain  in  battle  with  the  Philistines,  he  put  even  them 
to  flight  on  more  than  one  occasion  (1  Sam.  xiv,  23  ; 


KING 


84 


KYMG 


xvii,  52),  and  generally  waged  successful  war  against 
the  surrounding  nations  (1  Sam.  xiv,  47).  See  Saul. 
His  successor,  David,  entered  on  a  series  ofbrUliant  con- 
quests over  the  Philistines,  Moabites,  Syrians,  Edomites, 
and  Ammonites ;  and  the  Israelites,  no  longer  confined 
within  the  naiTOW  bounds  of  Palestine,  had  an  empire 
extending  from  tlie  Iliver  Euphrates  to  Gaza,  and  from 
the  entering  in  of  Hamath  to  the  river  of  Egypt  (1 
Kings  iv,  21).  In  the  meanwliilc  complaints  ceased  of 
the  corruption  of  justice;  and  Solomon  not  only  consol- 
idated and  maintained  in  peace  the  empire  of  his  father 
David,  but  left  an  enduring  reputation  for  his  wisdom 
as  a  judge.  Under  this  expression,  however,  we  must 
regard  him,  not  merely  as  pronouncing  decisions,  pri- 
marily or  in  the  last  resort,  in  civil  and  criminal  cases, 
liut  likewise  as  liolding  public  levees  and  transacting 
public  business  "  at  the  gate,"  when  he  would  receive 
petitions,  hear  complaints,  and  give  summary  decisions 
on  various  points,  wliich  in  a  modern  European  kingdom 
■would  come  under  the  cognizance  of  numerous  distinct 
public  departments.     See  David  ;  Solojiox. 

3.  Functions  and  Prerogatives.  —  Emanating  as  the 
royal  power  did  from  the  demand  of  the  people  and  the 
permission  of  a  prophet,  it  was  not  likely  to  be  unlimit- 
ed in  its  extent  or  arbitrary  in  its  exercise.  The  gov- 
ernment of  God,  indeed,  remained,  being  rather  conceal- 
ed and  complicated  than  disoAvned,  nuich  less  super- 
seded. The  king  ruled  not  in  his  own  right  nor  in 
virtue  of  the  choice  of  the  people,  but  by  concession  from 
on  higli,  and  partly  as  the  servant  and  partly  as  the 
representative  of  the  theocracy.  How  inseciu-e,  indeed, 
was  the  tenure  of  the  kingly  power,  how  restricted  it 
was  in  its  authority,  appears  clear  from  the  comparative 
facility  with  which  the  crown  was  transferred  from  Saul 
to  David ;  and  the  part  whicli  the  prophet  Samuel  took 
ill  effecting  that  transference  points  out  the  quarter 
where  lay  the  power  wliich  limited,  if  it  did  not  pri- 
marily, at  least,  control  the  royal  authority.  It  must, 
however,  be  added  that,  if  religion  narrowed  this  au- 
thority, it  also  invested  it  witli  a  sacredness  which  could 
emanate  from  no  other  source.  Liable  as  the  Israelitish 
kings  were  to  interference  on  the  part  of  priest  and 
prophet,  they  were,  by  the  same  di\'iiie  power,  shielded 
from  the  unholy  hands  of  the  profane  vulgar,  and  it 
was  at  once  imjjiety  and  rebellion  to  do  injury  to  "  the 
Lord's  anointed"  (Psa.  ii,  G,  7  sq.).  Instances  are  not 
wanting  to  corroborate  and  extend  these  general  ob- 
serA-ations.  "WTien  Saul  was  in  extremity  before  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxviii),  he  resorted  to  the  usual 
methods  of  obtaining  counsel :  "  Saul  inquired  of  the 
Lord;  the  Lord  answered  him  not,  neither  hy  dreams, 
nor  by  Urim,  nor  by  tlie  prophets."  So  David,  when 
in  need  of  advice  in  war  (1  Sam.  xxx,  7),  resorted  to 
Abiathar  the  priest,  who,  by  means  of  the  ephod,  in- 
quired of  the  Lord,  and  thereupon  urged  the  king  to 
take  a  certain  course,  which  proved  successful  (see  also 
2  Sam.  ii,  1).  Sometimes,  indeed,  as  appears  from  1 
Sam.  xxviii.  it  was  a  propliet  who  acted  the  part  of 
prune  minister,  or  chief  counsellor,  to  the  king,  and  who, 
as  bearing  that  sacred  character,  must  have  possessed 
vcrj'  weighty  influence  in  the  roj'al  divan  (1  Kings  xxii, 
7  sq.).  We  must  not,  however,  expect  to  find  any  def- 
inite and  ]icrmancnt  distribution  of  power,  any  legal 
determination  of  the  royal  jircrogatives  as  discrimina- 
ted from  the  divine  authority;  circumstances,  as  they 
]ironn)ted  certain  deeds,  restricted  or  enlarged  the  sphere 
of  the  monarch's  action.  Tims,  in  1  Sam.  xi,  4  sq.,  we 
find  Saul,  in  an  emergency,  assuming,  without  consulta- 
tion  or  deliberation,  the  itower  of  demanding  something 
like  a  levy  en  masse,  and  of  proclaiming  instant  war. 
M'ith  the  king  lay  the  administration  of  justice  in  the 
last  resort  (2  Sam.  xv,  2 ;  I  Kings  iii,  Ki  sq.).  He  also 
jioss?ssed  the  power  of  life  and  dfalh  (2  Sam.vxiv).  To 
jtroviile  for  and  superintend  the  public  worsliip  was  at 
once  his  duty  and  his  highest  honor  (1  Kings  viii ;  2 
Kings  xii,  4;  xviii,  4;  xxiii,  1).  One  reason  Avhy  the 
people  requested  a  king  was  that  they  might  have  a 


recognised  leader  in  war  (1  Sam.  viii,  20).  The  INIosaic 
law  offered  a  jiowerful  liindrance  to  royal  despotism  (1 
Sam.  X,  2.")).  The  peuiilc  also,  by  means  of  their  eklers, 
formed  an  express  compact,  by  which  they  stipulated 
for  their  rights  (I  Kings  xii,  4),  and  were  from  time  to 
time  appealed  to,  generally  in  cases  of  "  great  pith  and 
moment"  (1  Chron.  xxix,  1;  2  Kings  xi,  17;  Joseplius, 
War,  ii,  1,  2).  Nor  did  the  people  fail  to  interpose  their 
win,  where  they  thought  it  necessar}-,  in  opposition  to 
that  of  the  monarch  (1  Sam.  xiv,  45).  The  part  which 
Nathan  took  against  David  sho^vs  how  effective,  as  well 
as  bold,  was  the  check  exerted  by  the  prophets ;  indeed, 
most  of  the  prophetic  history  is  the  history  of  the  no- 
blest opposition  ever  made  to  the  vices  alike  of  royalty, 
priesthood,  and  pcojile.  If  ncedfid,  the  prophet  hesitated 
not  to  demand  an  audience  with  the  king,  nor  was  he  daz- 
zled or  deterred  by  royal  po\ver  and  pomp  (1  Kings  xx, 
22,  38 ;  2  Kings  i,  15).  As,  however,  the  monarch  held 
the  sword,  the  instrument  of  death  was  sometimes  made 
to  prevail  over  every  restraining  influence  (1  Sam.  xxii, 
17).     See  Prophet. 

To  form  a  correct  idea  of  a  Hebrew  king,  we  must 
abstract  ourselves  from  the  notions  of  modern  Europe, 
and  realize  the  position  of  Oriental  sovereigns.  It 
would  be  a  mistake  to  regard  the  Hebrew  government 
as  a  limited  monarchy,  in  the  English  sense  of  the  ex- 
pression. It  is  stated  in  1  Sam.  x,  25,  that  Samuel 
'•  told  the  people  the  manner  of  the  kingdom,  and  wrote 
it  in  the  book  and  laid  it  before  the  Lord,"  and  it  is 
barely  possible  that  this  may  refer  to  some  statement 
respecting  the  boundaries  of  the  kingly  power.  (The 
word  US'jp,  literally y(«/*7?7iCHf,  translated  "manner"  in 
the  A.  v.,  is  translated  in  the  Sept.  ctK-ai wji(«,  i.  e.  statute 
or  ordinance  [comp.  Ecclus.  iv,  17;  Bar.  ii,  12;  iv,  13]. 
But  Joseplius  seems  to  have  regarded  the  document  as 
a  prophetical  statement,  read  before  the  king,  of  the  ca- 
lamities which  were  to  arise  from  the  kuigl}-  power,  as 
a  kind  of  protest  recorded  for  succeeding  ages  \_AHt.  vi, 
4,  6]).  But  no  such  document  has  come  down  to  us; 
and  if  it  ever  existed,  and  contained  restrictions  of  any 
moment  on  the  kingly  power,  it  was  probably  disregard- 
ed in  practice.  The  following  passage  of  sir  John  j\Ial- 
colm  respecting  the  shahs,  of  Persia  may,  with  some 
slight  modifications,  be  regarded  as  fairly  applicable  to 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  under  David  and  Solomon :  '•  The 
monarch  of  Persia  has  been  pronoimced  to  be  one  of  the 
most  absolute  in  the  world.  His  word  has  ever  been 
deemed  a  law :  and  he  has  probably  never  had  any  fur- 
ther restraint  upon  the  free  exercise  of  his  vast  au- 
thority than  has  arisen  from  Ms  regard  for  religion,  his 
respect  for  established  usages,  his  desire  for  reputation, 
and  his  fear  of  exciting  an  opposition  that  might  be 
dangerous  to  his  power  or  to  his  life"  (^Malcolm's  Peisia, 
ii,  303 ;  comp.  Elphinstone's  India,  bk.  viii,  ch.  3).  It 
must  not,  however,  be  supposed  to  have  been  either  the 
understanding  or  the  practice  that  the  sovereign  might 
seize  at  his  discretion  the  private  propert}'  of  individu- 
als. Ahab  did  not  venture  to  seize  the  vineyard  of  Na- 
both  till,  through  the  testimony  of  false  witnesses,  Na- 
both  had  been  convicted  of  blasphemj^;  and  possibly  his 
vineyard  may  have  been  seized  as  a  confiscation,  with- 
out flagrantly  outraging  jniblic  sentiment  in  those  who 
did  not  know  the  truth  (1  Kings  xi,  G).  But  no  mon- 
archy perhaps  ever  existed  in  which  it  would  not  lie 
regarded  as  an  outrage  that  the  monarch  should  from 
covetousness  seize  the  private  property  of  an  innocent 
subject  in  no  ways  dangerous  to  the  state.  And  gen- 
erally, when  sir  John  Malcolm  proceeds  as  follows  in  ref- 
erence to  "one  of  the  most  absolute"  monarchs  in  the 
world,  it  will  be  luiderstood  that  the  Hebrew  king, 
whose  power  might  be  dcscrilicd  in  the  same  way,  is 
not,  on  account  of  certain  restraints  which  exist  in  the 
nature  of  things,  to  be  regarded  as  "a  limited  monarch" 
in  the  European  use  of  the  words.  "  "We  may  assume 
that  the  po^ver  of  the  king  of  Persia  is  by  usage  absolute 
over  the  property  and  lives  of  his  conquered  enemies, 
his  rebellious  subjects,  his  own  family,  his  minisieis,  over 


KING 


85 


KING 


public  officers  civil  and  jnilitarij,  and  all  the  mmerous 
train  of  domestics,  and  that  he  may  punish  any  person 
of  these  classes  without  examination  or  formal  procedure 
of  any  kind;  in  all  other  cases  that  are  capital,  the  forms 
prescribed  by  law  and  custom  arc  observed;  the  mon- 
arch only  commands,  when  the  evidence  has  been  ex- 
amined and  the  law  declared,  that  the  sentence  shall  be 
put  in  execution  or  that  the  condemned  culprit  shall 
be  pardoned"  (ii,  306).  In  accordance  with  such  usages, 
David  ordered  Uriah  to  be  treacherously  exposed  to 
death  in  the  forefront  of  the  hottest  battle  (2  Sam.  xi, 
15) ;  he  caused  Rechab  and  Baanah  to  be  slain  instant- 
ly, when  they  brought  him  the  head  of  Ishbosheth  {2 
Sam.  iv,  1-2);  and  he  is  represented  as  having  on  his 
deatli-bed  recommended  Solomon  to  put  Joab  and  Shi- 
mei  to  death  (1  Kings  ii,  5-9).  In  like  manner,  Solo- 
mon caused  to  be  killed,  without  trial,  not  only  his  elder 
brother  Adonijah  and  Joali,  whose  execution  might  be 
regarded  as  the  exceptional  acts  of  a  dismal  state-policy 
in  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  but  likewise  Shimei,  after 
having  been  seated  on  the  throne  three  years.  And 
king  Saul,  in  resentment  at  their  connivance  with  Da- 
vid's escape,  put  to  death  85  priests,  and  caused  a  mas- 
sacre of  the  inhabitants  of  Nob,  including  women,  chil- 
dren, and  sucklings  (1  Sam.  xxii,  18, 19). 

Besides  being  commander-in-chief  of  the  army,  su- 
preme judge,  and  absolute  master,  as  it  were,  of  the  lives 
of  his  subjects,  the  king  exercised  the  power  of  impos- 
ing taxes  on  them,  and  of  exacting,-  from  them  personal 
service  and  labor.  Both  these  points  seem  clear  from 
the  account  given  (I  Sam.  viii,  11-17)  of  the  evils  which 
would  arise  from  the  kingly  power,  and  are  confirmed  in 
various  ways.  Whatever  mention  may  be  made  of  con- 
sulting "  old  men,"  or  "  elders  of  Israel,"  we  never  read 
of  their  deciding  such  points  as  these.  When  Pul,  the 
king  of  Assyria,  imposed  a  tribute  on  the  kingdom  of 
Israel, "  Menahem,  the  king,"  exacted  the  money  of  all 
the  mighty  men  of  wealth,  of  each  man  50  shekels  of 
silver  (2  Kings  xv,  19).  When  Jehoiakim,  king  of  Ju- 
dah,  gave  his  tril)ute  of  silver  and  gold  to  Pharaoh,  he 
taxed  the  land  to  give  the  money ;  he  exacted  the  silver 
and  gold  of  the  people,  of  every  one  according  to  his 
taxation  (2  Kings  xxili,  35).  The  degree  to  which  the 
exaction  of  personal  labor  might  be  carried  on  a  special 
occasion  is  illustrated  by  king  Solomon's  requirements 
for  building  the  Temple.  He  raised  a  levy  of  30,000 
men,  and  sent  them  to  Lebanon  by  courses  of  10,000  a 
month ;  and  he  liad  70,000  that  bare  burdens,  and  80,000 
hewers  in  the  mountains  (1  Kings  v,  13-15).  Judged 
by  the  Oriental  standard,  there  is  nothing  improbable 
in  tliese  numbers.  In  our  own  da3's,  for  the  purpose  of 
constructing  the  Mahmiideyeh  Canal  in  Egypt,  Me- 
hemet  Ali,  by  orders  given  to  the  various  sheiks  of  the 
provinces  of  Sakarah,  Ghizeh,  Mensiirah,  Sharkieh,  Me- 
iiiif,  Bahyreh,  and  some  others,  caused  300,000  men,  wom- 
en, and  children  to  be  assembled  along  the  site  of  the 
intended  canal  (see  ]\Irs.  Poole's  Enylishwoman  in  Eyypt, 
ii,  219).  This  was  120,000  more  than  the  levy  of  Solo- 
mon. 

In  addition  to  these  earthly  powers,  the  king  of  Israel 
liad  a  more  awfid  claim  to  respect  and  obedience.  He 
was  the  vicegerent  of  Jehovah  (1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  xvi,  13), 
and,  as  it  were.  His  son,  if  just  and  holy  (2  Sam.  vii,  l-l ; 
Psa.  Ixxxix,  26,  27;  ii,  6,  7).  He  had  been  set  apart  as 
a  consecrated  ruler.  Upon  his  head  had  been  poured 
the  holy  anointing  oil,  composed  of  olive-oil,  mj-rrh,  cin- 
namon, sweet  calamus,  and  cassia,  v.diich  had  hitherto 
been  reserved  exclusively  for  the  priests  of  Jehovah, 
especially  the  high-priest,  or  had  been  solely  used  to 
anoint  the  Tabernacle  of  the  Congregation,  the  Ark  of 
the  Testimony,  and  the  vessels  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exod. 
XXX,  23-33;  "xl,  9;  Lev.  xxi,  10;  1  Kings  i,  39).  He 
had  become,  in  fact,  emphaticallj' "  the  Lord's  anointed." 
At  the  coronation  of  sovereigns  in  modern  Europe,  holy 
oil  has  frequently  been  used  as  a  symbol  of  divine  right ; 
but  this  has  been  mainly  regarded  as  a  mere  form,  and 
the  use  of  it  was  undoubtedly  introduced  in  imitation 


of  the  Hebrew  custom.  But,  from  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  Hebrew  monarchy,  a  living  real  significance 
was  attached  to  consecration  by  this  holy  anointing  oU. 
From  well-known  anecdotes  related  of  David — and,  per- 
haps, from  words  in  his  lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jon- 
athan (2  Sam.  i,  21) — it  results  that  a  certain  sacredness 
invested  the  person  of  Said,  t\vi  first  king,  as  the  Lord's 
anointed ;  and  that,  on  this  account,  it  was  deemed  sac- 
rilegious to  kill  liim,  even  at  his  o^v^^  request  (1  Sam. 
xxiv,  6,  10 ;  xxvi,  9,  16  ;  2  Sam.  i,  14).  After  the  de- 
struction of  the  first  Temple,  in  the  Book  of  Lamenta- 
tions over  the  calamities  of  the  Hebrew  people,  it  is  by 
the  name  of  "  the  Lord's  Anointed"  that  Zedekiah,  the 
last  king  of  Judah,  is  bewailed  (Lam.  iv,  20).  Again, 
more  than  600  years  after  the  capture  of  Zedekiah,  the 
name  of  the  Anointed,  though  never  so  used  in  the  Old 
Testament — j'et  suggested,  probably,  by  Psa.  ii,  2 ;  Dan. 
ix,  26 — had  become  appropriated  to  the  expected  king, 
who  was  to  restore  the  kingdom  of  David,  and  inaugu- 
rate a  jjeriod  when  Edom,  Moab,  the  Ammonites,  and 
the  Philistines  would  again  be  incorporated  with  the 
Hebrew  monarchy,  which  would  extend  from  the  Eu- 
phrates to  the  INIediterranean  Sea  and  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth  (Acts  i,  6;  John  i,  41 ;  iv,  25;  Isa.  xi,  12-14;  Psa. 
Ixxii,  8).  Thus  the  identical  Hebrew  -word  which  sig- 
nifies anointed,  through  its  Aramaic  form  adopted  into 
Greek  and  Latin,  is  still  preserved  to  us  in  the  English 
word  Messiah.  (See  Gesenius's  Thesaurus,  p.  825.)  Sec 
§  4,  below. 

4.  Appointment  and  Tnauyttration. — The  law  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  seems 
most  probable  that  the  kuig  during  his  lifetime  named 
his  successor.  This  was  certainly  the  case  with  David, 
who  passed  over  his  elder  son  Adonijah,  the  son  of  Hag- 
gith,  in  favor  of  Solomon,  the  son  of  Bathsheba  (1  Kings 
i,  30 ;  ii,  22) ;  and  with  Eehoboam,  of  whom  it  is  said 
that  he  loved  Jlaachah,  the  daughter  of  Absalom,  above 
all  his  wives  and  concubines,  and  that  he  made  Abijah 
her  son  to  be  ruler  among  his  brethren,  to  make  him 
king  (2  Chron.  xi,  21,  22).  The  succession  of  the  first- 
born has  been  inferred  from  a  passage  in  2  Chron.  xxi, 
3,  4,  in  which  Jehoshaphat  is  said  to  have  given  the 
kingdom  to  Jehorara  "  because  he  was  the  first»born." 
But  this  verj'-  passage  tends  to  show  that  Jehoshaphat 
had  the  power  of  naming  his  successor ;  and  it  is  wor- 
thy of  note  that  Jehoram,  on  his  coming  to  the  throne, 
put  to  death  all  his  brothers,  which  he  woidd  scarcely, 
perhaps,  have  done  if  the  succession  of  the  first-born  had 
been  the  law  of  the  land.  From  the  conciseness  of  the 
narratives  in  the  books  of  Kings  no  inference  either  v/ay 
can  i)e  drawn  from  the  ordinary  formula  in  which  the 
death  of  the  fivther  and  succession  of  his  son  is  recorded 
(1  Kings  XV,  8).  At  the  same  time,  if  no  partiality  for 
a  favorite  wife  or  son  intervened,  there  would  always 
be  a  natural  bias  of  affection  in  favor  of  the  eldest  son. 
There  appears  to  have  been  some  prominence  given  to 
the  mother  of  the  king  (2  Kings  xxiv,  12, 15;  1  Kings 
ii,  19),  and  it  is  possible  that  the  mother  may  have  been 
regent  diu-ing  the  minority  of  a  son.  Indeed,  some  such 
custom  best  explains  the  possibility  of  the  audacious 
usurpation  of  Athaliah  on  the  death  of  her  son  Ahaziah : 
a  usurpation  which  lasted  six  years  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  the  seed-royal  except  the  young  Jehoash  (2 
Kings  xi,  1-3).  The  people,  too,  and  even  foreign  pow- 
ers, at  a  later  period  interrupted  the  regular  transmis- 
sion of  royal  authority  (2  Kings  xxi,  24 ;  xxiii,  24,  30 ; 
xxiv,  17).     See  Heir. 

It  is  supposed  both  by  Jahn  (Bib.  A  rchceol.  §  222)  and 
Bauer  (in  his  lleh.Alterthumer,  §  20)  that  a  king  was 
only  anointed  when  a  new  family  came  to  the  throne,  or 
when  the  right  to  the  crown  was  disputed.  It  is  usual- 
ly on  such  occasions  only  tliat  the  anointing  is  speci- 
fied, as  in  1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  2  Sam.  ii,  4 ;  1  Kings  i,  39 ;  2 
Kings  ix,  3 ;  xi,  12 ;  but  this  is  not  invariably  the  case 
(see  2  Kings  xxiii,  30),  and  there  docs  not  apjMar  suf- 
ficient reason  to  doubt  that  each  individual  king  was 
anointed.     There  can  be  little  doubt,  likewise,  that  the 


KING 


86 


KING 


kings  of  Israel  were  anointed,  though  this  is  not  speci- 
liL'cl  by  the  writers  of  Kings  and  Clironicles,  who  would 
deem  such  anointing  invalid.  The  ceremony  of  anoint- 
ing, which  was  observed  at  least  in  the  case  of  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon  (1  Sam.  ix,  14;  x,  1 ;  xv,  1;  xvi, 
12;  2  Sam.  ii,  4;  v,  1 ;  1  Kings  i,34;  xxxix,  5),  and  in 
^vliich  the  prophet  or  high-priest  who  perlbrmed  the 
rite  acted  as  the  representative  of  the  theocracy  and  the 
expounder  of  tlie  will  of  heaven,  must  have  given  to 
the  spiritual  power  very  considerable  influence ;  and 
both  this  particidar  and  the  very  nature  of  the  ob- 
servance direct  the  mind  to  Egypt,  where  the  same 
custom  prevailed,  and  where  the  power  of  the  priestly 
caste  was  immense  (Wilkinson's  Anc.  Er/ypt.  v,  279j. 
Indeed,  the  ceremony  seems  to  have  been  essential  to 
constitute  a  legitimate  monarch  (2  Ivings  xi,  12 ;  xxiii, 
oO) ;  and  thus  the  authorities  of  the  Jewish  Church  held 
in  their  hands,  and  had  subject  to  their  will,  a  most  im- 
portant power,  which  they  could  use  either  for  their  own 
purposes  or  the  common  good.  In  consequence  of  the 
general  observance  of  this  ceremony,  the  term  "anoint- 
ed," "  the  Lord's  anointed"  (1  Sam.  ii,  10 ;  xvi,  G ;  :^iv, 
C ;  2  Sam.  xix,  21 ;  Psa.  ii,  2 ;  Lam.  iv,  20),  came  to  be 
employed  in  rhetorical  and  poetical  diction  as  equivalent 
in  meaning  to  the  designation  "  lung."  See  Axoixting. 
AVe  have  seen  in  the  case  of  Saul  that  personal  and 
even  external  quaUties  had  their  influence  in  procuring 
ready  obedience  to  a  sovereign ;  and  further  evidence 
to  the  same  effect  may  be  found  in  Psa.  xlv,  3 ;  Ezek. 
xxviii,  12  :  such  qualities  would  naturally  excite  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  people,  who  appear  to  have  manifest- 
ed their  approval  by  acclamations  (1  Sam.  x,24;  1  Ivings 
i,  25 :  2  Kings  ix,  13 ;  xi,  13 ;  2  Chron.  xxiii,  11 ;  see  also 
Josephus,  War,  i,  33,  9). 

6.  Court  and  Revenues. — The  following  is  a  list  of 
some  of  the  officers  of  the  king:  1.  The  recorder  or 
chronicler,  who  was  perhaps  analogous  to  the  histori- 
ographer whom  sir  John  Malcolm  mentions  as  an  officer 
of  tlie  Persian  court,  whose  duty  it  is  to  write  tlie  an- 
nals of  the  king's  reign  {IJisf.  of  Persia,  c.  23).  Certain 
it  is  that  there  is  no  regular  series  of  minute  dates  in 
Hebrew  historj-  until  we  read  of  this  recorder,  or  remem- 
braiKier,  as  the  word  mazkir  is  translated  in  a  marginal 
iK)te  of  the  English  version.  It  signifies  one  who  keeps 
the  memory  of  events  alive,  in  accordance  with  a  mo- 
tive assigned  by  Herodotus  for  writing  his  history,  viz. 
that  the  acts  of  men  might  not  become  extinct  by  time 
(Herod,  i,  1 ;  2  Sam.  viii,  16;  1  Kings  iv,  3;  2  Kings 
xviii,  18;  Isa.  xxxvi,  3,  22).  See  Ekcorder.  2.  The 
scribe  or  secretarj',  whose  duty  would  be  to  answer  let- 
ters or  petitions  in  the  name  of  the  king,  to  write  dis- 
patches, and  to  draw  up  edicts  (2  Sam.  viii,  17;  xx,  25; 
2  Kings  xii,  10 ;  xix,  2 ;  xxii,  8).  See  Scribe.  3.  The 
officer  who  was  over  the  house  (Isa.  xxxii,  15;  xxxvi, 
3).  His  duties  Avould  be  those  of  chief  steward  of  the 
houseliold,  and  woidd  embrace  all  the  internal  economi- 
cal arrangements  of  the  palace,  the  superintendence  of 
the  king's  servants,  and  the  custody  of  his  costly  ves- 
sels of  gold  and  silver.  He  seems  to  have  worn  a  dis- 
tinctive  robe  of  office  and  girdle.  It  was  against  Sheb- 
na,  who  held  this  office,  that  Isaiah  uttered  his  personal 
jirophecy  (xxii,  15-25),  the  only  instance  of  the  kind 
in  his  writings  (see  Gcsen../euS(/.  i,  G94).  See  Steward. 
4.  The  king's  friend  (1  Kings  iv,  5),  called  likewise  the 
king's  0(jmpanion.  It  is  evident  from  the  name  that 
this  oniccr  nnist  have  stood  in  confidential  relation  to 
the  king,  Init  liis  duties  are  nowhere  specilied.  5.  The 
keeper  of  the  vestry  or  wardrobe  (2  Kings  x,  22).  C. 
Tlic  captain  of. the  body-guard  (2  Sam.  xx.  23).  The 
inqiortance  of  this  f)fficer  retjuires  no  comment.  It  was 
lie  who  obeyed  Solomon  in  putting  to  death  Adonijah, 
Joal),  Jind  Shimei  (1  Kings  ii,  25,  34,  46).  7.  Distinct 
officers  over  the  king's  treasures  —  liis  storehouses,  la- 
in irers,  vineyards,  olive-trees,  and  sycamore»-trces,  herds, 
camels,  and  flocks  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  25-31).  8.  The  of- 
ficer over  aU  the  host  or  army  of  Israel,  the  coiiimander- 
in-cliief  of  the  army,  who  commanded  it  in  person  dur- 


ing the  king's  absence  (2  Sam.  xx,  23 ;  1  Chron.  xxvii, 
34 ;  2  Sam.  xi,  1).  As  an  instance  of  the  formidable 
power  which  a  general  might  acquire  in  this  office,  see 
the  narrative  in  2  Sam.  iii,  30-37,  when  David  deemed 
himself  obliged  to  tolerate  the  murder  of  Abner  by  Joab 
and  Abishai.  9.  The  royal  counsellor  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
32;  Isa.  iii,  3;  xix,  11,  13).  Ahithophel  is  a  specimen 
of  how  much  such  an  officer  might  effect  for  evil  or  for 
good;  but  whether  there  existed  under  Hebrew  kings 
any  body  corresponding,  even  distantly,  to  the  English 
Privy  Council  in  former  times,  does  not  appear  (2  Sam. 
xvi,  20-23  ;  xvii,  1-14). 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  sources  of  the 
royal  mcome :  1.  The  royal  demesnes,  corn-fields,  vine- 
yards, and  olive-gardens.  Some  at  least  of  these  seem 
to  have  been  taken  from  private  individuals,  but  wheth- 
er as  the  punishment  of  rebellion,  or  on  any  other  plau- 
sible pretext,  is  not  specified  (1  Sam.  viii,  14 ;  1  Cliroii. 
xxvii,  26-28).  2.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks  (1 
Sam.  xxi,  7;  2  Sam.  xiii,  23;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10;  1 
Chron.  xxvii,  25).  3.  A  nominal  tenth  of  the  produce 
of  corn-land  and  vineyards,  and  of  sheep  (1  Sam.  viii, 
15, 17).  4.  A  tribute  from  merchants  who  passed  through 
the  Hebrew  territory  (1  Kings  x,  14).  5.  Presents  made 
by  his  subjects  (1  Sam.  x,  27;  xvi,  20;  1  Kings  x,  25; 
Psa.  Ixxii,  10).  There  is,  perhaps,  no  greater  distinc- 
tion in  the  usages  of  Eastern  and  Western  nations  than 
in  what  relates  to  the  giving  and  receiving  of  pres- 
ents. When  made  regularly,  they  do,  in  fact,  amount 
to  a  regular  tax.  Thus,  in  the  passage  last  referred  to 
in  the  book  of  Kings,  it  is  stated  that  they  brought  to 
Solomon  '■  every  man  his  present,  vessels  of  silver  and 
vessels  of  gold,  and  garments,  and  armor,  and  spices, 
horses  and  mules,  a  rate  year  by  year."  6.  In  the  time 
of  Solomon,  the  king  had  trading  vessels  of  his  own  at 
sea,  which,  starting  from  Eziongeber,  brought  back  once 
in  three  years  gold  and  silver,  ivorj',  apes,  and  jieacocks 
(1  Kings  X,  22).  It  is  probable  that  Solomon  and  some 
other  kings  may  have  derived  some  revenue  from  com^ 
mercial  ventures  (1  Kings  ix,  28).  7.  The  spoils  of  war 
taken  from  conquered  nations  and  the  tribute  paid  by 
them  (2  Sam.  viii,  2,  7, 8, 10 ;  1  Kings  iv,  21 ;  2  Chron. 
xxvii,  5).  8.  Lastly,  an  undefined  power  of  exacting 
compulsory  labor,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made  (1  Sam.  viii,  12, 13, 16).  As  far  as  this  power  was 
exercised  it  was  equivalent  to  so  much  income.  There 
is  nothing  in  1  Sam.  x,  25,  or  in  2  Sam.  v,  3,  to  justify 
the  statement  that  the  Hebrews  defined  in  express  terms, 
or  in  any  terms,  bj^  a  yiarticular  agreement  or  covenant 
for  that  purpose,  what  services  should  be  rendered  to  the 
king,  or  what  he  could  legally  require.  See  Solo.mon. 
6.  Usages. — A  ruler  in  whom  s(j  much  authority,  human 
and  divine,  was  embodied,  was  naturally  distinguished 
by  outward  honors  and  luxuries.  He  had  a  court  of  Ori- 
ental magnificence.  When  the  power  of  the  kingdom 
was  at  its  height,  he  sat  on  a  throne  of  Ivor}-,  covered 
with  pure  gold,  at  the  feet  of  which  were  two  figures  of 
lions,  with  others  on  the  steps  approaching  the  throne. 
The  king  was  dressed  in  royal  robes  (1  Kings  xxii,  10; 
2  Chron.  xviii,  9)  :  his  insignia  were  a  crown  or  diadem 
of  pure  gold,  or  perhaps  radiant  with  precious  stones  (2 
Sam.  i,  10;  xii,  30;  2  Kings  xi,  12;  Psa.  xxi,  3),  and  a 
royal  sceptre  (Ezek.  xix,  11;  Isa.  xiv,  5;  Psa.  xlv,  G; 
Amos  i,  5, 8).  Those  who  approached  him  did  liim  obei- 
sance, bowing  down  and  touching  the  ground  with  their 
foreheads  (1  Sam.  xxiv,  8;  2  Sam.  xix,  24);  and  this 
was  done  even  by  a  king's  wife,  the  mother  of  Sdlomou 
(1  Kings  i,  IC)).  His  officers  and  subjects  called  tliem- 
selves  his  servants  or  slaves,  though  they  do  not  seem 
habitually  to  have  given  way  to  such  extravagant  salu- 
tations as  in  the  Chalda-an  and  Persian  courts  (1  Sam. 
xvii,  32,  34,  36 ;  xx,  8 ;  2  Sam.  vi,  20 ;  Dan.  ii.  4).  As 
in  the  East  at  present,  a  kiss  was  a  sign  of  resjiect  and 
homage  (1  Sam.  x,  1 ;  perhaps  Psa.  ii,  12).  He  lived  in 
a  splendid  jialace,  with  porches  and  columns  (1  Kings 
vii,2-7).  All  his  thinking-vessels  were  of  gold  (1  Kings 
X,  21). 


KING 


87 


KING 


At  his  f.ccGssion,  in  addition  to  the  anointing  men- 
tioned above,  jubilant  music  formed  a  part  of  the  popu- 
lar rejoicings  (1  Kings  i,  40) ;  thank-offerings  were  made 
(1  Ivings  i,  25) ;  the  new  sovereign  rode  in  solemn  pro- 
cession on  tlie  royal  mule  of  his  predecessor  (1  Kings  i, 
38),  and  took  possession  of  the  royal  harem — an  act 
which  seems  to  have  been  scarcely  less  essential  than 
other  observances  which  appear  to  us  to  wear  a  higher 
character  (1  Kings  ii,  13,  22;  2  Sam.  xvi,  22).  A  nu- 
merous harem,  indeed,  was  among  the  most  highly  esti- 
mated of  the  royal  luxuries  (2  Sam.  v,  13 ;  1  Kings  xi, 
1 ;  XX,  3).  It  was  under  the  supervision  and  control  of 
eunuchs,  and  passed  from  one  monarch  to  another  as  a 
part  of  the  crown  property  (2  Sam.  xii,  8).  The  law 
(Deut.  xvii,  17),  foreseeing  evils  such  as  that  by  which 
Solomon,  in  his  later  years,  was  turned  away  from  his 
fidelity  to  God,  hail  strictly  forbidden  many  wives;  but 
Eastern  passions  and  usages  were  too  strong  for  a  mere 
\\Titten  prohibition,  and  a  corrupted  religion  became  a 
pander  to  royal  lust,  interpreting  the  divine  command 
as  sanctioning  eighteen  as  the  minimum  of  wives  and 
concubines. 

Deriving  their  power  originally  from  the  wishes  of 
the  people,  and  being  one  of  the  same  race,  the  Hebrew 
kings  were  naturally  less  despotic  than  other  Oriental 
sovereigns,  mingled  more  with  their  subjects,  and  were 
by  no  means  difficult  of  access  (2  Sam.  xix,  8 ;  1  Kings 
XX,  39;  Jer.  xxxviii,  7  ;  1  Kings  iii,  IG  ;  2  Kings  vi,  26; 
viii,  3).  After  death  the  monarchs  were  interred  in  the 
royal  cemetery  in  Jerusalem  :  "  So  David  slept  with  his 
fathers,  and  was  buried  in  the  city  of  David"  (1  Kings 
ii,  10 ;  xi,  43  ;  xiv,  31).  But  bad  kings  were  excluded 
"  from  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Israel"  (2  Chron. 
xxviii,  27). — Kitto;  Smith. 

See  Schickard,  Jus  Regiinn  Ilehrivor.  (Tiibing.  1G21) ; 
Carpzov,  Ajrpai:  Crit.  p.  52 ;  Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  i, 
298 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rabbin,  p.  575 ;  Hess.  Gesch.  d.  K.  Juda 
vnd  Israels  (Ztir.  1787) ;  Houtuyn,  Monarchia  Ilehrceo- 
rum  (Leyd.  1G85) ;  Newman,  Ilebreio  Monarchy  (Lond. 
1847,  1853) ;  Pastoret,  Leyislaiion  des  Ilebreux  (Paris, 
1817)  ;  Salvador,  Hist,  des  Institutiones  de  Moise  (Paris, 
1828) ;  HuUmann,  Staatsverfassung  der  Israeliten  (Lpz. 
1834) ;  Maurice,  Kings  and  Pi-ophets  of  the  0.  T.  (Lond. 
1852,  Bost.  1858) ;  Brit,  and  For.  Evang.  Review,  April, 
18G1.     See  Monarchy. 

King  is  the  name  of  the  five  canonical  works  of  the 
followers  of  Confucius.  See  the  art.  Confucius  in  vol. 
ii,  p.  470  sq.,  especial!}'  p.  472. 

King,  Alonzo,  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born  in  AVil- 
braham,  Blass.,  April  1, 1796.  His  early  educational  ad- 
vantages were  few;  but  in  1818  he  went  to  prosecute 
his  studies  in  the  family  of  the  Rev.  Leland  Howard, 
then  pastor  of  the  Baptist  church  in  Windsor,  Vt.,  where 
he  was  converted  to  Christ.  He  afterwards  entered 
Waterville  College,  Maine,  and  graduated  in  1825.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  North 
Yarmouth,  Me.,  in  1826,  subsequently  of  a  small  church 
in  Northborough,  Mass.,  and  finally  settled  at  Westbor- 
ough,  Mass.,  where  he  died  in  1835.  King  was  a  man 
of  great  humility,  self-consecration,  and  self-abandon- 
ment. His  preaching  was  never  bold  or  startling,  but 
always  quiet,  tender,  persuasive.  He  had  a  talent  for 
lyric  poetry,  and  many  of  his  productions  are  abroad 
without  his  name.  His  style  as  a  writer  was  pure,  with 
a  decided  cast  of  the  imaginative  or  poetic,  which  was 
always  apparent  in  his  sermons  and  his  printed  produc- 
tions. He  compiled  the  Memoir  of  the  distinguished 
missionary,  Kev.  George  D.  Boardman.  See  Sprague, 
A  nnuls  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  vi,  747.     (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  Barnabas,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  New  ]Marll)orough,  Mass.,  June  2,  1780. 
^^  hile  j'et  in  his  14th  year,  his  great  proficiency  in 
study  attracted  the  attention  of  Dr.  Catline,  who  after- 
wards bore  all  the  expense  of  fitting  him  for  Williams 
College,  Mass.,  which  he  entered  in  1802.  In  1804  he 
graduated,  and  then,  for  a  year  taught  school  and  stud- 


ied theology  with  Dr.  Catline.  In  1805  he  was  licensed 
by  the  Berkshire  Congregational  Association,  IMass.,  and 
in  1805  was  ordained  by  the  Presbytery,  and  installed 
as  pastor  of  the  Kockaway  Church,  N.  J.,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  preach  till  1848 ;  his  congregation  then  called 
a  colleague  pastor,  which  relation  continued  until  the 
death  of  Dr.  King,  April  10, 1862.  King  was  a  man  of 
admirable  character;  his  consistent  piety  no  one  ques- 
tioned, and  his  sympathetic  heart  made  him  a  model 
pastor.  As  a  preaclier,  liis  style  was  very  simple,  but 
scriptural,  and  usually  very  earnest.  See  Wilson,  Pres- 
byterian Hist.  A  Imunac,  1863.      (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  Charles,  the  noted  president  of  Columbia 
College,  was  born  in  New  York,  March  16,  1789.  In 
comiiany  with  his  father,  Ilufus  King,  he  went  to  Eng- 
land, and,  during  his  residence  at  the  coiu-t  of  St.  James 
as  the  represontative  of  the  American  go\'ernment, 
young  Charles  attended  Harrow  School,  and  later  went 
to  Paris  to  further  prejiare  himself  for  admission  to  col- 
lege. He,  however,  afterwards  abandoned  this  inten- 
tion and  entered  the  mercantile  profession.  In  1823  he 
became  co-editor  of  the  Kevj  York  American.  In  1849 
he  was  chosen  president  of  Columbia  College.  He  died 
at  Frascati,  near  Rome,  in  Italy,  Sept.  27, 1867.  A  list 
of  his  works,  wliich  are  not  of  special  interest  to  theo- 
logical students,  is  given  by  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English 
and  American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v.;  New  American  Cyclo- 
pcedia,  1867,  p.  426, 

King,  Edward,  a  noteworthj'^  English  antiquary 
and  lawyer,  was  born  in  1735  in  Norfolk,  and  was  a 
graduate  of  Cambridge  University.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1767  and  F.S.A.  in  1770."  He  died  in  1807. 
King  wrote  a  number  of  works  connected  with  theolo- 
gy, politics,  political  economy,  and  antiquities.  We  have 
room  here  only  to  note  his  Morsels  of  Criticisms,  tending 
to  Illustrate  some  few  Passages  in  Holy  Sc>-iptu7-e  vpon 
philosojjhical  Pi-inciples  and  an  enlarged  View  of  Things 
(Lond.  1788, 4to,  and  since).  The  contents  of  tl  i'=i  work 
are  :  On  the  word  "  Heaven"  in  the  Lord's  I'rayer ; 
Septuagint  Translation  of  Genesis;  John  the  Baptist  be- 
ing Elias;  Future  coming  of  Christ;  Day  of  Judgment; 
Series  of  Events  in  Revelation;  Daniel's  Prophecy; 
Deaths  of  Ananias  and  Sapphira ;  Dissertations  on 
Light;  The  Heavens;  Stars;  Fluid  of  Heat;  Miracles; 
Jacob  and  Esau ;  Soul,  Body,  Spirit,  etc.  King's  learn- 
ing was  profound  and  extensive,  but  he  was  so  inclined 
to  the  sjieculative  and  hjqiothetical  that  he  jierpetually 
fell  into  difficulty  by  advancing  statements  which  he 
•wixs  unqualified  to  establish.  The  want  of  discrimina- 
tion between  theory  and  fact,  supposition  and  reality, 
together  with  the  tenacity  with  which  he  clung  to  his 
premature  conclusions  when  assailed,  proved  quite  det- 
rimental. In  a  work  of  his  treating  on  the  signs  of  the 
times,  he  was  very  desirous  of  tracing  the  history  of  the 
French  Revolution  to  the  records  of  sacred  antiquity; 
he  also  ventured  to  assert  the  genuineness  of  the  second 
book  of  Esdras  in  the  ApocrjqDlia.  He  was  replied  to 
by  Gough  and  bishop  Horsley.  See  Chalmers's  Biog. 
Dirt,  vol.  xix  (Lond.  1815) ;  Watkins'sj5'w^.  Diet.  (Lond. 
1820) ;  Blake's  Biog.  Diet.  (3d  edit.  Phila.  1840) ;  Alli- 
bone, Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  s.  v. 

King,  Henry,  D.D.,  bishop  of  Chichester,  and  eld- 
est son  of  John  King  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Wornall,  Buck- 
inghamshire, in  Jan.  1591.  He  studied  at  Westminster 
School,  from  whence  he  was  elected  to  Christ  Church, 
Oxford,  in  1608.  Having  entered  the  Church,  he  be- 
came chaplain  to  king  James  I,  archdeacon  of  Colches- 
ter, residentiary  of  St.Paul's,  and  canon  of  Christ  Church;' 
dean  of  Rochester  in  1638,  and  finally  bishop  of  Chi- 
chester in  1641.  Although  he  was  generally  considered 
a  Puritan,  and  his  nomination  had  been  a  measure  to 
conciliate  that  party,  he  remained  a  faithful  adherent 
of  the  king  during  the  civil  war,  and  at  the  Restoration 
was  reinstalled  in  his  bishopric.  He  died  Oct.  1, 16G9, 
He  was  considered  a  very  successful  preacher  and  a 
learned  divine.     His  principal  works  are,  A  n  Exposition 


KING 


KING 


upon  the  Lord's  Prayer  (London,  1034,  4to)  : — A  Sermon 
of  Deliverance,  Psa.  xci,  3  (Load.  1G2G,  4to)  : — Two  Ser- 
vians vpon  the  Act  Sunday,  July  10, 1025  (Oxford,  1G25, 
4to) : — The  Pscdms  of  David  turned  into  Metre  (1621, 
12mo;  new  edition,  with  biographical  notice,  notes,  etc., 
by  Dr.  John  Hannah,  1843, 12ino) ;  etc.  See  Wood,  .4  the- 
nce Oxonienscs,  vol.  ii ;  EUis,  Specimens,  vol.  iii ;  Chal- 
mers, Gen.  Biof/.  Dictionary ;  Iloefcr,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Ge- 
nerate, xxvii,  739 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Enylish  and  Amer- 
ican A  itthors,  ii,  s.  v.     (J.  N.  P.) 

King,  James  S.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
at  Albany,  X.  Y.,  Aug.  20, 1832.  He  graduated  from  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  studied  the- 
ology in  the  Princeton  Seminarj'.  He  was  licensed  by 
the  New  York  Presbytery,  and  in  1858  ordained  and  in- 
stalletl  pastor  of  the  Rockland  Lake  Church,  New  Y'ork, 
^vhere  he  ^vas  quite  successful  and  greatly  beloved  by 
his  people.  Failing  health,  however,  compelled  him  to 
withdraw  from  the  active  duties  of  the  pastorate.  Dur- 
ing the  iicriod  of  his  necessitated  rest  he  did  some  effec- 
tive work.  He  died  at  Woodlawn,  near  Sing  Sing,  New 
Y'ork,  Sept.  15, 1864.  INIr.  King  was  an  estimable  min- 
ister, of  good  talents,  and  thoroughly  consecrated  to  his 
work.  See  Wilson,  Fresh.  Hist.  Almanac,  1866,  p.  126; 
Appleton,  ,1  nnual  Cyclopiedia,  1865,  p.  468. 

King,  John  (1),  D.D.,  bishop  of  London,  an  English 
theologian  and  a  descendant  of  Robert  King,  first  bishop 
of  Oxford,  was  born  at  Wornall,  Buckinghamshire,  about 
1559.  He  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  Having 
entered  the  Church,  he  became  successively  chaplain  to 
queen  Elizabeth,  archdeacon  of  Nottingham  in  1590, 
D.D.  in  1601,  dean  of  Christ  Church  in  1605,  and,  final- 
ly, bishop  of  London  in  1611.  He  died  in  1621.  James 
I  called  him  the  khvj  of  preachers.  He  wrote  Lectures 
upon  Jonas,  delivered  at  Yoi-Jce,  1594  (Lond.  1611,  4to), 
and  some  Sermons.  Sec  Wood,  A  thence  Oxonienses,  vol. 
i ;  Dodd,  Church  History,  vol.  i ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Ge- 
nercde,  xxvii,  739 ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Enylish  and  Amer- 
ican A  uthors. 

King,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  Cornwall  in  1652.  He  studied  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  and  became  sticccsively  rector  of  Chelsea 
and  (in  1731)  prebendary  of  the  Cathedral  of  Y'ork.  He 
died  May  30, 1732.  King  wrote  A  nimadveisions  (2d  ed. 
1702, 4to)  -.—The  Case  of  John  Atherton,  Bishop  of  Wa- 
/fr/b?-fZ(1716, 8vo);  and  a  number  of  Sermons. — Hoefer, 
A''ouv.  Bioy.  Genh-ale,  xxii,  742. 

King,  John  (3),  a  Methodist  minister,  of  whose 
early  history  nothing  is  definitely  known,  was  one  of 
the  first  lay  evangelists  who  founded  Methodism  in  this 
coiuitry.  He  came  from  London  to  America  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  17C9,  and  his  enthusiastic  sympathy  with  the 
pioneer  Jlethodists  led  him  to  throw  himself  imme- 
diately into  their  ranks.  The  Church  hesitated  when 
he  presented  himself  for  license,  but,  persistent  in  his 
determination  to  preach,  he  made  an  appointment  "in 
the  Potter's  Field,"  where  he  proclaimed  his  first  mes- 
sage over  the  graves  of  the  poor,  and  began  a  career  of 
eminent  usefulness.  Afterwards  he  was  licensed,  and 
stationed  in  Wilmington,  Del.  Thence  ho  went  into 
]\ran,-land,  and  was  the  first  to  introduce  Methodism  to 
the  poo[ile  of  Baltimore.  In  this  latter  place  he  preach- 
ed from  tables  in  the  public  streets,  and  suffered  much 
opposition  from  frequent  mobs.  Kmg  was  afterwards 
received  into  the  regular  itinerancy.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  first  Conference  of  1773,  and  was  appointed 
to  New  Jersey.  He  soon  after  entered  Virginia ;  still 
later  he  :vas  again  in  New  Jersey.  He  located  during 
the  Revolution,  but  in  1801  reappeared  in  the  itinerant 
ranks  in  Virginia,  and  finally  located  in  1803.  Kmg 
was  a  pious,  zealous,  and  useful  man.  He  died  at  an 
advanced  age,  in  the  vicinity  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.  He  was 
probably  the  only  survivor,  at  the  time  of  his  decease, 
of  all  the  preachers  of  ante-re  volutif>narj'  date. — Stevens, 
Hist,  if  the  J/.  ]■:.  Church,  i,  87.     (J.  L.  S.) 

King,  John  Glen,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.A.S.,  a  distin- 


guished English  theologian  and  antiquarian,  was  bom 
in  Norfolk  about  1731.  He  studied  at  Caius  College, 
Cambridge,  entered  the  Chiu-ch,  and  in  1764  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  English  factory  at  Petersburg. 
He  afterwards  became  successively  rector  of  ^^'ormley, 
Hertfordshire  (in  1783),  and  minister  of  the  chapel  in 
Broad  Court,  Drury  Lane,  London  (in  1786).  He  died 
Nov.  3, 1787.  King  wrote  The  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of 
the  Greek  Church  in  Russia,  containiny  an  A  ccount  of  its 

Doctrine,  Worship,  ami  Discipline  (Lond.  1772,  4to) : A 

Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  contaitiiny  some  Obser- 
vations on  the  Climate  of  Russia,  etc.  (Lond.  1778,  4to); 
etc.  See  Geiit.  Mayazine,  Ivii  and  lix  ;  Chalmers,  Gen. 
Bioy.  Dictionary  ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Enylish  and 
American  Authors,  ii,  1031. 

King,  John  L.,  a  Presbj'terian  minister,  was  bom 
in  Indiana  Feb.  1, 1835;  was  educated  at  Knox  College, 
Galesburg,  111.,  and  studied  divinity  in  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  Ohio ;  was  licensed  and  ordained  at  Cincin- 
nati in  1861,  and  then  assumed  the  pastorate  at  Wil- 
liamsport,  Indiana ;  afterwards  labored  as  a  missionary 
among  the  saikirs  at  Detroit,  Michigan,  and  finally  went 
to  Idaho  and  Colorado  Territories.  He  died  near  Den- 
ver, Nov.  10, 1866.  jNlr.  King  was  a  man  of  ripe  schol- 
arly attainments  and  fine  abilities,  earnestly  devoted  es- 
pecially to  the  work  of  elementary  religious  teaching. — 
Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  1867. 

King,  Peter,  lord  chancellor  of  England,  was  bom 
at  Exeter,  Devonshire,  in  1669 ;  went  to  Holland,  and 
studied  at  the  university  at  Leydcn,  and  upon  his  re- 
tiu-n  to  England  studied  law  at  Lincohi's  Inn,  and  be- 
came member  of  Parliament  in  1699.  In  1708  he  was 
appointed  recorder  of  London,  and  knighted.  At  the 
accession  of  George  I  he  was  made  lord  chief  justice  of 
the  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  soon  after  promoted  to 
the  peerage  as  lord  King,  baron  of  Ockham.  He  was 
made  lord  chancellor  in  1725,  but  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  as  successful  in  that  position  as  was  expected.  He 
died  in  1733.  He  was  well  versed  in  both  ecclesiastical 
historj'  and  the  law.  His  principal  works  are,  A  n  Enqui- 
ry into  the  Constitution, Discipline,  Unity,  and  Woi'ihip  of 
the  P7-i?nitiv€  Church,  etc.  [Anon.]  (Lond.  1712, 8vo)  :  in 
this,  his  first  publication,  he  advocated,  with  much  abil- 
ity and  learning,  the  right  of  Protestant  dissenters  from 
episcopacy  to  be  comprehended  in  the  scheme  of  the 
national  establishment.  The  work  excited  much  atten- 
tion, and  provoked  much  discussion,  especially  wlicn  the 
second  edition  was  issued  (1713).  I'romincnt  among 
the  opponents  was  the  nonjiuing  Sclater,  who  wrote  an 
Answer  to  it.  King  himself  has  been  said  to  have  af- 
tenvards  altered  his  opinion  on  the  subject : — The  His- 
tory of  the  Ajjostles'  Creed,  with  critical  Observations  on 
its  several  A}-ticles  [Anon.]  (London,  1702,8vo) — a  work 
dis|)laying  extraordinary  learning  and  judgment,  and 
highly  commended  by  the  ablest  critics,  among  others 
by  IMosheim.  See  Gentleman's  Mayazine,  vol.  Ixii  and 
Ixx ;  Chalmers,  General  Bioy.  Dictionary  ;  Lord  Camp- 
bell, Lives  of  Lords  Chancellors;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Eng- 
lish and  American  A  uthors,  s.  v.      (J.  II.  W.) 

King,  Richard,  an  English  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Bristol  in  1749;  studied  at  the  University  of  Oxford, 
and  became  successively  rector  of  Steeple,  Blorden,  and 
of  Worthing.  He  died  in  1810.  King  wrote  iMters 
from  A  brakam  Plymley  to  his  Brother  Peter  on  the  Cath- 
olic Question  (Lond.  1S'03,  8vo),  which  created  some  sen- 
sation -.—On  the  lii.<iiiriilinii  oj'thr  Scrijitiires  (1805,  8vo)  : 
—On  the  AUiiiuc'  lj(tir,ni  Church  and  State  (1807,8vo), 
His  wife,  Frances  Elizabeth  Bernard,  vTote  Female 
Scripture  Bioyraphy  (12th  edit.  London,  1840, 12mo): — 
The  Benefits  of  the  Christian  Temper;  etc.  See  Gent, 
Mayazine  (1810);  Rose,  A'c-w  Bioyraphical  Dictionary, 
s.  V. 

King,  Thomas  Starr,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
born  in  New  York  Doc.  16, 1824.  His  father.  Rev.  T.  F. 
King,  was  a  Universalist  clergyman  of  very  decided 
ability,  but  died  in  the  prime  of  life,  and  Thomas,  at 


KING 


89 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


the  age  of  twelve  years,  while  fitting  to  enter  Harvard 
College,  found  himself  the  principal  support  of  a  large 
family.  He  managed,  however,  successfully  to  complete 
his  studies,  and  in  September,  1845,  preached  his  first 
sermon  in  Woburn,  Mass.  The  next  year  he  was  set- 
tled over  his  father's  former  charge  in  Charlestown, 
•whence  he  was  called  in  1848  to  the  HoUis  Street  Uni- 
tarian Church,  Boston,  where  he  preached  with  great 
acceptance  and  a  constantly  increasing  reputation  till 
18G0,  when  he  accepted  the  call  of  the  Unitarian  Cluirch 
in  San  Francisco  to  become  their  pastor.  He  entered 
upon  his  new  duties  with  a  zeal  and  energy  which  won 
the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  ere  long  he  was  as  thor- 
oughly identified  with  California  interests  as  if  his 
whole  life  had  been  spent  there.  His  congregation  in- 
creased in  numbers  and  power  with  great  rapidity ;  but 
he  was  a  preacher  for  the  whole  city  and  state,  and 
crowds  hung  upon  his  elotiuent  utterances,  and  his  bold, 
earnest  words.  At  the  outbreak  of  our  late  civil  war. 
King,  finding  California  in  a  hesitating  position,  flung 
himself  into  the  breach,  and  by  his  eloquence  and  ear- 
nestness saved  the  state ;  and  when  the  sanitary  com- 
mission was  organized,  he  first  set  in  motion,  and  through 
the  next  three  years  pushed  forward,  the  efforts  in  be- 
half of  the  sick  and  wounded  sokliers.  His  labors  in 
this  cause,  added  to  his  pastoral  duties,  were  too  severe 
for  his  strength,  and  he  died  ]March  4, 18G4,  after  a  very 
brief  illness.  Mr.  King  published  several  discoiurses  and 
addresses,  etc.  —  Appleton,  New  American  Cyclopcedia, 
1865,  p.  4G8. 

King,  William,  (1),  archbishop  of  Dublin,  a  learn- 
ed divine  and  metaphysician,  was  born  at  Antrim,  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  Ireland,  May  1,  1G50.  He  studied  at 
Trinity  College,  UubUn,  entered  the  Church  in  1G74,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Parker,  archbishop  of  Tuam.  The 
latter  being  translated  to  tlie  archbishopric  of  Dublin  in 
167'J,  King  became  chancellor  of  St.  Patrick  and  St. 
Marburgh,  Dublin.  Ireland  was  then  a  prey  to  violent 
religious  controversies,  which  served  also  as  a  cloak  for 
political  dissensions.  King  wrote  several  pamphlets 
against  Peter  Manby,  dean  of  Londonderry,  who  had 
embraced  Roman  Catholicism.  In  1G88  he  was  made 
dean  of  St.  Patrick.  The  Revolution  breaking  out  soon 
after,  and  James  II  having  taken  refuge  in  Ireland,  King 
was  twice  sent  to  the  Tower  of  Dublin  as  a  partisan  of 
the  insurgents.  He  defended  his  opinions  in  a  work 
entitled  The  State  of  the  Protestants  of  Ireland  under 
the  late  King  Jameses  Government  (3d  and  best  ed.  Lond. 
1692,  8vo),  which  gave  rise  to  a  controversy  between 
him  and  Charles  Leslie,  a  partisan  of  the  fallen  mon- 
arch. In  1691  King  was  made  bisliop  of  Derry,  and 
applied  himself  with  much  zeal  to  the  task  of  bringing 
back  into  the  Church  the  dissenters  of  his  diocese.  He 
finally  became  archbishop  of  Dublin  in  1702,  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  lords  justices  of  Ireland  in  1717,  and 
again  in  1721  and  1723,  and  died  at  Dublin  May  8, 1729. 
He  was  through  life  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  man,  as 
well  as  in  his  character  of  a  prelate  and  writer  on  the- 
ology. His  principal  work  in  that  line  is  the  De  Origine 
Mali  (DuWin,  1702, 4to ;  Lond.  1702, 8vo).  "  The  object 
of  this  work  is  to  show  how  all  the  several  kinds  of  evil 
•with  which  the  world  aljounds  are  consistent  with  the 
goodness  of  God,  and  may  be  accounted  for  without  the 
supposition  of  an  evil  principle."  It  was  attacked  by 
Baj'le  and  also  by  Leibnitz :  by  the  former  for  the 
charges  of  Manichasism  made  against  him,  and  by  the 
latter  because  King  had  taken  him  to  task  for  his  opti- 
mism. King,  however,  during  his  life  made  no  reply, 
but  he  left  among  his  papers  notes  of  answers  to  their 
arguments,  and  these  were  given  to  the  world  after  his 
death  by  Dr.  Edmund  Law,  bishop  of  Carlisle,  together 
•with  a  translation  of  the  treatise  itself  (Camb.  1758, 8 vo). 
In  1709  he  published  a  sermon  on  Divine  Predestination 
and  Foreknowledge  consistent  icith  the  Freedom  of  Man's 
Will,  preached  before  the  House  of  Peers.  In  this  work 
he  advanced  a  doctrine  concerning  the  moral  attributes 
of  God  as  being  different  from  the  moral  quaUties  of  the 


same  name  in  man.  This  valuable  and  most  important 
work  was  often  reprinted  (Exeter,  1815,  8vo;  London, 
1821,  8vo;  and  in  the  Tracts  of  Angl.  Fathers,  ii,  225). 
He  wrote  also  A  Discourse  concerning  the  Inventions  of 
Men  in  the  Worship  of  God  (Lond.  1697,  sm.  8vo)  : — An 
A  dmonition  to  the  Dissenters  (London,  1706,  sm.  8vo) : — 
An  Account  of  King  James  IPs  Behavior  to  his  Protes- 
tant Subjects  of  Irelaml,  etc.  (Lond.  1746,  8vo)  : — A  Vin- 
dication of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Sacheverell,  etc.  [Anon.] 
(Lond.  1710,  8vo)  ;  etc.  See  Bibliographia  Britannica  ; 
Chalmers,  General  Biographical  Dictionary ;  Cyclopwdia 
Bibliographlca,  ii,  1730 ;  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biography. 
vi,  45G ;  English  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. ;  and  especially  AUi- 
bone.  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  m.  A  uth.  ii,  1032.     (J.  N.  P.) 

King,  "William,  (2),  a  Scotch  Presbj-terian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Tyrone,  Ireland.  He  emigrated  to 
America  in  1830,  and  became  pastor  of  a  church  at  Nel- 
son, Canada  West.  After  laboring  there  faithfully  and 
earnestly  for  many  years  he  removed  to  Carador,  C.  W., 
where  he  died,  IMarch  13, 1859. 

Kingdom  of  God  or  of  Heaven  (//  fiamXilci 
Tov  Btoij  or  ToJv  ovpavCoi').  In  the  New  Testament 
the  phrases  "kingdom  of  God"  (Matt,  vi,  33;  Mark  i, 
14,  15;  Luke  iv,  43;  vi,  20;  John  iii,  3,  5),  "kingdom 
of  Christ"  (Matt,  xiii,  41 ;  xx,  21 ;  Rev.  i,  9),  "kingdom 
of  Christ  and  of  God"  (Eph.  v,  5\  "  kingdom  of  David," 
i.  e.  as  the  ancestor  and  type  of  the  INIessiah  (ilark  xi, 
10),  "  the  kingdom"  (Matt,  viii,  12 ;  xiii,  19 ;  ix,  53),  and 
"kingdom  of  heaven"  (Matt,  iii,  2;  iv,  17;  xiii,  41,  31, 
33,  44,  47 ;  2  Tim.  iv,  18),  are  all  synonymous,  and  sig- 
nify the  divine  spiritucd  kingdom,  the  glorious  reign  of 
the  Messiah.  The  idea  of  this  kingdom  has  its  basis  iu 
the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament,  where  the  coming 
of  the  Messiah  and  his  triumphs  are  foretold  (Psa.  ii,  6- 
12;  ci,  1-7;  Isa.  ii,  1-4;  Mic.  iv,  1;  Isa.  xi,  1-10;  Jer. 
xxiii,  5,  G;  xxxi,  31-34;  xxxii,  37-44;  xxxiii,  14-18; 
Ezek.  xxxiv,  23-31 ;  xxxvii,  24-28 ;  Dan.  ii,  44 ;  vii,  14, 
27 ;  ix,  25, 27).  In  these  passages  the  reign  of  the  j\Ies- 
siah  is  figuratively  described  as  a  golden  age,  when  the 
true  religion,  and  with  it  the  Jewish  theocracy,  should 
be  re-established  in  more  than  pristine  purity,  and  uni- 
versal peace  and  happiness  prevail.  All  this  was  doubt- 
less to  be  understood  in  a  spiritual  sense;  and  so  the 
devout  Jews  of  our  Saviour's  time  appear  to  have  un- 
derstood it,  as  Zacharias,  Simeon,  Anna,  and  Joseph 
(Luke  i,  G7-79 ;  ii,  25-30 ;  xxiii,  50-51).  But  the  Jews 
at  large  gave  to  these  prophecies  a  temporal  meaning, 
and  expected  a  INIessiah  who  should  come  in  the  clouds 
of  heaven,  and,  as  king  of  the  Jewish  nation,  restore  the 
ancient  religion  and  worship,  reform  the  corrupt  morals 
of  the  people,  make  expiation  for  their  sins,  free  them 
from  the  yoke  of  foreign  dominion,  and  at  length  reign 
over  the  whole  earth  in  peace  and  glory  (iMatt.  v,  19; 
viii,  12  ;  xviii,  1 ;  xx,  21 ;  Luke  xvii,  20 ;  xix,  11 ;  Acts 
i,  6).  This  Jewish  temporal  sense  appears  to  have  been 
also  held  by  the  apostles  before  the  daj'  of  Pentecost. 

It  has  been  wcU  observed  by  Knobel,  in  his  work  On 
the  Prophets,  that  "Jesus  did  not  acknowledge  himself 
called  upon  to  fulfil  those  theocratic  announcements 
which  had  an  earthly  political  character,  in  the  sense 
in  which  they  were  uttered;  for  his  plan  was  spiritual 
and  universal,  neither  including  worldly  interests,  nor 
contracted  within  national  and  political  limits.  He  gave, 
accordingl}',  to  all  such  announcements  a  higher  and 
more  general  meaning,  so  as  to  realize  them  in  accord- 
ance with  such  a  scheme.  Thus,  1.  The  prophets  had 
announced  that  Jehovah  would  deliver  his  people  from 
the  poUtical  calamities  into  which,  through  the  con- 
quering might  of  their  foes,  they  had  been  brought. 
This  Jesus  fulfilled,  init  in  a  higher  sense.  He  beheld 
the  Jewish  and  heathen  world  under  the  thraldom  of 
error  and  of  sin,  in  circumstances  of  moral  calaniitv,  and 
he  regarded  himself  as  sent  to  effect  its  dcUverance.  In 
this  sense  he  announced  himself  as  the  Redeemer,  who 
had  come  to  save  the  world,  to  destroy  the  works  of  the 
devil,  to  annihilate  the  powers  of  evil,  and  to  bring  men 
from  the  kingdom  of  darkness  to  the  kingdom  of  light. 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


90 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD 


2.  Tlie  prophets  had  predicted  that  Jehovah  would  again 
be  united  to  his  restored  people,  would  dwell  among 
them,  and  no  more  give  up  the  theocratic  relation. 
This  also  Jesus  fultilletl  in  a  higher  sense.  He  found 
mankind  in  a  state  of  estrangement  from  God,  arising 
from  tliiir  lying  in  sin,  and  he  viewed  it  as  his  vocation 
to  bring  tlicm  back  to  (iod.  He  reconciled  men  to  (iod 
— gave  tiieni  access  to  God — united  them  to  him  as  his 
dear  children,  and  made  his  people  one  with  God  as  he 
himself  is  one.  3.  The  prophets  had  declared  that  Je- 
hovah would  make  his  people,  thus  redeemed  and  re- 
united to  him,  supremely  blessed  in  the  enjoyment  of 
all  earthly  pleasures.  To  communicate  such  blessings 
in  the  literal  acceptance  of  the  words  was  no  part  of  the 
work  of  Jesus ;  on  the  contrary,  he  often  tells  his  follow- 
ers that  they  must  lay  their  account  with  much  suffer- 
ing. The  blessings  which  he  offers  are  of  a  spiritual 
kind,  consisting  in  internal  and  unending  fellowship 
\vith  GocL  Tills  is  the  life,  the  life  eteriuil.  In  the 
passages  where  he  seems  to  speak  of  temporal  blessings 
(e.  g.  jMatt.  viii,  11 ;  xix,  27,  etc.)  he  cither  speaks  met- 
aphorically or  in  "reference  to  the  ideas  of  those  whom 
he  addressed,  and  who  were  not  quite  emancipated  from 
carnal  hopes.  4.  The  prophets  had  predicted,  in  gen- 
eral, the  re-establishment  of  their  people  into  a  mighty 
state,  which  should  endure  upon  the  earth  in  imperish- 
able splendor  as  an  outward  community.  This  prospect 
Jesus  realized  again  in  a  higher  and  a  spiritual  sense  by 
establishing  a  religious  invisible  community,  internally 
united  by  oneness  of  faith  in  God  and  of  iiure  desire, 
Avhich  ever  grows  and  reaches  its  perfection  only  in  an- 
other life.  The  rise  and  progress  of  this  man  cannot 
observe,  for  its  existence  is  in  the  invisible  life  of  the 
spirit  (Luke  xvii,  20),  yet  the  opposition  of  the  wicked 
is  an  evidence  of  its  approach  (Matt,  xii,  28).  It  has 
no  political  designs,  for  it  '  is  not  of  this  world ;'  and 
there  are  found  in  it  no  such  gradations  of  ranJc  as  in 
earthly  political  communities  (Matt,  xx,  25).  What  is 
external  is  not  essential  to  it ;  its  prime  element  is  mind, 
pious,  devoted  to  God,  and  pleasing  God.  Hence  the 
kingdom  of  Jesus  is  composed  of  those  who  turn  to  God 
and  his  ambassadors,  and  in  faith  and  life  abide  true  to 
them.  From  this  it  is  clear  how  sometimes  this  king- 
dom may  be  spoken  of  as  present,  and  sometimes  as  future. 
Religious  and  moral  truth  works  forever,  and  draws  un- 
der its  influence  one  after  another,  until  at  length  it  shall 
reign  over  all.  In  designating  this  communitj-,  Jesus 
made  use  of  terms  having  a  relation  to  the  ancient  the- 
ocracy; it  is  the  Jciur/dom  of  God  or  of  heaven,  though, 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  represented  rather  as  the  family 
than  as  the  state  of  God.  This  appears  from  many  other 
phrases.  The  head  of  the  ancient  community  was  call- 
ed Lord  and  King;  that  of  the  new  is  called  Father; 
the  members  of  the  former  were  servants,  i.  e.  subjects 
of  Jehovah ;  those  of  the  latter  are  son,'?  of  God ;  the 
feeling  of  the  former  towards  God  is  described  as  the 
fear  of  Jehovah ;  that  of  the  latter  is  helievinfj  confi- 
dence or  love ;  the  chief  duty  of  the  former  was  righteous- 
ness ;  the  first  duty  of  the  latter  is  love.  All  these  ex- 
pressions are  adapted  to  the  constitution  of  the  sacred 
community,  cither  as  a  divine  state  or  as  a  divine  familij. 
It  needs  hardly  to  be  mentioned  that  Jesus  extended  its 
fullilmcnt  of  these  ancient  prophecies  in  this  spiritual 
sense  to  all  men." 

Kcferring  to  the  Old-Testament  idea,  wc  may  there- 
fore regard  the  '•  kingdom  of  heaven,"  etc.,  in  the  New 
Testament,  as  designating,  iu  its  Christian  sense,  the 
Christian  dispensation,  or  the  community  of  those  who 
receive  Jesus  as  the  Jlcssiah,  and  wlio,  iinitod  liy  his 
Spirit  under  him  as  their  Head,  rejoice  in  the  truth,  and 
live  a  holy  life  in  love  and  in  communion  with  him 
(Matt,  iii,  2;  iv,  17,  23;  ix,  35;  x,  7 ;  Mark  i,  14,  15; 
Lukex,  !»,  11;  xxiii,  51 ;  Acts  xxvii,  31).  This  spirit- 
ual liingdom  has  both  an  intermd  and  external  form.  As 
internal  and  spiritual,  it  already  exists  and  rules  in  the 
hearts  of  all  L'liristians,  and  is  therefore  ]irescnt  (Koin. 
xiv,  17;  Matt,  vi,  33;  Mark  x,  15;  Luke  xvii,  21;  xviii, 


17;  John  iii, 3, 5;  1  Cor.iv,20).  It  "  suff"ereth  violence," 
implying  the  eagerness  with  which  the  ( Jospel  was  re- 
ceived in  the  agitated  state  of  men's  minds  (ilatt.  xi, 
12 ;  Luke  xvi,  G).  As  external,  it  is  either  embodied  in 
the  visible  Church  of  Christ,  and  in  so  far  is  present  and 
progressive  (Matt,  vi,  10 ;  xii,  28 ;  xiii,  24,  31,  33.  41, 47 ; 
xvi,  19,28;  Mark  iv,30;  xi,  10;  Luke  xiii,  18,  20  ;  Acts 
xix,  8 ;  Heb.  xii,  28),  or  it  is  to  be  perfected  in  the  com- 
ing of  the  Messiah  to  judgment  and  his  subsequent 
spiritual  reign  in  bliss  and  glory,  in  which  view  it  is  fu- 
ture (Matt,  xiii,  43;  xxvi,29;  Mark  xiv,  25;  Luke  xxii, 
29, 30 ;  2  Pet.  i,  11 ;  Kev.  xii,  10).  In  this  latter  view  it 
denotes  especially  the  bliss  of  heaven,  eteiticd  life,  which 
is  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  Kedeemer's  kingdom  (Matt,  viii, 
11;  XXV,  34;  Mark  ix,  47;  Luke  xiii,  18,  29;  Acts  xiv, 
22;  1  Cor.  vi,  9,  20;  xv,  .50;  Gal,  v,  21 ;  Eph,  v,  5;  2 
Thess.  i,  5 ;  2  Tim.  iv,  18 ;  James  ii,  5).  But  these  dif- 
ferent aspects  are  not  always  distinguished,  the  expres- 
sion often  embracing  both  the  uitcrnal  and  external 
sense,  and  referring  both  to  its  commencement  in  this 
world  and  its  comjiletion  in  the  world  to  come  (Matt,  v, 
3,10,20;  vii,21;  xi.  11;  xiii,  11,52;  xviii,  3,4;  Col.  i, 
13  ;  1  Thess.  ii,  12).  In  Luke  i,  33,  it  is  said  of  the  king- 
dom of  Christ  "  there  shall  be  no  end ;"  whereas  in  1 
Cor.  XV,  24-26,  it  is  said  "  he  shall  deliver  up  the  king- 
dom to  God,  even  the  Father."  The  contradiction  is 
only  in  api)earance.  The  latter  passage  refers  to  the 
m«/M//on'r(^  dominion  of  Christ;  and  when  the  mediato- 
rial work  of  the  Saviour  is  accomplished,  then,  at  the 
final  judgment,  he  will  resign  forever  his  mediatorial 
office,  Avhile  the  reign  of  Christ  as  God  supreme  will 
never  cease.  "  His  throne,"  in  the  empire  of  the  uni- 
verse, "  is  forever  and  ever"  (Heb.  i,  8). 

"  There  is  reason  to  believe  not  only  that  the  expres- 
sion kingdom  of  heaven,  as  used  in  the  Nc^v'  Test.,  was 
employed  as  synonymous  with  hingdom  ef  God,  as  re- 
ferred to  in  the  Old  Test.,  but  that  the  former  expres- 
sion had  become  common  among  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's 
time  for  dcnotuig  the  state  of  things  expected  to  be 
brought  in  by  the  Messiah.  The  mere-  use  of  the  ex- 
pression as  it  first  occurs  in  Matthew,  uttered  apparent- 
ly by  John  Baptist,  and  our  Lord  himself,  without  a 
note  of  explanation,  as  if  all  perfectly  understood  what 
was  meant  by  it,  seems  alone  conclusive  evidence  of 
this.  The  Old-Testament  constitution,  and  the  writings 
belonging  to  it,  had  familiarized  the  Jews  with  the  ap- 
plication of  the  terms  Mng  and  kingdom  to  God,  not 
merely  with  reference  to  his  universal  sovereignty,  but 
also  to  his  special  connection  Avith  the  iieople  he  had 
chosen  for  himself  (1  Sam.  xii,  12;  Psa.  ii,  6;  v,  2;  xx, 
9 ;  1  Chron.  xxix,  11 ;  2  Chron.  xiii,  8,  etc.).  In  Daniel, 
however,  where  ]jointed  expression  required  to  be  given 
to  the  difference  in  this  respect  between  what  is  of  earth 
and  what  is  of  heaven,  we  find  matters  ordered  on  a  cer- 
tain occasion  with  a  view  t(j  bring  out  the  specific  lesson 
that  '  the  heavens  do  rule'  (iv,  26) ;  and  in  the  inter- 
pretation given  to  the  vision,  which  had  been  granted 
to  Nebuchadnezzar,  it  was  said,  witli  more  special  refer- 
ence to  New-Testament  times,  that  'in  the  days  of  those 
(earthly)  kings  the  God  of  heaven  (lit.  of  the  heavens) 
should  set  up  a  kingdom  that  should  never  be  destroy- 
ed' (ii,  44).  In  still  another  vision  granted  to  Daniel 
himself,  this  divine  kingdom  was  represented  under  the 
image  of  one  like  a  Son  of  man  coming  with  the  clouds 
of  heaAxn,  and  there  was  given  him  dominion,  and  glo- 
ri-,  and  a  kingdom,  that  all  people,  nations,  and  lan- 
guages should  serve  him'  (vii,  13,  14),  It  apjicars  to 
have  been  in  conse(picnce  of  tlie  phrascidogy  thus  in- 
troduced and  sanctioned  l)y  Daniel  that  the  expression 
'kingdom  of  heaven' (Cl^'C'i^'fl  r^rP"3,  malknth  hasha- 
maijini)  passed  into  common  usage  among  the  Jews,  and 
was  but  another  nanie  with  them  for  a  state  of  fellow- 
ship with  God  and  devotedness  to  his  service.  jMany 
cxam])les  of  this  arc  given  by  Wetstcin  on  Matt,  iii,  2 
from  .lewish  writings:  thus, 'He  who  confesses  (iod  to 
be  one,  and  repeats  Dent.  vi,4,  takes  up  the  kingdom  of 
heaven ;'  '  Jacob  cidled  his  sons  and  commanded  them 


KINGDOM  OF  ISRAEL 


91 


KINGS 


concerning  the  ways  of  God,  and  they  took  upon  them 
the  kingdom  of  heaven ;'  '  The  sons  of  Achasius  did  not 
take  upon  them  the  yoke  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven ; 
they  did  not  acknowledge  the  Lord,  for  they  said.  There 
is  not  a  Idngdom  in  heaven,'  etc.  The  expression,  in- 
deed, does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  specifically  with 
reference  to  the  Messiah's  coming,  or  the  state  to  be  in- 
troduced by  him  (for  the  examples  j)roduced  by  SchiJtt- 
gen  [Z'e  Messia,  ch.ii]  are  scarcely  in  point);  but  when 
the  Lord  himself  was  declared  to  be  at  hand  to  remodel 
everything,  and  visibly  take  the  government,  as  it  were, 
on  his  shoukler,  it  would  be  understood  of  itself  that 
here  the  kingdom  of  heaven  shoidd  be  found  concen- 
trating itself,  and  that  to  join  one's  self  to  Messiah  would 
be  in  the  truest  sense  to  take  up  the  yoke  of  that  king- 
dom" (Fairbairn).     See  Kingly  Office  of  Christ. 

The  scriptural  and  popular  usages  of  the  term  "  king- 
dom of  God,"  "  kingdom  of  heaven,"  etc.,  serve  as  a  clew 
to  the  otherwise  rather  abrujit  proclamation  of  the  Bap- 
tist and  Jesus  at  the  very  begiiniing  of  their  public  min- 
istrations. It  is  true  that  in  the  Old  Testament  the 
kingdom  or  reign  of  God  usually  signifies  his  infinite 
power,  or,  more  properly,  his  sovereign  authority  over 
all  creatures,  kingdoms,  and  hearts.  See  King.  Thus 
Wisdom  says  (x,  10),  God  showed  his  kingdom  to  Ja- 
cob, i.  e.  he  opened  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  him  in 
showing  him  the  mysterious  ladder  by  which  the  an- 
gels ascended  and  descended  ;  and  Ecclesiasticus  (xlvii, 
13)  says,  God  gave  to  David  the  covenant  assurance,  or 
promise  of  the  kingdom,  for  himself  and  his  successors. 
StiU  the  transition  from  this  to  the  moral  and  religious 
sphere  was  so  natural  that  it  was  silently  and  continual- 
ly made,  especially  as  Jehovah  was  perpetually  repre- 
sented as  the  supreme  and  sole  legitimate  sovereign  of 
his  people.  Indeed,  the  theocracy  was  the  central  idea 
of  the  Jewish  state  [see  Juuge],  and  hence  the  first 
announcements  of  the  Gospel  sounded  with  thrilling  ef- 
fect upon  the  ears  of  the  people,  proverbially  impatient 
of  foreign  rule,  and  yet,  at  the  time,  apparently  bound  in 
a  hopeless  vassalage  to  Rome.  It  was  to  the  populace 
like  a  trumpet-call  to  a  war  for  independence,  or  rather 
Uke  one  of  the  old  preans  of  deliverance  sung  by  Miiiam 
and  Deborah.     See  Tiieocuacy. 

Copious  lists  of  monographs  on  this  subject  may  be 
seen  in  Danz,  Wurterhuch,  s.  v.  Himmel-Eeich,  Messias- 
Eeich ;  Volbeding,  Index  Prof/rammatum,  p.  37 ;  Ilase, 
Lehen  Jesti,  p.  72,  77.     See  Messiah. 

Kingdom  of  Israel.    See  Isk.vel,  Kingdoh  of. 

Kingdom  of  Judah.     See  Judaii,  Kingdom  of. 

Kingly  Office  of  Christ,  one  of  the  three  great 
relations  which  Jesus  sustains  to  his  people,  namely,  as 
prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  to  which  he  was  solemn- 
ly inaugurated  at  his  baptism  by  John.  See  Anoint- 
ing, It  is  by  virtue  of  this  that  he  became  head  of  the 
Church,  which  is  the  sphere  of  his  realm.  See  Kinc;- 
DOM  OF  God.  This  is  that  spiritual,  evangelical,  and 
eternal  empire  to  which  he  himself  referred  when  inter- 
rogated before  Pontius  Pilate,  and  in  reference  to  which 
he  said,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world"  (John  xviii, 
36, 37).  His  empire,  indeed,  extends  to  every  creature, 
for  "  all  authority  is  committed  into  his  hands,  both  in 
heaven  and  on  earth,"  and  he  is  "  head  over  all  things 
to  the  Church ;"  but  his  kingdom  primarily  imports  tiie 
Gospel  Church,  which  is  the  subject  of  his  laws,  the  seat 
of  his  government,  and  the  object  of  his  care,  and,  being 
surrounded  with  powerful  opposers,  he  is  represented  as 
ruling  in  the  midst  of  his  enemies.  This  kingdom  is 
not  of  a  worldly  origin  or  nature,  nor  has  it  this  world 
for  its  end  or  object  (Rom.  xiv,  17;  1  Cor.  iv,  20).  It 
can  neither  be  promoted  nor  defended  by  worldly  power, 
influence,  or  carnal  weapons,  but  by  bearing  witness  unto 
the  truth,  or  by  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  with  the 
Holy  Ghost  sent  down  from  heaven  (2  Cor.  x,4,  5).  Its 
establishment  among  men  is  progressive,  but  it  is  des- 
tined at  last  to  fill  the  whole  earth"(Dan.  ii ;  Rev.  xi,  15). 
Its  real  subjects  are  only  those  who  arc  of  the  truth,  and 


hear  Christ's  voice ;  for  none  can  enter  it  but  such  as  are 
born  from  above  (John  iii,3-5;  Matt,  xviii,  3 ;  xix,  14; 
Mark  x,  15),  nor  can  any  be  visible  subjects  of  it  but 
such  as  appear  to  be  regenerated  by  a  credible  profes- 
sion of  faith  and  obedience  (Luke  xvi,  IG;  Matt,  xx, 
28-44).  Its  privileges  and  immunities  are  not  of  this 
world, but  such  as  are  spiritual  and  heavenly;  they  are 
all  spiritual  blessings  in  heavenly  things  in  Christ  Jesus 
(Eph.  i,  3).  Over  this  glorious  kingdom  death  has  no 
power;  it  extends  as  well  to  the  future  as  the  present 
world ;  and  though  entered  here  by  renewing  grace  (Cok 
i,  13),  it  is  inherited  in  its  perfection  in  the  world  of  glo- 
ry (Matt.  XXV,  34 ;  1  Cor.  xv,  50 ;  2  Pet.  i,  11).  Ilyjio- 
crites  and  false  brethren  may  indeed  insinuate  them- 
selves into  it  here,  but  they  will  have  no  possible  place 
in  it  hereafter  (Matt,  xiii,  41, 47-50 ;  xxii,  11-14;  Luke 
xiii,  28,  29 ;  1  Cor.  vi,  9, 10 ;  Gal  v,  21 ;  Rev.  xxi,  27).— 
Watson.  Its  rule  is  one  of  love  (Tholuck,  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  i,  103).     See  Christ,  Offices  of. 

Kings,  First  and  Second  BOOKS  OF,  the  sec- 
ond of  the  scries  of  Hebrew  royal  annals,  the  books  of 
Samuel  forming  the  introductory  series,  and  the  books 
of  Chronicles  being  a  parallel  series.  In  the  Hebrew 
Bible  the  first  two  series  alone  form  part  of  "  the  FV>rmer 
Prophets,"  like  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth.  See  Bible. 
In  our  discussion  of  these  we  largely  avail  ourselves  of 
the  articles  in  Kitto's,  Smith's,  and  Fairbaini's  Diction- 
aries, s.  v. 

I.  Numher  and  Title. — The  two  books  of  Kings  form- 
ed anciently  but  one  book  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  as 
is  affirmed  by  Origen  (apud  Euseb.  Prcep.  Ecanrj.  vi,  25, 
BflffiXf/wv  TpiT)],  rerapTj],  iv  ivi  Oi)a/<jufXf;^  Aafiio), 
Jerome  {Prolog.  Gal.),  Josephus  {Cont.  Ajnon.  i,  8),  and 
others.  The  present  division,  following  the  Septuagint 
and  Latin  versions,  has  been  common  in  the  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles since  the  Venetian  editions  of  Bombcrg. 

The  old  Jewish  name  was  borrowed,  as  usual, from  the 
commencing  words  of  the  book  (^1'^  Ti?'?"!|?))  Griccized 
as  in  the  above  quotiition  from  Eusebius.  The  Septua- 
gint and  Vulgate  now  number  them  as  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  Kings,  reckoning  the  two  books  of  Sam- 
uel the  first  and  second.  Their  present  title,  C^zbo, 
BamXhov,  Regum,  in  the  opinion  of  Havernick,  has  re- 
spect more  to  the  formal  than  essential  character  of  the 
composition  {^Einleitimg,  §  1G8) ;  yet  under  such  forms 
of  government  as  those  of  Judah  and  Israel  the  roj'al 
person  and  name  are  intimately  associated  ■with  all  na- 
tional acts  and  movements,  legal  decisions,  warlike  prep- 
arations, domestic  legislation,  and  foreign  policy.  The 
reign  of  an  Oriental  prince  is  identified  with  the  history 
of  his  nation  during  the  period  of  his  sovereignty.  More 
especially  in  the  tlieocratic  constitution  of  the  Jewish 
realm  the  character  of  the  monarch  was  an  important 
element  of  national  history,  and,  of  necessity,  it  had  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  fate  and  fortunes  of  the  people. 

II.  Independent  Form.- — The  question  has  been  raised 
and  minutely  discussed  whether  the  books  of  Kings  (1 
and  2)  constitute  an  entire  work  of  themselves,  or  wheth- 
er they  originally  formed  part  of  a  larger  historical  work 
embracing  the  principal  parts  of  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings,  out  of  which  these  se\-eral 
books,  as  we  now  have  them,  have  been  formed.  Ewald 
regards  the  books  of  Judges  (with  Ruth),  1  and  2  Sam- 
uel, and  1  and  2  Kings,  as  forming  parts  of  one  whole 
work,  which  he  calls  "  The  great  book  of  the  Kings." 
The  grounds  on  which  this  supposition  has  been  built 
are  partly  the  following : 

(1.)  These  books  together  contain  one  unbroken  nar- 
rative, both  in  form  and  matter,  each  portion  being  con- 
nected with  the  preceding  by  the  conjunctive  1,  or  the 
continuative  ("n"^  The  book  of  Judges  shows  itself  to 
be  a  separate  work  from  Joshua  by  opening  with  a  nar- 
ration of  events  with  which  that  book  closes;  the  work 
then  proceeds  through  the  times  of  the  Judges,  and  goes 
on  to  give,  in  Ruth,  the  family  history  and  genealogy 


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92 


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of  David,  and  iii  Samuel  and  Kings  the  events  which 
transpired  down  to  the  captivity. 

("2.)  The  recurrence  in  Judges  of  the  phrases,  "And  in 
those  days  there  was  no  king  in  Israel"  (xvii,  6 ;  xviii, 
1 ;  xxi,  2b) ;  "  It  came  to  pass  in  those  days  when  there 
was  no  king"  (xix,  1) ;  and  in  liuth  (i,  1),  "  Now  it 
came  to  pass  in  the  days  when  the  judges  ruled,"  shows 
that  this  jjortion  of  the  worlv  was  Mritten  in  the  times 
when  there  u-ere  kings  in  Israel.  The  writer  therefore 
was  in  a  position  to  pass  under  review  the  whole  period 
of  the  times  of  the  judges,  and  we  find  that  he  estimates 
the  conduct  of  the  people  according  to  the  degree  of 
their  conformity  to  the  law  of  the  Lord,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  writer  of  Kings  (Judg.  ii,  11-19;  2  Kings 
xvii,  7-23). 

Again,  in  Judg.  i,  21,  it  is  said  that  the  Jebusites 
dwell  with  the  children  of  Benjamin  in  Jerusalem  unto 
this  (la// ;  and  in  2  Sam.  xxiv,  16,  mention  is  made  of 
Araunah  the  Jebusite  as  an  inhabitant  of  Jerusalem, 
from  which  it  is  inferred  that  the  writer  intended  these 
facts  to  explain  each  other.  (But  see  Josh,  xv,  63.) 
So  there  is  a  reference  in  Judg.  xx,  27  to  the  removal 
of  the  ark  of  the  covenant  from  Shiloh  to  Jerusalem;  and 
the  expression  "  in  those  days"  points,  as  in  xvii,  G,  etc., 
to  remote  times.  There  is  thought  to  be  a  reference  in 
Judg.  xviii,  30  to  the  captivity  of  Israel  in  the  days  of 
Hoshea,  in  which  case  that  book  must  have  been  written 
subsequently  to  that  time,  as  well  as  the  books  of  Kings. 

(3.)  The  books  of  Kings  take  up  the  narrative  where 
2  Samuel  breaks  off,  and  proceed  in  the  same  spirit  and 
manner  to  continue  the  history,  with  the  earlier  parts 
of  ^vhich  the  writer  gives  proof  of  being  well  acquainted 
(comp.  1  Kings  ii,  11  with  2  Sam.  v,  4, 5 ;  so  also  2  Kings 
xvii,  41  with  Judg.  ii,  11-19,  etc.;  1  Sam.  ii,  27  with 
Judg.  xiii,  6 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  17-20,  xix,  27,  with  Judg.  xiii, 
G ;  1  Sam.  ix,  21  with  Judg.  vi,  15,  and  xx ;  1  Kings  viii, 

1  with  2  Sam.  vi,  17,  and  v,  7,  9;  1  Sam.  xvii,  12  with 
Paith  iv,  17;  Faith  i,  1  with  Judg.  xvii,  7,  8,  9;  xix,  1, 

2  [Bethlehem-Judah]).  Other  links  connecting  the 
books  of  Kings  with  the  preceding  may  be  found  in  the 
comparison,  suggested  by  De  Wette,  of  1  Kings  ii,  26 
with  1  Sam.  ii,  35;  1  Kings  ii,  3,  4;  v,  17,  18;  viii,  18, 
19, 25,  with  2  Sam.  vii,  12-16 ;  and  1  Kings  iv,  1-6  with 
2  Sam.  viii,  15-18. 

(4.)  Similarity  of  diction  has  been  observed  through- 
out, indicating  identity  of  authorship.  The  phrase 
"Spirit  of  Jehovah"  occurs  first  in  Judges,  and  fre- 
quently afterwards  in  Samuel  and  Kings  (Judg.  iii,  10; 
vi,  34,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  x,  6,  etc. ;  1  Kings  xxii,  24;  2  Kings 
ii,  10,  etc.).  So  "Man  of  God,"  to  designate  a  prophet, 
and  "  God  do  so  to  me  and  more  also,"  are  common  to 
them;  and  "till  they  were  ashamed"  to  Judges  and 
Kings  (Judg.  iii,  25;  2  Kings  ii,  17;  viii,  11). 

(5.)  Generally  the  style  of  the  narrative,  ordinarily 
quiet  and  simple,  but  rising  to  great  vigor  and  spirit 
when  stirring  deeds  are  described  (as  in  Judg.  iv,  vii, 
xi,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  iv,  xvii,  xxxi,  etc. ;  1  Kings  viii,  xviii, 
xix,  etc.),  and  the  introduction  of  poetry  or  poetic  style 
in  the  midst  of  the  narrative  (as  in  Judg.  v,  1  Sam.  ii,  2 
Sam.  i,  17,  etc.,  1  Kings  xxii,  17,  etc.),  constitute  such 
strong  fcatiures  of  resemblance  as  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  these  several  books  form  but  one  work. 

But  these  reasons  are  not  conclusive.  Many  of  the 
resemblances  may  be  accounted  for  in  other  ways,  while 
there  are  important  and  wide  differences. 

(1.)  If  the  arguments  were  sufficient  to  join  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings  together  in  one  work,  for  the  same 
rea.sons  Josluia  nnist  be  added  (Josh,  i,  1 ;  xv,  63 ;  xxiii 
and  xxiv;  Judg.  i,  1). 

(2.)  The  writer  of  Kings  might  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  previous  history  of  his  people,  .ind  even  with 
the  contents  of  Judges  and  Samuel,  without  being  him- 
self flic  author  of  those  books. 

(3.)  Siicli  similarity  of  diction 'as  exists  mdy  be  as- 
crilicd  111  the  use  by  the  writer  of  Kings  of  earlier  docu- 
menis.  to  which  also  the  writer  of  Samuel  had  access. 

(4.J  There  are  good  reasons  for  regarding  the  Kings 


as  together  forming  an  entire  and  independent  work, 
such  as  the  similarity  of  style  and  language,  both  vo- 
cabulary and  grammar,  which  pervades  tlie  two  books, 
but  distinguishes  them  from  others — the  uniform  system 
of  quotation  observed  in  them,  but  not  in  the  books 
which  precede  them  —  the  same  careful  attention  to 
chronology — the  recurrence  of  certain  phrases  and  forms 
of  speech  peculiar  to  them.  A  great  number  of  words 
occur  in  Kings,  which  are  found  in  them  onh' ;  such  are 
chiefly  names  of  materials  and  utensils,  and  architect- 
ural terms.  Words,  and  unusual  forms  of  words,  occur, 
whicli  are  only  found  here  and  in  writers  of  the  same 
period,  as  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  but  not  in  Samuel  or 
Judges.     See  §  v,  below. 

III.  Contents,  Character,  and  Design.  —  The  books  of 
Kings  contain  the  brief  annals  of  a  long  period,  from 
the  accession  of  Solomon  till  the  dissolution  of  the  com- 
monwealth. The  first  chapters  describe  the  reign  of 
Solomon  over  the  united  kingdom,  and  the  revolt  luider 
Eehoboam.  Tlie  history  of  the  rival  states  is  next  nar- 
rated in  parallel  sections  till  the  period  of  Israel's  down- 
fall on  the  invasion  of  Shalmanezer.  Then  the  remain- 
ing years  of  the  principality  of  Judah  are  recorded  till 
the  conquest  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Babylonian  captivity.  See  Israel;  Ju- 
dah. For  an  adjustment  of  the  years  of  the  respective 
reigns  in  each  line,  see  Chronology. 

There  are  some  pecidiarities  in  this  succmct  history 
worthy  of  attention.  It  is  summary,  but  very  sugges- 
tive. It  is  not  a  biography  of  the  sovereigns,  nor  a 
mere  record  of  political  occurrences,  nor  yet  an  ecclesi- 
astical register.  King,  Church,  and  State  are  all  com- 
prised in  their  sacred  relations.  It  is  a  theocratic  his- 
tory, a  retrospective  survey  of  the  kingdom  as  existing 
under  a  theocratic  government.  The  character  of  the 
sovereign  is  tested  b}^  his  fidelity  to  the  religious  obli- 
gations of  his  office,  and  this  decision  in  reference  to  his 
conduct  is  generally  added  to  the  notice  of  his  accession. 
The  new  king's  religious  character  is  generally  portraj'- 
ed  by  its  similarity  or  opposition  to  the  way  of  David, 
of  his  father,  or  of  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  "who  made 
Israel  to  sin."  Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  noticed  with  a 
similar  pmrjiose,  and  in  contrast  with  past  or  prevalent 
apostasy,  especially  as  manifested  in  the  popular  super- 
stitions, whose  shrines  were  on  the  "  high  places."  Po- 
litical or  national  uicidents  are  introduced  in  general  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  the  iutiuence  of  religion  on  civic 
prosperity;  of  showing  how  the  theocracy  maintained 
a  vigilant  and  vengeful  guardianship  over  its  rights  and 
privileges — adherence  to  its  principles  securing  peace 
and  plenty,  disobedience  to  them  bringing  along  with  it 
sudden  and  severe  retribution.  The  books  of  Kings  are 
a  verification  of  the  IMosaic  warnings,  and  the  author  of 
them  lias  kept  this  steadily  in  view.  He  has  given  a 
brief  history  of  his  people,  arranged  under  tlie  various 
political  chiefs  in  such  a  manner  as  to  sli6w  that  the 
government  was  essentially  theocratic ;  that  its  spirit,  as 
developed  in  the  Mosaic  writings,  was  never  extinct, 
however  modified  or  inactive  it  might  sometimes  appear. 
Thus  the  books  of  Kings  appear  in  a  religious  costume, 
quite  different  from  the  form  they  would  have  assumed 
either  as  a  pohtical  or  ecclesiastical  narrative.  In  tlie 
one  case  legislative  enactments,  royal  edicts,  popular 
movements,  would  have  occupied  a  prominent  jilace ;  in 
the  other,  sacerdotal  arrangements,  Levitical  service, 
music,  and  pageantrj',  wouUl  have  filled  the  leading  sec- 
tions of  the  treatise.  In  either  view  the  points  adduced 
would  have  had  a  restricted  reference  to  tlie  palace  or 
the  temjjlc,  the  sovereign  or  the  pontiff,  the  court  or  the 
priesthood,  the  throne  or  the  altar,  the  tribute  or  tithes, 
the  nation  on  its  farms,  or  the  tribes  in  the  courts  of  the 
sacred  edifice.  But  the  theocracy  conjoined  both  the 
political  and  religious  elements,  and  the  insjiired  annal- 
ist unites  them  as  essential  to  his  design.  The  agency 
of  divinity  is  constantly  recognised,  the  hand  of  Jeho- 
vah is  continually  acknowledged.  The  chief  organ  of 
theocratic  infiueuce  enjoys  peculiar  prominence.     We 


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93 


KINGS 


refer  to  the  incessant  a.ccency  of  the  prophets,  their  great 
power  and  peculiar  modes  of  action  as  tletailed  by  tlie 
composer  of  the  books  of  Kings.  They  interfered  with 
the  succession,  and  their  mstrumentaUty  was  apparent 
in  the  schism.  They  roused  the  people,  and  they  braved 
the  sovereign.  The  balance  of  power  was  in  their  hands ; 
the  regal  dignity  seemed  to  be  sometimes  at  their  dis- 
posal. In  times  of  emergency  they  dispensed  with  usual 
modes  of  procedure,  and  assumed  an  authority  with 
■which  no  subject  in  an  ordinary'  state  can  safely  be  in- 
trusted, executing  the  law  with  a  summary  promptness 
which  renilered  opposition  impossible,  or  at  least  un- 
availing. They  felt  their  divine  commission,  and  that 
they  were  the  custodians  of  the  rights  of  Jehovah.  At 
the  same  time  they  protected  the  interests  of  the  na- 
tion, and,  could  we  divest  the  term  of  its  association 
with  unprincipled  turbulence  and  sedition,  w^e  would, 
lilte  Winer  (Eealicorterb.  s.  v.  Prophet),  style  them  the 
demagogues  of  Israel.  The  divine  prerogative  was  to 
them  a  vested  right,  guarded  ^vith  a  sacred  jealousy 
from  royal  usurpation  or  popular  invasion ;  and  the  in- 
terests of  the  people  were  as  religiously  protected  against 
encroachments,  too  easily  made  under  a  form  of  govern- 
ment which  had  not  the  safeguard  of  popular  represen- 
tation or  aristocratic  privilege.  The  priesthood  were  in 
many  instances,  though  there  are  some  illustrious  ex- 
ceptions, merely  the  creatures  of  the  crown,  and  there- 
fore it  became  the  prophetical  ofHce  to  assert  its  dignity 
and  stantl  forth  in  the  majestic  insignia  of  an  embassy 
from  heaven.  The  truth  of  these  sentiments,  as  to  the 
method,  design,  and  composition  of  the  books  of  Kings, 
is  confirmed  by  ample  evidence. 

(1.)  Large  space  is  occupied  with  the  building  of  the 
Temple — the  palace  of  the  divine  Protector — his  throne 
in  it  being  above  the  mercy-seat  and  between  the  cher- 
ubim (ch.  v-viii).  Care  is  taken  to  record  the  miracu- 
lous phenomenon  of  the  descent  of  the  Shekinah  (viii, 
10).  The  prayer  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the 
house  is  fidl  of  theocratic  views  and  aspirations. 

(2.)  Reference  is  often  made  to  the  i\Iosaic  law,  with 
its  provisions,  and  allusions  to  the  earlier  history  of  the 
people  frequently  occur  (1  Kings  ii,  3 ;  iii,  14 ;  vi,  11, 12 ; 
viii,  58,  etc. ;  2  Kings  x,  31;  xiv,  6;  xvii,  13, 15,37;  xviii, 
4-6 :  xxi,  1-8).  Allusions  to  the  IMosaic  code  are  found 
more  frequently  towards  the  end  of  the  second  book, 
when  the  kingdom  was  drawing  near  its  termination,  as 
if  to  account  for  its  decay  and  approaching  fate. 

(3.)  Phrases  expressive  of  divine  interference  are  fre- 
quently introduced  (1  Kings  xi,  31 ;  xii,  15 ;  xiii,  1, 2,  9  ; 
and  XX,  13,  etc.). 

(4.)  Prophetic  interposition  is  a  verj'  prominent  theme 
of  record.  It  fills  the  vivid  foreground  of  the  historical 
picture.  Nathan  was  occupied  in  the  succession  of  Sol- 
omon (I  Kings  i,  45) ;  Ahijah  was  concerned  in  the  re- 
volt (xi,  29-40).  Shemaiah  disbanded  the  troops  which 
Eehuboam  had  mustered  (fsAi,  21).  Ahijah  predicted  the 
ruin  of  Jeroboam,  whose  elevation  he  had  promoted  (xiv, 
7).  Jehu,  the  prophet, doomed  the  house  of  Baasha  (xvi, 
1).  The  reigns  of  Ahab  and  Ahaziah  arc  marked  by  the 
bold,  rapid,  mysterious  movements  of  Elijah.  Under 
Ahab  occurs  the  prediction  of  IMicaiah  (xxii,8).  The 
actions  and  oracles  of  Elisha  form  the  marvellous  topics 
of  narration  under  several  reigns.  The  agency  of  Isaiah 
is  also  recognised  (2  Kings  xix,  20 ;  xx,  16).  Besides,  1 
Kings  xiii  presents  another  instance  of  prophetic  opera- 
tion ;  and  iii  xx,  35,  the  oracle  of  an  unknown  prophet  is 
also  rehearsed.  Hiddah  the  prophetess  was  an  impor- 
tant personage  under  the  government  of  Josiah  (2  Kings 
xxii,14).  Care  is  also  taken  to  report  the  fulfilment  of 
striking  prophecies,  in  the  usual  phrase,  ■'  according  to 
the  word  of  the  Lord"  (1  Kings  xii,  15 ;  xv,  29 ;  xvi^l2 ; 
2  Kings  xxiii,  15-18 ;  ix,  36  ;  xxiv,  2).  So,  too,  the  old 
Syriac  version  prefixes,  "  Here  follows  the  book  of  the 
kings  who  flourished  among  the  ancient  people;  and  in 
this  is  also  exhibited  the  historj'  of  the  prophets  who 
flourished  during  their  times." 

(5.)  Theocratic  influence  is  recognised  both  in  the  de- 


position and  succession  of  kings  (1  Kings  xiii,  33 ;  xv,  4, 
5,  29,  30 :  2  Kings  xi,  17,  etc.).  Compare,  on  the  whole 
of  this  view,  Hiivernick,  Einleit.  §  168 ;  Jahn,  Introduct. 
§  46 ;  Gesenius,  Ueher  Jes.  i,  934.  It  is  thus  apparent 
that  the  object  of  the  author  of  the  Books  of  Kings  was 
to  describe  the  history  of  the  kingdoms,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  theocratic  element.  This  design 
accounts  for  what  De  "Wette  {Einleit.  §  185)  terms  the 
mythical  character  of  these  books. 

As  to  what  has  been  termed  the  anti-Israelitish  spirit 
of  the  work  (Bertholdt,  i-'wifciV.  p.  949),  we  do  not  per- 
ceive it.  Truth  required  that  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
should  be  described  in  its  real  character.  Idol-worship 
was  connected  with  its  foundation ;  moscholatry  was  a 
state  provision ;  fidelity  obUged  the  annalist  to  state  that 
all  its  kings  patronized  the  institutions  of  Bethel  and 
Dan,  while  eight,  at  least,  of  the  Jewish  sovereigns  ad- 
hered to  the  true  religion,  and  that  the  majority  of  its 
Idngs  perished  in  insiu-rectiou,  while  those  of  Judah  in 
general  were  exempted  from  seditious  tumults  and  as- 
sassination. 

lY.  Relation  ofKin[is  to  Chronicles. — The  more  obvious 
differences  between  the  books  of  Kings  and  of  Chroni- 
cles are, 

(1.)  In  respect  of  language,  by  which  the  former  are 
shown  to  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  latter, 

(2.)  Of  periods  embraced  in  each  work.  The  Chron- 
icles are  ranch  more  comprehensive  than  Kings,  con- 
taiuing  genealogical  lists  from  Adam  downwards,  and  a 
full  account  of  the  reign  of  David.  The  portions  of  the 
Chronicles  sj'nchronistic  with  Kings  are  1  Chron.  xxviii- 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  22. 

(3.)  In  the  Kings  greater  prominence  is  given  to  the 
prophetical  office ;  in  Chronicles,  to  the  priestly  or  Le- 
vitical.  In  the  books  of  the  Ivings  we  have  the  active 
influence  of  Nathan  in  regard  to  the  succession  to  the 
throne ;  and  the  remarkable  lives  of  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
of  whom  numerous  and  extraordinary  miracles  are  re- 
lated, of  which  scarcely  the  slightest  mention  is  made 
in  Chronicles,  although  in  Kings  about  fourteen  chap- 
ters are  taken  up  with  them.  Besides  these,  other 
prophets  are  mentioned,  and  their  acts  and  sayings  are 
recorded ;  as,  1  Kings  xiii,  the  prophet  who  came  to 
Bethel  from  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam,  and  his 
predictions ;  and  in  2  Kings  xxiii,  the  fulfilment  of  them 
in  the  days  of  Josiah ;  1  Kings  xiii,  the  old  prophet  who 
lived  at  Bethel  with  his  sons.  Ahijah  the  prophet,  also, 
in  the  days  of  Jeroljoam,  1  Kings  xiv ;  Jehu,  the  son  of 
Hanani,  1  Ivings  xvi ;  Jonah,  in  the  time  of  Jeroboam, 
2  Kings  xiv,  25 ;  and  Isaiah  in  relation  to  the  sickness 
of  Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xx.  Of  these  there  is  either  no 
mention,  or  much  slighter  in  Chronicles,  where  the 
priestly  or  Levitical  element  is  more  observable ;  as,  for 
example,  the  fuU  account,  in  2  Chron.  xxix-xxxi,  of  the 
purification  of  the  Temple  by  Hezekiah  ;  of  the  services 
and  sacrifices  then  made,  and  of  the  names  of  the  Le- 
vites  who  took  part  in  it,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
courses  and  orders  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  supplies  for 
the  daily,  weekly,  and  yearly  sacrifices;  also,  the  cir- 
cumstantial account  of  the  Passover  observed  by  com- 
mand of  Josiah,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  1-19.  In  this  Avay  we 
may  account  not  only  for  the  omission  of  much  that  re- 
lates to  the  prophets,  but  also  for  the  less  remarkable 
prominence  given  to  the  history  of  Israel,  and  the  great- 
er to  Judah  and  Jerusalem ;  and  for  the  frequent  omis- 
sion of  details  respecting  the  idolatrous  practices  of  some 
of  the  kings,  as  of  Solomon,  Kehoboam,  and  Ahaz ;  and 
the  destruction  of  idolatry  by  Josiah,  showing  that  the 
books  of  Chronicles  were  written  in  times  in  which  the 
people  less  needed  to  be  warned  against  idolatrj-;  to 
which,  after  the  captivity,  they  had  ceased  to  be  so 
prone  as  before. 

For  fm-ther  information  on  the  relation  between  Kings 
and  Chronicles,  see  Chronicles,  Books  of. 

V.  Peculiarities  of  Diction.— \.  The  words  noticed  by 
De  Wette  {Einl.  §  185)  as  indicating  their  modem  date 
are  the  foUowmg:  "^nX  for  nx,  1  Kings  xiv,  2.     (But 


KINGS 


94 


KINGS 


this  form  is  also  found  in  Judsx-  xvii,  2 ;  Jer.  iv,  30 ; 
Ezek.  xxxvi,  I'o,  and  not  once  iii  the  later  books.) 
irnX  for  ins,  2  Kings  i,  15.  (But  this  form  of  nX  is 
found  in  Lev.  xv,  18,  24;  Josh,  xiv,  12;  2  Sam.  xxiv, 
24;  Isa.  hx,  21;  Jer.  x,  5;  xii,  1;  xix,  10;  xx,  11; 
xxiii,  9;  xxxv,  2;  Ezek.  xiv,  4;  xxvii,  20.)  D"J31'  for 
ci"',  1  Kings  ix,  8.  (But  Jer.  xix,  8;  xlix,  17,  are 
identical  in  phrase  and  orthography.)  "p^"!  for  C^Iil, 
2  Kings  xi,  13.  (But  everj-where  else  in  Kings,  e.  g.  2 
Kings  xi,  G,  etc.,  D^IJ^,  which  is  also  universal  in  Chron- 
icles, an  avowedly  later  book ;  and  here,  as  in  ")^3T:i,  1 
Kings  xi,  33,  there  is  everj'  appearance  of  the  "  being  a 
clerical  error  for  the  copulative  1 ;  see  Thenius,  I.  c.) 
nS'^n'0, 1  Kings  XX,  14.  (But  this  word  occurs  in  Lam. 
i,  1,  and  there  is  every  appearance  of  its  being  a  tech- 
nical word  in  1  Kings  xx,  14.  antl  therefore  as  old  as  the 
reign  of  Ahab.)  "I'S  for  "i-^n,  1  Kings  iv,  22.  (But  "I3 
is  used  by  Ezek.  xiv,  14,  and  homer  seems  to  have  been 
then  already  obsolete.)  C"^"in,  1  Kings  xxi,  8, 11.  (Oc- 
curs in  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.)  S"!,  2  Kings  xxv,  8. 
(But  as  the  term  evidently  came  in  with  the  Chal- 
dees,  as  seen  in  Ilab-shakeh,  Itab-saris,  Eab-mag,  its  ap- 
plication to  the  Chaldee  general  is  no  evidence  of  a 
time  later  than  the  person  to  whom  the  title  is  given.) 
tP'C,  1  Kings  viii,  61,  etc.  (But  there  is  not  a  particle 
of  e\'idence  that  this  expression  belongs  to  late  Hebrew. 
It  is  found,  among  other  places,  in  Isa.  xxxviii,  3,  a 
passage  against  the  authenticity  of  which  there  is  also 
nut  a  sliaddw  of  jiroof,  except  upon  the  presumption  that 
prophetic  intimations  and  supernatural  interventions  on 
the  part  of  God  are  impossible.)  i'^Sbri,  2  Kings  xviii, 
7.  (On  what  grounds  this  word  is  adduced  it  is  impos- 
sible to  guess,  since  it  occurs  in  this  sense  in  Joshua, 
Isaiah,  Samuel,  and  Jeremiah :  see  Gesenius.)  "jinaa, 
2  Kings  xviii,  19.  (Isa.  xxxvi,  4;  Eccles.  ix,  4.) 
r."1^n^,  2  Kings  xviii,  2G.  (But  why  should  not  a 
Jew.  in  Hezekiah's  reign  as  well  as  in  the  time  of  Nc- 
hemiah,  have  called  his  mother-tongue  "  the  Jeus^  lan- 
guage," in  opposition  to  the  Ay-amcean?  There  was 
nothing  in  the  Babylonian  captivity  to  give  it  the  name 
if  it  had  it  not  before,  nor  is  there  a  single  earlier  in- 
stance— Isa.  xix,  18  might  have  furnished  one — of  ««?/ 
name  given  to  the  language  spoken  by  all  the  Israel- 
ites, and  which,  in  later  times,  was  called  Hebrew : 
'£/3pai(7ri,  Prolog.  Ecclus. ;  Luke  xxiii,  38 ;  John  v,  2, 
etc.)  ^S">:jw  rx  ":2'n,  2  Kings  xxv,  C.  (Frequent  in 
Jer.  iv,  12 ;  xxxix,  o,  etc.)  Theod.  Parker  adds  i^HS 
(see,  too,  Thenius,  TiM.  §  G),  1  Kings  x,  l.i;  xx,  24;'  2 
Kings  xviii,  24,  on  the  presumption,  probably,  of  its  be- 
ing of  Persian  derivation ;  but  the  etymologj'  and  ori- 
gin of  the  word  are  (juite  uncertain,  and  it  is  repeatedly 
used  in  Jer.  li,  as  well  as  Isa.  xxxvi,  9.  With  better 
reason  might  X"12  have  been  adduced,  1  Kings  xii,  33. 
The  expression  ^Hitl  "12",  in  1  Kings  iv,  24,  is  also  a 
difficult  one  to  form  an  impartial  opinion  about.  It  is 
doubtful,  as  De  "Wette  admits,  whether  the  phrase  nec- 
essarily implies  its  being  used  by  one  to  the  east  of  the 
Euphrates,  because  the  use  varies  in  Numb,  xxxii,  19; 
xxxv,  14;  Josh,  i,  14  sq. ;  v,  1;  xii,  1,  7;  xxii,  7;  1 
Cliron.  xxvi,  30;  Dent,  i,  1,  5,  etc.  It  is  also  conceiva- 
ble that  the  ]>hrase  might  be  used  as  a  mere  geograph- 
ical designation  by  those  who  belonged  to  one  of  "  the 
provinces  beyond  the  river''  suliject  to  Bab\-lou ;  and,  at 
the  time  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Juda>a  had 
been  such  a  province  for  at  least  23  years,  and  probalily 
longer.  We  may  safely  alfirm,  therefore,  that,  on  the 
wliole,  the  peculiarities  of  diction  in  these  hooks  do  not 
indicate  a  time  after  the  captivity,  or  towards, the  close 
of  it,  but,  on  the  contrary,  point  pretty  distinctly  to  the 
age  of  Jeremiah.  It  may  be  added  that  the  marked 
and  systematic  differences  between  the  l.inguage  of 
Chronicles  and  tliat  of  Kings,  taken  with  the  fact  that 


j  all  attempts  to  prove  the  Chronicles,  in  the  main,  later 
1  than  Ezra,  have  utterly  failed,  lead  to  the  same  conclu- 
sion.    (See  many  examples  in  jMovers,  p.  200  sq.) 

2.  Other  peculiar  or  rare  expressions  in  these  books 
are  the  proverbial  ones :  "(""pS  'j'^Pld'?,  found  only  in 
them  and  in  1  Sam.  xxv, 22, 34;  "slept  with  his  fathers." 
"  him  that  dieth  in  the  city  the  dogs  shall  eat "  etc.  • 
^X  n-rr;;'  ns,  l  Kings  ii,  23,  etc.;  also  rflp,  1  Kings 
i,  41,  45;  elsewhere  only  in  poetry  and  in  tlie  composi- 
tion of  proper  names,  except  Dent,  ii,  3G;  Thn,  i,  9. 
Also  the  following  isolated  terms:  D'^'ia'ia,  "fowl,"  iv, 
23 ;  nins,  "  stalls,"  V,  G ;  2  Chron.  Lx,  25 ';  C^  n^rtl,  v, 
13 ;  ix,  15,  21 ;  "B'5, "  a  stone-quarry"  (Gesenius),  vi,  7; 
■^2?^,  vi,  17 ;  "iPinb,  19 ;  ti^t'^^'B  and  nis^'?,  "wild  cu- 
cumbers," vi,  18 ;  vii,  24 ;  2  Kings  iv,  39 ;  tTip^,  x,  28  ; 
the  names  of  the 'months,  D":rx,  viii,  2 ;  1",  ^^13,  vi,  37, 
38 ;  X'12,  "  to  invent,"  xii,  33 ;  Neh.  vi,  8,  in  both  cases 
joined  with  2^":  ;  T'^hz^,  '•  an  idol,"  xv,  13 ;  ^(^2  and 
"T^ran,  followed  by  •'t?nN,  "to  destroy,"  xiv,  10;  xvi, 
3;  xxi,  21;  ti'^'^'^'l, '■•joints  of  the  armor,"  xxii,  34; 
J'^O,  "a  pursuit,"  xviii,  27;  IrtS,  "to  bend  one's  self," 
xviii,  42 ;  2  Kings  iv,  34,  35 ;  DSU,  "  to  gird  up,"  xviii, 
40 ;  'nES.  "  a  head-band,"  xx,  38,  42 ;  pSlb,  "  to  suiRce," 
XX,  10  ;  Ilbn,  inicert.  signif.,  xx,  33 ;  tir^lb'O  flC", "  to 
reign,"  xxi,  7;  in'^n'3^,  "a  dish,"  2  Kings  ii,  20;  ubt, 
"  to  fold  up,"  ib.  8 ;  "IJ^IS,  "  a  herdsman,"  iii,  4  ;  Amos  i, 
1;  tj'l&N,  "an  oil-cup,"  iv,  2;  PX  Tin,  "  to  have  a  caTG 
for,"  13;  l^^t,  "to  sneeze,"  35;  'ibp:?,  "a  bag,"  42; 
U"!"".!!,  "  a  money-bag,"  v,  23 ;  niinr,  "  a  camp"  (?), 
vi,  8;  .TIS,  "a  feast,"  23  ;  Cipin?,  "  descending,"  9  ; 
2p," a  cab,"  25;  C]"i;ii  I'nri, " dove's  dimg,"ib.;  "i22p, 
perhaps  "  a  fly-net,"  viii,  15 ;  CiJ  (in  sense  of  "  self,"  as 
i:i  Chald.  and  Samar.),  ix,  13:  "1^2^, "a  heap,"  x,  8; 
nnrib'^,  "a  vestry,"  22;  (IXiri";,  "a  draught-house," 
27;  1-12,  "Cherethites,"  xi,  4,  19,  and  2  Sam.  xx,  23 
(kethib);  ttS^,  "a  keeping  off,"  xi,  G;  "12'2,  "an  ac- 
quaintance," xii,  6;  the  form  ^T^,  from  tlT',  "to  shoot," 
xiii,  17;  ri"12"i"lMil  "132,  "hostages,"  xiv,  14;  2  Chron. 
xxv,  24;  f'^'C'EHrl  ri"'2,  "sick-house,"  XV,  5;  2  Chron. 
xxvi,  21 ;  '2p,  "  before,"  xv,  10  ;  p"^."  w^I'1,  "  Damascus," 
xvi,  10  (perhaps  only  a  false  reading);  rSlJ"!'^.  "a 
pavement,"  xvi,  17;  Tir^"^  or  tjB'''?. "a  covered  way," 
xvi,  18;  XSn,  in  Piel  "to  do  secretly," xvii,  9;  iT^-rX, 
Avith  '^,  10,  only  besides  Deut.  vii,  5,  IMic.  v,  14 ;  X'13, 
i.  q.  n'n:,  xvii,  21  (kethib) ;  n'^i'Tci",  "  Samaritans," 
29 ;  'rrcn?,  "  Nehustan,"  xviii^4  ;  ti:";X, "  a  piUar,"  10  ; 
nw"i2  ilw",  "  to  make  peace,"  31 ;  Isa.  xxxvi,  10 ; 
^■^no, "  that  which  grows  up  the  third  year,"  xix,  29 ; 
Isa.  xxxvii,  30;  VZi  ^,"^2,  "  treasure-house,"  xx,  13; 
Isa.  xxxix,  2;  n3T^'!3,part  of  Jerusalem  so  called,  xxi, 
14;  Zeph.  i,  10;  Neh.  xi,  9;  ri'l^"?,  "signs  of  the  zo- 
diac," xxiii,  5;  ^TIQ,  "a  suburb,"  xxiii,  11;  £"^2?, 
"ploughmen,"  xxv,  12  (kethib);  XSd  for  |-;i"w\"to 
change,"  xxv,  9;  rts^Xfor  ^=''X,2  Kings  vi,13;  !^"5"=X, 
"meat,"l  Kings  xix,  8;  C"i3"2bN;,  "almug  trees,"  1 
I'Lings  X,  11,  12;  ^t^^,  "to  stretch  one's  self,"  1  Kings 
xviii,  42 ;  2  Kings  iv,  34, 35  ;  "IBN,  a  "  turban"  ("  ashes"), 
1  Kings  xx.38,41;  niia^,  "floats,"  1  Kings  v, 9;  t'^lj^, 
"chambers,"  1  Kings  vi,  5,  0,  10;  rt2"'C,  "  clay,"  1 
Kings  vii,  46 ;  ''"CJS,  "debt,"  2  Kings  iv,  7 ;  ID,  "  heavy," 
1  Kings  XX,  43;  xxi,  4,  5;  T'nPS,  "chapiter,"  only  in 
Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Jeremiah;  rn"l^T"2,  "snuffers," 
only  in  Kings,  Chronicles,  and  Jeremiah ;  n^irr, "  base," 


KINGS 


95 


KINGS 


only  in  Kliigs,  Chronicles,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezra.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  architectural  terms  in  1  Kings  vi,  vii, 
and  the  names  of  foreign  idols  in  2  Kings  xvii.  The 
general  character  of  the  language  is  most  distinctly  that 
of  the  time  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

VI.  Variations  in  the  Septuaf/iitt. — These  are  verj^  re- 
markable, and  consist  of  transpositions,  omissions,  and 
some  considerable  additions,  of  all  which  Thenius  gives 
some  useful  notices  in  his  Introduction  to  the  book  of 
Kings. 

1.  The  most  important  transpositions  are  the  history 
of  Shimei's  death,  1  Kings  ii,  3(3-46,  which  in  the  Sept. 
(Cod.  Vat.)  comes  after  iii,  1,  and  divers  scraps  from  ch. 
iv,  v,  and  ix,  accompanied  by  one  or  two  remarks  of  the 
translators.  The  sections  1  Ivings  iv,  20-25,  2-0,  2G,  21, 
1,  are  strung  together  and  precede  1  Kings  iii,  2-28,  but 
many  of  them  are  repeated  again  in  their  proper  places. 
Tlie  sections  1  Kings  iii,  1,  ix,  16, 17,  are  strung  togeth- 
er, and  placed  between  iv,  34  and  v,  1.  The  section  1 
Kings  vii,  1-12,  is  placed  after  vii,  51.  Section  viii,  12, 
13,  is  placed  after  53.  Section  ix,  15-22,  is  placed  after 
X,  22.  Section  xi,  43,  xii,  1,  2,  3,  is  much  transposed 
and  confused  in  Sept.  xi,  43,  44,  xii,  1-3.  Section  xiv, 
1-21,  is  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  long  addition  to  Chron. 
xii  mentioned  below.  Section  xxii,  42-50,  is  placed 
after  xvi,  28.  Chap,  xx  and  xxi  are  transposed.  Sec- 
tion 2  Kings  iii,  1-3,  is  placed  after  2  Kings  i,  18. 

2.  The  omissions  are  few.  Section  1  Kings  vi,  11-14, 
is  entirely  omitted,  and  37,  38  are  only  slightly  alluded 
to  at  the  opening  of  chap.  iii.  The  erroneous  clause  1 
Kings  XV,  6,  is  omitted ;  and  so  are  the  dates  of  Asa's 
reign  in  xvi,  8  and  15 ;  and  there  are  a  few  verbal  omis- 
sions of  no  consequence. 

3.  The  chief  interest  lies  in  the  additions,  of  wjiich 
the  principal  are  the  following.  The  supposed  mention 
of  a  fountain  as  among  Solomon's  works  in  the  Temple 
in  the  passage  after  1  Kings  ii,  35;  of  a  paved  cause- 
way on  Lebanon,  iii,  46;  of  Solomon  pointing  to  the 
sun  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple,  before  he  uttered 
the  prayer,  "  The  Lord  said  he  would  dwell  m  the  thick 
darkness,"  etc.,  viii,  12,  13  (after  53,  Sept.),  with  a  ref- 
erence to  the  i3ifi\iov  r»)c  voijg,  a  passage  on  which 
Thenius  relies  as  proving  that  the  Alexandrian  had  ac- 
cess to  original  documents  now  lost;  the  information 
that  '■  Joram  his  brother"  perished  with  Tibni,  xvi,  22 ; 
an  additional  date  "  in  the  twenty-fourth  j-ear  of  Jero- 
boam," XV,  8 ;  numerous  verbal  additiong,  as  xi,  29,  xvii, 
1,  etc.;  and,  lastly,  the  long  passage  concerning  Jero- 
boam, the  son  of  Nebat,  inserted  between  xii,  24  and  25. 
There  are  also  many  glosses  of  the  translator,  explana- 
tory, or  necessary  in  consequence  of  transpositions,  as  1 
Kings  ii,  35,  viii,  1,  xi,  43,  xvii,  20,  xix,  2,  etc.  Of  the 
above,  from  the  recapitulatory  character  of  tlie  passage 
after  1  Kings  ii,  35,  containing  in  brief  the  sura  of  the 
things  detailed  in  vii,  21-23,  it  seems  far  more  probable 
that  KPHNHN  TH2  A1AH2  is  only  a  corruption  of 
KPINON  TOY  AIAAM,  there  mentioned.  The  ob- 
scure passage  about  Lebanon  after  iii,  46  seems  no  less 
certainly  to  represent  what  in  the  Heb.  is  ix,  18,  19,  as 
appears  by  the  triple  concurrence  of  Tadmor,  Lebanon, 
and  Si'vafTTniiiara,  representing  in3'j''a'2.  The  strange 
mention  of  the  sim  seems  to  be  introduced  by  the  trans- 
lator to  give  significance  to  Solomon's  mention  of  the 
house  which  he  had  built  for  (iod,  who  had  said  he 
would  dwell  in  the  thick  darkness;  not  therefore  under 
the  unveiled  light  of  the  sun ;  and  the  reference  to  "  the 
book  of  song"  can  surely  mean  nothing  else  than  to 
point  out  that  the  passage  to  which  Solomon  referred 
was  Psa.  xcvii,  2.  Of  the  other  additions,  the  mention 
of  Tibni's  brother  Joram  is  the  one  which  has  most  the 
semblance  of  an  historical  fact,  or  makes  the  existence 
of  any  other  source  of  history  probable.  See,  too,  1 
Kings  XX,  19 ;  2  Kings  xv,  25. 

There  remains  only  the  long  passage  about  Jeroboam. 
That  this  account  is  onh'-  an  apocrj'phal  version,  made 
up  of  tlie  existing  materials  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
after  the  maimer  of  1  Esdras,  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  the 


apocryphal  Esther,  the  Targums,  etc.,  may  be  inferred 
on  the  following  grounds.  The  framework  of  the  story 
is  given  in  the  very  words  of  the  Hebrew  narrative,  and 
that  very  copiously,  and  the  new  matter  is  only  worked 
in  here  and  there.  Demonstrably,  therefore,  the  Hebrew 
account  existed  when  the  Greek  one  was  framed,  and 
was  the  original  one.  The  principal  new  facts  intro- 
duced, the  marriage  of  Jeroboam  to  the  sister  of  Shi- 
sliak's  wife,  and  his  request  to  be  permitted  to  return,  is 
a  manifest  imitation  of  the  story  of  Iladad.  The  mis- 
placement of  the  story  of  Aljijah's  sickness,  and  the  visit 
of  Jeroboam's  wife  to  Ahijah  the  Shilonite,  makes  the 
whole  history  out  of  keeping — the  disguise  of  the  queen, 
the  rebuke  of  Jeroboam's  idolatry  (which  is  accordingly 
left  out  from  Ahijah's  prophecy,  as  is  the  mention  at  v, 
2  of  his  having  told  Jeroboam  he  should  be  king),  and 
the  king's  anxiety  about  the  recoverj'  of  his  son  and 
heir.  The  embellishments  of  the  storj',  Jeroboam's 
chariots,  the  amplification  of  Ahijah's  address  to  Ano, 
the  request  asked  of  Pharaoh,  the  new  garment  not 
icashed  in  water,  are  precisely  such  as  an  embellisher 
would  add,  as  we  may  see  by  tlie  apocryphal  books  above 
cited.  Then  the  fusing  down  the  three  Hebrew  names, 
fTT^li,  n"^^:i,  and  n:i"ltn,  into  one,  Hapipa,  thus  giv- 
ing the  same  name  to  the  mother  of  Jeroboam,  and  to 
the  city  where  she  dwelt,  shows  how  comparatively 
modern  the  story  is,  and  how  completely  of  Greek 
growth.  A  yet  plainer  indication  is  its  confounding 
the  Shemaiah  of  1  Ivings  xii,  22  with  Shemaiah  the 
Nehelamite  of  Jer.  xxix,  24,  31,  and  putting  Ahijah's 
prophecy  into  his  mouth ;  for,  beyond  all  question, 
'F.v\a^i  (1  Kings  xii)  is  only  another  form  of  Ai'Aw^iDje 
(Jer.  xxxvi,  24,  Sept.).  Then,  again,  the  story  is  self- 
contradictory  ;  for,  if  Jeroboam's  child  Abijam  was  not 
born  till.a  year  or  so  ai'ter  Solomon's  death,  how  coidd 
"  any  good  thing  toward  the  Lord  God  of  Israel"  have 
been  found  in  him  before  Jeroboam  became  king?  The 
one  thing  in  the  story  that  is  more  like  truth  than  the 
Hebrew  narrative  is  the  age  given  to  Eehoboam,  six- 
teen years,  which  may  have  been  preserved  in  the  MS. 
which  the  writer  of  this  romance  had  before  him.  The 
calling  Jeroboam's  mother  yvv))  Tropvt]  instead  of  yvi») 
X'lpn  was  probably  accidental. 

On  the  whole,  then,  it  appears  that  the  great  varia- 
tions in  the  Sept.  contribute  little  or  nothing  to  the  elu- 
cidation of  the  history  contained  in  these  books,  nor 
much  even  to  the  text.  The  Hebrew  text  and  arrange- 
ment is  not  in  the  least  shaken  in  its  main  points,  nor 
is  there  the  slightest  cloud  cast  on  the  accuracy  of  the 
history,  or  the  truthfulness  of  the  prophecies  contained 
in  it.  But  these  variations  illustrate  a  characteristic 
tendency  of  the  Jewish  mind  to  make  interesting  por- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  the  groundwork  of  separate  re- 
ligious tales,  which  they  altered  or  added  to  according 
to  their  fancy,  without  any  regard  to  liistory  or  chro- 
nology, and  in  which  they  exercised  a  peculiar  kind  of 
ingenuity  in  working  up  the  Scripture  materials,  or  in 
inventing  circumstances  calculated,  as  they  thought,  to 
make  the  main  history  more  probable.  The  story  of 
Zerubbabel's  answer  in  1  Esdras  about  truth,  to  prepare 
the  way  for  his  mission  by  Darius ;  of  the  discovery  of 
the  imposture  of  Bel's  priests  by  Daniel,  in  Bel  and  the 
Dragon ;  of  Mordecai's  dream  in  the  apocryphal  Esther, 
and  the  paragraph  in  the  Talmud  inserted  to  connect  1 
Kings  xvi,  34  with  xvii,  1  (Smith's  Sac?:  Ann.  ii,  421), 
are  instances  of  this.  The  reign  of  Solomon,  and  the 
remarkable  rise  of  Jeroboam,  were  not  unlikely  to  exer- 
cise this  propensity  of  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  It  is  to 
the  existence  of  such  works  that  the  variations  in  the 
Sept.  account  of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  may  most  prob- 
ably be  attributed. 

VII.  Another  feature  in  the  literary  condition  of  our 
books  must  be  noticed,  viz.,  that  the  compiler,  in  arran- 
ging his  materials,  and  adopting  the  very  words  of  the 
documents  used  by  him,  has  not  always  been  careful  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  contradiction.  Thus  the  men- 
tion of  the  staves  of  the  aiji  remaining  ui  their  place 


KINGS 


96 


KINGS 


"unto  tliis  day"  (I  Kings  viii,  8)  does  not  accord  with 
the  account  of  the  destruction  of  tlie  Temple  (2  Kings 
XXV,  !')•  i  lie  mention  of  Elijah  as  the  only  prophet  of 
the  Lord  left  (1  Ivings  xviii,  22;  xix,  10)  has  an  ap- 
pearance of  disagreement  with  xx,  13,28,35,  etc.,  though 
xviii,  4,  xix,  18  supply,  it  is  true,  a  ready  answer.  In 
1  Kings  xxi,  13  only  Naboth  is  mentioned,  while  in  2 
Kings  ix,  2(3  his  sons  are  added.  The  prediction  in  1 
Kings  xix,  15-17  has  no  perfect  fulfilment  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapters.  1  Kings  xxii,  38  does  not  seem  to  be 
a  fulfilment  of  xxi,  ID.  The  declaration  in  1  Kings  ix, 
22  does  not  seem  in  harmony  with  xi,  28.  There  are 
also  some  smgular  repetitions,  as  1  Kings  xiv,  21  com- 
pared with  31 ;  2  Kings  ix,  29  with  viii,  25;  xiv,  15,  16, 
with  xiii,  12,  13.  But  it  is  enough  just  to  have  point- 
ed these  out,  as  no  real  difficulty  can  be  found  in  them. 
VIII.  As  regards  the  sources  of  wformation,  it  may 
truly  lie  said  that  in  the  books  of  Kings  Ave  have  the 
narrative  of  contemporary  writers  throughout.  It  has 
already  been  observed  [see  Chronicles]  that  there  was 
a  regular  series  of  state  annals  both  for  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  and  for  that  of  Israel,  which  embraced  the  whole 
time  comprehended  in  the  books  of  Kings,  or  at  least  to 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  (2  Kings  xxiv,  5). 
These  annals  are  constantly  cited  by  name  as  "  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings  xi,  41) ;  and,  after  Sol- 
omon, "  the  Book  of  the  Clironicles  of  the  kings  of  Ju- 
dah, or  Israel"  (e.  g.  1  Kings  xiv,  29 ;  xv,  7 ;  xvi.  5, 14, 
20;  2  Kings  X,  34;  xxiv,  5,  etc.) ;  and  it  is  manifest  that 
the  author  of  Kuigs  had  them  both  before  him  while  he 
drew  up  his  history,  in  which  the  reigns  of  the  U\o  king- 
doms are  harmonized,  and  these  annals  constantly  ap- 
pealed to.  (Similar  phraseology  is  used  in  Esther  x,  2, 
vi,  1,  to  denote  the  official  annals  of  the  Persian  empire. 
Public  documents  are  spoken  of  in  the  same  way  in  Neh. 
xii,  23).  But,  in  addition  to  these  national  annals,  there 
were  also  extant,  at  the  time  that  the  books  of  Kings 
Avere  compiled,  separate  works  of  the  several  prophets 
M'ho  had  lived  in  Judah  and  Israel,  and  which  probably 
bore  the  same  relation  to  the  annals  as  the  historical 
parts  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  bear  to  those  portions  of 
the  annals  preserved  in  the  books  of  Kings,  i.  e.  were,  in 
some  instances  at  least,  fuUer  and  more  copious  accounts 
of  the  current  events,  by  the  same  hands  which  drew  up 
the  more  concise  narrative  of  the  annals,  though  in  oth- 
ers perhaps  mere  duplicates.  Thus  the  acts  of  Uzziah, 
Anitten  by  Isaiah,  Avere  very  likely  identical  for  sub- 
stance with  the  history  of  his  reign  in  the  national 
chronicles ;  and  part  of  the  history'  of  Hezekiah  we  know 
was  identical  in  the  chronicles  and  in  the  prophet.  The 
chapter  in  Jeremiah  relating  to  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  (ch.  lii)  is  identical  with  that  in  2  Kings  xxiv, 
XXV.  In  later  times  some  have  sujiposed  that  a  chap- 
ter in  the  projjhecies  of  Daniel  was  used  for  the  national 
chronicles,  and  appears  as  Ezra  i.  (Comp.  also  2  Kings 
xvi,  5  with  Isa.  vii,  1 ;  2  Kings  xviii,  8  with  Isa.  xiv, 
28-32).  As  an  instance  of  verbal  agreement,  coupled 
with  greater  fulness  in  the  prophetic  account,  see  2 
Kings  XX  compared  with  Isa.  xxxviii,  in  which  latter 
alone  is  Ilezekiah's  u-riting  given. 

These  other  works,  then,  as  far  as  the  memorj'  of  them 
has  been  preser\-ed  to  us,  were  as  follows  (see  Keil's 
Apuloff.  Vers.).  For  the  time  of  David,  the  book  of 
Samuel  the  seer,  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet,  and 
the  book  of  Gad  the  seer  (2  Sam.  xxl-xxiv  with  1  Kings 
i,  being  probably  extracted  from  Nathan's  book),  which 
seem  to  have  been  collected — at  least  that  portion  of 
them  relating  to  David — into  one  work  called  "the  Acts 
of  David  the  king"  (1  Chron.  xxix,  29).  For  the  time  of 
Solomon,  "  the  Hook  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon"  (1  Kings 
xi,  41 ),  consisting  probably  of  parts  of  the  "  Book  of  Na- 
than the  prophet,  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilon- 
itc,  and  the  visions  of  Iddo  the-scer"  (2  Chron.  ix,  29). 
For  the  time  of  Kehoboam, "  the  words  of  Shemaiah  the 
projjhet,  and  of  Iddo  the  seer  concerning  genealogies" 
(2  Chron.  xii,  15).  For  the  time  of  Abijah,  "  the  storj' 
(d'^l^a)  of  the  prophet  Iddo"  (2  Chron.  xiii,  22).    For 


the  time  of  Jehoshaphat, "  the  words  of,Tehu,the  son  of 
Hanani"  (2  Chron.  xx,34).  For  the  time  of  Uzziah, "  the 
writings  of  Isaiah  the  prophet"  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  22).  For 
the  time  of  Hezekiah,  "  the  vision  of  Isaiah  the  prophet, 
the  son  of  Amoz"  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  32).  For  the  time 
of  JNIanasseh,  a  book  called  "  the  saymgs  of  the  seers,"  as 
the  A.^^.,  following  the  Sept.,Yidg.,  Kimchi,  etc.,  rightly 
renders  the  passage,  in  accordance  with  ver.  18  (2  Chron. 
xxxiii,  19),  though  others,  following  the  grammar  too 
servilely,  make  Chozai  a  proper  name,  because  of  the 
absence  of  the  article.  For  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II,  a 
prophecy  of  "Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai  the  prophet,  of 
Gath-hepher,"  is  cited  (2  Kings  xiv,  25) ;  and  it  seems 
likely  that  there  were  books  containing  special  histories 
of  the  acts  of  EUjah  and  Elisha,  seeing  that  the  times 
of  these  prophets  are  described  with  such  copiousness. 
Of  the  latter  Gehazi  might  well  have  been  the  author, 
to  judge  from  2  Kings  viii,  4, 5,  as  Elisha  himself  might 
have  been  of  the  former.  Possibly,  too,  the  prophecies 
of  Azariah,  the  son  of  Oded,  in  Asa's  reign  (2  Chro:(.  xv, 
1),  and  of  Hanani  (2  Chron.  xvi,  7)  (unless  this  latter  is 
the  same  as  Jehu,  son  of  Hanani,  as  Oded  is  juit  for  Az- 
ariah in  XV,  8),  and  Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  in  Ahab's 
reign;  and  Eliezer,  the  son  of  Dodavah,  in  Jehosha- 
phat's;  and  Zechariah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  in  Jeho- 
ash's ;  and  Oded,  in  Pekah's ;  and  Zechariah,  in  Uzziah's 
reign ;  of  the  prophetess  Huldah,  in  Josiah's,  and  oth- 
ers, may  have  been  preserved  in  writing,  some  or  all  of 
them.  These  works,  or  at  least  many  of  them,  must 
have  been  extant  at  the  time  when  the  books  of  Kings 
were  compiled,  as  they  certainly  were  extant  much  later 
when  the  books  of  Chronicles  were  put  together  by 
Ezra.  But  whether  the  author  vised  them  all,  or  only 
those  duplicate  portions  of  them  which  were  embodied 
in  the  national  chronicles,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  seeing 
he  quotes  none  of  them  by  name  except  the  acts  of  Sol- 
omon and  the  prophecy  of  Jonah.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  cannot  infer  from  his  silence  that  these  books  were 
unused  by  him,  seeing  that  neither  does  he  quote  by 
name  the  Vision  of  Isaiah  as  the  chronicler  does,  though 
he  must,  from  its  recent  date,  have  been  familiar  with 
it,  and  seeing  that  so  many  parts  of  his  narrative  have 
every  appearance  of  being  extracted  from  these  books 
of  the  prophets,  and  contain  narratives  which  it  is  not 
likely  would  have  found  a  place  in  the  chronicles  of  the 
kmgs.  See  1  Kings  xiv,  4,  etc. ;  xvi,  1,  etc.,  xi ;  2  Kings 
xvii,  etc. 

With  regard  to  the  work  so  often  cited  in  the  Chron- 
icles as  "  the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah"  (1 
Chron.  ix,  1 ;  2  Chron.  xvi,  11;  xxvii,  7 ;  xxviii,  2G; 
xxxii,  32 ;  xxxv,  27 ;  xxxvi,  8),  it  has  been  thought  by 
some  that  it  was  a  separate  collection  contamiug  the 
joint  histories  of  the  two  kingdoms;  by  others,  that  it 
is  our  books  of  Kings  which  answer  to  this  description ; 
but  by  Eichhom,  that  it  is  the  same  as  the  Clironicles 
of  the  kings  of  Judah  so  constantly  cited  in  the  books 
of  Kings;  and  this  last  opinion  seems  to  be  the  best 
founded.  For  in  2  Chron.  xvi,  11,  the  same  book  is  call- 
ed "  the  Book  of  the  Kings  of  Judah  and  Israel,"  which 
in  the  parallel  passage,  1  Kings  xv,  23,  is  called  "  the 
Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  kings  of  Judah."  So, 
again,  2  Chron.  xxvii,  7,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xv,  oG ;  2 
Chron.  xxviii,  2C,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xvi,  19 ;  2  Chron. 
xxxii,  32,  comp.  with  2  Kings  xx,  20;  2  Chron.  xxxv, 
27,  with  2  Kings  xxiii,  28;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  8,  with  2 
Kings  xxiv,  5.  Moreover,  the  book  so  quoted  refers  ex- 
clusively to  the  affairs  of  Judah;  and  even  in  the  one 
passage  where  reference  is  made  to  it  as  "  the  Book  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel"  (2  Chron.  xx,  34),  it  is  for  the  reign 
of  Jehoshaphat  that  it  is  cited.  Obviously,  therefore,  it 
is  the  same  work  which  is  elsewhere  described  as  the 
Chronicles  of  Israel  cindJudali,  and  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
Nor  is  this  an  unreasonable  title  to  give  to  these  chron- 
icles. Saul,  David,  Solomon,  and  in  some  sense  Heze- 
kiah (2  Chron.  xxx,  1,5,  6),  and  all  his  successors,  were 
kings  of  Israel  as  well  as  of  Judah,  and  therefore  it  is 
very  conceivable  that  in  Ezra's  time  the  chronicles  of 


KINGS 


97 


KINGS 


Judah  sliould  have  acquired  the  name  of  tlie  Book  of 
the  Kings  of  Israel  antl  Judah,  Even  with  regard  to  a 
portion  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  Kehoboani,  the  chroni- 
cler remarks,  apparently  as  a  matter  of  gratulation,ihat 
'•Ivehoboam  reigned  over  them"  (2  Chron.  x,  17);  he 
notices  Abijah's  authority  in  ])ortions  of  the  Israelitish 
territory  (2  Chron.  xiii,  18,  It) ;  xv,  8,  9) ;  he  not  un- 
frequently  speaks  of  Israel,  when  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
is  the  matter  in  hand  (as  2  Chron.  xii,  1 ;  xxi,  4 ;  xxiii, 
2,  etc."),  and  even  calls  Jehoshaphat  '■  king  of  Israel"  (2 
Chron.  xxi,  2),  and  distinguishes  '-Israel  and  Judah" 
from  '-Ephraim  and  ^Nlanasseh"  (xxx,  1);  he  notices 
Ilezekiah's  authority  from  Dan  to  Beersheba  (2  Chron. 
xxx,  5).  and  Josiah's  destruction  of  idols  througliout  all 
the  land  of  Israel  (xxxiv.  6-9),  and  his  Passover  for  all 
Israel  (xxxv,  17, 18),  and  seems  to  parade  the  title  "/ti«^ 
of  Israel"  in  connection  with  David  and  Solomon  (xxxv, 
3, 4),  and  the  relation  of  the  Levites  to  "  all  Israel"  (ver. 
3) ;  and  therefore  it  is  only  in  accordance  with  the  feel- 
ing displayed  in  such  passages  that  the  name,  '•  the  Book 
of  the  Kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,"  should  be  given  to 
the  chronicles  of  the  Jewish  kingdom.  The  use  of  this 
term  in  speaking  of  the  '•  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  who 
^^■ere  carried  away  to  Babylon  for  their  transgression"  (1 
Chron.  ix,  1)  would  be  conclusive  if  the  construction  of 
the  sentence  were  certain.  But  though  it  is  absurd  to 
separate  the  words  '■  and  Judah"  from  Israel,  as  Bertheau 
does  {Kurzgff.  K.ccg.  Ifamlfi.).  following  the  Masoretic 
punctuation,  seeing  that  the  "Book  of  the  Kings  of  Israel 
and  Jitda/r  is  cited  in  at  least  six  other  places  in  Chron- 
icles, still  it  is  possible  that  Israel  and  Judah  might  be 
the  antecedent  to  the  pronoun  understood  before  ^1?.'!^. 
It  seems,  however,  much  more  likely  that  the  antece- 
dent to  -i-rx  is  "nil  "c"!  -"zh-g.  0.1  the  whole,  there- 
fore, there  is  no  evidence  of  the  existence  in  the  time 
of  the  chronicler  of  a  history,  since  lost,  of  the  two  king- 
doms, nor  are  the  books  of  Kings  tlie  work  so  quoted  by 
the  chronicler,  seeing  he  often  refers  to  it  for  "  the  rest 
of  tlie  acts"  of  Kings,  when  he  has  already  given  all  that 
is  contained  in  our  books  of  Kings,  lie  refers,  there- 
fore, to  the  chronicles  of  Judah. 

From  the  above  authentic  sources,  then,  was  compiled 
the  history  in  the  books  under  consideration.     Judging 
from  the  facts  that  we  have  in  2  Kings  xvii,  xix,  xx, 
the  history  of  Hezekiah  in  the  very  words  of  Isaiah, 
xxxvi-xxxix;  that,  as  stated  above,  we  have  several 
]iassages  from  Jeremiah  in  dupUcate  in  2  Kings,  and 
the  whole  of  Jer.  lii  in  2  Kings  xxiv,  18,  etc.,  xxv ;  that 
so  large  a  portion  of  the  books  of  Kings  is  rejieated  in 
the  books  of  Chronicles,  though  the  writer  of  Chronicles  | 
hnd  the  original  Chronicles  also  before  him,  as  well  as  I 
from  the  whole  internal  character  of  the  narrative,  and  j 
even  some  of  the  blemishes  referred  to  under  the  second  j 
head — we  may  conclude  with  certainty  that  we  have  in  ! 
the  books  of  Kings,  not  only  in  the  main  the  history  i 
faithfully  preserved  to  us  from  the  ancient  chronicles,  ! 
but  most  frequently  wliole  passages  transferred  verba-  | 
tim  into  them.     O^'casionally,  no  doubt,  we  have  the  ] 
oomjiiler's  own  comments,  or  reflections  thrown  in,  as  at ! 
2  Kings  xxi,  10-16;  xvii,  10-15;   xiii,  23;  xvii,  7-41,  | 
etc.     We  connect  tlic  insertion  of  the  prophecy  in  1  j 
Kings  xiii  with  the  fact^that  the  compiler  himself  was  i 
an  eye-witness  of  the  fulfdment  of  it,  and  can  even  see 
how  the  u-orJs  ascribed  to  the  old  prophet  are  of  the 
age  of  the  compiler.     We  can  perhaps  see  his  hand  in 
the  frequent  repetition,  on  the  review  of  each  reign,  of 
the  remark, "  The  high  places  were  not  taken  away ;  the 
people  still  sacrificed  and  burnt  incense  on  the  high 
places"  (1  Kings  xxii,  43  ;  2  Kings  xii,  3;  xiv,  4;  xv,  4, 
35;  comp.  1  Kings  iii,  3),  and  in  the  repeated  observa- 
tion that  such  and  such  things,  as  the  staves  by  which 
the  ark  was  borne,  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  re- 
bellion of  Edom,  etc.,  continue  "  unto  this  day,"  though 
it  may  be  perhaps  doubted  in  some  cases  whether  these 
words  were  not  in  the  old  chronicle  (2  Chron.  v,  9).     See 
1  Kings  viii,  8 ;  ix,  13  21 ;  x,  12  ;  xii,  19 ;  2  Kings  ii,  22 ; 
v.— G 


viii,  22;  x,  27;  xiii,  23;  xiv,  7;  xvi,  6  ;  xvii,  23,  34,  41 ; 
xxiii,  25.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  in  no  instance 
does  the  use  of  this  phrase  lead  us  to  suppose  that  it 
was  penned  after  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  :  in  sev- 
eral of  the  above  instances  the  phrase  necessarily  sup- 
poses that  the  Temple  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah  were 
still  standing.  If  the  phrase,  then,  is  the  compiler's,  it 
proves  him  to  have  written  before  the  Babylonian  cap- 
tivity; if  it  was  a  part  of  the  chronicle  he  was  quoting, 
it  shows  how  exactly  he  transferred  its  contents  bo  his 
own  pages. 

IX.  A  ulhor  and  Date. — The  authorship  and  age  of 
this  historical  treatise  may  admit  of  several  supposi- 
tions. AVhatever  were  the  original  sources,  the  books 
are  evidently  the  composition  of  one  writer.  The  style 
is  generally  uniform  throughout  (Dr.Davidson,  in  IIorne''s 
Infrod.,  new  edit,,  ii,  666  sq.).  The  same  forms  of  ex- 
pression are  used  to  denote  the  same  thing,  e.  g.  the 
male  sex  (1  Ivings  xiv,  10,  etc.) ;  the  death  of  a  king  (1 
Kings  xi,  43,  etc.);  modes  of  allusion  to  the  law  (livings 
xi,  13) ;  fidelity  to  Jehovah  (1  Kings  viii, 63,  etc.;  see 
De  AVette,  Einleit.  §  184,  «  ;  Hilveniick,  Einleit.  §  171). 
Similar  idioms  are  ever  recurring,  so  as  to  produce  a  uni- 
formity of  style  (Hiivernick,  /.  c).     See  §  ii,  above. 

1.  With  regard  to  the  time  when  the  author  lived 
and  wrote  there  are  the  following  arguments : 

(1.)  The  stj'le  and  diction  indicate  the  later  age  of 
the  Hebrew  language,  but  not  the  latest.  Attempts  to 
prove  a  more  modern  date  than  the  middle  of  the  cap- 
ti\-ity  have  signally  failed.  Nearly  all  the  words  which 
De  Wette  and  others  have  selected  (see  §  v,  above)  are 
shown  to  have  been  in  use,  either  by  the  prophets  who 
flourished  before  the  captivity  and  at  its  commence- 
ment, or  by  still  earlier  writers;  but  words  and  phrases 
abound  which  were  in  common  use  by  the  writers  of 
the  concluding  period  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  who  did 
not  go  into  captivity,  especially  by  Isaiah  and  Jereusiah, 
In  this  respect  there  is  a  manifest  difference  liftween 
Kings  and  Chronicles.  Though  neither  work  is  free 
from  Chaldaic  forms,  they  are  rare  in  Kings,  hut  numer- 
ous in  Chronicles.  Their  occurrence  at  all  in  Kings  is 
sufficiently  accounted  for  from  the  contiguity  of  Judah 
to  Syria,  and  from  the  frequent  intercourse  with  Assyria 
which  commerce  and  war  involved. 

(2.)  With  the  evidence  which  the  language  affords, 
the  internal  evidence  of  the  contents  agrees.  The  his- 
tory is  carried  down  to  the  captivity  in  detail ;  and,  by 
way  of  supplement,  to  the  reign  of  Evil-merodach,  king 
of  Babylon.  The  closing  verse  implies  that  the  ^%Titer 
survived  Jehoiachin,  but  gives  no  hint  whatever  of  the 
termination  of  the  captivity,  which  he  surely  would 
have  done  had  he  written  after  the  return  from  Baliylon. 
We  may  therefore  safely  conclude  that  the  work  was 
composed  before  the  end  of  the  captivity,  but  after  the 
twenty-sixth  year  of  its  continuance. 

2.  Calmet  ascribes  the  authorship  to  Ezra;  but  there 
are  no  decided  indications  of  his  authorship,  and  the 
names  Zif  and  Bui  (1  Kings  vi,  1, 37, 38)  were  not  in  use 
after  the  captivity.  The  general  opinion,  however,  that 
Jeremiah  was  the  author  is  adopted  by  Grotius,  Carp- 
zov,  and  others,  and  is  lately  revindicated  b^'  Hiivcr- 
nick,  as  also  by  Graf  {De  lihror.  Sam.  et  Reriiim  composi- 
tione,  p.  61  sq.),  but  is  opposed  by  Kell,  Davidson,  and 
others.  In  fiivor  of  it  are  the  following  strong  argu- 
ments ; 

(1.)  The  work  is  attributed  to  Jeremiah  by  ancient 
tradition.  There  is  a  reference  to  Jeremiah  as  the  au- 
thor in  the  Talmud  (L'aba  Jlathra.  fol.  15,  1),  and  with 
this  notice  the  common  opinion  of  the  Jews  agrees. 

(2.)  The  style  and  language  of  Kings  resemble  those 
of  the  acknowledged  writings  of  Jeremiah.  In  both 
works  there  is  an  unusual  number  of  ii—aE  ^eyi'i^uva; 
and  also  of  words  peculiar  to  each  work,  though  used 
more  than  once.  What  is  still  more  to  the  purpose, 
there  are  words  and  forms  of  words  used  in  both  Avorks, 
but  in  them  only;  as,  p^rjra,  a  -cruse"  (1  Ivings  xiv, 


KINGS 


98 


KINGS 


3,  aiul  Jer.  xix,  1, 10) ;  S;."^,  a  '■  husbandman"  (2  Kings 
XXV,  12 ;  Jer,  lii,  IG ;  and  C^Sa^  Jer.  xxxix,  10) ;  nnn, 
to  "hide,"  used  in  Niphal  only  in  Kings  (1  Kings  xxii, 
25;  2  Kings  vii,  12)  and  in  Jeremiah  (xlix,  10) ;  "i^:^\  to 
"blind,"  used  in  the  sense  of  putting  out  the  eyes  only 
in  2  Kings  xxv,  7,  and  Jer,  xxxix,  7,  and  lii,  11,  etc.  See 
§  V,  above. 

(;5.)  The  habit  of  referring  to  the  Pentateuch,  pointed 
out  as  cliaracteristic  of  the  books  of  Kings,  is  equally  so 
of  Jeremiah ;  and  this  habit  in  both  is  thought  to  be 
accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  the  discovered  copy  of 
the  la^v  in  the  days  of  Josiah,  in  whicli  Jeremiah  took 
great  interest,  traces  of  which  are  discoverable  in  Jer. 
xi,  3-5  (Dent,  xxvii,  2G);  xxxii,  18-21  (Exud.  xx,  G; 
vi,  G) ;  xxxiv,  14  (Deut.  xv,  12).  The  same  general 
spirit  of  solemnity,  the  same  modes  of  thought  and  il- 
lustration, and  the  same  political  principles,  are  thought 
to  mark  the  two  works. 

(4.)  Some  portions  of  Kings  and  of  Jeremiah  are  al- 
most identical,  particularly  2  Kings  xxiv,  18-xxv,  and 
Jer.  lii.  The  two  passages  are  so  much  alike,  though 
diifering  in  some  respects,  as  to  appear  like  two  narra- 
tions of  the  same  event  by  the  same  person,  in  each  of 
which  some  points  arc  related  with  more  fulness  than  in 
the  other,  for  some  particular  purpose.  Parts  of  this 
narrative  are  also  contained  in  nearly  the  same  words  in 
Jer.  xxxix,  1-10 ;  xl,  7-xli,  10. 

(5.)  The  impression  produced  on  the  reader  is  that 
the  writer  of  Kings  was  not  taken  away  into  captivity 
either  in  the  days  of  Jehoiachin  or  of  Zedekiah,  as  the 
writer  of  Chronicles  appears  to  have  been ;  and  this  cir- 
cumstance agrees  with  the  supposition  that  Jeremiah 
was  the  writer.  We  know  tliat,  after  being  carried 
away  as  far  as  Ramah  with  the  captives  from  Jerusa- 
lem, he  was  set  free,  and  permitted  to  retiu-n  to  liis  own 
land  with  Gedaliah.  He  was  afterwards  taken  away  to 
Tahpanhes,  in  Egypt,  where  we  obtain  the  last  certain 
view  of  liim.  Besides  this,  many  other  points  of  agree- 
ment, more  or  less  striking,  present  themselves  to  the 
careful  reader — the  book  of  Jeremiah  serving  more  than 
any  other  part  of  Scriptura  to  illustrate  and  explain  the 
contemporaneous  portions  of  the  Kings,  and  the  events 
recorded  in  Kings  serving  as  a  key  to  many  portions  of 
the  prophet.  In  this  way  a  number  of  undesigned  co- 
incidences appear  between  the  supposed  and  the  ac- 
knowledged writings  of  Jeremiah,  as  the  following : 
2  Kings  xxv,  1-3,  comp.  with  Jer.  xxxviii,  1-9. 
?  Kings  xxv,  11, 12,  lS-21,  "  Jer.  xxxix,  10-14 ;  xl,  1-5. 
2  Kings  xxiv,  13,  "    Jer.  xxvii,  lS-20 ;  xxviii,  3-6. 

2  Kings  xxiv,  14,  "    Jer.  xxiv,  1. 

2  Kings  xxi,  xxii,  xxiii,      "    Jer.  vii,  15 ;  xv,  4  ;  xix,  3. 

(6.)  The  absence  of  all  mention  of  Jeremiah  in  the 
history,  although  he  was  so  prominently  active  in  the 
iour  or  five  last  reigns,  both  in  the  court  and  among 
the  people,  is  only  explicable  on  the  supposition  that 
Jeremiah  was  himself  the  writer.  Had  it  been  the 
work  t)f  another,  he  must,  as  in  Chronicles,  have  had 
very  distinct  mention. 

(7.)  The  events  singled  out  for  mention  in  the  con- 
cise narrative  are  precisely  those  of  which  Jeremiah 
hail  personal  knowledge,  and  in  which  he  took  special 
interest.  The  famine  in  2  Kings  xxv,  3  was  one  which 
had  nearly  cost  Jeremiah  his  life  (Jer.  xxxviii,  9).  The 
capture  of  the  city,  the  flight  and  capture  of  Zedekiah, 
the  Judgment  and  punishnielit  of  Zedekiah  and  his  sons 
at  i;il)lali,  are  related  in  2  Kings  xxv,  1-7,  in  almost 
the  identical  words  which  we  read  in  Jer.  xxxix,  1-7. 
So  are  the  breaking  down  and  burning  of  the  Temple, 
the  king's  palace,  and  tlie  houses  of  the  great  men,  the 
deportation  to  Babylon  of  the  fugitives  and  the  surviv- 
ing inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  aniUIuda-a.  The  intimate 
knowledge  of  what  Xebuzar-adan  did,  both  in  respect 
tt)  those  selected  for  capital  inniishment  and  tliose  car- 
ried away  captive,  and  those  po'or  whom  he  "left  in  the 
land,  displayed  by  the  writer  of  2  Kings  xxv,  11,  12, 
18-21,  is  fully  explained  l)y  Jer.  xxxix,"  10-14,  xl,  1-5. 
■where  we  read  that  Jeremiah  was  actually  one  of  the 


captives  who  followed  Nebuzar-adan  as  far  as  Kamah, 
and  was  very  kindly  treated  by  him.  The  careful  enu- 
meration of  the  pillars  and  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the 
Temple  which  were  plundered  by  the  ChahUeans  tallies 
exactly  with  the  prediction  of  Jeremiah  concerning 
them  (xxvii,  19-22).  The  paragraph  concerning  the  ap- 
pointment of  Gedaliah  as  governor  of  the  remnant,  and 
his  murder  by  Ishmael,  and  the  flight  of  the  Jews  into 
Egypt,  is  merely  an  abridged  account  of  what  Jeremiah 
tells  us  more  fully  (xl-xliii,  7),  and  are  events  in  which 
personally  he  was  deeply  concerned.  The  writer  in 
Kings  has  nothing  more  to  tell  us  concerning  the  Jews 
or  Chaldees  in  the  land  of  Judah,  which  exactly  agrees 
with  the  hypothesis  that  he  is  Jeremiah,  who  we  know 
was  carried  down  to  Egypt  with  the  fugitives.  In  fact, 
the  date  of  the  writing  and  the  position  of  the  writer 
seem  as  clearly  marked  by  the  termination  of  the  narra- 
tive at  V,  2G,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
It  may  be  added,  though  the  argument  is  of  less  weight, 
that  the  annexation  of  this  chapter  to  the  writings  of 
Jeremiah  so  as  to  form  Jer.  lii  (with  the  additional 
clause  contained  in  vs.  28-30)  ic  an  evidence  of  a  very 
ancient,  if  not  a  contemporary  belief,  that  Jeremiah  was 
the  author  of  it.  Again,  the  special  mention  of  Scraiah 
the  high-priest,  and  Zephaniah  the  second  priest,  as 
slain  by  Nebuzar-adan  (v,  18),  together  with  three 
other  priests,  is  very  significant  when  taken  in  connec- 
tion with  Jer.  xxi,  1,  xxix,  25-29,  passages  which  show 
that  Zephaniah  belonged  to  the  faction  which  o]iposed 
the  prophet,  a  faction  which  was  headed  by  priests  and 
false  prophets  (Jer.  xxvi,  7,  8,  11,  IG).  Going  back  to 
the  xxivth  chapter,  we  find  in  verse  14  an  enumeration 
of  the  captives  taken  with  Jehoiachin  identical  with 
that  in  Jer.  xxiv,  1 ;  in  verse  13  a  reference  to  the  ves- 
sels of  the  Temple  precisely  similar  to  that  in  Jer.  xxvii, 
18-20,  xxviii,  3,  G,  and  in  verse  3,  4,  a  reference  to  the 
idolatries  and  bloodshed  of  Manasseh  very  similar  to 
those  in  Jer.  ii,  34,  xix,  4-8,  etc.,  a  reference  which  also 
connects  chap,  xxiv  with  xxi,  6, 13-1 G.  In  verse  2  the 
enumeration  of  the  hostile  nations,  and  the  reference  to 
the  prophets  of  God,  point  directly  to  Jer.  xxv,  9,  90,  21, 
and  the  reference  to  Pharaoh-necho  in  verse  7  points  to 
verse  19,  and  to  xlvi,  1-12.  Brief  as  the  narrative  is,  it 
brmgs  out  all  the  chief  points  in  the  political  events  of 
the  time  which  we  know  were  much  in  Jeremiah's 
mind ;  and  yet,  -which  is  exceedingl}^  remarkable,  Jere- 
miah is  never  once  named  (as  he  is  in  2  Chron.  xxxvi, 
12,  21),  although  the  manner  of  the  writer  is  frequently 
to  connect  the  sufferings  of  Judah  with  their  sins  and 
their  neglect  of  the  Word  of  God  (2  Kings  xvii,  13  sq.; 
xxiv,  2,  3,  etc.).  This  leads  to  another  striking  coin- 
cidence between  that  portion  of  the  history  wliich  be- 
longs to  Jeremiah's  times  and  the  writings  of  Jeremiah 
himself.  De  AVctte  speaks  of  the  superficial  character 
of  the  historj'  of  Jeremiah's  times  as  hostile  to  the  the- 
ory of  Jeremiah's  authorship.  Now^,  considering  the 
nature  of  these  annals,  and  their  conciseness,  this  criti- 
cism seems  very  imfounded  as  regards  the  reigns  of  Jo- 
siah, Jehoahaz,  Jehoiachin,  and  Zedekiah.  It  must, 
ho\vever,  be  acknowledged  that,  as  regards  Jchoiakim's 
reign,  and  especially  the  latter  part  of  it,  and  the  way 
in  which  he  came  by  his  death,  the  narrative  is  much 
more  meagre  than  one  would  have  expected  from  a  con- 
temporary writer  living  on  the  spot.  But  exactly  the 
same  paucity  of  information  is  found  in  those  otherwise 
copious  notices  of  contemporary  events  with  which  Jer- 
emiah's prophecies  are  interspersed.  Let  any  one  open, 
e.  g.  Townsend's  Arrangement  or  Geneste's  F'orallel 
Histories,  and  he  will  see  at  a  glance  how  remarkably 
little  light  Jeremiah's  narrative  or  jirophecies  throw 
upon  the  latter  part  of  Jchoiakim's  reign.  The  cause 
of  this  silence  may  be  ditlicult  to  assign,  but,  whatever  it 
was,  whether  absence  from  Jerusalem,  possibly  on  the 
mission  described  in  Jer.  xiii,  or  imprisonment,  or  any 
other  impediment,  it  operated  equally  on  Jcremiali  and 
on  the  writer  of  2  Kings  xxiv.  When  it  is  borne  in 
mind  that  the  writer  of  2  Ivings  was  a  contemporary 


KIXGS 


99 


KING'S  BOOK 


writer,  and,  if  not  Jeremiah,  must  have  had  independent 
means  of  information,  tliis  coiucidence  will  have  great 
weight. 

It  has  been  argued  on  the  other  side — 

(1.)  That  the  concluding  portion  of  the  book  of  Kings 
could  hardly  have  been  written  by  Jeremiah,  unless  we 
suppose  him  to  have  written  it  when  he  was  betAvccn 
eighty  and  ninety  years  old.  To  this  it  may  be  replied 
that  the  last  four  verses,  relative  to  Jehoiachin,  arc 
equally  a  supjilement,  whether  added  by  the  author  or 
by  some  later  hand.  There  is  nothing  impossible  in  the 
supposition  of  Jeremiah  having  survived  till  the  thirty- 
seventh  year  of  Jehoiachin's  captivitj-,  though  he  would 
have  been  between  eighty  and  ninety.  There  is  some- 
thing touching  in  the  idea  of  this  gleam  of  joy  having 
reached  the  prophet  in  his  old  age,  and  of  his  havmg 
f;dded  these  few  words  to  his  long-finished  history  of 
his  nation  (see  Hiivernick,  Ueber  Daniel,  p.  14). 

(2.)  That  the  resemblance  of  style  and  diction  may 
be  accounted  fcjr  on  the  supposition  of  Jeremiah's  famil- 
iarity with  the  ancient  records  to  which  the  writer  of 
Kings  had  access,  while  the  similarity  of  2  Kings  xxiv, 
1-18,  etc.,  and  Jer.  xxxix,  might  arise  from  the  writer 
of  Kings  using  that  portion  of  Jeremiah's  work.  The 
identity  of  Jer.  lii  with  the  same  portion  of  Kings  is 
probably  owing  to  its  being  an  altered  extract  from 
Kings,  appended  as  a  supplement  to  Jeremiah  by  some 
later  hand.  Neither  of  the  suppositions,  however,  se- 
riously militates  against  the  general  authorship  of  Jer- 
emiah as  to  the  book  of  Kings.     See  Jeeejiiah. 

X.  Place  of  these  Boohs  in  the  Canon,  and  References 
to  them  in  the  Neio  Testament. — Their  canonical  author- 
it}'  having  never  been  disputed,  it  is  needless  to  bring 
fonvard  the  testimonies  to  their  authenticity  which  may 
be  found  in  Joscphns,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Augustine,  etc., 
or  in  Bp.Cosin,  or  any  other  modern  work  on  the  Canon 
of  Scripture.  See  Canon.  They  are  reckoned,  as  has 
already  been  noticed,  among  the  Prophets,  in  the  three- 
fold division  of  the  Holy  Scriptures;  a  position  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  supposition  that  they  were  compiled 
by  Jeremiah,  and  contain  the  narratives  of  the  different 
prophets  in  succession.  They  are  frequently  cited  by 
our  Lord  and  by  the  apostles.  Thus  the  allusions  to 
Solomon's  glory  (Matt,  vi,  29) ;  to  the  queen  of  Sheba's 
visit  to  Solomon  to  hear  his  wisdom  (xii,  42) ;  to  the 
Temple  (Acts  vii,  47,  48) ;  to  the  great  drought  in  the 
days  of  Elijah,  and  tlie  widow  of  Sarepta  (Luke  iv,  25, 
26) ;  to  the  cleansing  of  Naaman  the  Syrian  (ver.  27) ; 
to  the  charge  of  Elisha  to  Gehazi  (2  Kings  iv,  20,  comp. 
with  Luke  x,4) ;  to  the  dress  of  Elijah  (Mark  i,G,  comp. 
with  2  Kings  i,8);  to  the  complaint  of  Elijah,  and  God's 
answer  to  him  (Kom.  xi,3, 4) ;  to  the  raising  of  the  Shu- 
nammite's  son  from  the  dead  (Heb.  xi,  35) ;  to  the  giving 
and  withholding  of  the  rain  in  answer  to  Elijah's  prayer 
(James  v,  17, 18 ;  Rev.  xi,  6)  ;  to  Jezebel  (Kev.  ii,  20) — 
are  all  derived  from  the  books  of  Kings,  and,  with  the 
statement  of  Elijah's  presence  at  the  Transfiguration,  are 
a  striking  testimony  to  their  value  for  the  purjiose  of 
religious  teaching,  and  to  their  authenticity  as  a  portion 
of  the  Word  of  God. 

On  the  M'hole,  then,  in  this  portion  of  the  history  of 
the  Israelitish  people  to  which  the  name  of  the  Books 
of  Kiiu/s  has  been  given,  we  have  (if  we  except  those 
errors  in  numbers  which  arc  either  later  additions  to 
the  original  work,  or  accidental  corruptions  of  the  text) 
a  most  important  and  accurate  account  of  that  people 
during  upwards  of  four  hundred  j'ears  of  their  national 
existence,  delivered  for  the  most  part  by  contemporaiy 
writers,  and  guaranteed  by  the  authority  of  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Jewish  prophets.  Considering  the 
conciseness  of  the  narrative  and  the  simplicity  of  the 
style,  the  amount  of  knowledge  which  these  books  con- 
vey of  the  characters,  conduct,  and  manners  of  kings  and 
people  during  so  long  a  period  is  tridy  wonderful.  The 
insij;lit  they  give  us  iuto  the  aspect  of  Judah  and  Jeru- 
salem, both  natural  and  artificial,  into  the  reHgious,  mil- 
itary, and  civil  institutions  of  the  people,  their  arts  and 


manufactures,  the  state  of  education  and  learning  among 
them,  their  resources,  commerce,  exploits,  alliances,  the 
causes  of  their  decadence,  and,  finally,  of  their  ruin,  is 
most  clear,  interesting,  and  instructive.  In  a  few  brief 
sentences  we  acquire  more  accurate  knowledge  ol'  the 
affairs  of  Egypt,  Tyre,  Syria,  Assyria,  Babylon,  and  oth- 
er neighboring  nations,  than  had  been  preserved  to  us 
in  all  the  other  remains  of  antiquity  up  to  the  recent 
discoveries  in  hieroglyphical  and  cuneiform  monuments. 
The  synchronisms  with  these,  if  they  create  some  diffi- 
culties, yet  funiish  the  only  real  basis  for  dates  of  these 
contemporaneous  powers ;  and  if  we  are  content  to  read 
accurate  and  truthful  history,  substantially  with  an  ex- 
act though  intricate  net-work  of  chronology,  then  we 
shall  assureilly  find  it  will  abundantly  repay  the  most 
laborious  study  which  we  can  bestow  upon  it. 

But  it  is  for  their  deep  religious  teaching,  and  for  the 
insight  vrhich  they  give  us  into  God's  providential  and 
moral  government  of  the  world,  that  these  books  are 
above  all  valuable.  Books  which  describe  the  wisdom 
and  the  glory  of  Solomon,  and  yet  record  his  fall;  whicli 
make  us  acquainted  with  the  painful  ministry  of  Elijah, 
and  his  translation  into  heaven ;  and  which  tell  iis  how 
the  most  magnificent  temple  ever  built  for  God's  glory', 
and  of  which  he  vouchsafed  to  take  possession  by  a  vis- 
ible symbol  of  his  presence,  was  consigned  to  the  flames 
and  to  desolation  for  the  sins  of  those  who  worshipped 
in  it,  read  us  such  lessons  concerning  both  God  and  man 
as  are  the  best  evidence  of  their  divine  origin,  and  make 
them  the  richest  treasure  to  every  Cliristian  man. 

XI.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  exegetical 
helps  specially  on  the  two  books  of  Kings,  to  the  most 
important  of  wliich  we  prefix  an  asterisk :  Ephraem 
Syrus,  Explanatio  (in  Syriac,  in  his  Opjy.  iv,  439) ;  The- 
odoret,  Qucestiones  (in  Greek,  in  his  Ojip.  i,  edit.  Halle, 
17G9);  Procopius  of  Gaza,  Scholia  [including  Chron.] 
(from  Theodoret,  edit.  IMeursius,  Lugd.  Bat.  1620,  4to) ; 
Eucherius  [falsely  attributed  to  him],  Commentcmi  (in 
the  Max.  Bibl.  Vet.  Patr.  vi,  965  sq.) ;  Kashi  [i.  e.  Itab. 
Sol.  Jarchi],  Commentariiis  [Joshua -Kings]  (trans,  by 
Breithaupt,  Gotha,  1714,  4to) ;  Bailolas,  "CJillB  [.Joshua- 
Kings]  (with  Kimchi's  Commentary,  Seira,  1494,  folio; 
and  in  the  Kabbinical  Bibles);  Alscheich,  nX'I'C,  etc. 
[Joshua-Kings]  (Venice,  1601,  foL,  and  later);  Bugen- 
hagen,  A  dnotationes  (Basil.  1525, 8vo) ;  Weller,  Commen- 
tarius  (Francof.  1557,  Norib.  1560,  fol.) ;  Borrhaus,  Com- 
mentarius  [Joshua-Kings]  (Basil.  1557,  folio) ;  Sarcer, 
Commentariiis  (Lips.  1559,  8vo);  Martvr,  Commentarius 
(Tigur.  1666, 1581,  Heidelb.  1599,  fol.)  ;  Strigel,  Commen- 
tarius [Samuel-Chron.]  (Lips.  1583, 1591, fol.);  Serarius, 
Commentaria  [Joshua -Chron.]  (Mogunt,  1609,  1617,  2 
vols,  fol.);  Leonhardt,  Hypomnemata  [Samuel-Chron.] 
(Erfurt,  1608, 1614,  8vo;  Lips.  1610,  4to) ;  De  Mendoza, 
Commentaria  [including  Sam.]  (Lugd.  1622-1631,3  vols, 
fol.);  Sanctius,  Commentarii  [Sam.-Chron.]  (Antwerp, 
1624,  Lugd.  1625,  fol.) ;  Crommius,  lllustrationes  [Kuth- 
Chron.]  (Lovan.  1631,4to) ;  'De.\eT&,  Commentaria  [in- 
clud.  Sam.]  (Lima',  lo35,  i'ol.) ;  *Bonfrere,  Commentaria 
[Sam.-Chron.]  (Toniaci,  1613,  2  vols.  fol. ;  also  with  his 
other  commentaries,  Lugd.  1737);  Caussinus,  Disserta- 
tiones  finclud.  Sam.]  (Par.  1650,  fol. ;  Colon;  1652,  4to) ; 
*Schmidt,  Adnotationes  (Argent.  1697,  4to) ;  Calmet, 
Commcntaire  (Par.  1711,  4to) ;  A  Lapide,  Commentariiis 
[Joshua-Kings]  (Antw.  1718,  fol.);  Brentano  and  De- 
reser,  Erhldrniuj  (F.  a.  31.  1827,  8vo) ;  Tanchur-Jerusa- 
Xdxvix,  Commentarius  [includ.  Sam.]  (from  the  Arabic,  by 
Haarbriickcr,  Lips.  1844,  8vo);  *Keil,  Commentar  (Mos- 
kau,  1846,  8vo;  tr.  Edinb.  1857,  8vo,  different  from  that 
in  Keil  and  Delitzsch's  Commentary)  ;  *Thenius,  Er- 
kldrung  (in  the  Kurzr/ef.  Exer;.  JIdhk:  Lpz.  1849,  8vo) ; 
Schliisser,  Einleitun;/  in  die  Biicher  der  Kvnige  (Halle, 
1861 ,  8vo).  For  monographs  on  particular  passages,  see 
Danz,  Worttrbuch,  p.  555.     See  Co.m.mentarv. 

King's  Book  is  the  name  of  a  book  published  A.D. 
1543,  under  the  sanction  of  Henry  VIII,  entitled  A  nec- 
essary Doctrine  and  Erudition  for  any  Christian  Man. 


KING'S  DALE 


100 


KINGSLEY 


Tlic  people  called  it  the  Kiin/s  J^ool:  in  contradistinc- 
t;!)!i  from  the  work  wliich  I'tirnished  the  basis  for  tlie 
Kin<js  Booh,  and  was  called  the  Bishops'  Book.  This  lat- 
ter was  an  exposition  of  tlie  Apostles'  Creed,  the  Seven 
Sacraments,  the  Ten  Commandments,  the  Pater  Noster, 
and  the  Ave  Maria :  to  these,  in  the  Kiiufs  Book,  was 
subjoined  additional  matter  touching  free  will,  good 
works,  justification,  predestination,  and  purgatory.  A 
ciiraparison,  however,  of  tlie  two  shows  that  in  the 
Kiiu/'s  Book  there  is  a  falling  a^vay  from  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation.     See  Institution  of  a  Cheistian 

King's  Dale  (T(5ari  p'ZV,  E'mek  ham-Me'lek, 
Vit'hn  of  the  Kinf) ;  Sept.  to  TZiCioi'  ruji'  jiaai\(tov,  >'/ 
KoiXuQ  Tov  jSaffiXiung),  a  place  incidentally  mentioned 
in  two  passages  of  Scripture  only.  When  Abraham  was 
returning  with  the  spoil  of  Sodom,  the  king  of  Sodom 
went  out  to  meet  him  "at  the  valley  of  Shaveh,  which 
?■■;  the  kinr/s  dak"  (Gen.  xiv,  17);  and  in  the  narrative 
of  tliG  death  of  Absalom  the  incidental  remark  is  insert- 
ed by  the  historian,  "  Now  Absalom  in  his  lifetime  had 
reared  up  for  himself  a  pillar  which  is  in  the  king's  dale" 
(2  Sam.  xviii,  18).  The  locality  has  usually  been  sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat  or  Kidron,  and 
that  the  well-known  monument,  now  called  the  tomb 
of  Absalom,  is  the  pillar  raised  by  that  prince  (Benja- 
min of  Tudela,  in  E  viij  Tnw.  in  Pcd.  p.  84;  IJaumer, 
raldsf.  p.  303;  Barclay,  Citij  of  the  Great  King,  p.  92). 
The  style  of  the  monument,  which  is  of  the  later  Roman 
age,  militates  against  this  theory,  unless  we  suppose 
that  this  structure  merely  represents  the  older  tradition- 
ary site.  See  Absalom's  Tojib.  The  names  given  to 
the  valley,  Einek,  Shaveh,  prove  that  a  "  plain"  or  '•  broad 
valley"  was  meant,  and  not  a  ravine  like  the  Kidron ; 
but  this  would  tolerably  well  apply  to  its  broader  part 
at  the  junction  with  that  of  Hinnom.  See  Jehosha- 
phat, Yallky  of.  Others  locate  the  king's  dale  at 
Bsersheba,  others  at  Lebanon  (Roland,  Palccsf.  p.  357), 
others  near  the  .Jordan  (Stanley,  Jewish  Church,  i,  44). 
But  if  we  identify  Salem  with  Jerusalem,  then  doubt- 
less the  king's  dale  was  close  to  that  city;  and  it  seems 
highl}-  probable  besides  that  Absalom  should  have  raised 
his  memorial  pillar  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital  (Krafft, 
Die  Topogruphie  Jerusalems,  p.  88).  Still  others  regard 
the  place  as  that  elsewhere  called  the  '•  Valley  of  Reph- 
aim,"  and  now  usually  designated  as  the  Plain  ofBeph- 
(lim.  This  is  on  the  direct  route  from  the  north  to 
Hebron;  a  practicable  road  leads  down  from  it  through 
the  wilderness  to  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  and  it  is 
so  close  to  Jerusalem  that  Melchisedec,  from  the  heights 
of  Zion,  could  both  see  and  hear  the  joyous  meeting  of 
the  princes  of  Sodom  with  the  victorious  band  of  Abra- 
ham, and  the  reclaimed  captives  (comp.  Kurtz,  Hist,  of 
the  Old  Covenant,  i,  218;  AVilson,  Lands  of  the  Bible,  i, 
488  ;  Kalisch,  On  Gen.  xiv,  17).  See  Rkimiaim,  Valley 
of.  The  epithet  "King's,"  however,  seems  rather  to 
favor  a  connection  with  the  "king's  garden"  [see  Je- 
rusai.km],  which  lay  near  the  Tool  of  Siloam  (2  Kings 
XXV,  4).     See  Shaveh. 

King's  Evil  is  the  name  in  England  of  a  disease 
which  the  people  believed  their  kings  had  the  power  of 
curing  by  touch.  So  strong  was  the  popular  conviction 
that  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  devised  a  special  form 
of  religious  service  to  be  recited  while  the  king  was 
touching  the  diseased  person.     It  is  as  follows: 

"The  first  gospel  was  exactly  the  same  with  that  on 
Ascension  Bay.  At  the  touching  of  every  infirm  person, 
these  words  wore  repeated,  'They  shall  hiy  their  hands 
on  the  sick,  and  they  shall  recover.'  The  second  gospel 
hoi;;in  at  the  tii-st  of  St.  .John,  and  ended  at  these  words, 
'full  of  grace  and  tnilh.'  At  putting  the  angel  (or  gold) 
about  their  necks,  'That  light  was  the  true  litrht  which 
lights  every  man  that  comelh  into  the  world,'  was  re- 
peated, 

Lord  have  mercy  upon  us. 

Christ  have  merei/  tijion  its. 

Lord  have  merry  upon  us. 

Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven,  hallowed  be  thy  name, 
etc. 

Minister.  O  Lord,  save  thy  servants. 


Ansri^er.  Which  put  their  trust  iu  thee. 
Minister.  Send  unto  them  help  from  above. 
Answer.  And  evermore  mightily  defend  them. 
Minister.  Help  us,  O  God,  our  Saviour. 
Answer.  And  for  the  glory  of  thy  name's  sake  deliver 
us ;  be  merciful  unto  us  sinners,  for  thy  name's  sake. 
Minister.  O  Lord,  hear  our  prayer. 
Answer.  And  let  our  cry  come  unto  thee. 

Tin-;   COLLECT. 

Almighty  God,  the  eternal  health  of  all  such  as  put  their 
trust  iu  thee,  hear  us,  we  beseech  thee,  on  the  behalf  of 
these  thy  servants,  for  whoiji  we  call  for  thy  merciful 
help ;  that  they,  receiving  health,  may  give  thanks  unto 
thee  iu  thy  holy  Church,~throngh  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord. 
Amen. 

The  peace  of  God,  etc." — Hook,  Chureli  Dictionary . 

"The  evidence  which  has  sometimes  been  offered  for 
supposed  miraculous  cures  of  the  king's  evil  is  none  at 
all  ibr  the  miracle,  but  goes  to  prove  that  patients  were 
touched,  and  afterwards  recovered.  SjTnptoms  of  many  ' 
diseases  abate  spontaneously ;  and  especially  in  the  case 
of  scrofula,  a  strong  excitement  of  mind  is  su]iposed  by 
medical  men  to  exert  often  a  reaction  in  the  absorbents. 
The  touch  of  a  hanged  man's  hand  has  been  held  iu  at 
least  equal  repute  for  Scrofula  and  wens,  doubtless  fur  a 
like  reason.  If  Jesus  had  laid  his  hands  on  many  sick 
persons,  and  some  of  them  had  recovered  within  a  week, 
how  different  would  have  been  the  state  of  the  case ! 
(See  Paley  on  tentative  miracles  and  gradual  cures.)  As 
the  reality  of  a  cure  by  the  touch  of  a  ro3-al  hand  cannot 
be  believed  without  the  utmost  degree  of  superstition, 
it  is  probable  that  the  service  was  used  as  a  petition  for 
the  cure,  and  that  the  touching  the  part  affected  was  a 
superstitions  act,  followed  by  a  cure  in  those  cases  iu 
which  the  action  of  the  mind  was  favorable  to  such  an 
effect.  Thus  the  cure  itself  would  be  explicable  from 
natural  causes." 

King's  Garden.     See  Garden. 

King's  Honse.     See  Palace. 

King's  Mother.     See  Queen. 

King's  Mowings.     See  Mowing. 

King's  Pool.     See  Pool. 

King's  Primer.     See  Peijier, 

King's  Sepulchre.     See  Tomb. 

Kingsbury,  Cyrus,  a  noted  American  missionary 
to  the  Indians,  was  born  about  1789.  He  commenced 
his  missionary  labors  about  1816,  and  for  more  than  hfty 
years  faithfully,  quietly,  and  meekly  served  his  INIaster 
in  making  known  to  those  committed  to  his  care  the 
unsearchable  riches  of  Christ.  Kingsbury  died  August, 
1870.  His  influence  among  the  savages  was  great,  and 
few  men  in  any  service  could  be  more  missed.  Among 
the  missionaries  of  this  age,  no  purer  name,  no  lovelier 
character,  has  appeared  than  that  which  belongs  to  Cy- 
rus Kingsbury. 

Kingsbviry,  William,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  London  July  12, 1744,  and  educated  first  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  London,  and  for  the  ministry  at  the 
educational  institution  for  Congregational  ministers  at 
Mile  End.  where  he  graduated  in  17G4.  He  was  ordained 
in  1765,  and  became  pastor  of  the  Independent  Church  at 
Southampton,  a  position  which  he  most  successfully  filleel 
for  forty-five  years.  In  1772.  in  addition  to  his  pastoral 
duties,  he  established  an  academy  for  the  education  of 
young  men.  In  1787  he  declined  a  position  iu  Homer- 
ton  College.  In  1795  he  was  one  of  the  prime  movers 
iu  founding  the  London  jMissionary  Society,  and  was  the 
first  to  preside  over  its  deliberations.  He  died  at  Cav- 
ersham  Feb.  18,  1818.  He  published  in  1798  An  Apol- 
ogi/for  Village  Preachers,  in  answer  to  an  attack  made 
upon  them.  IMr.  Kingsbury  was  "one  of  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  the  ministerial  character  that  has  graced 
the  Church  of  God  in  modern  times — a  man  of  rare  and 
exalted  worth,  possessed  of  vigor  of  intellect,  sound  crit- 
ical knowledge,  as  well  as  depth  of  piety." — JMorison, 
Missiiinarg  Fiitliirs.      (II.  C.  W.) 

Kingsley,  Calvin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  born  of  Presbyterian 


KINGSLEY 


101 


KINGSLEY 


parentage,  at  Amesville,  Oneida  County,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  8, 
1812.     His  early  advantages  were  rather  moderate,  but 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  made  him  superior  to  circum- 
stances, and  he  secured  whatever  he  could  by  night 
study  and  the  careful  improvement  of  the  intervals  in 
his  workuig  hours,     lie  was  converted  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  and  avowed  it  at  once  as  his  purpose  to  enter 
the  ministry.     By  teacliing  country  schools  he  saved 
enougli  to  partially  defray  the  expenses  of  a  collegiate 
education,  and  in  1 83(5  entered  Alleghany  College,whence 
he  was  graduated  with  honor  in  the  year  1841,  having 
held  already,  in  his  sophomore  year,  the  appointment  of 
tutor  of  mathematics.    Immediately  after  graduation  he 
was  elected  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  college,  and 
discharged  the  duties  of  that  position  for  .several  years, 
taking  upon  himself  also  the  work  of  preaching ;  he  had 
been  licensed  to  preach  ill  1836.    In  the  year  18-13,  when 
Alleghany  College  was  deprived  of  its  assistance  from 
Pennsylvania  by  an  enactment  withdrawing  all  appro- 
priation from  the  high  schools  of  the  state,  Kingsley, 
then  an  ordained  deacon  in  the  Church,  was  appointed 
agent  "  for  the  peculiarly  arduous  and  thankless  task  of 
raising  funds  for  the  endowment  of  his  college."    About 
this  time,  also,  the  future  bishop  first  came  prominently 
before  the  general  public.     lie  had  early  entertained 
strong  antislavery  predilections,  and  in  18i3  was  led  to 
open  a  public  discussion  with  the  distinguished  preach- 
ers Luther  Lee  (q.  v.)  and  Elias  Smith  (q.  v.),  who  had 
formeil  the  "Wesleyan"  organization  through  disaffec- 
tion at  the  position  assumed  by  the  Jlethodist  Episco- 
pal Church  on  the  subject  of  the  institution  of  slavery. 
In  these  discussions  Kingsley  proved  himself  in  every 
respect  the  equal,  if  not  the  superior,  of  his  antago- 
nists— "  men  by  nature  able,  and  by  practice  trained  to 
the  highest  point  of  effectiveness  b\'  their  zeal  for  truth, 
and  laborious  study  of  the  whole  ground  of  the  contro- 
versy."    From  18-i4  to  1845  he  was  also  regular  pastor 
in  the  city  of  Eric,  where  a  deep  religious  influence  ac- 
companied his  ministrations.    While  here  he  had  a  pub- 
lic discussion  with  a  Universalist  minister,  and  also  pre- 
pared his  lectures  on  Prof.  Bush's  work  on  the  Resurrec- 
tion, which  were  published  afterwards  under  the  title 
Kiiifjdqj  on  the  Besia-rection  (1845,  and  often).    Prefer- 
ring work  in  the  pulpit  to  that  in  the  rostrum,  he  re- 
signed his  place  at  Alleghany  College  in  1846,  but  the 
trustees  refused  to  accept  the  resignation,  and,  at  the 
most  earnest  entreaty  of  many  of  his  friends,  he  was  in- 
duced to  continue  his  college  relations,  even  at  a  consid- 
erable pecuniary  sacrilice.     Besides,  however,  discharg- 
ing the  duties  of  his  chair,  he  continued  to  labor  faith- 
fullv  as  a  preacher  upon  the  adjacent  circuits  and  sta- 
tions.    In  1852  he  was  elected  a  delegate  from  his  Con- 
ference to  the  General  Conference,  ami  not  only  was  he 
at  the  head  of  his  own  Conference  delegation,  but  while 
in  attendance,  though  a  comparative  stranger,  received, 
in  the  election  of  bishops,  some  forty  votes  for  this  distin- 
guished office.     By  the  next  General  Conference  (1856) 
he  was  elected  editor  of  the  Wester-n  Christian  Advocate, 
successor  of  the  celebrated  late  Dr.  Elliott.    In  this  place 
he  displayed  much  editorial  ability,  and  his  paper  be- 
came a  powerful  influence  in  the  West.    In  1860  he  was 
recognised  l)y  the  General  Conference  as  the  leader  of 
the  antislavery  movement,  and  was  chosen  chairman  of 
the  Slavery  Committee,  and  managed  the  (iiscussion  on 
that  subject  with  great  taste.     He  was  at  that  time  re- 
elected editor  of  The  Advocate,  and  at  the  breaking  out 
of  the  war  brought  its  whole  support  to  tlie  aid  of  the 
government.     In  1864,  the  General  Conference,  then  in 
session  at  Philadelphia,  promoted  liim  to  the  high  dis- 
tinction for  which  he  had  been  a  candidate  in  1852,  and 
he  performed  the  duties  of  the  position  until  the  sum- 
mer of  1869,  when  he  took  an  episcopal  tour  around  the 
worlil,  but  died  on  his  way  homeward  at  Beirut,  Syria, 
April  6, 1870.    '-As  a  bishop, he  met  the  highest  expec- 
tatum  of  the  Church.     In  the  chair  his  decisions  were 
clear  and  exact.     In  making  tlie  ajtpointments  he  man- 
ifested great  sympatliy  for  the  preachers  and  devotion 


to  the  interests  of  the  Chiurch.     His  ministrations  were 
able  and  successful,  and  during  the  six  j'ears  of  his  epis- 
copal labor  he  gave  himself  wholly  to  the  work  of  his 
great  olHce.    As  a  man,  he  was  simple  and  imaffected  in 
his  manners,  genial  and  social  in  his  spirit.     His  intel- 
lect was  strong,  keen,  and  logical.    He  used  a  ready  pen, 
and  his  descriptions  were  clear,  concise,  and  graphic. 
His  sermons  were  rich  in  doctrinal  truth,  and  by  their 
clear  conception  and  earnest  delivery  held  the  attention 
of  large  congregations.     His  executive  power  was  of  a 
superior  order,  and  each  successive  year  his  talents  were 
mifolding"  (^Conference  Minutes,  1870,  p.  294).     The  Rev, 
Dr.  Robert  AUyn,  in  his  Peisonal  Recollections  of  Bish- 
op Kingsley  (Ceidral  Christian  Advocate,  June  1, 1870), 
speaks  of  him  as  "  a  man  genial,  charitable,  honest,  ear- 
nest, slirewd  and  far-seeing,  patient,  careful,  logical,  and 
bold  in  defense  and  in  attack.     His  square  form,  solid 
lips,  and  broad  shoidders  were  an  indication  of  the  wres- 
tler, and  his  keen,  quick  eye  was  that  of  a  master  offence. 
While  he  was  one  of  the  most  diligent  of  workers,  he 
had  just  enough  of  tlie  phlegmatic  about  his  tempera- 
njent  to  make  him  the  pluckiest  of  fighters.    He  always 
looked  at  a.  point,  antl  not  at  half  of  the  horizon,  as  many 
do  when  they  preach  or  write.     His  eagle  eye  would  see 
the  mark,  no  matter  how  far  away,  and  his  steady  hand 
could  point  the  spear  to  hit  it  exactly.     In  his  sermoniz- 
ing there  was  no  attempt  at  profundity,  or  speculation,  or 
rhetorical  ornamentation,  or  even  logical  force;  yet  it  had 
all  these  so  far  as  they  are  of  any  account.     It  was  em- 
phatically as  the  rain  that  cometh  down  from  heaven — 
falling  because  the  clouds  are  too  full  to  hold  it  longer, 
and  never  caring  on  what  place  it  may  descend,  or  what 
it  shall  refresh.    His  thouglits  were  always  clear,  and  his 
words  exact  and  often  picturesque.     He  was  entirelj' 
indifferent  to  the  api)lause  of  those  to  whom  he  spoke, 
and  was  so  natural — commonly  not  graceful  in  all  his 
manner,  that  a  careless  observer  would  be  sure  to  be  de- 
ceived into  thinking  him  of  less  weight  than  he  really 
had.     Every  v.ord  he  chose  was  a  word  to  help  convey 
his  meaning,  and  he  never  added  another  for  show ; 
hence  a  few,  who  looked  for  sound  rather  than  sense, 
might  midervalue  his  preaching ;  but  let  a  congregation 
hear  him  often,  and  become  accustomed  to  the  flash  of 
his  eye  and  the  movement  of  his  face  as  his  thoughts 
came  leaping  from  his  heart,  and  as  he  attempted  to 
clothe  them  in  words,  and  they  could  not  fail  to  be  fas- 
cinated.    He  had  a  magnetic  power  to  keep  ]5cople 
awake  and  to  instruct  them,  and  to  attach  men  to  him 
which  not  many  possess.     Said  he  once, '  I  cannot  soar 
on  the  wings  of  fancy,  I  can  only  Instruct  and  convince.'  ' 
"  In  a  word,"  says  Dr.  ^\'iley,  "  his  whole  character  was 
well  rounded  and  symmetrical  as  his  mind  was  rigorous- 
ly logical,  and  his  frame  robust,  compact,  and  well  knit 
together.     He  fiUcd  with  ability  all  places  to  which  the 
Church  called  him,  as  pastor,  ediu;ator,  editor,  and  bish- 
op."    Bishop  Kingsley  left  in  MS.  form  a  series  of  lec- 
tures he  delivered  while  professor  at  Meadville,  in  de- 
fence of  the  Orthodox  doctrine.     It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  soon  be  brought  out  in  book  form.     They  cer- 
tainly would  prove  a  great  addition  to  our  literature  on 
those  subjects.     Since  his  decease  his  letters  of  travel 
have  been  published  under  the  title  of  Roii7xl  the  World 
(Cincinnati,  1870,  2  vols.  12mo),  prefaced  by  a  memoir 
of  the  bisliop.      (J.  IT.  W.) 

Kingsley,  James  Luce,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  and 
one  of  the  most  successful  American  educators,  born  in 
Scotland,  Conn..  Aug.  28, 1778,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of 
John  Kingsley,  one  of  the  seven  men  who  in  1636  con- 
stituted the  first  Church  in  Dorchester,  Mass.  He  en- 
tered Williams  College  at  the  age  of  seventeen,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  fresliman  year  was  transferred  to  Yale, 
where  he  graduated  in  1799.  After  teaching  in  Wind- 
ham and  Wethersfield  for  two  years  jMr.  Kingsley  was 
appointed  tutor  in  Yale  College  in  1801,  and  in  1805  was 
promoted  to  tlie  professorsliip  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek. and 
Latin  languages  and  of  ecclesiastical  history,  a  position 
which  he  retained  till  his  death  in  1852.     His  studies 


KINGSLEY 


102 


KINSMAX 


were  chiefly  in  language  and  history,  but  he  was  well 
versed  in  iiiatlieniaties,  theology,  metaphysics,  political 
science,  and  general  literature.  The  study  of  the  clas- 
sics had  disciplined  his  judgment  and  relined  his  taste, 
so  that  his  writings  ^vere  clear,  finished,  and  forcible  to 
the  highest  degree.  As  a  writer  of  English,  Dr.  Dwight 
called  him  the  American  Addison ;  in  Latin,  Prof.  Thach- 
er  says  that "  Cicero  was  his  model,  and  he  was  certainly 
a  successful  imitator  of  his  style — surprisinglj'  successful, 
when  we  consider  how  he  was  dependent  on  himself  for 
instruction."  Prof.  Kingsley  was  at  the  same  time  re- 
markably modest  and  retiring,  the  usual  accompani- 
ments of  true  greatness.  He  very  rarely  made  a  pub- 
lic address,  although  so  eminently  qualified  for  the  task ; 
and  the  editions  of  classical  authors  which  he  published 
as  text-books,  together  with  the  numerous  articles  which 
he  contributed  to  quarterly  and  monthly  periodicals, 
wore  commonly  anonymous.  His  Latin  compositions 
were  numerous,  but  rarely  published.  The  congratula- 
tory address  which  he  gave  at  the  inauguration  of  pres- 
ident Day  in  1817,  and  a  similar  address  at  the  inaugu- 
ration of  president  Woolsey  in  18-lG,  have  not  even  beeji 
found  among  his  jiapers.  The  memorandum  of  one  of 
his  associates  attributes  to  him  six  such  monumental 
tributes,  viz.  president  Dwight,  1817  ;  colonel  David 
Humphreys,  1818 ;  professor  Alexander  M.  Fisher,  1822 ; 
professor  M.  K.  Dutton,  1825;  tutor  Amos  PettingiU, 
1832 ;  and  Osgood  Johnson,  1837.  Tlie  most  elaborate 
of  his  writings  was  the  address  delivered  on  the  two 
hundredth  anniversary  of  the  settlement  of  New  Haven 
in  1838.  It  remains  a  model  of  thorough  investigation 
and  judicious  combination.  The  letters  of  Prof.  Kings- 
ley  have  been  very  much  admired.  With  president 
.Sparks,  Edward  Everett,  Dr.  Palfrey,  JMr.  Savage,  and 
other  literary  gentlemen,  he  was  in  constant  correspond- 
ence, but  more  particularly  with  Dr.  J.  E.  Worcester.  In 
the  A  merican  Quarterh/  Rec/ister  for  April,  1835,  and  Au- 
gust, 183G,  will  be  found  his  sketch  of  the  History  of  Yale 
College,  which  was  also  printed  as  a  separate  pamphlet 
(46  pages  8vo).  This  is  regarded  as  a  chief  authority 
in  relation  to  the  early  historj^  of  this  celebrated  college. 
The  productions  of  Prof.  Kingsley  found  a  large  place 
in  the  leading  American  periodicals;  ho  ranked  espe- 
»'iaUy  prominent  among  the  contributors  to  the  New 
Englander,  the  Christian  Spectator,  the  Biblical  Repos- 
itory, and  the  North  A  merican  Review.  For  a  complete 
list  of  his  works,  see  AUibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  m.  A  uth. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V.  See  also  Thacher  (Thomas  A.),  Commemora- 
tice  Discourse  on  Prof.  Kingsley  (Oct.,  1852).     (E.  de  P.) 

Kingsley,  Phineas,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
born  in  Rutland,  Vt.,  March  12,  1788,  educated  in  the 
classics  by  his  uncle,  a  graduate  of  Harvard  College,  was 
licensed  to  preach  about  1818,  and  ordained  at  Highgate, 
Vt.,  Oct.  12, 1819,  where  he  remained  twelve  years.  He 
was  next  settled  for  seven  years  at  Underbill,  Vt,,  and 
f(jr  the  five  years  following  at  Sheldon,  Yt.  In  1847  he 
removed  to  Brooklyn,  Ohio,  and  continued  preaching  to 
the  day  of  his  death,  Jidy  G,  1863.  ''He  was  highly 
esteemed  by  his  ministerial  brethren,  not  for  showy  tal- 
ents, but  for  substantial  worth  and  fidelity." — Wilson, 
f'resb.  llist.  Almanac,  1867. 

Kingsmill,  Andukw,  an  English  divine,  born  at 
Sidmonton,  in  Hampshire,  in  1538,  was  educated  at  Cor- 
pus Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  removed  tlience  to  a 
fellowship  of  All  Souls  in  1558.  In  the  year  1563  there 
were  only  three  preachers  in  the  university,  of  whom 
Kingsmill  was  one;  but  after  some  time,  when  con- 
formity was  pressed,  he  withdrew  from  the  kingdom 
and  went  to  (ieneva,  but  at  the  end  of  three  years 
moved  to  Lausanne,  where  he  died  in  the  j'ear  1570,  in 
tlie  prime  of  life,  "leaving  behind  him,"  says  Ncale 
{Hist,  of  the  Puritans,  i,  116  sq.),J'an  excellent  pattern 
of  piety,  devotion,  and  all  manner  of  virtue."  He  was 
an  admired  preacher,  and  a  scholar  of  superior  attain- 
ments. His  memory  was  most  remarkable,  fur  it  is  said 
that  he  coidd  readily  rehearse,  in  the  Greek  language. 


all  St.  Paul's  epistles  to  the  Pomans  and  Galatians,  and 
other  portions  of  holy  Scripture,  memoriter.  His  works 
are :  1.  I  'lew  of  Man's  Estate  (1574,8vo)  : — 2.  Godly  A  d- 
vice  touching  Marriage  (1580,  8vo) : — 3.  Treatise  for 
such  as  are  troubled  in  Mind  or  afflicted  in  Body : — 4. 
godly  Exhortation  to  bear  patiently  all  Afflictions  for  the 
Gospel: — 5.  Conference  between  a  learned  Chi-istiun  and 
an  afflicted  Conscience.     (E,  de  P.) 

Kinkaid,  Samuel  Porterfield,  a  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  May  24,  1827,  in  Donegal,  Butler 
County,  Pa. ;  was  educated  at  Washington  College,  Pa., 
where  he  graduated  with  honor  in  1857 ;  studied  theol- 
ogy at  the  ^\'estern  Theological  Seminary,  Alleghany, 
Pa.;  was  licensed  in  the  spring  of  1859,  and  during  his 
senior  year  at  the  seminary  preached  at  Academia  and 
Kockland,  Pa.  There  his  labors  were  so  abundantly  suc- 
cessful that  immediately  upon  his  graduation  he  -was  or- 
dained and  installed  over  the  united  churches  of  Acade- 
mia, Rockland,  and  Richland.  In  addition  to  his  pasto- 
ral duties,  he  taught  the  academy  at  Freedom,  Venango 
County,  Pa.  He  died  jNIarch  24,  1866.  Kinkaid  was 
marked  for  his  great  earnestness  and  diligence,  as  well 
as  for  his  ardent  piety  and  ability  to  present  truth  with 
directness  and  searching  power. — ^^'ilson,  Presb.  Hist, 
A  Imanac,  1867. 

Kinkead,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  St.  Louis  Count}',  Mo.,  July  G,  1807,  licensed  to  preach 
in  1833,  and  ordained  in  1840.  llis  ministerial  life  was 
passed  entirely  in  St,  Francois  and  Washington  counties, 
JIo.  During  the  civil  war  he  took  every  opportunity  to 
favor  the  Union  cause,  and  thus  became  obnoxious  to 
the  rebels,  by  whom  he  was  taken  from  his  bed  and  cru- 
elly murdered  on  the  night  of  Sept.  26, 1863.  Destitute 
of  thorough  educational  training,  he  yet  excelled  in 
quickness  of  perception,  power  of  reasoning,  and  good 
judgment.  Not  sectarian  in  views  of  doctrine  and 
Church  government,  he  was  always  tenaciously  firm  in 
the  support  of  truth,  and  watchful  against  sophistry. — 
Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1865.     (H.  C.  W.) 

Kinnersley,  Ebexezer,  a  Baptist  minister,  and  an 
eminent  scientist,  was  born  in  Gloucester,  England,  in 
1711.  In  1714  he  was  brought  to  America.  His  early 
life  was  spent  in  Lower  Dublin,  near  Philadelphia,  where 
he  pursued  his  studies  under  the  supervision  of  his  fa- 
ther. He  was  ordained  for  the  ministry  in  1743.  In 
1746  his  attention  was  directed  to  scientific  pursuits  and 
discoveries.  Afterwards  he  became  associated  with  Dr. 
Franklin  in  some  of  his  most  splendid  discoveries,  and 
delivered  scientific  lectures  in  Philade'phia,  New  York, 
Boston,  and  Newport.  In  1753  he  was  chosen  chief 
master  of  the  English  school  in  connection  with  the 
academy  at  Philadelphia,  and  in  1755  was  imanimously 
elected  professor  of  the  English  language  and  of  oratory 
in  the  college.  Succossfid  in  this  department,  he  was 
honored,  in  1757,  by  the  trustees  with  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts,  and  in  1768  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  which  was  then  com- 
posed of  the  most  learned  and  scientific  men  in  the  city. 
In  1772  he  resigned  the  professorship,  and  visited  the 
island  of  Barbadoes  on  account  of  his  failing  health. 
He  afterwards  returned  to  America,  and  died  July  4, 
1778.  IMr.  Kinnersley  was  of  dignified  personal  appear- 
ance, and  cnTinent  as  a  teacher  of  iniblic  speaking.  He 
acquired  his  chief  renown  not  in  the  ministry,  but  in  his 
scientific  pursuits  and  experiments. — See  Sprague,  A  n- 
nals  A  mer.  Pulj'it,  vi,  45.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kiunim.     See  Lice;  Taljiud. 

Kinsman.  Of  the  four  Hebrew  words  thus  trans- 
lated in  the  A.  V.,  three,  TX"^  (Numb,  xxvii,  11 ;  "  kins- 
woman," Lev.  xviii,  12, 13 ;  elsewhere  "  kin,"  etc. ;  and  so 
mXT^,  ''kinswomen,"  Lev.  xviii,  17),  J."112  (literally  ac- 
quaintance, Ruth  ii,  1),  and  anp  (Psa.  xxxviii,  12  [  11] ; 
Job  xix,  14,  A.V. "  kinsfolk,"  literally  near,  as  often),  indi- 
cate simple  relationship.    The  remaining  one,  PXh,  along 


KINSMAN 


103 


KIPPAH 


with  that,  implies  certain  obligations  arising  out  of  that 
relationship.  The  term  bxj,  goW,  is  derived  bj-^  the 
lexicographers  from  the  verb  bX5,  to  redeem.  That  the 
two  are  closely  connected  is  certain,  but  whether  the 
meaning  of  the  verb  is  derived  from  that  of  the  noun, 
or  the  converse,  may  be  made  matter  of  question.  The 
comparison  of  the  cognate  dialects  leads  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  primary  idea  lying  at  the  basis  of  both  is 
that  of  coming  to  the  help  or  rescue  of  one,  hence  giving 
protection,  reckoning,  avenging.  In  this  case  the  ?XJ  of 
the  O.  T.  would,  in  fundamental  concept,  answer  pretty 
nearly  to  the  irapaKXijToq  or  paraclete  of  the  N.  T.  The 
goi'l  among  the  Hebrews  was  the  nearest  male  blood 
relation  alive.  To  him,  as  such,  three  rights  specially 
belonged,  and  on  him  corresponding  duties  devolved  to- 
wards his  next  of  kin.     See  Kindked. 

1.  When  an  Israelite  through  poverty  sold  his  inher- 
itance and  was  unable  to  redeem  it,  it  devolved  upon  one 
of  his  kin  to  purchase  it  (Lev.  xxv,  25-28 ;  Ruth  iii ;  iv). 
So  also,  when  an  Israelite  had  through  proverty  sold 
himself  into  slavery,  it  devolved  upon  the  next  of  kin, 
as  his  goel,  to  ransom  him  in  the  jubilee  year  (Lev. 
xxv,  47  sq.).  See  Jubilek,  Yeau  of.  In  allusion  to 
this,  God  is  frequently  represented  as  the  goel  of  his 
people,  both  as  he  redeems  them  from  temporal  bondage 
(Exod.  vi,  6;  Isa.  xliii,  1 ;  xlviii,  20;  Jer.  1, 34,  etc.)  and 
from  the  bondage  of  sin  and  evil  (Isa.  xli,  14;  xliv,  G,  22 ; 
xlix,  7;  Psa.  ciii,4;  Job  xix,  25,  etc.).  In  some  of  these 
passages  there  is  an  obvious  Jlessianic  reference,  to 
which  the  fact  that  our  redemption  from  sin  has  been 
effected  by  one  who  has  become  near  of  kin  to  us  by  as- 
suming our  nature  gives  special  force  (comp.Heb.  ii,  14). 
See  Redeemer. 

2.  When  an  Israelite  who  had  wronged  any  one  sought 
to  make  restitution,  but  found  that  the  party  he  had 
wronged  was  dead  without  leaving  a  son,  it  fell  to  the 
next  of  kin  of  the  injured  partj',  as  his  goel,  to  represent 
him  and  receive  the  reparation  (Numb,  v,  G  sq.).  The 
law  provided  that  in  case  of  his  having  no  one  suffi- 
ciently near  of  kin  to  act  for  him  in  this  way,  the  prop- 
erty restored  should  go  to  the  priest,  as  representing  Je- 
hovah, the  King  of  Israel — a  provision  which  the  Jews 
say  indicates  that  the  law  has  reference  to  strangers,  as 
"  no  Israelite  could  be  without  a  redeemer,  for  if  any  one 
of  his  tribe  was  left  he  would  be  his  heir"  (Maimon.  in 
Babcc  Kama,  ix,  11).     See  Goel. 

3.  The  most  striking  office  of  the  goel  was  that  of 
acting  as  the  avenger  of  blood  in  case  of  the  murder  of 
his  next  of  kin;  hence  the  phrase  Q'nfj  bxj,  the  blood- 
avenger.  In  the  heart  of  man  there  seems  to  be  a  deep- 
rooted  feeling  that  where  human  life  has  been  destroyed 
by  violence  the  offence  can  be  expiated  only  by  the  life 
of  the  murderer;  hence,  in  all  nations  where  the  rights 
of  individuals  are  not  administered  by  a  general  execu- 
tive acting  under  the  guidance  of  law,  the  rule  obtains 
that  where  murder  has  been  committed  the  right  and 
duty  of  retaliation  devolves  on  the  kindred  of  the  mur- 
dered person.  Among  the  Shemitic  tribes  this  took  the 
form  of  a  personal  obligation  resting  on  the  nearest  of 
kin  —  a  custom  which  still  prevails  among  the  Arabs 
(Niebuhr, /^ps.  d\Arahie,c\\.l).  This  deep-rooted  feel- 
ing and  established  usage  the  Mosaic  legislation  sought 
to  place  under  such  regulations  as  would  tend  to  prevent 
the  excesses  and  disorders  to  which  personal  retaliation 
is  apt  to  lead,  without  attempting  to  i)reclude  the  indul- 
gence of  it.  (Mohammed  also  sought  to  bring  the  prac- 
tice under  restraint  without  forbidding  it  [see  Koran, 
ii,  173-5  ;  xvii,  33J.)  Certain  cities  of  refuge  were  pro- 
vided, to  which  the  manslayer  might  endeavor  to  escape. 
If  the  goel  overtook  him  before  he  reached  any  of  these 
cities,  he  might  put  him  to  death ;  but  if  the  fugitive 
succeeded  in  gaining  the  asylum,  he  was  safe  until  at 
least  an  investigation  had  been  instituted  as  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  murder.  If  on  inquiry  it  was  found 
that  the  party  had  been  guilty  of  deUberate  murder,  tlie 
law  delivered  him  up  to  the  goel,  to  be  put  to  death  by 


him  in  anj'  way  he  pleased ;  but  if  the  murder  was  acci- 
dental, the  manslayer  was  entitled  to  the  protection  of 
the  asylum  he  had  reached.  See  City  of  Refuge.  He 
■was  safe,  however,  only  within  its  precincts,  for  if  the 
goel  found  him  beyond  these  he  was  at  liberty  to  kill 
him.  Among  some  of  the  Oriental  nations  the  right  of 
blood-revenge  might  be  satisfied  by  the  payment  of  a 
sum  of  money,  but  this  practice,  which  obviously  gave 
to  the  rich  an  undue  advantage  over  the  poor  in  matters 
of  this  sort,  the  law  of  Moses  absolutely  prohibits  (Numb. 
xxxv,  31).     See  Blood-revenge. 

From  the  narrative  in  Ruth  iii  and  iv  it  has  been  con- 
cluded that  among  the  duties  of  the  goel  was  that  of 
marrj'ing  the  wiilow  of  a  deceased  kinsman,  so  as  to 
raise  up  seed  to  the  deceased,  thus  identifying  the  office 
of  the  goel  with  that  of  the  levir,  as  provided  fur  in  Deut. 
XXV,  5-10.  See  Marriage.  But  the  levirate  law  ex- 
pressly limits  the  obligation  to  a  brother,  and,  according 
to  the  Jewish  commentators,  to  a  full  brother  b}^  the  fa- 
ther's side  (Maimonides,  quoted  by  Otho,  Lex.  Rahhin. 
p.  372),  and  in  this  relation  neither  Boaz  nor  the  other 
kinsman  stood  to  Elimelech  or  his  sons.  It  is  further 
evident  that  tlie  question  was  one  of  right  rather  than 
one  of  duty,  and  that  the  kinsman  who  waived  his  right 
incurred  no  disgrace  therebj-,  such  as  one  who  declined 
to  fulfil  the  levirate  law  incurred.  The  nearest  kinsman 
had  the  right  to  redeem  the  land,  and  the  redemption 
of  the  land  probably  involved  the  marrying  of  the  widov.' 
of  the  deceased  owner,  according  to  usage  and  custom ; 
but  the  law  did  not  enjoin  this,  nor  did  the  goel  who 
declined  to  avail  himself  of  his  right  come  under  any 
penalty  or  ban.  The  case  of  the  goel  and  that  of  the 
levir  would  thus  be  the  converse  of  each  other:  the 
goel  had  a  right  to  purchase  the  land,  but  in  so  doing 
came  under  an  obligation  from  custom  to  marry  the 
widow  of  the  deceased  owner;  the  levir  was  bound  to 
marry  the  widow  of  his  deceased  brother,  Avhich  in- 
volved, as  a  matter  of  course,  the  redemption  of  his 
property  if  he  had  sold  it  (see  Selden,  De  Success,  in 
ban.  defunct,  c.  15;  Benary,  JJe  Hebrceonim  Leviraiu,  p. 
19  sq. ;  Bertheau,  Exeget.  Ildb.  sum  A.  T.  pt.  vi,  p.  249; 
Michaelis,  On  the  Laws  of  Moses,  ii,  129  sq.). — Kitto,  s.  v. 
See  Levirate  Law. 

Kipling,  TiiOJiAS,  an  English  divine,  born  in  York- 
shire about  the  middle  of  the  18tli  century,  was  educa- 
ted at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  graduated 
as  B.A.  in  17G8,  and  became  D.D.  in  1784.  His  first 
prominent  position  was  that  of  deputy  regius  professor 
of  divinity  under  bishop  Watson,  and  later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  deanery  of  Peterborough.  In  1792  Kip- 
ling preached  the  Boyle  Lectures,  which  were  not  pub- 
lished. In  1793  he  brought  out  at  the  university  press 
a  very  handsome  edition  of  the  famous  "  Codex  Bezte" 
of  the  N.  T.,  with  fac-simile  types  {Codex  Bezce,  Quad- 
ratis  Uteris,  Grceco-Latinis,  2  vols,  folio),  which  was  im- 
mediately assailed  with  a  vindence  amounting  to  per- 
sonal hostility  by  tlie  party  which  had  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  once  notorious  Frend,  who  was  banished 
the  university  for  Unitarianism,  and  in  whose  case  Kip- 
ling had  come  forward  as  promoter,  or  public  prosecutor. 
Dr.  Edwards,  the  leader  of  the  party,  charged  him  with 
ignorance  and  want  of  fidelity.  But,  tliough  his  prole- 
gomena do  not  manifest  much  accurate  scholarship,  and 
he  commits  the  serious  error  of  printing  the  corrections 
instead  of  the  original  reading  of  the  text,  which  he  rel- 
egated to  the  notes  at  the  end,  Tregelles  (^Introd.  to  Text. 
Crit.  of  N.  Test.)  allows  that  he  '"appears  to  have  used 
scrupulous  exactitude  in  performing  his  task  efficiently 
according  to  the  plan  -which  he  had  proposed  to  him- 
self." Kipling  also  published  The  A  rticles  of  the  Church 
of  England  proved  not  to  be  Calvinistical  (1802,  8vo), 
written  in  answer  to  Overton's  True  Churchman  ascer- 
tained. He  dicil  in  1822.  See  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bib.  Lit. 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,\oL  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxvii,  7GG. 

Kippah.     See  Palji. 


KIPPIS 


104 


kirch:meier 


Kippis,  Andrew,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.A.S.,  an  eminent 
EnsliJ^h  Unitarian  divine,  was  born  at  Nottingham  in 
1725.  He  studied  nnder  Dr.  Doddridj^e  at  Northamp- 
ton, and  in  174(3  became  minister  of  a  congregation 
at  Boston,  Lincohishire.  In  1750  he  removed  to  Dor- 
king, and  in  1753  became  the  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
congregation  of  Unitarian  tendency  at  Prince's  Street, 
Westminster,  witli  which  society  he  continued  connect- 
ed till  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1795.  The  duties 
arising  out  of  this  connection,  however,  did  not  preclude 
Dr.  Kippis  from  seeking  other  means  of  pul)lic  useful- 
ness. In  17G3  he  became  a  tutor  in  an  academy  for  the 
education  of  dissenting  ministers  in  London,  on  a  plan 
similar  to  that  on  which  the  academy  at  Northampton 
had  been  conducted.  He  was  also  one  of  the  principal 
contributors  to  the  Monthly  Revieiv  and  the  Genikman's 
Mof/dziiie  at  a  time  when  these  ^vere  considered  the 
leaciing  periodicals  of  England.  There  are  several  pam- 
phlets of  his  on  the  claims  of  the  dissenters,  and  on  other 
topics  of  temporary  interest;  but  the  work  with  which 
his  name  is  most  honorably  connected  is  the  republica- 
tion of  tVieBioffrap/iia  Britamnca,^\^^t\\  a  large  addition 
of  new  lives,  and  a  more  extended  account  of  many  per- 
sons whose  lives  are  in  the  former  edition  of  that  work. 
The  design  was  too  vast  to  be  accomplished  by  any  one 
person,  however  well  assisted.  Five  large  folio  volumes 
were  printed  of  the  work  (1778),  and  yet  it  had  proceed- 
ed no  further  than  to  the  name  of  Fastolf.  Part  of  a 
sixth  volume,  it  is  understood,  was  printed,  but  it  has 
not  been  given  to  the  world.  Many  of  the  new  lives 
were  written  by  Dr.  Kippis  himself,  and  particularly  that 
of  captain  Cook,  which  was  printed  in  a  separate  form 
also.  Dr.  Kippis's  was  a  literary  life  of  great  industry. 
He  was  the  editor  of  the  collected  edition  of  the  works 
of  Dr.  Nathaniel  Lardner  (q.  v.),  with  a  life  of  that  emi- 
nent theological  scholar.  He  published  also  the  ethical 
and  thetilogical  lectures  of  his  tutor,  Dr.  Doddridge,  with 
a  large  collection  of  references  to  authors  on  the  various 
topics  to  which  they  relate.  His  other  works  of  inter- 
est are.  Sermon  on  Luke  ii,  25  (Lond.  1780,  8vo)  : — Sei- 
mon  on  Psalm  ctIvv,  15  (London,  1788,  8vo)  : — .1  Vindi- 
cation oj'  Protestant  Dissenting  Ministers  (1773).  See 
Kees,  Funeral  Serm. ;  Gent.  Maf/.  vols.  Ixv,  Ixvi,  Ixxiv ; 
Darling,  Encyclopedia  Biblior/.  s.  v.;  English  Cyclopcedia, 
s.  V. 

Kippod.     See  Bitterx, 

Kippoz.     See  Owl. 

Kir  (Ileb.  id.,  "i"^]?,  a  icall  or  fortress,  as  often ;  Sept. 
always  as  an  appellative,  rtixoQ,  ttuXiq,  /3Jvpor,  etc., 
but  v.  r.  Xappc'iv,  Kvpjji'i),  etc.),  a  people  and  country 
subject  to  the  AssvTian  empire,  mentioned  in  connection 
with  IClam  (Isa.  xxii,  G),  to  which  the  conquered  Da- 
mascenes were  transplanted  (2  Kings  xvi,  9 ;  ^Vmos  i,  5), 
and  whence  the  Araraajans  in  the  east  of  Syria  at  some 
time  or  other  migrated  (Amos  ix,  7).  This  is  supposed 
by  major  Renncl  to  be  the  same  country  which  still 
Ijears  the  name  of  A'(?/-distan  or  A'oonlistan  {Geoyr.  of 
Jferodot.  p.  391).  There  are,  however,  objections  to  this 
view  ^vhich  do  not  apply  so  strongl}'  to  the  notion  of 
KoscnmiiUer  and  others,  that  it  was  a  tract  on  the  river 
(_'//riis  (Pliny,  Ilist.  Xat.  vi,  10  ;  Ptolemy,  v,  12)  (Kf()oc 
and  Kvppor,  in  Zend  Koro),  which  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  runs 
into  the  latter  after  being  joined  by  the  Araxes  (Biisch- 
ing,  Mar/az.  x,  420;  compare  ^lichaelis,  Spicil.  ii,  121; 
SujipL  2191 ;  Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  1210) ;  still  called 
Ktir  (Bonomi,  Xireveh,  p.  47,  71).  ^/'j/j-jistan.  or  Grusia 
((irusiana),  commonly  called  (Jeorgia,  seems  also  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  this  river  Kiir,  which  flows 
through  it.  Others  compare  Curena  or  Curna  of  Ptol- 
emy (Koi'pijra  or  KoTprn,  vi,  2,  10,  Chald.  '^3-"!p),  a 
city  in  the  south  of  !Media,  on  th»  river  ]Mardug  (Bochart, 
Phahfj,  iv,  32) ;  Yitringa  the  city  Carine,  also  in  ISIedia 
{Kapivt),  Ptolemy,  vi,  2,  15),  now  called  Kerend  (Bitter, 
ErdL  ix,  391).  Some  region  in  Media  is  perhaps  most 
si^^able  from  the  fact  that  iVrmenia,  whose  northern 


l)oundarics  are  washed  by  the  river  Cjtus,  was  probably 
nut  a  ])art  of  Assyria  at  the  time  referred  to  (see  Kno- 
bd,  Projihet.  ii,  108),  Kcil  {Comment,  on  Kings,  ad  loci 
thinks  the  Medes  must  be  meant,  erroneously  imagining 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Kir  are  spoken  of  in  Isaiah  as 
good  bowmen.  The  Sept.  (Vat.  JIS.  at  2  Kings),  the 
Vulg.,  and  Chald.  (at  2  Kings  and  Amos),  and  Symma- 
chus  (at  Amos  ix),  render  Cyrene! 

For  Kir  ofMoab  (Isa.  xv,  1),  see  Kiii-^Mo.vn. 

Kiratarjuniya,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  poems 
of  Sanscrit  literature,  the  production  of  Bharavi,  depicts 
the  contlict  of  Arjuna  with  the  god  Siva  in  his  disguise 
of  a  kirata,  or  momitaineer. 

Kirchentag.     See  Church  Diet. 

Kircher,  Athanasius,  an  eminent  German  Jes- 
uit, and  quite  prominent  as  a  phiIoso])her,  was  born  near 
Fidda,  Germany,  in  1001.  He  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1018,  and  taught  mathematics  and  metaphys- 
ics in  the  college  at  Wurzbiirg.  During  the  inroads  of 
the  Swedes  he  fled  before  the  Protestant  powers,  and, 
after  a  short  stay  in  France,  went  to  Pome,  and  became 
a  professor  at  the  Propaganda.  He  died  in  1(380.  His 
writings,  which  extend  over  the  different  departments 
of  the  natural  sciences,  philosophy,  philology,  history, 
and  archteolog\',  evince  great  talent,  but  are  often  fan- 
ciful in  their  theories.  His  principal  works  of  interest 
to  us  are,  Qildipiis  yEgyptiacus,  etc.  (Roma?,  1G52,  etc.,  4 
vols,  fol.) : — Mundus  snhterranens,  in  xii  libros  digestiis, 
etc.  (Amsterdam,  1G65,  fol.)  : — Ai-ca  No'e,  in  tres  libros 
digesta,  etc.  (Amst.  1G75) : — Liber  pihilologicus  de  sono 
artificioso,  sive  vmsica,  etc.  (in  Ugolino's  Thesaurus, 
xxxii,  353) : — Liber  diacriticus  de  Musnrgia,  aniiquo- 
moderna  (Ugolino,  xxxii,  417):  —  China,  monumentis, 
qua  sacris,  qua  p)rofanis,  illustrata  (Amst.  1667,  fol.) : — 
Turris  Babel,  sive  Ai-chontologia,  etc.  (Amst.  1679, fol.): 
etc.  See  his  Autobiography  and  Letters  (Augsb.  1684) ; 
"Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Darling, 
Encyclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kircher,  Konrad,  a  learned  German  philologian 
of  Augsburg,  of  the  IGth  century,  was  a  Lutheran  pastor 
first  at  Donauwerth  and  later  at  Jaxtdorf,  and  died  about 
1622.  He  wrote  Concoi-dia;  veteris  Testamenti  GraccB 
Ebrceis  vocibus  i-espondentes  (Francf.  1607,  2  vols.  4to; 
greatly  enlarged  by  Abrah.  Trommius,  Amst.  1718) : — 
De  ttsu  concoi-dantiontm  Grcecorum  in  Theologia.  See 
Simon,  Hist.  Crit.  dii  Vieux  Testament,  i,  3,  ch.  ii ;  -1  llgem. 
Hist.  Lexikon,  iii,  33. 

Kirchhofer,  Melciiior,  a  celebrated  Svriss  eccle- 
siastical writer,  was  born  Jan.  3,  1775,  at  SchaflFhausen, 
and  was  educated  at  Slarburg.  In  1797  he  returned  to 
Switzerland,  and  was  ordained  for  the  holy  ministn.-. 
His  first  important  position  he  secured  in  1808  at  Stein, 
and  this  he  tilled  up  to  his  death,  Feb.  13,  1853.  He  is 
quite  celebrated  for  his  able  efforts  in  the  department 
of  Church  History,  which  procured  for  him  in  1840  the 
doctorate  of  theology  from  the  University  of  Marburg. 
Among  the  especially  valuable  writings  of  Kirchhofer 
are  his  monographs  on  Hofmeister  (1810),  Oswald  ^ly- 
conius  (1813),  Werner  Stciner  (1818),  Bcrthold  Haller 
(1828),  Wilhelm  Farel  (1831),  and  his  continuation  of 
Hottingers'  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Sicitzerlaml. — Her- 
zog,  Tie(d-Encykloj-iadie,  vii.  708. 

Kirchmayr,  Thomas,  a  German  theologian,  was 
bom  at  Straubingen,  Bavaria,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
16th  century;  became  pastor  first  at  Stadtsulza,  in  Thu- 
ringia,  and  later  (in  1541)  at  Kahla.  He  died  at  Wics- 
bach  in  1563.  Kirchmayr  is  noted  as  the  author  of  a 
commentary  on  1  John,  in  which  he  advocates  the  pre- 
destination theory  in  a  somewhat  peculiar  manner.  He 
teaches  that  the  chosen  ones  never  lose  the  influence  of 
the  holy  Spirit,  however  great  their  transgression.  He 
was  criticised  and  obliged  to  quit  the  pidpit. — Pierer, 
Unirersal  Li.rikon,  ix,  534. 

Kirchmeier,  Johann  Christoph,  a  noted  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Orphcrode,  Hesse,  Sept.  4, 


KIRCHMEIER 


105 


KIKJATH-ARBA 


1674,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  ^Marburg. 
He  became  in  1700  professor  of  philosophy  at  Herborn, 
in  tlie  year  following  regular  professor  of  theology  at 
the  same  high-school,  and  in  1702  removed  in  this  ca- 
pacity to  Heidelberg.  In  1723  he  returned  to  Marburg, 
and  was  promoted  to  the  highest  honors  that  his  almn 
mater  coukl  bestow.  He  died  iMarch  15, 1743.  Kirch- 
meior  was  the  honor  and  pride  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church  in  Marburg,  and  his  memory  is  revered  to  this 
day.  A  list  of  his  writings,  which  are  mostly  of  a  con- 
troversial nature  and  in  pamphlet  form,  is  given  by  Do- 
ring,  Gdehrte  Theologai  Dtutschlands  d.  18'"'  und  19'"' 
Jahrh.  ii,  94  sq. 

Kirchmeier,  Johann  Siegmund,  a  German 
theologian  of  note,  was  born  at  AUendorf  Jan.  4,  1074, 
and  was  educated  at  Marburg  and  Ley  den.  In  1703  he 
became  pastor  at  Schwebda.  In  1704  he  accepted  the 
jirofessorship  of  logic  and  metaphysics  at  IMarburg  Uni- 
versity, and  at  the  same  time  became  pastor  of  a  Ke- 
formcd  church  at  jNIarbiu-g.  He  died  April  23,  1749. 
His  writings,  mainly  dissertations,  are  enumerated  by 
Diiring,  Gdihrte  Theolorjen  Deutschlands  d.  18™  u.  19'"' 
Jahrh.  ii,  99  sq. 

Kirghis,  or  Kincms-KAiSAKi  {Cossacks  of  the 
Steppi:.i),  is  the  name  of  a  people  spread  over  the  im- 
mense territory  bounded  by  the  Volga,  desert  of  Obsh- 
tchci  (iu  55^  N.  lat.),  the  Irtish,  Chinese  Turkestan,  Ala- 
Tau  Mountains,  the  Sir-Daria,  and  Aral,  and  Caspian 
Seas — a  vast  tract  of  land,  not  unfrequently  designated 
as  the  "Eastern  Steppe,"  and  containing  850.000  Eng- 
lish square  miles ;  sterile,  stony,  and  streamless,  and  cov- 
ered with  rank  herbage  live  feet  high.  The  Kirghis  are 
of  Turkish  origin,  and  speak  the  Uzbek  idiom  of  their 
race.  They  have  from  time  immemorial  been  divided 
into  three  branches,  called  the  Great,  Middle,  and  Little 
Hordes.  The  first  of  these  wanders  in  the  south-west 
portion  of  the  Eastern  Steppe ;  the  Middle  Horde  roams 
over  the  territory  between  the  Ishim,  Irtish,  Lake  Balk- 
hash, and  the  territory  of  the  Little  Horde.  The  Little 
Horde  (now  more  numerous  than  the  other  two  togeth- 
er) ranges  over  the  country  bounded  by  the  Ural,  Tobol, 
Siberian  Kirghis,  and  Tiu-kestan.  (A  small  oftshoot  of 
them  has,  since  1801,  wandered  between  the  Volga  and 
the  Ural  river,  and  is  under  rule  of  the  governor  of  As- 
trachan.)  South  of  Lake  Issikul  is  a  ^^■ild  mountain 
tribe  called  the  THko-Kamennaja,  the  only  tribe  which 
calls  itself  Kirghis.  They  are  called  by  their  neighbors 
Kara  or  Plack  Kirghis,  and  are  of  Jlandshiir  stock. 
Their  collective  numbers  are  estimated  at  upwards  of 
IJ  millions  of  soids,  more  than  half  of  whom  belong  to 
the  Little  Horde,  This  people  is,  with  the  exception 
above  mentioned,  nomadic,  and  is  ruled  by  sultans  or 
khans.  They  are  restless  and  predatory,  and  have  well 
earned  for  themselves  the  title  of  the  "  Slave-hunters  of 
the  Stejipes,"  by  seizing  upon  caravans,  appropriating 
the  goods,  and  selling  their  captives  at  the  great  slave- 
markets  of  Khiva,  Bokhara,  etc.  Their  wealth  consists 
of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  camels.  They  are  of  the 
Moslem  faith,  iu  a  somewhat  corrupt  form,  and,  like  the 
followers  of  jMohammed,  are  the  sworn  enemies  of  the 
IMongols.  '•  Fired  by  hereditary  hate,"  says  Dixon  {Rus- 
sia, p.  339  sq.),  "these  Kirghis  bandits  look  upon  every 
man  of  Mongolian  birth  and  Buddhistic  faith  as  lawful 
spoil.  They  follow  him  to  his  pastures,  plunder  his  tent, 
drive  off  his  herds,  and  sell  him  as  a  slave.  But  when 
this  lawful  prey  escapes  their  hands  they  raid  and  rob 
on  more  friendly  soil,  and  many  of  the  captives  whom 
they  carry  to  Khiva  and  Bokhara  come  from  the  Per- 
sian valleys  of  Atrek  and  Meshid.  (Jirls  from  these  val- 
leys fetch  a  higher  price,  and  Persia  has  not  strength 
enough  to  protect  her  children  from  their  raids."  Not- 
withstanding the  strenuous  efforts  of  Kussia  to  educate 
the  Kirghis,  there  are  among  them  at  the  present  time 
only  twelve  schools,  attended  by  about  370  children. 
See  Chambers,  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  v,  s.  v. ;  Brockhaus,  Real- 
Encyklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.  Kirgesen. 


Kir-har'aseth  (2  Kings  iii,  25),  Kir-har'eseth 
(Isa.  xvi,  7),  Kir-ha'resh  (Isa.  xvi,  ll),Kir-lie'ies 
(Jer.  xlviii,  31,  30).     See  Kik-Moab. 

Kiriatha'im  (Jer.  xlviii,  1 ,  23 ;  Ezek,  xxv,  9).  See 
Kiujatiiaim. 

Kiriathia'rius  (KtpiaSiapioc  v.  r.  KopiaSioi,  Vidr;. 
Creurputros),  a  corrupt  form  (1  Esdr.  v,  19)  for  Kirjalh- 
arini  (Ezra  ii,  25),  or  Kihjath-jeariji  (Neh.  vii,  29). 

Kir'ioth  (Amosii,  2).     See  Keriotii. 

Kir' jath  (Josh,  xviii,  28).  See  KiEjAxn-jEARni ; 
also  the  following  names,  of  which  this  is  the  first  part. 

Kirjatha'im  (Hcb.  Kiryallm'yim,  n^T^^'^\^,  two  cit- 
ies, i.  e.  double-town;  Sept.  KapiaSraifi,  but  K«pio3f(/t 
in  Numb.;  >/  ttoXjc  in  Gen.;  v.  r.  Kopinjf/t  or  Kapta- 
^Ev  in  Jer.  and  Ezek.;  ttoAic  Trapa^aWaaaia  [appar- 
ently mistaking  the  directive  termination  iTC^~  for  D"'"] 
in  Ezek. ;  Auth.  Vers.  "  Kiriathaim"  in  Jer.  and  Ezek.), 
the  name  of  two  places. 

1.  (3nc  of  the  most  ancient  towns  in  the  country  east 
of  the  Jordan  (see  Ewald,  Gesch.  Isr.  i,  308),  as  it  was 
possessed  by  the  gigantic  Emim  (Gen.  xiv,  5),  who  were 
expelled  by  the  Moabites  (compare  Deut.  ii,  9, 10),  and 
these,  in  their  turn,  were  dispossessed  by  the  Amorites, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Israelites.  Kirjathaim 
was  then  assigned  to  Reuben  (Numl).  xxxii,  37 ;  Josh, 
xiii,  19) ;  but  during  the  Assyrian  exde  the  Moabites 
again  took  possession  of  this  and  other  towns  (Jer.  xlviii, 
1,23;  Ezek.  xxv,  9).  Burckhardt  (riY/rf/^,  p.3(J7)found 
ruins,  called  Kl-Teim,  which  he  conjectures  to  have  been 
Kiria?/«n"w,  the  last  syllable  of  the  name  being  retained. 
This  is  somewhat  doubtful,  as  the  Christian  village  Ka- 
riatha  or  Koreiaiha  (JLapiucu,  KapirtSa)  of  Eusebius 
and  Jerome  (Onomasf.  s.  v.)  is  jilaced  ten  miles  west  of 
Mcdeba,  whereas  El-Tcim  is  lint  two  miles  (Seetzeii 
places  it  at  half  an  hour,  Reise,  i,  408).  IMichaelis  (Ori- 
ent, u.  exer/.  Bill,  iii,  120 ;  Siipjil.  2203  sq.)  compares  the 
modem  city  Kirjathctim,  one  day's  journey  from  Pal- 
myra (Wood,  ^?/i«s  of  Palmyra,  p.  34);  and  BUsching 
(Erdb.  xi,  6G8)  adduces  Kariuthaim  (in  Pliny,  vi,  32, 
Carriata),  a  place  in  the  desert  of  Arabia;  but  both 
these  identifications  are  madmissible  (Hamesveld,  iii, 
1G9).  Ritter  {Erdkundc,  xv,  1185,1186)  supposes  that 
the  Onomasticon  confounds  two  places  of  the  same  name, 
one  being  the  ancient  city  corresponding  to  El-Teim, 
north  of  the  wady  Zurka,  and  the  other  the  Christian 
town,  represented  by  the  modem  Kureyat,  south  of  the 
same  wady ;  but  we  see  no  occasion  for  this,  as  the  lat- 
ter place,  the  name  of  which  fully  agrees,  lies  at  the  re- 
quired distance  (eleven  miles,  Seetzen,  Reise,  ii,  342) 
scwth-west  of  INIedeba  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  300),  upon 
the  southem  slope  of  Jebel  Attarus  (perhaps  referred  to 
by  Eusebius  in  the  expression  annexed  to  his  descrip- 
tion, iTTi  Tvv  Bap IV,  on  the  Baris,  using  the  term  in  the 
sense  of  a  fortress  on  a  kill-top  rather  than  alluding  to 
a  position  beyond  the  valley  Zurka-]\Iain,  which  Ritter, 
p.  578,  fancifully  conceives  to  be  thus  indicated  from  the 
abundance  of  mandrakes,  fiaapac).     See  Kerioth,  2. 

2.  A  city  of  refuge  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (1  Chron. 
vi,  76) ;  elsewhere  (Josh,  xxi,  32)  called  Kaktan  (q.  v.). 

Kirjatli-ar'ba  (Hebrew  Kiryath'-Arba',  T^'^p. 
"3"!  Si,  city  of  A  i-ba  ;  Sept.  TruXig  'ApjSbK,  Gen.  xxiii,  2 ; 
Judg.  xiv,  15;  xv,  13,  54;  xx,  7;  KaptaBaplSoic,  Josh, 
xxi,  11 ;  Judg.  i,  10;  ttuXiq  toii  TTf  ^I'or,  Gen.  xxxv,  27; 
once  with  the  art.  "31X11  P^lp,  Kiryath'-ha-Arha'; 
Septuag.  Kapia^apfio  v.  r.  Kapia^apjStk,  Nch.  xi,  25; 
Auth.  Vers.  "  city  of  Arba,"  in  Gen.  xxxv,  27 ;  Josh,  xv, 
13 ;  xxi,  1 1),  the  original  name  of  Hebron,  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  so  called  from  its  founder,  one  of  the 
Anakim,  and  inhabited  under  the  same  name  after  the 
exile.  Hengstenberg,  however,  thinks  that  Hebron  was 
the  earlier  name,  and  Kirjath-Arba  only  was  imposed  by 
the  Canaanites  {Beitr.  iii,  187).  Sir  John  Mandevillo 
(cir.  1322)  found  it  still  "called  by  the  Saracens  Kari- 
carba,  and  by  the  Jews  Arbothu"  {Early  Travels,  p.  161). 


KIRJATH-JEARIM 


106 


KIRJATH-JEARIM 


It  is  a  Jewisli  gloss  (first  mentioned  by  Jerome)  which 
interprets  tiie  latter  part  of  the  name  ("3'IN;,  arba,  lleb. 
"  four")  as  referring  to  the  four  great  men  buried  there 
(the  saints  Adam,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob ;  so  the 
Talmud,  see  Keil.  ad  loc. ;  or  the  giants  Anak,  Aliiman, 
Sheshai,  and  Tolniai,  according  to  Bochart,  Canan,\,\). 

Kir'jath-a'iini  (Ezra  ii,  25).    See  Kirjatii-Jea- 

RIM. 

Kir'jath-ba'al  (Heb.  Kiri/alh'-Ba'a!,ht^^-r'^^'p^ 
city  of  Baal;  Sept.  Kapui-bjiaaX),  another  name  (Josh. 
XV,  00 ;  xviii,  1-i)   for  Kiujatu-jeariji  (q.  v.).     See 

also  liAALAII. 

Kir'jath-hti'zoth  (Ilcb. Kirtjath'-Chutsoth ', r;:"i ■? 
rijjn,  city  of  streets  ;  Sept.  iriAiiQ  iiravXtiiJv),  a  city 
of  3Ioab  to  -vvhicli  Balak  took  Balaam  on  his  arrival  to 
offer  a  preparatory  sacrifice  (Numb,  xxii,  39).  The 
"S'ulgate  understands  an  extreme  city  of  the  territory  of 
iMoab,  as  that  on  tlie  border  of  Anion,  where  the  king 
met  his  prophetic  guest  (verse  StJ) ;  but  the  two  appear 
to  have  been  different.  Tlie  citj'  in  question  was  prob- 
ably the  capital  of  the  jNIoabitish  king,  usually  called 
KiK-^Io.VB,  and  here  distinguished  from  other  places  of 
a  similar  name  {Kirjath  meaning  simply  "  city")  by  an 
epithet  indicative  of  its  extent;  compare  the  presence 
of  the  court  and  "  high  places  of  Baal,"  as  well  as  the 
conspicuous  situation  of  the  city  (verse  41),  correspond- 
ing to  that  of  Kerak.  Porter,  however  (Murray's  Hand- 
book- for  Pal.  p.  299  sq.),  inclines  to  identify  the  place 
with  the  Keireyat  on  Jebel  Attarus,  and  so  with  Knu- 
ATIIAIM  (q.  v.). 

Kir'jath-je'arim  (Hch.  Kiryath'-Yedrim',  r""lp 
S'l"!""',  city  afforests;  Sept.  Kapim^iapEi/i,  Josh,  xviii, 
14;  Judg.  xviii,  12;  1  Chron.  ii,'  50,  52.  2  Chron.  i,  4; 
Neh.  vii,  29;  Jer.  xxvi,  20;  Kioia^apifi,  1  Sam.  vi,  21; 
vii,  1,2;  V.  r.  1  Chron.  ii,  50,  52 ;  2  Chron.  i,  4 ;  Neh.  vii, 
29  ;  Jer.  xxi,  20 ;.  ttoAic  'la^iiji,  Josh,  xv,  9,  GO ;  1  Chron. 
xiii,  5  [v.  r.  'lapi'/i]  ;  ttoKhq  'lapiiji.  Josh,  ix,  17;  Krt- 
ptci^iatip  v.  r.  TToXic;  'loin,  1  Chron.  ii,  53  ;  KaniaBjia- 
a\,  Josh,  xiii,  15;  omits  in  1  Chron.  xiii,  G  [or,  rather, 
l>araphrases  the  words  "Baalah,  which  is  Kirjath-jea- 
rim,"  by  ttoXiq  Aaiuo] ;  Josephus  »)  raij'  Kapia^iapi- 
^UTMV  TToXic,  Ant.  vi,  2, 1 ;  with  the  art.  Ciir^n  r.;;'"ip, 
Jer.  xxvi,  20),  in  the  contracted  form  KIRJATH-AliDI 
(lieh.  Kiryath'-Arim',  C^^jJ  »^!?"'p!  Ezra  ii,  25;  Sept. 
Kopirt3'tap£i'jit  v.r.  Kapia^iapifi),  and  simply  KIRJATH 
(HQb.Kiryatk',  r'i"ip,  Josh. xviii, 28;  Sept.  TroXiQ'lapi- 
(ifi),  one  of  the  towns  of  the  Gibeonites  (Josh.ix,  17).  It 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. xv,  60;  Judg.  xviii, 
12),  and  lay  on  the  border  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii,  15 ;'  1 
Chron.  ii,  50),  to  which  it  was  finally  assigned  (Josh,  xviii, 
2S).  It  was  to  this  jilace  that  the  ark  was  brought  from 
Beth-shenifsh,  after  it  had  been  removed  from  the  land 
of  the  rinlistincs,  and  where  it  remained  till  removed 
to  Jerusalem  by  David  (1  Sam.  vii;  1  Chron.  xiii). 
This  was  one  of  the  ancient  sites  which  were  again  in- 
habited after  tlie  exile  (Ezra  ii,  25;  Neh.  vii,  29).  It 
was  also  called  Kikjatii-baal  (Josh,  xv,  GO  ;  xviii,  14), 
and  Baalah  (Josh,  xv,  9).  It  appears  to  have  lain  not 
far  from  Beerotli  (Ezra  ii,  25).  "  It  is  included  in  the 
genealogies  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  ii,  50,  52)  as  founded  by 
or  descended  from  Sliobal,  the  son  of  Caleb  beu-llur,  and 
as  having  in  its  turn  sent  out  the  colonies  of  the  Ithrites, 
Fuhites.  Shumathites,  and  JNIishraitcs,  and  those  of  Zo- 
rah  and  Eshtaol.  'Behind  Kirjath-jearim'  the  band  of 
Danites  pitched  their  camp  before  their  expedition  to 
Mount  Ephraim  and  Laish,  leaving  their  name  attached 
to  the  spot  for  long  after  (Judg.  xviii,  12),  See  ]Maiia- 
XEii-DAX.  Hitherto, beyond  the  early  sanctity  implied 
in  its  bearing  the  name  of  Baal,  there  is  nothing  "re- 
markable in  Kirjath-jearim.  It  was  no  doubt  this  rep- 
utation for  sanctity  which  made  the  people  of  Beth-she- 
mcsh  appeal  to  its  inliabitants  to  relieve  them  of  the 
ark  of  Jehovah,  which  was  bringing  such  calamities  on 
their  mitutored  inexperience.     From  their  place  m  the 


valley  they  looked  anxiously  for  some  eminence,  which, 
according  to  the  belief  of  tliose  days,  should  be  the  ap- 
propriate seat  for  so  powerful  a  Deity  [see  Thomson, 
Land  and  Bool;  ii,  539]  (1  Sam.  vi,  20,  21).  In  this 
high  place — '  the  hill'  (n"35ri) — under  the  charge  of 
Eleazar,  son  of  Abinadab,  the  ark  remained  for  twenty 
years  (vii,  22),  during  Avhich  period  the  spot  became  the 
resort  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts,  anxious  to  offer  sacri- 
fices and  perform  vows  to  Jehovah  (Josephus.  A  nt.  vi, 
2, 1).  Sixty-two  years  after  the  close  of  that  time  Kir- 
jath-jearim lost  its  sacred  treasure,  on  its  removal  by 
David  to  the  house  of  Obed-edom  the  Gittite  (1  Chron. 
xiii,  5,  G;  2  Chron.  i,  4;  2  Sam.  vi,  2,  etc.).  It  is  very 
remarkable  and  suggestive  that  in  the  account  of  this 
transaction  the  ancient  and  heathen  name  Baal  is  re- 
tained. In  fact,  in  2  Sam.  vi,  2 — probably  the  original 
statement — the  name  Baale  is  used  without  any  expla- 
nation, and  to  the  exclusion  of  that  of  Kirjath-jearim. 
In  the  allusion  to  this  transaction  in  Psa.  cxxxii,  G,  the 
name  is  obscurely  indicated  as  the  'wood' — yaar,  tho. 
root  of  Kirjath-^V-«/im.  AVe  also  hear  of  a  prtiphct  Uri- 
jah  ben-Shemaiah,  a  native  of  the  place,  who  enforced 
the  warnings  of  Jeremiah,  and  was  cruelly  murdered  by 
Jehoiakim  (Jer.  xxvi,  20,  etc.),  but  of  the  place  we  know 
nothing  beyond  what  has  already  been  said.  A  tradi- 
tion is  mentioned  by  Adrichomius  {Desci:  T.  S.  Dan.  § 
17),  though  without  stating  his  authority,  that  it  was 
the  native  place  of  '  Zechariah,  son  of  Jehoiada,  who 
was  slain  between  the  altar  and  the  Temple' "  (Smith). 
Josephus  says  it  was  near  Beth-shemesh  (^Ant.  vi,  1,  4). 
Eusebius  and  Jerome  {Onomast.  s.  v.  Ba«X,  Baal-cara- 
thiarim')  speak  of  it  as  being  in  their  day  a  village  nine 
or  ten  miles  from  Diospolis  (Lydda),  on  the  road  to  Je- 
rusalem ;  consequentl}' north-west  (Hamesveld,  iii,2G6). 
With  this  description,  and  the  former  of  these  two  dis- 
tances, agrees  Procopius  (see  Keland,  Palast.  p.  503). 
On  account  of  its  presumed  proximity  to  Beth-shemesh, 
Williams  {Holy  City)  endeavors  to  identify  Kirjath-jea- 
rim with  Deir  el-Hoica,  east  of  Ain  Shems.  I5ut  this, 
though  sufficiently  near  the  latter  place,  does  not  an- 
swer to  the  other  condltifjus.  Dr.  Robinson  thinks  it 
possible  that  the  ancient  Kirjath-jearim  may  be  recog- 
nised in  the  present  Kiiryet  el-Enab.  The  first  part  of 
the  name  (Kirjath,  Kuryet,  signifying  city")  is  the  same 
in  both,  and  is  most  probably  ancient,  being  found  in 
Arabic  proper  names  only  in  Syria  and  Palestine,  and 
not  very  frequentlj^  even  there.  Tlie  only  change  has 
been  that  the  ancient  "  city  of  forests"  has,  in  modern 
times,  become  the  "  city  of  grapes."  The  site  is  also 
about  three  hours,  or  nine  Roman  miles  from  Lj'dda,  on 
the  road  to  Jerusalem,  and  not  very  remote  from  Gibeon, 
from  which  Kirjath-jearim  could  not  well  have  been 
distant.  So  close  a  correspondence  of  name  and  position 
seems  to  warrant  the  conclusion  in  favor  of  Kuryet  el- 
Enab  (seeRitter's  Erdkinule,  yixi,  108-110).  This  place  is 
tliat  which  ecclesiastical  tradition  has  identified  with  the 
Anathoth  of  Jeremiah  (i,  1 ;  comp.  Jerome,  ad  loc. ;  also 
Onomasticoii,  s.  v. ;  Josei)hus,  A  nt.  x,  7, 3),  which,  howev- 
er, is  at  Anata.  Kuryet  el-Enab  is  now  a  poor  village, 
its  principal  buildings  being  an  old  convent  of  the  JMin- 
orites  and  a  Latin  church.  The  latter  is  now  deserted, 
and  is  used  for  a  stable,  but  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  lar- 
gest and  most  solidly  constructed  churches  in  Palestine 
(Robinson,  ii,  109, 334-337).  The  village  is  prettily  sit- 
uated in  a  basin,  on  the  north  side  of  a  spur  jutting  out 
from  the  western  hills.  The  only  well-built  houses  are 
those  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  sheiks  Abu-Ghosh, 
who  for  the  last  half  centurj'  have  been  the  terror  of 
travellers,  but  have  lately  been  overtaken  with  punish- 
ment by  the  Turkish  government.  Dr.  Robinson  re- 
marks that  "a  pretty  direct  route  from  Beth-shemesh 
would  pass  up  on  the  cast  of  Yeshua  and  along  wady 
Ghurab;  but  no  such  road  now  exists,  and  probably 
never  did,  judging  from  the  nature  of  the  country.  In 
all  probability,  the  ark  was  brought  up  by  way  of  Saris" 
(Researches,  new  cd.,  iii,  157).  Schwarz,  who  identifies 
Kirjath-jearim  with  the  same  site,  suggests  that  the  hill 


KIRJATH-SANNAH 


107 


KIRKPATRICK 


(which  he  calls  iMount  IVIidan)  south-west  of  the  village, 
and  just  south  of  Kuryet  es-Saideh,  may  be  the  "]Moiuit 
Jearim"  spoken  of  in  Josh,  xv,  10  (but  different  from 
IMount  Baalah  of  ver.  11) ;  both  jjlaces  having  taken  the 
title  Jearim  from  the  intervening  tract  of  land,  perhaps 
once  covered  with  wood  {Palest,  p.  97).  It  is  the  testi- 
mony of  a  recent  traveller  (Tobler,  7>/tV?e  Wamlerini//,  p. 
17y)  that  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  on  the  ridge 
probably  answering  to  IMount  Jearim,  there  still  are 
'•  real  \voods,  so  thick  and  so  solitary,  he  had  seen  noth- 
ing like  them  since  he  left  Germany." 

Kir'jath  -  san'iiah  (Hebrew  Kinjath'  -  Sunnah', 
rii&~r^"i)?,  perh.  city  of  Sannah;  Josh,  xv,  49;  Sept. 
7co\i(-  yoai.ijxuT(iJV~),  usually  Kirjath-se'pher  (Heb,  A'h- 
l/ath'-Se'pfier,^tiZ>~r\^'^p,  hook-city ;  Sept.  iruXig  ypctfi- 
^LUTwv,  Josh.  XV,  15,  IG;  Judg.  i,  11 ;  ttoXic  twv  yc>afx-- 
/.u'lTwi',  Judg.  i,  12;  v.  r.  KapiaBtrifep,  Judg.  i,  11),  in 
later  times  (Josh,  xv,  15,  49 ;  Judg.  i,  11)  called  Debir 
(q.  v.),  a  Canaanitish  royal  city  (Josh,  x,  38),  afterwards 
included  within  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh,  xv, 48;  comp. 
Judg.  i,  11),  but  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh,  xxi,  15 ;  1 
Chron.  vi,  58 ;  compare  Hamcsveld,  iii,  2"24).  The  name 
Debir  means  a  woj-d  or  oracle,  and  is  applied  to  that 
most  secret  and  separated  part  of  the  Temple,  or  of  the 
most  holy  place,  in  which  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was 
placed,  and  in  which  responses  were  given  from  above 
the  cherubim.  From  this,  coupled  with  the  fact  that 
Kirjath-scpher  means  "  city  of  writing,"  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  Debir  was  some  particidarly  sacred  place 
or  seat  of  learning  among  the  Canaanites,  and  a  reposi- 
toiy  of  their  records.  ''  It  is  not,  indeed,  probable,"  as 
professor  Bush  remarks  (note  ad  loc.  Josh.), "  that  writ- 
ing and  books,  in  our  sense  of  the  words,  were  very  com- 
mon among  the  Canaanites;  but  some  method  of  re- 
cording events,  and  a  sort  of  learning,  was  doubtless 
cultivated  in  those  regions."  Bochart  {Canaan,  ii,  17) 
explains  the  latter  part  of  the  name  Kirjath-sannah  as 
being  a  Phccnician  term  equivalent  to  the  Arabic  siinna 
or"  precept,"  ■which  would  be  in  keeping  with  the  above 
explanation  of  the  other  terms.  Gesenius  {Thesaiu:  p. 
9G"2, 1237)  thinks  it  a  term  expressive  of  the  palm,  and 
Fiirst  {llth.  Lex.  s.  v.)  thinks  it  denotes  the  senna  plant. 
Debir  was  taken  by  Joshua  (x,  38) ;  but  it  being  after- 
wards retaken  by  the  Canaanites,  Caleb,  to  whom  it  was 
assigned,  gave  his  daughter  Achsah  in  mamage  to  his 
nephew  Othniel  for  his  braverj^  in  carryhig  it  by  storm 
(Josh.  XV,  16).  It  was  situated  in  the  mountains  of  Ju- 
dah (Josh.  XV,  49),  to  the  south  of  Hebron  (Josh,  x,  38 ; 
see  Keil,  Comment,  ad  loc),  and  on  a  high  spot  not  very 
far  from  it  (Josh,  xv,  15),  and  appears  to  have  been 
strongly  fortified  (Ewald,  Gesch.  Isr.  ii,  289).  These  cir- 
cumstances and  the  associated  names  (Josh,  xv,  48-50) 
appear  to  indicate  a  position  on  the  mountains  south- 
west of  Hebron,  in  the  vicinity  of  ed-Dhoheriyeh,  which 
has  a  commanding  situation  and  some  ruins  (Robinson's 
Researches,  1,311). 

Kirk,  a  word  meaning  circle,  in  the  sense  of  "  assem- 
bly" or  "  company ;"  the  original  word  being  Saxon,  and 
supposed  by  some  to  have  come  from  the  Greek  Kvpia- 
kCv,  dominicum, "  The  Lord's  house."  The  word  Church 
is  the  same  as  "  Kirk,"  and  has  the  same  signification  as 
"  congregation"  or  assembly,  which  are  elsewhere  given 
as  translations  of  the  original  word  tKKXijiria.  The  es- 
tablished religion  of  Scotland  (the  Presbyterian)  is  usu- 
ally called  the  Kii-k  of  Scotland.     See  Scotland, 

Kirkland,  John  Thornton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  em- 
inent American  Unitarian  divine,  was  born  at  Herkimer, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  17, 1770.  His  j-outhful  daj's  were  spent  at 
Stockbridge,  Mass.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  went  to 
Phillips  Academy,  then  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Eliphalet 
Pearson,  and  in  1785,  with  the  patronage  of  the  excel- 
lent judge  Phillips,  he  entered  Harvard  University.  He 
passed  through  college  with  a  high  re]iutatioii  for  schol- 
arship, especially  excelling  in  the  departments  of  lan- 
guages and  metaphysics,  and  graduated  in  1789  with 


distinguished  honors.  Shortly  after  he  went  to  Stock- 
bridge,  and  commenced  the  study  of  theology  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Stephen  West;  but  the  strict  vievs  of 
theology  to  which  he  was  here  introduced  were  little  to 
his  taste,  and  he  soon  after  returned  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  found  himself  in  a  much  more  congenial  theological 
atmosphere.  In  November,  1792,  while  still  prosecuting 
his  theological  studies,  he  was  appointed  tutor  of  meta- 
physics in  Harvard  University,  and  held  this  office  until 
February,  1794,  when  he  was  ordained,  and  installed  pas- 
tor of  the  New  South  Church,  Boston.  Here  he  soon 
drew  around  him  an  intelligent  and  discriminating  con- 
gregation, among  whom  were  some  of  the  leading  men 
of  the  times.  In  1802  he  was  honored  with  the  degree 
of  doctor  of  divinity  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
and  in  1810  with  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  from 
Brown  University.  So  high  was  his  professional  repu- 
tation at  that  time,  and  so  commanding  the  influence 
lie  had  acquired,  that  in  1810  he  was  elected  to  the  pres- 
idency of  Harvard  University.  Dr.  Kirkland's  presi- 
dency marked  a  brilliant  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
college.  Under  his  administration  tlie  course  of  studies 
was  greatly  enlarged ;  the  law  school  was  established ; 
the  medical  school  reorganized;  four  different  professor- 
ships in  the  academical  department  endowed  and  filled ; 
three  new  buildings  erected,  and  immense  additions 
made  to  the  library.  In  August,  1827,  lie  suffered  a 
stroke  of  paralysis,  which  led  him,  in  March,  1828,  to  re- 
sign his  office  as  president ;  and  in  April  he  set  out  on  a 
long  journey  through  the  "Western  and  Southern  States, 
and  afterwards  spent  three  years  and  a  half  in  visiting 
foreign  countries.  He  died  April  26, 1840,  Dr.  Kirk- 
land was  a  person  of  simple,  dignified,  and  winning  man- 
ners; he  had  great  natural  dignity;  there  was  an  un- 
studied grace  in  his  whole  bearing  and  demeanor.  His 
mind  was  of  an  ethical  turn ;  he  was  distinguished  as 
a  moralist,  and  seemed  to  possess  a  thorough,  intimate, 
and  marvellous  knowledge  of  men.  He  was  remarka- 
ble, too,  for  the  comprehensiveness  of  his  views  and  the 
universality  of  his  judgments.  He  always  generalized 
on  a  large  scale,  and  even  his  conversation  was  a  suc- 
cession of  aphorisms,  maxims,  and  general  remarks.  His 
publications  consisted  of  a  few  occasional  Discourses, 
several-contributions  to  the  periodicals  of  that  day,  aiid 
a  Memoir  of  Fisher  Ames.  See  Ware,  ^??;er.  Uniturian 
liiorj.  i,  273 ;  Christian  Examiner,  xxix,  282,     (J.  L.  S.) 

Kirkland,  Samuel,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  Dec.  1,  1741,  at  Norwich,  Conn.  He  received 
his  degree  from  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1765,  though 
not  present  himself.  In  Nov.  1765,  he  went  on  a  mis- 
sionary visit  to  the  Seneca  Indians,  and  returning  in 
Maj^,  1766,  he  was  duly  ordained  and  appointed  mission- 
ary by  the  Connecticut  Board  of  Correspondents  of  the 
society  in  Scotland.  He  settled  at  Oneida  in  the  midst 
of  the  Oneida  tribe,  and  labored  until  the  Bevolution 
suspended  his  mission.  During  the  war  he  served  as 
chaplain  in  the  army,  and  was  engaged  in  negotiations 
with  the  Indians,  for  which  services  he  was  rewarded  by 
Congress  in  1785.  As  soon  as  the  war  was  ended  he 
continued  his  missionary  labors  among  the  Indians.  In 
1788  the  Indians  and  New  York  State  presented  him 
;\itli  valuable  lands,  part  of  which  he  improved  and  oc- 
cupied. During  the  year  1791  he  made  a  Statement  of 
the  Numhers  and  Situation  of  the  Six  United  Nations  of 
Indians  in  Noith  America,  and  in  the  winter  conducted 
a  delegation  of  some  forty  warriors  to  meet  Congress  in 
Philadelphia.  In  1793  he  was  instrumental  in  procuring 
a  charter  for  the  Hamilton  Oneida  Academy,  which  has 
since  become  a  college.  His  connection  with  the  socie- 
ty in  Scotland  was  broken  off  in  1797,  for  what  reason 
he  knew  not,  but  he  continued  his  accustomed  work  un- 
til his  death,  Feb.  28, 1808.— Sprague,  Anncds,  i,  623. 

Kirkpatrick,  Hugh.    See  Kirkpatkick,  Ja:\ies. 

Kirkpatrick,  Jacob,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
was  born  near  Baskingridge,  N.J,,  August  7, 1785;  ]nir- 
sued  his  classical  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  IJev. 


KIRKPATRICK 


108 


KIR-MOAB 


Robert  Finley,  D.U.,  and  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  .Tcrscy  in  LSO  t.  After  this  he  studied  law  three 
years,  b:;t  in  1807  he  decided  definitely  in  favor  of  the 
ministry,  and  resumed  his  studies  under  John  WoodhuU, 
D.D.,  of  Freehold,  N.  J.  In  August,  1809,  he  was  licensed 
hy  the  New  Brunswick  I'resbyterv,  and  was  ordained 
and  installed  pastor  of  the  United  First  Church  of  Am- 
well,  Kingoes,  N.  J.,  June  20, 1810,  where  he  continued  to 
labor  for  tifty-six  years.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Hunterdon  County  Bible  Society  (1816),  and  also 
among  the  earliest  and  most  energetic  promoters  of  the 
temperance  reformation  in  that  county.  He  died  at 
l-iingoes,  N.  J.,  May  2, 186(').  Dr.  Kirkpatrick  was  a  man 
of  a  large  and  generous  heart ;  his  preaching  was  full  of 
tenderness,  pathos,  and  earnestness ;  his  Christian  char- 
acter unassuming,  and  adorned  with  meekness  and  pie- 
ty.— Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  A  Imaiiac,  18G7.  (J.  L.  S.) 
Kirkpatrick,  James,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
Presbyteriau  Cluirch  in  Ireland,  was  the  son  of  Hugh 
Kirkpatrick,  a  minister  in  Lnrgan,  Scotland,  from  about 
1(J8G  to  the  Revolution,  when  he  retired  to  Dairy,  Ire- 
land, where  he  preached  until  1G91,  then  removed  to  Old 
Cumnock,  and  in  1G95  again  returned  to  Scotland,  and 
died  at  Balh'money  in  1712.  James  was  educated  at 
(ilasgow,  entered  the  ministry,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  promising  Irish  Presbj-terians  in  the  pulpit.  In 
170G  he  was  the  preacher  of  the  Second  Belfast  congre- 
gation. During  the  opposition  of  the  House  of  Parlia- 
ment to  the  Presbyterians,  James  Kirkpatrick  became 
one  of  the  ablest  champions  of  the  Presl)yterian  cause. 
In  1713  he  published  ,4  «  Historicul  Kssui/  iipaii  the  Loy- 
altij  of  Presbyterians  in  Great  Britain  ami  I  r<  luiidfrom 
the  Reformation  to  the  present  Year  (Belfast,  1713, 4to), 
to  which  neither  he  nor  the  printer  dared  to  affix  their 
names  for  fear  of  persecution.  He  died  about  1725. — 
Reid  and  Killen,  IJist.  Presb.  Ch.  in  Ireland,  iii,  91  sq. 

Kirk-Sessions  is  the  name  of  a  petty  ecclesias- 
tical ju'licatory  in  Scotland.  Each  parish,  according  to 
its  extent,  is  divided  into  several  particular  districts, 
every  one  of  which  has  its  own  elder  and  deacons  to 
govern  it.  A  Consistory  of  the  ministers,  elders,  and 
deacons  of  a  parish  form  a  kirk-session.  These  meet 
once  a  week,  the  minister  being  their  moderator,  but 
without  a  negative  voice.  It  regulates  matters  rela- 
tive to  public  worship,  elections,  catechizing,  visitations, 
membership,  etc.  It  judges  in  matters  of  less  scandal; 
but  greater,  as  adultery,  are  left  to  the  Presbytery,  and 
in  all  cases  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  Presbyterj'. 
The  functions  of  the  kirk-session  were  in  former  times 
too  often  inquisitorially  exercised ;  but  this  is  now  less 
freiiucntl)'  attempted,  and  the  danger  of  it  is  continu- 
ally diminishing  through  the  growth  of  an  enlightened 
public  opinion.  In  former  times,  also,  the  kirk-session  in 
Scotland  often  imposed  lines,  chiefly  for  offences  against 
the  seventh  commandment;  but  this  practice  had  no 
recognition  in  civil  nor  even  in  ecclesiastical  law,  and  is 
now  wholly  relinquished.  The  kirk-session  of  the  Es- 
tabhshed  Church  in  each  parish  is  fully  recognised  in 
Scottish  law  as  having  certain  rights  and  duties  with 
respect  to  the  poor,  but  recent  legislation  has  very  much 
deprived  it  of  its  former  importance  in  this  relation. — 
Buck,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  s.  v. 

Kirkton,  James,  a  Scottish  divine,  who  flourished 
in  the  sei'on<l  half  of  the  17th  century,  is  noted  as  the 
authnr  of  The  secret  ami  true  History  of  the  Church  of 
,Srntl(i>i(lfrom  the  Restoration  to  1078,  etc.  (edited  by  C. 
K.  Sliarpe,  Edinb.  1817,  4to),  a  work  which  has  been 
highly  commended  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  (Lofulon  Quart. 
Reriew,  xviii,  502  scj.).  Kirkton  died  in  1699. — Black- 
icooiVs  Jfayazine,  ii,  305  sq. 

Kirkwood,  Rokkut,  a  Presbyterian  minister,- born 
in  Paisley,  Scotland,  !May  25,  179.'?,,was  educated  in  Glas- 
gow College,  and  studied  divinity  with  liev.  jdhn  Dick, 
D.I).,  at  Theological  Hall,  (Jlasgow.  He  was  licensed 
in  18-28.  In  response  to  a  jircssing  call  for  ministerial 
workers  in  New  York,  he  went  thither  and  connected 


himself  with  the  Reformed  Protestant  Dutch  Church, 
under  the  I^Iissionary  Society  of  which  he  laboreil  un- 
til 1830,  when  he  became  pastor  at  Cortlandville,  N.  Y. 
He  officiated  there  and  at  Auburn  and  Sandbeach,  N. 
Y.,  until  1839,  and  then  served  as  a  domestic  missionary 
for  seven  years  in  Illinois.  For  the  next  eleven  years 
he  labored  as  agent  for  the  Bible  and  Tract  Societies. 
In  1857  he  transferred  his  connection  from  the  Reformed 
to  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  settled  at  Y'onkers,  N. 
Y.,  devoting  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  literary  labors. 
He  died  August  26, 1866.  In  addition  to  numerous  con- 
tributions to  the  Christian  Intelligencer,  New  York  Ob- 
server, and  The  Presbyterian,  he  published  Lectui-es  on 
the  Millennium  (New  Y'ork,  1855) : — Universalism  Ex- 
plained (New  Y'ork,  1856) : — .4  Plea  for  the  Bible  (New 
York,  1S60 ;  a  very  (lopular  work  and  extensively  sold)  : 
— Illustrations  of  the  Offices  of  Christ  (New  Y'ork,  1862; 
a  practical  treatise  on  divine  influences);  together  with 
a  selection  of  sermons.  Mr.  Kirkwood  having  enjoyed 
the  superior  advantages  of  instruction  by  the  distin- 
guished Dr.  Dick,  was  thoroughly  and  systematically 
trained  in  the  great  evangelical  doctrines.  His  preacli- 
ing  was  ciiaracterized  by  a  practical  scriptural  tone. 
"His  only  peculiarity  of  doctrine  was  his  pre-millennial 
views,  in  which,  however,  as  his  work  on  this  subject 
shows,  he  was  moderate,  cautious,  and  never  went  to  the 
extreme  of  fixing  the  time  and  seasons,  which  the  Fa- 
ther hath  put  in  his  own  power." — Wilson,  Presb.  His- 
torical A  hnanac. 

Kir-Mo'ab  (lUh.  Kir-Modb',  'Z^r:t—i''p.fortress 
of  Moab  [see  Kir];  Isa.  xv,  1;  Sept.  to  thxoq  riig 
MwafSiTtSoc,  Vulg.  murus  Moab,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Kir  of 
:^Ioab"),  usually  KIR-HEEES  (Heb.  Kir-che'res,  -T^p 
b"iri,  brick  forfi-ess,  Jer.  xlviii,  31,  36;  Sept.  Keipdcic, 
Yulg.  murus  flat  ills ;  in  pause  bl'^H  "l"'p,  Isa.  xvi,  11; 
Sept.  TtixoQ  o  tVfKrtij'((T«f, Vulgate  murus  cocti  lateris, 
Auth.Vers.  '•  Ivir-haresh"),"  or  KIR-H ARESETH  (Heb. 
Kir-Chare' seth,  rib"in~"l"'p,  id.,  Isa.  xvi,  7;  Sept.  oi 
KaroiKovvTii;  2£3, Vulgate  muri  cocti  lateris;  in  pause 
riiy'nn  "i^p;,  2  Kings  iii.  25;  Sept.  to  Ti~ixoc,\w\'^nta 
7?i?/;i/(rf27e.«,  Auth.Vers. "Kir-haraseth"),  one  ofthe  two 
strongly  fortified  cities  in  the  territory  of  Moab,  the 
other  being  Ar  of  IMoab.  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  took 
the  city,  and  destroyed  it,  except  the  walls  (2  Kings  iii, 
25) ;  but  it  appears  from  the  passages  here  cited  that  it 
must  have  been  rebuilt  before  the  time  of  Isaiah,  anil 
again  ravaged  by  the  Babylonians.  In  his  pro]ihecr 
(xv,  1),  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  has  put  SNTCT  ^^2 "3, 
kerakka  de-Moab,  "  the  castle  of  Moab;"  and  the  former 
of  these  words,  pronounced  in  Arabic  karak,  kcrak,  or 
k'rak,  is  the  name  it  bears  in  2  Mace,  xii,  17  (XapaKO, 
Characci),  in  Steph.  Bj-zant.  {\apaKj.iw(ia,  Characnio- 
ba),  in  Ptolemy  (v,  17,  5,  XapaKio/^ta,  Churacoma'),  in 
Abulfeda  {T(tb.  Syr.  p.  89),  and  in  the  historians  of  the 
Crusades.  Abulfeda  (who  places  it  twelve  Arabic  miles 
from  Ar-JIoab)  describes  Kerak  as  a  small  town,  with 
a  castle  on  a  high  hill,  and  remarks  that  it  is  so  strong 
that  one  must  deny  himself  even  the  wish  to  take  it  by 
force  (comp.  2  Kings  iii.  25\  In  the  time  of  the  Cru- 
sades, and  when  in  possession  of  the  Franks,  it  was  in- 
vested by  Saladin;  but,  after  lying  before  it  a  month, 
he  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  (Boh.-eddin,  Vita 
Saladin.  p.  55).  The  Crusaders  had  erected  here  a  for- 
tress still  known  as  Kerak,  which  formed  one  of  the 
centres  of  operations  for  the  Latins  east  of  the  Jordan. 
On  the  capture  of  these  at  length  by  Saladin  after  a 
long  siege,  in  A.D.  1188,  the  dominion  of  the  Franks 
over  this  territory  ceased  (Wilken,  Kreuzz.  iv,  244-247). 
"  It  was  then  the  chief  city  of  .4  i-abia  Secunda  or  Petra- 
censis ;  it  is  specified  as  in  the  Belka,  and  is  distinguish- 
ed from  ']Moab'  or  'Rabbat.'  the  ancient  Ar-]Moab,  and 
from  the  Mons  reyalis  (Scludtens,  Index  Geoyr.  s.  v.  Ca- 
racha ;  see  also  the  remarks  of  Gcsenius,  Jesaia,  i,  517, 
and  liis  notes  to  the  (Jerman  translation  of  Burckhardt). 
The  Crusaders,  in  error,  believed  it  to  be  Petra,  and  that 


KIR-MOAB 


109 


KISIIION 


name  is  frequently  attached  to  it  in  the  -vmtings  of 
"W'ilUam  of  Tyre  and  Jacob  de  Vitry  (see  quotations  in 
Kobinson,  Bib.  Res.  ii,  107).  This  error  is  perpetuated 
in  the  Greek  Church  to  tlie  present  day;  and  the  bishop 
of  Fetra,  whose  otiice,  as  representative  of  the  patriarch, 
it  is  to  produce  the  holy  fire  at  Easter  in  the  Church  of 
the  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  (Stanley,  S.  and  P.  p.  467), 
is  in  reality  bisliop  of  Kerak  (Seetzen,  Reisen,  ii,  358 : 
Burckhardt,  p.  387)"  (Smitli).  The  first  person  who 
visited  tlie  place  in  modern  times  was  Seetzen,  who 
Bays,  '•  Near  to  Kerak  tlie  wide  plain  terminates  which 
extends  from  Kabbah,  and  is  broken  only  by  low  and 
detached  hills,  and  the  country  now  becomes  mountain- 
ous. Kerak,  formerly  a  city  and  bishop's  see,  lies  on  the 
top  of  the  liill  near  the  end  of  a  deep  valley,  and  is  sur- 
roiuided  on  all  sides  with  lofty  mountains.  The  hill  is 
very  steep,  and  in  many  places  the  sides  are  quite  per- 
pendicular. The  walls  round  the  town  are  for  the 
most  part  destroyed,  and  Kerak  can  at  present  boast  of 
little  more  than  being  a  small  country  town.  The  cas- 
tle, -which  is  luiinhabited,  and  in  a  state  of  great  decay, 
was  formerly  one  of  the  strongest  in  these  countries. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  town  consist  of  jNIohammedans 
anil  tireek  Christians..  The  present  bishop  of  Kerak 
resides  at  Jerusalem.  From  tliis  ])lace  one  enjoys,  by 
looking  down  the  wady  Kerak,  a  fine  view  of  part  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  even  Jerusalem  may  be  distinctly 
seen  iu  clear  weather.  The  hill  on  which  Kerak  lies  is 
composed  of  limestone  and  brittle  marl,  with  many  beds 
of  blue,  black,  and  gray  flints.  In  the  neighboring 
rocks  there  are  a  number  of  curious  grottoes;  in  those 
which  are  imder  ground  wheat  is  sometimes  preserved 
for  a  period  often  years"  (Zach's  Monatliche  Correspond. 
xviii,  43-1).  A  fuller  account  of  the  place  is  given  by 
Burckhardt  {Travels  in  Syria,  p.  379-387).  by  whom  it 
was  next  visited;  and  another  description  is  furnished 
by  Irby  and  Mangles  ( Travels,  p.  3G1-370).  From  their 
account  it  would  seem  that  the  caverns  noticed  by  Seet- 
zen were  probably  the  sepulchres  of  the  ancient  town. 
We  also  learn  that  the  Christians  of  Kerak  (which  they 
and  Burckhardt  call  Kerek)  are  nearly  as  numerous  as 
the  i\Iohammcdans,  and  boast  of  being  stronger  and 
braver  (sec  Robinson's  Researches,  ii,  5GG-571).  On  ac- 
count of  tlie  notoriously  savage  character  of  its  Moham- 
medan inhabitants,  Kerak  has  not  often  been  visited  by 
travellers.  Lieut.  Lynch,  of  the  United  States  expedi- 
tion to  the  Dead  Sea,  penetrated  this  fastness  of  banditti, 
having  boldly  seized  the  sheik  and  detained  him  as  a 
hostage  for  their  safety.  He  describes  the  town  as  sit- 
uated upon  the  brow  of  a  hill  3000  feet  above  the  Dead 
Sea.  The  houses  are  a  collection  of  stone  huts,  built 
without  mortar.  They  are  from  seven  to  eight  feet 
high ;  the  ground  floors  about  six  feet  below,  and  the 
flat  terrace  mud-roofs  mostly  about  two  feet  above  the 
streets ;  but  in  many  places  there  were  short  cuts  from 
street  to  street  across  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  The 
houses,  or  rather  huts,  without  windows  and  without 
chimneys,  were  blackened  insifle  by  smoke,  and  the 
women  and  children  were  squalid  and  filthy.  Kerak 
contains  a  population  of  about  300  families ;  these  in- 
clude about  1000  Christians,  who  are  kejit  in  subjection 
by  the  IVIoslem  Arabs.  The  Jloslem  inhabitants  are 
wild-looking  savages,  but  the  Christians  have  a  mild  and 
hospitable  character.  The  males  mostly  wear  sheep-skin 
coats,  the  women  dark-colored  gowns ;  the  Christian  fe- 
males did  not  conceal  their  faces,  which  were  tattooed 
like  the  South  Sea  islanders.  The  entrance  to  Kerak  is 
by  a  steep  and  crooked  ravine,  wiiich  is  completely  com- 
manded at  the  summit  by  the  castle.  This  latter,  partly 
cut  out  of  and  partly  built  upon  the  mountain  top,  pre- 
sents the  remains  of  a  magnificent  structure,  its  citadel 
cut  off  from  the  town  bj'  a  deep  ditch.  It  seems  to  be 
Saracenic,  although  in  various  parts  it  has  both  the 
pointed  (iothic  and  the  rounded  IJoman  arch,  the  work 
doubtless  of  the  various  masters  into  whose  hands  it  has 
fallen  during  its  eventful  history.  Its  walls  are  com- 
posed of  liea\-j',  well-cut  stoues,  with  a  steep  glacis-wall 


surrounding  the  whole.  It  is  of  immense  extent,  having 
five  gates,  seven  wells  and  cisterns,  with  subterranean 
passages,  and  seven  arched  store-houses,  one  above  an- 
other, for  purposes  of  defence  (see  Lynch's  Narrative,  p. 
355-359).  Mr.  De  Saulcy  also  entered  this  "den  of 
robbers,"  as  he  terms  it,  and  he  has  added  some  partic- 
ulars to  the  above  description  {Narrative,  i,  302-330, 
390).  His  account  illustrates  the  character  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  have  for  many  years  been  the  terror  of 
the  vicinity  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  GO ;  Schwarz,  Pales- 
tine, p.  21G ).  See  also  Patter's  Erdkimde,  xv,  91G,  1215. 
A  map  of  the  site  and  a  view  of  part  of  the  keep  will  be 
found  in  the  Atlas  to  De  Saidcy  {La  Mer  Morte,  etc., 
fcuilles  8,  20).     See  Moab. 

Kirwan.     See  Murray,  Nicholas, 

Kir"waii,  AValter  Blake,  an  eminent  Irish  divine, 
and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and  popular  preachers  of 
the  last  half  of  the  18th  century,  was  born  at  tJalway 
about  1754.  He  was  educated  at  the  college  of  the 
English  Jesuits  at  St.Omer;  was  ordained  priest,  and 
was  for  a  time  professor  of  natural  and  moral  philosophy 
at  Lou  vain.  Having  embraced  Protestantism  in  1787, 
he  became  successively  minister  of  St.  Peter's  Church, 
Dublin;  prebendary  of  Howth,  minister  of  St. Nicholas 
Without  in  1788,  and  dean  of  Killala  in  1800.  He  died 
in  1805.  Few  preachers  of  any  age  have  enjoyed  siich 
popularity  as  Walter  Blake  Kirwan.  So  great  was  tl;o 
throng  to  listen  to  his  sermons  that  it  Avas  found  neces- 
sary to  defend  the  entrance  of  the  church  where  he  was 
to  preach  with  guards  and  palisades.  He  was  a  man 
of  fine  feelings,  amiable  and  benevolent,  and  his  irre- 
sistible powers  of  persuasion  were  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
preaching  of  charity  sermons.  It  is  said  that  the  col- 
lections taken  up  after  his  sermons  seldom  fell  short  of 
£1000.  These  addresses  have  been  published  under  the 
title  of  Sermons,  with  a  sketch  of  his  life  (London,  1814, 
8vo).  See  Darling,  Ctjclopcedia  Bihlioi/raphica,  ii,  1735 ; 
Allibone,  Did.  of  Enrjlish  and  Amer.  Authors,  ii,  1038; 
Lond.  Quart.  Rev.  xi,  130  sq. ;  Lord  Brougham,  Confrib. 
fa  the  Edinb.  Rev.  (Lond.  and  Glasgow,  185G),  i,  104  sq. 
(J.H.W.) 

Kish  (Heb.  id.,  ■d"'P,  a  trap,  otherwise  a  hoiii ;  Sept. 
Kji'c:  or  Ki'f,  N.  T.  K/c,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Cis,"  Acts  xiii,21), 
the  name  of  five  men. 

1.  The  second  of  the  two  sons  of  Mahli  (grandson  of 
Levi) ;  his  sons  married  their  cousins,  heiresses  of  his 
brother  Eleazar  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  21,  22).  One  of  these 
sons  was  named  Jerahmeel  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  29).  B.C. 
cLr.  1658. 

2.  A  Bcnjamite  of  Jerusalem  (i.e.  the  northern  neigh- 
borhood of  Jebus),  third  named  of  the  sons  of  Jehiel  (of 
Gibeon)  by  jMaachah  (1  Chron.  viii,  30  ;  ix,  36).  B.C. 
apparently  cir.  1618. 

3.  A  wealthy  and  powerful  Bcnjamite,  son  of  Ner  (1 
Chron.  viii,  33  ;  ix,  39),  and  father  of  king  Saul  (1  Sam. 
ix,  3 ;  X,  11,  21 ;  xiv,  51 ;  1  Chron.  ix,  39 ;  xii,  1 ;  xxvi, 
28).  He  was  thus  the  grandson  (1  Sam.  ix,  1,  "  son" 
[q.v.])  of  Abiel  (q.  v.).  See  Ner.  No  incident  is  men- 
tioned respecting  him  excepting  his  sending  Saul  in 
search  of  the  straj'ed  asses  (1  Sam.  ix,  3),  and  that  he 
was  buried  in  Zelah  (2  Sam.  xxi,  14).  B.C.  1093.  In 
Acts  xiii,  21  he  is  called  Cis.     See  Saul. 

4.  A  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  son  of  Abdi,  and 
one  of  those  who  assisted  Ilezekiah  in  restoring  the 
true  religion  (2  Chron.  xxix,  12).     B.C.  726. 

5.  A  Bcnjamite,  the  father  of  Shimei,  and  great- 
grandfather of  Mordccai  (Esth.  ii,  5).  B.C.  considera- 
bly ante  598. 

Kish'i  (1  Chron.  vi,44).  See  Kushaiail 
Xish'ion  (\lQh. Kishyon' ,  "jTi^rp,  so  called  from  the 
hardness  of  the  soil;  Sept.  Ksmwr,  Auth.  Yers.  "  Kish- 
on"  in  Josh,  xxi,  28),  a  city  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar  (Josh. 
xix,  20,  where  it  is  mentioned  between  Kabbith  and 
Abez),  assigned  to  the  Levites  of  the  family  of  Ciershom, 
and  for  a  place  of  refuge  (Josh,  xxi,  28) ;  elsewhere  (1 


KISHOX 


110 


KISHOX 


Chron.  vi,72)  called  Kedesh  (q.  v.).  De  Saulcy  found 
ruins  called  Kiishaneh  (or  Kabs/niiieh),  an  hour  and  a 
hair  from  Kct'r-Kenna,  commandinj;;  tlie  Merj-es-Serbal. 
north  of  Jit,  Tabor,  which  he  is  inclined  to  identify  with 
the  ancient  Kishion  {Xarrat.  ii,  3-25,  32G).  Schwarz, 
citing  from  Astori,  places  it  2i  miles  south  of  Chesulloth 
(Iksal);  hut  lie  appears  to  be  misled  by  the  analofiy  of 
the  name  of  this  place  with  that  of  the  brook  Kishon 
{PdWM.  p.  IGG),  which  has  no  connection  in  origin  (see 
Hamosvcld,  iii,  241). 

Ki'shon  (\ie\). Kishon' ,  'lO'^p,  windinrj;  Septuag. 
K((7w)';  but  inPsa.lxxxiii,9,  KtffiTwj/  v.  r.  Kektwv,  Auth. 
Vers.  "Kison"),  a  torrent  or  winter  stream  (Pn3,  A.  Y. 
"river")  of  central  Palestine,  the  scene  of  two  of  the 
grandest  achievements  of  Israclitish  history — the  defeat 
of  Siscra  (Judg.iv,  7, 13 ;  v,  21),  and  the  destruction  of 
the  prophets  of  Baal  by  Elijah  (1  Kings  xviii,  40).  It 
formed  the  boundary  Ijetween  Manasseh  and  Zebulon 
(Josh,  xix,  11).  See  Jok:<e.ui.  Some  portion  of  it  is 
also  thought  to  be  designated  as  the  "waters  of  Megid- 
do"  (Jadg.  V,  19).  See  Megiddo.  The  term  coupled 
with  the  Kishon  in  Judg.  v,  21,  as  a  stream  of  the  an- 
cients (a'^^n|5il,  A.  Y.  "that  ancient  river"),  has  been 
very  variously  rendered  by  the  old  interpreters.  1.  It  is 
taken  as  a  proper  name,  and  thus  apparently  that  of  a 
distinct  stream — in  some  MSS.  of  the  Sept,  Kacmieifi 
(see  Barhdt's  IlexapltC) ;  by  Jerome,  in  the  Yulgate,  tor- 
Tcns  Cadiimim;  in  the  Peshito  and  Arabic  versions,  Citr- 
miiu  This  view  is  also  taken  by  Benjamin  of  Tndela, 
who  speaks  of  the  river  close  to  Acre  (doubtlsss  mean- 
ing thereby  the  Belus)  as  the  Q^'a'np  ^n3.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  term  may  refer  to  an  ancient  tribe  of  Ke- 
dumim — wanderers  from  the  Eastern  deserts — who  had 
in  remote  antiquity  settled  on  the  Kishon  or  one  of  its 
tributary  wadys.  See  Kadmoxites.  2.  As  an  epithet 
of  the  Kishon  itself:  ScYit.  j(Hjj,uppovg  upxaiiov,  Aquila, 
KavcTMinov,  perhaps  intending  to  imply  a  scorching  wind 
or  simoom  as  accompanj-ing  the  rising  of  the  waters ; 
Symmachus,  ah/ioiv  or  alywi',  perhaps  alluding  to  the 
swift  springing  of  the  torrent  (a'iyig  is  used  for  high 
waves  by  Artemidorus).  The  Targum,  adhering  to  the 
signilication  "  ancient,"  expands  the  sentence — "  the  tor- 
rent in  which  were  shown  signs  and  wonders  to  Israel 
of  old;"  and  this  miraculous  torrent  a  later  Jewish  tra- 
diti(jn  (preserved  in  the  Commenfarius  in  Canticum  Deb- 
horiF,  ascribed  to  Jerome)  would  identify  with  the  Bed 
Sea,  the  scene  of  the  greatest  marvels  in  Israel's  history. 
The  rcntlering  of  the  A.Y.  is  supported  by  jNIcndelssohn, 
Gescnius,  I'^wald,  and  other  modern  scholars.  The  ref- 
erence is  probably  to  exploits  among  the  aboriginal  Ca- 
naanites,  as  the  plain  adjoining  the  stream  has  always 
been  the  great  battle-ground  of  Palestine.  See  Esdka- 
ELox.     For  the  Kishon  of  Josh,  xxi,  28,  see  Kisniox. 

By  Josephus  the  Kishon  is  never  named,  neither  does 
the  name  occur  in  the  early  Itineraries  of  Antoninus  Au- 
gustus, or  the  Bordeaux  Pilgrim.  Eusebius  and  Jerome 
dismiss  it  in  a  few  -words,  and  note  only  its  origin  in 
Talmr  (Oiiomast.  Cison),  or  such  part  of  it  as  can  be  seen 
thence  {Ep.  (id  Enstochium.^  13),  passing  by  entirely  its 
connection  with  Carmel.  IJcnjamin  of  Tudela  visited 
Akka  and  Carmel.  He  mentions  the  river  by  name  as 
"  Nachal  Kishon,"  but  onty  in  the  most  cursory  manner. 
Brocardiis  (cir.  1500)  describes  the  western  portion  of 
the  stream  with  a  little  more  fulness,  but  enlarges  most 
on  its  Mpjier  or  eastoru  part,  which,  with  the  victory  of 
Barak,  he  places  on  the  cast  of  Tabor  and  Ilcrmon,  as 
discharging  the  water  of  those  mountains  into  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (Dcscr.  Terra,  S.  cap.  G,  7).  This  has  been 
shown  by  Dr.  Bobinson  {Bib.  lies,  ii,  3G4)  to  allude  to 
the  wady  cl-Birch,  which  runs  down  to  the  Jordan  a 
few  miles  above  Scytbojiolis. 

The  Kishon  is  beyond  all  doubt  the  river  now  called 
Kdhr  el-^fokaltcih  (or  Mukatta),  which,  after  travers- 
ing the  plain  of  Acre,  enters  the  bay  of  the  latter  name 
at  its  sv)uth-east  corner.     It  has  been  usual  to  trace  the 


source  of  this  river  to  Jlount  Tabor  (as  above  by  Je- 
rome), but  Dr.  Shaw  affirms  that  in  travelling  along  the 
south-eastern  brow  of  Mount  Carmel  he  had  an  oppor- 
tunitj'  of  seeing  the  sources  of  the  river  Kishon,  three 
or  four  of  which  lie  within  less  than  a  furlong  of  each 
other,  and  are  called  Ras  el-Kishon,  or  the  head  of  the 
Kishon.  These  alone,  without  the  lesser  contributions 
near  the  sea,  discharge  water  enough  to  form  a  river 
half  as  large  as  the  Isis.  During  the  rainy  season  aU 
the  waters  which  fall  upon  the  eastern  side  of  Carmel, 
or  upon  the  rising  grounds  to  the  southward,  empty 
themlblves  into  it  in  a  number  of  torrents,  at  which 
time  it  overflows  its  banks,  acquires  a  wonderful  rapid- 
ity, and  carries  all  before  it.  It  was  doubtless  in  such  a 
season  that  the  host  of  Sisera  was  swept  away  in  at- 
tempting to  ford  it.  But  such  inmidations  are  only  oc- 
casional, and  of  short  duration,  as  is  indeed  implied  in 
the  destruction  in  its  waters  of  the  fugitives,  who  doubt- 
less expected  to  pass  it  safely.  The  course  of  the  stream, 
as  estimated  from  the  soiurces  thus  indicated,  is  not  more 
than  seven  miles.  It  rmis  very  briskly  till  within  half 
a  league  of  the  sea;  but  when  not  augmented  by  rains, 
it  never  falls  into  the  sea  in  a  full  stream,  but  insensi- 
bly percolates  through  a  bank  of  sand,  which  the  north 
winds  have  thrown  up  at  its  mouth.  It  was  in  this 
state  that  Shaw  himself  found  it  in  the  month  of  April, 
1722,  when  it  was  crossed  by  him. 

Notwithstanding  Shaw's  contradiction,  the  assertion 
that  ths  Kishon  derives  its  source  from  INIount  Tabor 
has  been  repeated  by  modern  travellers  as  conlidently 
as  by  their  ancient  predecessors  {Summer  Ramble,  i, 
281).  Bucldngham's  statement,  being  made  with  ref- 
erence to  the  view  from  JMount  Tabor  itself,  deserves  at- 
tention. He  says  that  near  the  foot  of  the  mountain  on 
the  south-west  are  "  the  springs  of  the  Ain  cs-Sherrar, 
which  send  a  perceptible  stream  through  the  centre  of 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  form  the  brook  Kishon  of 
antiquity."  Further  on.  the  same  traveller,  on  reach- 
ing the  hills  which  divide  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  from 
that  of  Acre,  saw  the  pass  through  which  the  river 
makes  its  way  from  the  one  plain  to  the  other  {Travels 
in  Palestine,  i,  1G8,  177).  Schwarz  also  states  that  the 
soiu-ces  of  the  Kishon  are  at  a  village  called  Sheik  Ab- 
rik,  south-west  of  Tabor  {Palest,  p.  1G6).  On  further  in- 
quiry, and  more  extensive  comparison  of  observations 
made  at  different  times  of  the  year,  it  \\ill  probably  be 
found  that  the  remoter  source  of  the  river  is  really  in 
Mount  Tabor,  but  that  the  supply  from  this  source  is 
cut  oft"  in  early  summer,  when  it  ceases  to  be  maintain- 
ed by  rains  or  contributory  torrents ;  Avhereas  the  copi- 
ous supply  from  the  nearer  springs  at  Eas  el-Kishon, 
with  other  springs  lower  down,  keep  it  up  from  that 
point  as  a  perennial  stream,  even  during  the  drought  of 
summer.  (See  Kitto's  Pict.  Hist,  of  Palestine,  p.  cxci.) 
Mariti  (ii,  112)  mentions  the  case  of  the  English  drago- 
man who  -(vas  drowned,  and  his  horse  with  him,  in  the 
attempt  to  cross  this  temporary  stream  from  JIt.  Tabor, 
in  Feb.  17G1.  During  the  battle  of  Mount  Tabor,  be- 
tween the  French  and  Arabs,  April  IG,  1790,  many  of  the 
latter  were  drowned  in  their  attempt  to  cross  a  stream 
coming  from  Dcburieh,  which  then  inundated  the  plain 
(Burckhardt,  Sip-ia,  p.  339).  Monro,  who  crossed  the 
river  early  in  April  (in  its  lower  or  perennial  part),  in 
order  to  ascend  !Mount  Carmel,  describes  it  as  traversing 
the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  The  river,  where  he  crossed  it, 
in  a  boat,  was  then  thirty  yards  wide.  In  the  plain 
from  Solam  to  Xazareth  he  crossed  "  a  considerable 
brook,  and  afterwards  some  others,  which  flow  into  a 
small  lake  on  the  northern  side  of  the  jJain,  and  event- 
ually contribute  to  swell  the  Kishon"  {Ramble.  1,55,281). 
Dr.  Bobinson  says  that  this  account  corresjionds  with 
channels  that  he  observed  {Biblical  Researches,  iii,  230). 
Prokesch  also,  in  April,  1829,  when  travelling  directly 
from  Bamleh  to  Nazareth,  entered  the  idain  of  Esdrae- 
lon at  or  near  Lcjjiui,  where  he  came  upon  the  Kishon, 
flowing  in  a  deep  bod  through  marshy  ground;  and  af- 
ter wandering  about  for  some  time  to  find  his  way 


KISHON 


111 


KISHON 


through  the  morass,  he  was  at  last  set  right  by  an  Arab, 
who  pointed  out  the  proper  ford  {Reise  ins  It.  Land,  p. 
120).  The  scriptural  account  of  the  overthrow  of  Sis- 
era's  host  manifestly  shows  that  the  stream  crossed  the 
plain,  and  must  have  been  of  considerable  size.  The 
above  arguments,  to  show  that  it  chd  so,  and  still  docs 
so,  are  confirmed  by  Dr.  IJobinson,  who  adds  that  "  not 
improbably,  in  ancient  times,  when  the  country  was 
perhaps  more  wooded,  there  may  have  been  j^ermanent 
streams  throughout  the  whole  plain."  The  transaction 
of  the  prophet  Elijah,  who,  after  his  sacritiee  on  Carmel, 
commanded  the  priests  of  Baal  to  be  slain  at  the*  river 
Kishon,  reqidres  no  explanation,  seeing  that  it  took 
place  at  the  perennial  lower  stream.  This  also  explains, 
what  has  sometimes  been  asked,  whence,  in  that  time 
of  drought,  the  water  was  obtained  with  which  the 
prophet  inundated  his  altar  and  sacrifice. 

Tlie  Kislion  is,  in  fact,  the  drain  by  which  the  waters 
of  the  ])lain  of  Esdraelon,  and  of  the  mountains  which 
inclose  that  plain,  namely,  C-armel  and  the  Samaria 
range  on  tlie  south,  tlie  mountain  of  Galilee  on  the 
north,  and  Gilboa,  "Little  Ilcrmon"  (so  called),  and 
Tabor  on  the  east,  find  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  course  is  in  a  direction  nearly  due  north-west  along 
the  lower  part  of  the  [ilain  nearest  the  foot  of  the  Sama- 
ritan hills,  and  close  beneath  the  very  cliffs  of  Carmel, 
breaking  through  the  hills  whicli  separate  the  plain  of 
Esdraeli)n  from  the  maritime  plain  of  Acre,  by  a  very 
narrow  pass,  beneath  the  eminence  of  Harothieh  or  Har- 
ti,  wliich  is  believed  by  some  still  to  retain  a  trace  of  the 
name  of  Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles.  It  has  two  princi- 
pal feeders :  the  lu-st  from  Deburieh  (Daberath),  on 
Mount  Tabor,  the  north-east  angle  of  the  plain ;  and, 
secondly,  from  Jclbuu  (Gilboa)  on  the  south-east.  It  is 
also  fell  by  the  copious  spring  of  Lejjun,  the  stream  from 
which  is  probably  the  "waters  of  jNIegiddo"  (Porter, 
Ilundbook,  p.  385).  The  highest  source  of  the  Kishon 
on  the  south-east  is  the  large  fountain  of  Jenin,  the  an- 
cient En-gannim,  the  water  from  which,  increased  by  a 
number  of  the  streamlets  from  the  surrounding  hills, 
flows  westward  across  the  plain  through  a  deep  channel 
during  the  winter  months;  but  in  summer  this  channel, 
like  the  northern  one,  is  perfectly  dry  (Van  de  Velde, 
Travels,  i,  3G2).  The  two  channels  unite  at  a  point  a 
few  miles  north  of  the  site  of  jNIegiddo.  The  channel  of 
the  united  stream  is  here  deep  and  miry,  the  ground  for 
some  distance  on  each  side  is  lo^v  and  marshy,  and  the 
fords  during  winter  arc  always  difficult,  and  often,  after 
heavy  rain,  impassable ;  yet  in  summer,  even  here,  the 
M'hole  plain  and  the  river  bed  are  dry  and  hard  (Kobin- 
son,  ii,  o(M).  These  facts  strikingly  illustrate  the  nar- 
rative of  the  defeat  of  Sisera.  The  battle  was  fought 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Kishon,  at  jSIegiddo  (Judg.  iv, 
13;  V,  19).  "While  the  battle  raged  a  violent  storm  of 
wind  and  rain  came  on  (Judg.  v,  4, 20 ;  comp.  Josephus, 
Ant.  V,  5,  4).  In  a  short  time  the  hard  plain  was  turn- 
ed into  a  marsh,  and  the  dry  river-bed  into  a  foaming 
torrent.    The  Canaanites  were  driven  back  on  the  river 


by  the  fierv  attack  of  Barak  and  the  fury  of  the  storm ; 
for  "  tlic  earth  trembled,  the  lieavens  dropped  .  .  .  the 
stars  in  their  courses  fought  against  Sisera."  The  war- 
horses  and  chariots  dashing  madly  through  the  marshy 
ground  made  it  much  worse ;  and  the  soldiers,  in  trying 
to  cross  the  swollen  torrent,  were  swept  away. 

But,  like  most  of  the  so-caUed  "  rivers"  of  Palestine, 
the  perennial  stream  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the  Ki- 
shon. During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  (as  above 
noted)  its  upper  portion  is  dry,  and  the. stream  confined 
to  a  few  miles  next  the  sea.  The  sources  of  this  peren- 
nial portion  proceed  from  the  roots  of  Carmel — the  "vast 
fountains  called  Sa'adiych,  about  three  miles  east  of 
Chaifa"  (Thomson,  Land  and  Bool;  ii,  140),  and  those, 
apparently  still  more  copious,  described  by  Shaw  (Kob- 
inson,  ii,  365),  as  bursting  forth  from  beneath  the  east- 
ern brow  of  Carmel,  and  discharging  of  themselves  "  a 
river  half  as  big  as  the  Isis."  It  enters  the  sea  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  bay  of  Akka,  about  two  miles  east  of 
Chaifa,  "in  a  deep,  tortuous  bed,  between  banks  of 
loamy  soil  some  fifteen  feet  high,  and  fifteen  to  twenty 
yards  apart"  (Porter,  Handbook;  p.  383).  Between  the 
mouth  and  the  town  the  shore  is  lined  by  an  extensive 
grove  of  date-palms,  one  of  the  finest  in  Palestine  (Van 
de  Velde,  i,  289).  The  part  of  the  Kishon  at  which 
the  prophets  of  Baal  were  slaughtered  by  Elijah  was 
loubtless  close  below  the  spot  on  Carmel  where  the  sac- 
rifice had  taken  place.  This  spot  is  now  fixed  with  all 
but  certainty  as  at  the  extreme  east  end  of  the  moun- 
tain, to  which  the  name  is  still  attached  oi El-Mahraka, 
'•  the  burning."  See  Caioiel.  Nowhere  does  the  Ki- 
shon run  so  close  to  the  mountain  as  just  beneath  this 
spot  (Van  de  Velde,  i,  324).  It  is  about  1000  feet  above 
the  river,  and  a  precipitous  ravine  leads  directly  down, 
by  which  the  victims  were  perhaps  hurried  from  the 
sacred  precincts  of  the  altar  of  Jehovah  to  their  doom 
in  the  torrent  bed  below,  at  the  foot  of  the  mound, 
which  from  this  circumstance  may  be  called  tell  Kiisls, 
the  hill  of  the  priests.  Whether  the  Kishon  contained 
any  water  at  this  time  we  are  not  told;  that  required 
for  Elijah's  sacrifice  was  in  all  probability  obtained  from 
the  spring  on  the  mountain  side  below  the  plateau  of 
El-;\Iahraka.  At  the  mouth  of  the  river  are  banks  of 
fine  sand,  which  any  unusual  swell  in  the  river  converts 
into  dangerous  quicksands  (Van  de  Velde,  i,  289). 

The  modem  name  Nahr  el-Jtfuhitfa  some  have 
thought  means  "  the  river  of  slaughter,"  in  allusion  to 
the  slaughter  of  the  prophets  of  Baal  on  its  banks;  but 
the  name  may  also  signify  "  river  of  the  ford,"  from  an- 
other meaning  of  the  same  root  (compare  Robinson,  ii, 
3(J5) ;  the  latter  is  the  interpretation  given  of  the  name 
by  the  people  of  the  country. — Kitto ;  Smith.  See  fur- 
ther in  Hamesveld,  i,  522  sq. ;  Schwarz,  Palestine,  p.  49 ; 
Hackett,  Illustra.  p.  821-323;  Bitter,  Erdk.  xvi,  704; 
JMaundreU,  Early  Travels,  p. 430 ;  Pococke,  East,  II,  i,  55 ; 
G.  Kobinson,  Palest,  i,  203  (Par.  1835) ;  Thomson,  Land 
and  Pool;  i,  492 ;  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Pal.  p.  347 ;  Wilson, 
frauds  of  Bible, u,8G;  Tristram,  La«<?q/"/srae?,  p.  95,494* 


Mouth  of  the  Kishon. 


KISIISHU 


112 


KISS 


Kishshu.     See  Cucujiuiiit. 

Kislzer,  Johann  Justus,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Ki>dinij;haiisen  in  KitU),  and  was  educated  at  the 
nniversities  of  Jena  and  Gicsscn.  In  1G04  he  became 
l)rofessor  of  philosophy  at  Kinteln  University,  and  the 
year  following  proi'essor  of  theology.  He  died  March 
25,  171-1.  For  a  list  of  his  writings,  mainly  disserta- 
tions, see  During,  Gdehrte  Theolor/en  Deutschlands  des 
ly'"'  iiml  W'^Jahrh.  ii,  102. 

Ki'son  (Psa.  Ixxxiii,  9).  Sec  Kisiiox. 
l»!iss  ( p'4;3,  nashaJc';  Gr.  ^jXew,  to  love,  and  deriva- 
livos).  Originally  the  act  of  kissing  had  a  symbolical 
character,  as  a  natural  species  of  language,  expressive 
of  tender  affection  and  respect.  It  appears  from  the 
case  of  Laban  and  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.  111)  that  this 
method  of  salutation  was  even  then  established  and  rec- 
ognised as  a  matter  of  course.  In  Gen.  xxvii,  26,  27,  a 
kiss  is  a  sign  of  affection  between  a  parent  and  child ; 
in  Cant,  viii,  1,  between  a  lover  and  his  bride.  It  was 
also,  as  with  some  modern  nations,  a  token  of  friendship 
and  regard  bestowed  when  friends  or  relations  met  or 
separated  (Tobit  vii,  G;  x,  12;  LuliC  vii,  45;  xv,  20; 
Acts  XX,  37 ;  Matt,  xxvi,  48 ;  2  Sam.  xx,  9) ;  the  same 
custom  is  still  usual  in  the  East  (Tischendorf,  Reise,  i, 
255).  The  Church  of  Ephesus  -wept  sore  at  Paul's  de- 
parture, and  fell  on  his  neck  and  kissed  him.  When 
Orpah  quitted  Naomi  and  Ruth  (Ruth  i,  14),  after  the 
three  had  lifted  up  their  voice  and  wept,  she  "  kissed 
her  mother-in-law,  but  Ruth  clave  unto  her." 

It  was  usual  to  kiss  the  mouth  (Gen.  xxxiii,  4 ;  Exod. 
iv,  27;  xviii,7;  ISam.  xx,  41;  Prov.  xxiv,  2G).  Kiss- 
ing the  lips  by  way  of  affectionate  salutation  was  not 
only  permitted,  but  customary  among  near  relatives  of 
both  sexes,  both  in  patriarchal  and  in  later  times  (Gen. 
xxix,  11;  Cant,  viii,  1).  Between  individuals  of  the 
same  sex,  and  in  a  limited  degree  between  those  of  dif- 
ferent sexes,  the  kiss  on  the  cheek  as  a  mark  of  respect 
or  an  act  of  salutation  has  at  all  tim^s  been  customary 
in  the  East,  and  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  extinct  even 
in  Europe.  Mention  is  made  of  it  (1)  between  parents 
and  children  (Gen.  xxvii,  2G,  27 ;  xxxi,  28,  55 ;  xlviii, 
10 ;  1,  1 ;  Exod.  xviii,  7  ;  Ruth  i,  9,  14 ;  2  Sam.  xiv,  33  ; 
1  Kings  xix,  20 ;  Luke  xv,  20 ;  Tobit  vii,  6 ;  x,  12) ;  (2) 
between  brothers,  or  near  male  relatives  or  intimate 
friends  (Gen.  xxix,  13  ;  xxxiii,  4 ;  xlv,  15 ;  Exod.  iv,  27  ; 
1  Sam.  XX,  41);  (3)  the  same  mode  of  salutation  be- 
tween persons  not  related,  but  of  equal  rank,  whether 
friendly  or  deceitful,  is  mentioned  (2  Sam.  xx,  9 ;  Psa. 
Ixxv,  10 ;  Prov.  xxvii,  G ;  Luke  vii,  45  [1st  clause] ;  xxii, 
48 ;  Acts  XX,  37) ;  (4)  as  a  mark  of  real  or  affected  con- 
descension (2  Sam.  XV,  5 ;  xix,  39)  ;  (5)  respect  from  an 
inferior  (Luke  vii,  38,  45,  and  perhaps  viii,  44).  In 
other  cases  the  kiss  is  imprinted  on  the  beard  (see  Ar- 
vieux,  iii,  182) ;  sometimes  on  the  hair  of  the  head  (see 
U'Grville,  Ad  Chariton,  viii,  4),  which  was  then  taken 
hold  of  by  the  hand  (2  Sam.  xx,  9).  Among  the  Arabs 
the  women  and  children  kiss  the  beards  of  their  hus- 
bands or  fathers.  TIic  superior  returns  the  salute  by  a 
kiss  on  tlie  forehead.  Kissing  the  hand  of  another  ap- 
pears to  be  a  modern  practice.  In  I'^gypt  an  inferior 
kisses  the  hand  of  a  sujierior,  generally  on  the  back,  but 
sometimes,  as  a  special  favor,  on  tlie  palm  also.  To  tes- 
tify abject  submission,  and  iu  asking  favors,  the  feet  are 
often  kissed  iustead  of  the  hand  (Luke  vii,  38).  "The 
son  kisses  the  hand  of  his  father,  the  wife  that  of  her 
husband,  the  slave,  and  often  the  free  servaut,  that  of 
the  master.  The  slaves  and  servants  of  a  grandee  kiss 
their  lord's  sleeve,  or  the  skirt  of  his  clotlnng"  (Lane, 
Mod.  A'f/.  ii,  9;  compare  Arvieux,  Trar.  p.  151 ;  Rurck- 
hardt,  7';-«r.  i,3G9  ;  Niebuhr,  I'o//.  i,  329 ;  ii.93;  Layard, 
Nin.  i,  174;  Wellsted,  .1  rnhia,  i,'341 ;  Malcolm,  SJcf-tches 
f)/'/V/■.s■^^^  p.  271).  Friends  saluting  each  other  join  the 
right  hand,  then  each  kisses  liis  owu  liand.  .'md  puts  it 
to  his  lips  and  forehead,  or  l)reast ;  after  a  lung  absence 
they  embrace  each  other,  kissing  tirst  on  the  right  side 
of  the  face  or  neck,  and  then  on  the  left,  or  on  both  sides 


of  the  beard  (Lane,  ii,  9, 10 ;  comp.  Irby  and  IMangles,  p. 
IIG ;  Chardin,  Voi/df/e,  iii,  421 ;  Burckhardt,  Notes,  i,  3G9 ; 
Russell,  A  leppo,  i,  240).  The  jjassage  of  Job  xxxi,  27, 
'•  Or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand,"  is  not  iu  point 
(see  Menken,  Dissert,  in  p.  1.,  Lipsiw,  1711;  Doughta'i, 
Analecl.  i,  211 ;  Kieseling,  in  the  Kov.  JllisceU.  Lips,  ix, 
595;  Biittiger,  Kuiistmi/t/iol.  i,  52),  and  refers  to  idola- 
trous usages  (sec  L.  Weger,  T)e  osc.  maims  iJolairica, 
Reglom.  1G98),  namely,  the  adoration  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  (comp.  Cicero,  ]'ei:  iv,  43 ;  Gesenius,  Comment,  on 
Isa.  xlix,  23).  See  Adoratiox.  It  was  the  custom  to 
throw  liisses  towards  the  images  of  the  gods,  and  to- 
wards the  sun  and  moon  (1  Kings  xix,  18 ;  IIos.  xiii,  2 ; 
comp.  Minuc.  Felix,  ii,  5 ;  Tacit.  I/ist.  iii,  24,  3  ;  Lucian, 
De  /Salt.  c.  17;  Pliny,  Hist.  Aat.  xxviii,  5).  The  kiss- 
ing of  princes  was  a  token  of  homage  (Psa.  ii,  12 ;  1  Sam. 
X,  1 ;  Xenophon,  Cijrop.  vii,  o,  32).  So  probably  in  Gen. 
xli,  40,  "  Upon  thy  mouth  shall  all  my  jieojilc  kiss," 
where  the  Auth.Yers.  interpets,  "According  to  thy  word 
shall  all  my  people  be  ruled"  (see  Gesenius,  Thesaur. 
Ileh.  p.  923).  AVc  may  compare  the  jMohammedan  cus- 
tom of  kissing  the  Kaaba  at  ]\Iecca  (Burckhardt,  Trar. 
i,  250,  298,  323;  Crichton.  Arabia,  ii,  215).  Xenophon 
says  (Ar/esH.  v,  4)  that  it  was  a  national  custom  with 
the  Persians  to  kiss  whomsoever  they  honored ;  and  a 
curious  passage  to  this  effect  may  be  found  in  the  Ci/ro- 
pcedia  (i,  4,  27).  Kissing  the  feet  of  princes  was  a  token 
of  subjection  and  obedience,  which  was  sometimes  car- 
ried so  far  that  the  print  of  the  foot  received  the  kiss, 
so  as  to  give  the  impression  that  the  very  dust  had  be- 
come sacred  by  the  royal  tread,  or  that  the  subject  was 
not  worthy  to  salute  even  the  prince's  foot,  but  was  con- 
tent to  kiss  the  earth  itself  near  or  on  which  he  trod 
(Isa.  xlix,  33;  Micah  vii,  17;  Psa.  Ixxii,  9;  comp.  Gen. 
xli,  40 ;  1  Sam.  xxiv,  8 ;  Matt,  xxviii,  9 ;  see  Dion  Cass, 
lix,  27 ;  Seneca,  De  Bene/,  ii,  12).  Similar  usages  pre- 
vail among  the  Orientals  to  the  present  day  (see  Wil- 
kinson, Anc.  Erj.  ii,  203  ;  Layard,  Ninev.  i,  274 ;  Harmer, 
Obs.  i,  33G;  Niebuhr,  Travels,  i,  414;  comp.  Assemani, 
Bibl.  Or.  i,  377 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rab.  p.  233  ;  Barhebr.  Chron. 
p.  148,  189,  569).  The  Rabbins,  in  the  meddlesome, 
scrupulous,  and  falsely  delicate  spirit  which  animated 
much  of  what  they  wrote,  did  not  permit  more  than 
three  kinds  of  kisses — the  kiss  of  reverence,  of  reception, 
and  of  dismissal  (^Breshith  Rabba  on  Gen.  xxix.  11). 

The  pecidiar  tendency  of  the  Christian  religion  to 
encourage  honor  towards  all  men,  as  men,  to  foster  and 
develop  the  softer  affections,  and,  in  the  trying  condi- 
tion of  the  early  Church,  to  make  its  members  intimate- 
ly known  one  to  another,  and  miite  them  in  the  closest 
bonds,  led  to  the  observance  of  kissing  as  an  accompani- 
ment of  that  social  worship  wliich  took  its  origin  in  the 
very  cradle  of  our  religion.  (See  Coteler,  ^Id  comtituf. 
A  post,  ii,  57;  Fessel,  .1  t/cc  rs.  sacr.  p.  283.)  Hence  the 
exhortation,  "  Salute  each  other  with  a  holy  kiss"  (Rom. 
xvi,  16 ;  see  also  1  Cor.  xvi,  20 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12 ;  1  Thess. 
V,  26;  in  1  Pet.  v,  14  it  is  termed  "a  kiss  of  charity"). 
"  It  might,  perhaps,  be  understood  among  the  members 
of  the  Church  that  the  kiss  was  to  be  exchanged  be- 
tween persons  of  the  same  sex  only,  though  no  direc- 
tion to  this  effect  is  found  in  the  apostolic  epistles,  and 
it  is  known  that  in  process  of  time  the  heathen  took  oc- 
casion from  the  practice  to  reproach  the  Christians  for 
looseness  of- manners.  On  this  account  care  was  taken 
(as  ajipears  from  the  Apostolical  Constitutions)  to  main- 
tain iu  respect  to  it  the  distinction  of  sexes;  but  the 
practice  itself  was  kept  up  f<ir  centuries,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  celebration  of  the  Supper.  It  was 
regarded  as  the  si>ecial  token  of  perfect  reconciUation 
and  concord  among  the  members  of  the  Clunch,  and 
was  called  simply  the  peace  {ilpijrij),  or  the  Iciss  of  peace 
(osculum  pacis).  It  was  exchanged  in  the  Eastern 
Church  before,  but 'in  the  Western  after  the  consecra- 
tion prayer.  L^ltimately,  however,  it  was  discontinued 
as  a  badge  of  Cliristian  fellowship,  or  a  part  of  any 
Christian  solemnity"  (Fairbairn).  (See  Apost.  Constif. 
ii,  67  ;  viii,  il ;  Just.  Mart.  Ajiol.  i,  (io;  Palmer,  On  Lit. 


KISSOS 


113 


KITE 


ii,  102,  aiid  note  from  Du  Cange;  Kw^hamjChri.ff.  An- 
tiq.  b.  xii,  c.  iv,  §  5,  vol.  \v,  49 ;  b.  ii,  c.  xi,  §  10,  vol.  i,  1(51 ; 
b.  ii,  c.  xix,  §  17,  vol.  i,  272;  b.  iv,  c.  vi,  §  14,  vol.  i,  526 ; 
b.  xxii,  c.  iii,  §  6,  vol.  vii,  316 ;  see  also  Cod.Just.V.  Tit. 
iii,  16,  de  Don.  ante  Niipt.;  Brande,  Pop.  Antiq.  ii,  87). 
The  peculiar  circumstances  have  now  vanished  which 
gave  propriety  and  emphasis  to  such  an  expression  of 
brotherly  love  and  Christian  friendship.  (See  Wemyss, 
C'lavis  Symbolica,  s.  v.)  The  kiss  of  peace  still  forms 
part  of  one  of  the  rites  of  the  Romish  Church.  It  is 
given  immediately  before  the  communion ;  the  clergy- 
man who  celebrates  mass  kissing  the  altar,  and  em- 
bracing the  deacon,  saying,  "  Pax  tibi,  frater,  ct  ecclesiiB 
sanct;^  Dei ;'"  the  deacon  does  the  same  to  the  subdea- 
con,  saying,  "  Pax  tecum ;"'  the  latter  then  salutes  the 
others. 

Kissing  the  foot  or  toe  has  been  required  by  the  popes 
as  a  sign  of  respect  from  the  secular  power  since  the  8th 
century.  The  first  who  received  this  honor  was  jiope 
Constantine  I.  It  was  paid  him  by  the  emperor  Jus- 
tinian If,  on  his  entry  into  Constantinople  in  710.  Val- 
entine I,  about  827,  required  every  one  to  kiss  his  foot, 
and  from  that  time  this  mark  of  reverence  appears  to 
have  been  expected  by  all  popes.  When  the  ceremony 
takes  place,  the  pope  wears  a  slipper  with  a  cross,  which 
is  kissed.  In  more  recent  times,  Protestants  have  not 
been  required  to  kiss  the  pope's  foot,  but  merely  to  bend 
tlie  knee  slightly.     See  Adoration. 

On  tlie  suljject  of  this  article  generally,  consult  Em- 
merich, De  OacuUs  up.  Vtt.  ill  discesim  (Meining.  1783); 
Heckcl,  De  Osculis  (Lipsia?,  1689) ;  Pfanner,  De.  Oscidis 
Christiano?:  Veter.,  in  his  Obs.  Sac?:  ii,  131-201 ;  Kem- 
pius,  Z>e  Osculis  (Francof.  1680);  Jac.  Herrenschmidius, 
0.<!Ci(lof/ia  (Viteb.  1630);  Muller,Z>e  Osculo  Sancto  (Jena, 
1674)  ;  Boberg,  De  Osculis  Ilebi:  ;  Lomeier,  Diss,  fjenial. 
p.  328;  alsoinUgolini,7'(^fS(7?(r.vol.  xx;  Gotz,  De  Osculo 
(Jena,  1670);  hange,  Friedenhiss  d.alten  Christen  (Leipz. 
1747) ;  compare  Fabricius,  Bihliofp:  andquar.  p.  lOlG  sq. ; 
and  other  monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index,  p.  55, 
147.    See  Salutation. 

Kissos.     See  I\"i'. 

Kisteniaker,  Johann  Hyacintii,  a  celebrated  Ro- 
man Catholic  theologian,  was  born  August  15, 1754,  at 
Nordhorn,  in  Hanover,  and  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Minister.  He  was  ordained  priest  Dec.  22, 1777, 
but  filled  the  rostrum  instead  of  the  ])ulpit,  and  became 
quite  celebrated  for  his  attainments  as  a  linguist.  In 
1786  he  was  elected  professor  of  philology  at  his  alma 
niator,  and  in  1795  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  Bib- 
lical exegesis.  He  died  March  2, 1834.  Of  his  numer- 
ous works  we  have  room  here  only  for  the  titles  of 
those  most  important  in  theology,  which  are,  Commen- 
tatio  de  nova  exegesi  prcEcip)ue  Veteris  Testamenti  ex  col- 
laiis  scriptoribus  Greeds  et  Romctnis  scripta  (iMiinster. 
1806)  -.—Exefjet.  Abhandlnnr/  iiber  Matt,  xvi,  18,  10,  and 
xix,  3-12.  oder  iiber  den  Primat  Petri  und  das  IChehand : 
— Exegesis  critica  in  Psalmos  Ixvii,  et  cix,  et  excuisus 
in  Daniel  iii  defornace  ignis  (1809)  : — Weissagung  Jesu 
vom  Gericht  iiber  Judda  und  die  Welt,  etc.  (1816): — 
Canticum  canticorum  illustratum  ex  Hierographia  Ori- 
entallum  (1818):  —  Weissagung  vom  Dnmanuel  (1824); 
and  especially  Biblia  sacra  Vulgatw  editionis  juxta  ex- 
emplar Vaticanum  (1824,3  vols.),  dedicated  to  pope  Leo 
XII;  and  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament  (1825), 
which  is  largely  circulated  among  the  Roman  Catholics 
of  Germany.  Sec  Hamberger,  Das  gekhrte  Deutschland, 
Appendix, vols. xviii  and  xxiii;  Wetzer  und  Weltc, A'tV- 
chen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  xii,  671  sq.      (.J.  H.  W.) 

Kite  (rfX,  agyah',  so  called  from  its  clamorous  cry ; 
Sept.  iKTtv  V.  r.  ((>;r(i'oc,Vulg. vidtur ;  but  in  Job.  xxviii, 
7.  yi'i,  Auth. Version  "vulture"),  an  unclean  and  kecn- 
sight.cd  bird  of  prey  (Lev.  xi,  14 ;  Dent.  xiv.  13).  The 
version  of  I'seudo-Jonathan  lias  the  black  culture ;  the 
Venetian  Greek  koXoiui',  or  jackdaic ;  Kimchi  STX3,  or 
magpie;  Saadias  and  Abelwahd  the  male /i or ncd  otvl — 
most  of  which  are  evidentlv  mere  conjectures,  with  lit- 
V.*— H 


tie  regard  to  the  context,  which  classes  the  bird  in 
question  with  other  species  of  the  falcon  tribe.  See 
(tLede.  The  allusion  in  Job  alone  affords  a  clew  to  its 
identification.  The  deep  mines  in  the  recesses  of  the 
mountains  from  which  the  labor  of  man  extracts  the 
treasures  of  the  earth  are  there  described  as  "a  track 
which  the  bird  of  prey  hath  not  known,  nor  hath  the 
eye  of  the  ayyah  looked  upon  it."  Bochart  (^Iliernz.  ii, 
193  sq.,  779),  regarding  the  etymology  of  the  word,  con- 
nected it  with  the  Arabic  al-yuyu,  a  kind  of  hawk,  so 
called  from  its  cry  ydyd,  described  by  Damir  as  a  small 
bird  with  a  short  tail,  used  in  hunting,  and  remarkable 
for  its  great  courage,  the  swiftness  of  its  flight,  and  the 
keenness  of  its  vision,  which  is  made  the  subject  of 
praise  in  an  Arabic  stanza  quoted  by  Damir.  The  Eng- 
lish designate  it  as  the  merlin,  the  Falco  cesalon  of  Lin- 
nffius,  which  is  the  same  as  the  Greek  ahaXiov  and 
Latin  cesalo.    This  smallest  of  British  hawks  is  from  ten 


English  Merlin. 


to  twelve  inches  long ;  the  male  with  blue-gray  "back 
and  wings,  body  rufous ;  the  female  dark  brown  back 
and  wings,  with  brownish-white  body  (see  Penny  Cyclop. 
s.  V.  Merlin).  Gesenius,  however  (Thesaur.  p.  39),  is  in- 
clined to  regard  the  Hebrew  term  as  a  general  denomi- 
nation of  the  hawk  genus,  on  account  of  the  addition 
n3i72?,  after  its  kind.  See  Hawk.  "  The  Talmud  goes 
so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  four  Hebrew  words  rendered 
in  the  A.V.  'vulture,'  'glcde,'  and  'kite,' denote  one  and 
the  same  bird  (Lewysohn, Zoo/o^«e  des  Talniuds,^  196). 
Seetzen  (i,  310)  mentions  a  species  of  falcon  used  in  Syria 
for  hunting  gazelles  and  hares,  and  a  smaller  kind  for 
hunting  hares  in  the  desert.  Russell  {Aleppo,  ii,  196) 
enumerates  seven  different  kinds  employed  by  the  na- 
tives for  the  same  purpose.  Robertson  (Claris  Penta- 
teuchi)  derives  ayyah  from  the  Hob.  n^N,  an  obsolete 
root,  which  he  connects  with  an  Arabic  wortl,  the  pri- 


Ked  Kite. 


KITHLISII 


114 


KITTO 


man*  mcanin;;  of  which,  according  to  Schultcns,  is  '  to 
turn.'  Iftliis  derivation  be  the  true  one,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that '  kite'  is  the  correct  rendering.  The  hab- 
it which  birds  of  this  genus  have  of 'saiUng  in  circles, 
with  the  riulder-like  tail  by  its  inclination  governing 
the  curve,'  as  Yarrell  says,  accords  with  the  Arabic  deri- 
vation" (Smith).  Wood  (/iih/e  Ai/ii/uifg,  p.  358)  inclines 
to  adopt  Tristram's  identification  of  the  aijynh  with  the 
red  kite  {Milvns  regalis),  which  is  scattered  all  over  Pal- 
estine, feeding  chietly  on  the  smaller  birds,  mice,  reptiles, 
and  fish.  Its  piercing  sight  and  soaring  habits  pecul- 
iarly suit  the  passage  in  Job.     See  Vultuue. 

Kith'lish  (Ileb.  KithUsh',  d-^bna,  prob.  for  bns 
Ui"'X,  a  mini's  wall;  Sept.  Xa^aXiic  v.  r.  KaSrXwQ  and 
M«rtX''^C'^""^S'  eel/ills'),  a  town  in  the  valley  or  plain 
(Sheplielah)  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Lalnnam  and 
Gederoth  (Josh,  xv,  40)  ;  evidently  situated  in  the 
south-western  group,  possibly  at  the  "  mound  and  some 
foundations  called  JelameK^  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii, 
38(3),  on  wady  el-IIeroy,  between  Gaza  and  Lachish 
(Van  de  Velde,  Map).  A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Diction- 
ari/,  s.  v.,  proposes  the  ruined  site  el-Jilas  given  by 
Smith  (in  Robinson's  Res.  iii,  Appendix,  p.  119)  in  this 
vicinity;  but  this  is  not  laid  down  on  any  map,  if,  in- 
deed, it  be  not  the  same  place  as  the  above.  The  deri- 
vation proposed  by  the  same  writer  for  the  name  Kith- 
lish,  from  rriS,  io  crush,  and  TIJ"'?,  a  lion,  as  if  it  were 
the  haunt  of  that  animal,  is  fancifid,  and  unwarranted 
by  any  allusion  of  the  kind  in  the  text;  the  form,  more- 
over, woidd  then  have  been  O'^PPlS. 

Kit'roii  (Heb.  Kitron',  "(ill^p,  Icnotttj,  otherwise 
curtailed,  or  castle;  Sept.  Ksrpojv  v.  r.  Js.i(^piov,  and 
even  XeiSuoJf),  a  city  of  Zebulon  from  which  the  Israel- 
ites were  long  unable  to  expel  tlie  native  Canaanites 
(.Judg.  i,  30).  It  is  very  possibly  the  same  elsewhere 
called  Kattatii  (Josh,  xix,  15),  notwithstanding  the 
objection  of  Keil  {Comment,  on  Josh,  ad  loc.)  that  this 
and  all  the  other  names  are  needed  as  distinct  cities  in 
order  to  make  up  the  number  twelce  there  specified ;  for 
even  thus  the  number  will  be  incomplete,  without  either 
supposing  the  text  corrupt  or  borroAving  from  those  enu- 
merated in  the  preceding  verses  (doubtless  the  true  so- 
lution), in  either  of  which  cases  these  three  names,  so 
nearly  identical  (Kattah,  Kartah,  Kitron),  may  be  as- 
signed to  one  place.  Schwarz  (Palest,  p.  173),  on  Tal- 
mudical  grounds,  apparently  incorrectly,  identifies  it 
with  Scpphoris  (q.  v.). 

Kit'tim  (den.  x,  4;  2  Chron.  i,  7).     See  Ciiittiji. 

Kittle,  Andrew  N.,  a  minister  of  the  Reformed 
(Dutch)  Church,  was  born  at  Kindcrhook,  N.  Y.,  in  1785, 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1804,  studied  theology 
under  Drs.  Frocligh  and  Livingston,  and  entered  the 
ministry  in  1800.  Until  1846  he  Avas  successively  pas- 
tor of  the  churches  of  Red  Hook  Landing  and  St.  John's, 
Linlithgo,  Upper  Red  Hook,  and  Stuyvesant.  Early 
consecrated  to  the  Lord,  he  was  an  able,  vigorous,  and 
indefatigable  minister  of  Jesus  Christ.  Though  he  was 
of  good  record  as  a  theologian  and  a  general  scholar, 
possessed  of  strong  common  sense,  and  fond  of  reading, 
his  retiring  disposition  kept  him  aloof  from  the  agita- 
ting controversies  and  public  excitements  of  the  times. 
Aspiring  only  to  be  a  preacher  and  pastor,  he  dwelt 
among  his  people  until  the  inlirmitics  of  age  constrained 
him  to  give  up  the  active  ministry.  He  died  in  18(54. 
Kittle  was  a  man  of  tine  features  and  noble  form,  a  dig- 
nilied  Christian  gentleman,  Riid  a  true  man  of  God. — 
Corwin,  Manual  of  R,f.  Church,  p.  12G.     (W.  J,  R.  T.) 

Kitto,  John,  one  of  the  most  eminent  Biblical  schol- 
ars of  this  age,  was  born  at  riymouth,  England,  Nov.  4, 
IMOI.  To  humlile  birth  was  addedj  in  his  twelfth  year, 
the  atilictiou  of  a  total  loss  of  his  sense  of  bearing;  but 
neither  [loverty  nor  bodily  defei  t  were  suflicicnt  to  deter 
tlie  aml)itious  and  energetic  youth  from  the  accpiisition 
of  knowledge.     Every  effort  that  could  possibly  be  put 


forth  to  secure  books  was  made ;  to  pay  for  a  few  books 
from  a  circulating  library,  he  groped  for  old  iron  and 
ropes  in  Sutton  Pool,  and  with  the  few  pennies  obtained 
by  this  irksome  task  he  supplied  himself  witli  the  ele- 
ments of  an  education.  The  destitution  of  his  parents 
obliged  them  at  last  to  place  John  in  the  "workhouse" 
at  riymouth,  where  he  was  admitted  Nov.  15, 1819,  and 
taught  the  shoemaker's  trade.  In  this  place  his  pow- 
erful will  soon  asserted  his  position  against  older  and 
stronger  boys,  and  here  he  began  in  1820  a  diary  winch 
is  still  preserved,  and  large  excerpts  from  which  have 
been  printed  in  his  Life.  It  contains  many  self-portraits, 
physical  and  mental,  and  shows  the  awakening  of  his 
mind  to  Hterary  tastes  and  ambition.  In  his  trade, 
however,  he  was  often  so  dull  and  dispirited  that  he 
called  himself  '•  Jolni  the  Comfortless,"  nnd  twice  had 
thoughts  of  bringing  his  life  to  a  premature  end.  In 
1821  he  was  hired  out  to  a  shoemaker,  but  his  awk- 
wardness and  tendency  to  books  greatly  irritated  his 
master,  and  John  was  submitted  to  such  harsh  treat- 
ment that  he  was  readmitted  to  the  workhouse  about 
six  months  later.  In  the  year  following  he  finally 
brought  out  some  essays  in  Nettleton's  Phjuiouth  Jour- 
nal, and  also  wrote  some  imaginary  correspondence. 
These  efforts  attracted  attention,  and  he  was  by  the  in- 
terposition of  several  gentlemen  removed  to  Exeter  to 
become  a  dentist.  In  1825  he  published  a  volume  of 
Essays  and  Letters,  which,  though  it  afforded  him  but  a 
small  pccuniarj-  remuneration,  secured  him  many  friends, 
made  him  quite  generally  known,  and  finally  resulted 
in  a  complete  change  of  basis  for  life.  Instead  of  per- 
fecting himself  in  the  art  of  dentistry,  he  accepted  an 
offer  to  enter  the  ^Missionary  College  at  Islington,  where 
he  was  to  be  taught  the  art  of  printing  ^vith  a  view  to 
service  in  some  foreign  missionary  institution.  In  June, 
1827,  he  was  sent  out  to  Malta;  but,  his  health  declin- 
ing, he  returned  to  England  in  1829.  Shortly  after  this 
his  former  employer,  Mr.  Groves,  the  dentist,  desired  a 
tutor  for  his  children,  to  accompany  him  on  a  tour  East, 
and  selected  Kitto  for  the  position.  He  was  now  af- 
forded a  sight  of  a  large  part  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
acquired  that  familiarity  with  the  scenery  and  customs 
of  the  East  which  was  aftervrards  of  such  signal  service 
in  the  department  of  literature  to  which  he  became  de- 
voted. In  turn  he  visited  St.  Petersburg,  Astrachan, 
the  Calmucks,  Tatars,  the  Caucasus,  Armenia,  Persia, 
and  Bagdad,  and  liy  way  of  Trebizond  and  Constanti- 
nople retimied  to  England  in  1833.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  friends  he  gained  attention  by  a  series  of  papers 
in  the  Pennij  M(i<i<izine  (one  of  these  under  the  sugges- 
tive title  "  The  Deaf  Traveller"),  and  by  other  literary 
efforts. 

In  1835  Kitto  finally  entered  upon  the  preparation 
of  that  class  of  Avorks  which  have  so  justly  secured  him 
a  prominent  place  in  the  field  of  letters.  In  this  j^ear 
Mr.  Charles  Knight,  then  the  editor  of  the  Penny  Mag- 
azine, suggested  to  Kitto  the  preparation  of  a  "Picto- 
rial Bible."  All  that  Kitto  needed  was  the  suggestion. 
He  not  onh'  eagerly  emljraced  the  proposal,  but  earnest- 
ly entreated  to  be  allowed  to  undertake  the  responsibil- 
ity of  the  entire  work.  The  expiration  of  scarcely  more 
than  two  j-ears  saw  the  Pictorial  Bible  finished  (new 
edit.  1847,  4  vols.  8vo),  and  shortly  after  (in  1838)  he 
embodied  a  great  portion  of  his  experience  in  Persia  in 
two  small  volumes,  Uncle  Olircr's  Trar-els,  Next  fol- 
lowed (1839-40)  n.  Pictorial  History  of  Pakdine  and  the 
Holy  Land.  From  1841  to  1843  he  found  employment 
in  preparing  the  letter-press  for  the  Galh  ry  of  Scripture 
Enyravinr/s,  in  3  vols.  In  1843  he  wrote  a  History  of 
Palestine  (iniblished  by  A.  and  C.  Black,  of  Edinbm-gh), 
and  Thoughts  among  Flowers  (published  by  the  Relig- 
ious Tract  Society).  Irt  1845  he  prc])ared  The  Pictorial 
Sunday  Jiook,  and  commenced  the  work  which,  in  its 
latest  form  (3d  edition),  still  constitutes  one  of  the  best 
works  of  the  kind  in  any  language,  the  Cyclopirdia  of 
/liblical  Literatui-e.  See  Dictionaries,  Biulical. 
Though  the  work  already  accomplished  (up  to  1848} 


KLAIBER 


115 


KLEE 


would  have  sufficed  for  the  lifetime  of  almost  any  man, 
Kitto  labored  on  indefatigably,  and  not  only  brought  out 
contributions  of  great  value,  but  originated  and  edited 
the  Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  a  quarterly,  which,  by 
its  masterly  productions,  has  made  English  scholarship 
famous  even  among  the  all-knowing  Teutons.  He  con- 
tinued the  editorship  of  the  Journal  until  1853.  His 
last  and  most  popular  work  was  the  JJailij  liible  Illus- 
trations, completed  in  eight  volumes.  During  its  prog- 
ress his  health  gave  way,  and  he  retired  to  Cannstadt, 
near  Stuttgard,  in  Germany,  where  he  died,  Nov.  25, 
1854.  Dr.  Kitto's  services  to  the  cause  of  Scripture 
learning  were  great  in  his  own  sphere.  He  revived  and 
freshened  the  study  of  Eastern  manners,  and  his  orig- 
ination of  his  C'/dopmdia  marks  an  epoch  in  the  Bibli- 
cal literature  of  England.  Our  own  work  is  not  unfre- 
qucntly  dependent  upon  the  labors  of  this  extraordinary 
character.  His  life  itself,  with  his  physical  defect  and 
early  privations,  was  a  marvel  of  self-education  and  he- 
roic perseverance.  The  University  of  Giessen  in  ISH 
honored  him  with  the  doctorate  of  divinity,  though  he 
was  a  layman.  An  interesting  autobiography  is  con- 
tained in  his  Lost  Senses.  See  Kitto,  O/clcp.  Bibl.  Lit. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Enylish  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  AUibonc,  Diet.  Emjl. 
and  A  m.  A  uth.  s.  v. ;  Memoirs  of  John  Kitto,  D.D.,  com- 
piled chiefly  from  his  letters  and  journals,  by  J.  E.  Ky- 
land,  M.A. ;  with  a  Critical  Estimate  of  Dr.  Kitto's  Life 
and  Writings,  by  Prof.  Eadie,  D.D.  (Edinb.  and  London, 
1856,  8vo)";  Eadie,  John,  Life  of  Kitto  (Edinb.  1857, 
8vo) ;  L^ond.Athen(Bum,\iibl,5\.me.1~;  North  lirit.  Rev. 
Feb.  1847 ;  Littell,  Licimj  Age,  lii,  445  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Klaiber,  Christian  Benjamin,  a  German  tlieolo- 
gian,  was  born  Sept.  15,  1795,  in  Wiirtemberg,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Tiibingeii,  where  he  be- 
came a  professor  of  theology  in  1823.  Later  he  removed 
to  Stetten,  in  Kemsthal,  as  pastor,  and  died  in  183G.  He 
published  Studien  der  Wiirttemhergischen  Geistlichkeit. 

Klarenbach,  Adolf,  a  noted  martyr  of  the  Refor- 
mation, was  born  at  the  close  of  the  15th  century,  near 
the  city  of  Lennep,  in  the  d  uchy  of  Berg,  and  eagerly  pur- 
sued his  studies  first  at  jNIilnster,  then  at  Cologne,  under 
two  instructors  who  afterwards  became  his  inquisitors. 
He  became  master  of  a  school  at  jMiinster  in  1520,  and 
sought  to  impart  his  new  views  of  faith  to  his  pupUs. 
On  this  account  lie  was  driven  successively  from  IMlin- 
ster,  W'esel,  Buderich,  and  Osnabriick,  followed  some- 
times by  those  who  had  come  under  his  instruction. 
He  became  at  last  a  preacher  in  his  native  region,  bold- 
ly fulfilling  his  mission,  notwithstanding  the  anxious  re- 
monstrances of  his  parents  and  the  threats  of  the  mag- 
istrates, and  on  finally  leaving  Lenneji  he  addressed  to 
the  authorities  of  the  city  a  defence  from  Scripture  of 
his  decidedly  Lutheran  position,  declaring  that,  should 
they  even  take  his  life,  "  they  could  not  take  from  him 
Christ,  his  everlasting  life."  At  Cologne,  in  the  spring 
of  1528,  he  undertook  the  defence  of  an  old  friend  ami 
colaborer,  Klopreiss,  and  was  himself  thereupon  impris- 
oned with  his  friend.  He  was  heard  before  the  civil, 
and  later  before  the  ecclesiastical  court,  in  presence  of 
his  two  former  instructors,  Arnold  von  Zongern  and  Jo- 
hann  von  Venradt.  Theodore  Fabricius,  who  had  him- 
'self  suffered  much  in  Cologne  in  behalf  of  the  evangel- 
ical doctrine,  made  great  efforts  for  Klarenbach's  release. 
He  succeeded  in  delivering  Klopreiss,  and  there  came 
an  imperial  requisition  from  Speicr  upon  the  city  of  Co- 
logne to  show  cause  why  Klarenljach  ^^•as  detained. 
The  city  disregarded  the  subsequent  judgment  of  the 
imperial  court  in  the  prisoner's  favor,  and  said  "  it  knew 
no  supreme  court,  but  only  a  dungeon  court."  Into  the 
archbishop's  dungeon  Klarenbach  was  now  thrown  with 
others,  especially  Peter  Flysteden.  On  the  4th  of  March, 
1520,  Klarenbach,  exhorted  to  firmness  and  bravery  by 
his  friend  Peter,  was  taken  from  the  dungeon  for  final 
judgment  before  the  incpasitors.  The  grand  inquisitor, 
KiiUin,  solemnly  admonished  him  to  a  definite  retrac- 
tion. No  free  address,  notwithstanding  the  clamors  of 
the  spectators  for  it,  was  permitted  him.     After  the  ex- 


ample of  Paul  he  appealed  to  the  emperor,  but  the  ap- 
peal was  only  set  down  as  another  strong  evidence  of 
heresy ;  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  on  the  19th 
of  Jlarch,  and  the  city  council  determined  upon  its  exe- 
cution. Farther  attempts  were  made  during  the  subse- 
quent months  of  his  imprisonment  to  turn  the  martyr 
from  his  faith.  "  It  will  cost  j'ou  your  neck,"  it  was 
said.  "  Here  it  is,"  replied  he,  bending  his  neck ;  ••  this 
you  can  have,  but  not  your  will  with  me."  In  the  au- 
tumn a  destructive  pestilence  visited  Cologne,  and  the 
priests  declared  it  a  judgment  of  heaven  upon  heresy 
and  the  sin  of  forbearance  with  heretics.  The  27th  of 
September  had  come.  Through  an  air-hole  of  the  dun- 
geon, the  prisoners  were  asked  if  they  stiD  stood  by  their 
opinions.  "As  long  as  God  will,"  replied  Ivlarenbach. 
Efforts  of  his  relatives  at  persuasion,  and  of  the  monks 
who  accompanied  them,  were  unavailing.  Both  the  pris- 
oners went  forth  courageously.  Minute  events  in  the 
passage  of  the  procession,  the  contending  sentiments 
which  it  awakened  in  the  spectators,  and  the  whole  dra- 
matic power  of  the  scene,  are  depicted  in  a  publication 
of  that  day  entitled  Alle  Acta  Adolphi  Klarenbach — 
written  professedly  by  an  eye  and  ear  witness.  The 
prophecy  uttered  by  Klarenbach  on  his  way  to  the  stake 
has  metits  fulfilment :  "  Oh  Cologne,  Cologne,  how  thou 
dost  persecute  the  Word  of  God !  a  cloud  is  in  the  sky 
which  will  yet  bring  down  a  rain  of  righteousness." — 
Herzog,  Real-Encgklopddie,  vol.  xix,  s.  v.     (E.  B.  0.) 

Klaus,  Brother.     See  Flue,  Nicholas  of. 

Klauser,  Salomon,  a  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  in  1745 ;  entered  the  ministry  in 
17(j8,  and  was  called  to  a  pastorate  in  his  native  place 
in  1784,  where  he  died  April  14, 179G.  Klauser  has  left 
us  only  a  few  of  his  sermons,  but  these  all  evince  supe- 
rior scholarship.  A  selection  of  them  was  printed  in 
1798,  and  was  accompanied  with  an  introduction  by  Dr. 
H.  A.  Niemeyer.  A  list  of  those  printed  is  given  by 
During,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Klausing,  Anton  Ernst,  a  German  theologian  of 
some  note,  was  born  at  Hervordeh,  in  Westphalia,  April 
11, 1729,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Leipzig.  He 
travelled  for  three  years  in  Holland,  Italy,  and  England, 
and  on  his  return  taught  at  Leipzig.  He  died  Juh'  6, 
1803.  Klausing  was  thoroughly  conversant  with  sev- 
eral modern  languages,  and  besides  translations  of  the 
Sermons  of  Sterne,  Khufs  Usages  in  the  Greek  Church 
of  Russia,  a  collection  of  the  latest  works  on  the  I/istor'/ 
of  the  Jesuits  in  Portugal,  etc.,  he  published  several  val- 
uable theological  works.  The  most  important  of  his 
original  productions  are,  perhaps,  Commentatio  super  loco 
L'auli  ad  Rom.  ix,  23,  24  (Hate,  1754,  4to) : — Uistorice 
controx'ersioi  recentissimm  inter  Pontificem  Romanum  et 
rempublicam  Genuensem,  etc.  (Lips.  17(55, 4to).  See  Do- 
ring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschl.  ii,  106  sq. 

Klebitz  (Klebitus),Wilhelm,  a  German  theolo- 
gian of  tlie  Reformation  period,  and  favorably  inclined 
to  the  reformatory  movement,  flourished  at  Freyburg 
about  1560.  Nothing  further  is  known  of  his  personal 
history.  He  wrote  De  buccella  intincta,  quam  comedit 
Judas,  Matt,  xxvi,  contained  in  the  Crit.  Sac.  vol.  vi ; 
and,  in  the  bitter  controversy  which  he  waged  with  Hes- 
husius  (q.  v.),  Victnriam  veritatis  ac  ruinam  Papatus 
Suxonici  contra  Tilenuinnum  Ileshusium  de  S.  Synaxi. 

Klee,  Heinkicii,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  Ger- 
man Roman  Catholic  theologians  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  IMunstermaifeld,  near  Coblentz,  April  20,  1800. 
In  1809  he  entered  the  Seniinarium  puerorum  of  Jfay- 
cnce,  and  in  1817  the  great  theological  school  under  Lie- 
bermann.  At  the  early  age  of  nineteen  he  became  a 
professor  in  the  minor  theological  school,  a  situation 
which  he  lield  for  some  ten  years,  and,  in  connection 
with  pastor  Schmitz,  greatly  developed  the  sciences  of 
philology  and  psedagogics.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1823,  became  professor  of  Biblical  exegesis  and  Church 
history  in  the  theological  seminary  in  1825,  and  a  few- 
years  after  professor  of  philosophy.    In  1825  he  attained 


KLEFEKER 


116 


KLEPTOMANIA 


the  (lep^-ee  of  D.D.  at  WUrzburg  by  liis  able  ilissertatioii 
Ih  cliiliasmo primorum  sceculuruin.  In  1827  he  wrote  a 
treatise  on  Auricular  Coiijession,  and  in  1821)  a  conimen- 
tary  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  He  acquired  at  the 
same  time  great  popularity  at  jNIayence  as  a  preach- 
er. So  great,  indeed,  was  his  renown,  that  several  high- 
schools  endeavored  to  secure  him,  but  he  finally  accept- 
ed a  call  to  Bonn  University.  Here  he  gave  great  sat- 
isfaction to  the  strict  Roman  Catholic  party,  but  had  a 
long  and  severe  controversy  with  Hermes  (q.  v.)  and 
the  Ilermesians,  who  were  then  protected  by  the  arch- 
bishop. Klee  taught  the  popular  doctrine  that  faith 
■was  the  basis  of  theology ;  Hermes,  on  the  other  hand, 
inclined  more  to  accept  philosophy  as  its  basis.  With 
Klee,  who  evidently  endeavored  to  infuse  into  the  the- 
ological system  of  Romanism  a  philosophical  metliod, 
objective  reason,  revelation,  Christianity,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  all  having  the  same  origin,  must  nat- 
urally constitute  part  of  an  indivisible  whole,  v.'hich  it 
remained  only  for  subjective  reason  to  prove  by  the  tes- 
timony of  history,  and  to  arrange  in  obedience  to  faith. 
Thus,  with  him,  the  definition  of  religion  was  chiefly  ob- 
jective: "Religion  is  a  union  between  God,  as  truth, 
and  man,  as  recognising  him,"  etc.;  "Religion  is  real- 
ized by  revelation  on  the  part  of  God,  and  bj'  faith  on 
the  part  of  man;"  "The  Church  is  Christianitj'  in  its 
jtrescnt  state  and  activity ;"  "  The  Church,  in  its  natm-e, 
is  such  as  Christ  has  made  it ;"  "  The  inward  and  out- 
ward life  of  the  Church  is  established  and  preserved  by 
the  hierarchy;"  "It  is  the  most  perfect  divine-human 
polity;"  "Christ  established  the  primacy  in  order  to 
jjreserve  the  unity  of  the  hierarchy."  He  argued  against 
Hermes  that  the  Roman  Catholic  doctrine  of  faith  has 
for  the  theologian  and  thinker  the  same  authoritative 
evidence  as  the  empiric  laws  of  nature  for  the  student 
of  natural  philosophy.  This  is  losing  sight  of  the  lact 
tliat  nature  is  the  result  of  necessary  laws,  and  a  pure 
action  of  God,  while  Church  tradition  is  but  the  result 
of  historical  freedom,  which  wc  find  full  of  defects,  and 
has  therefore  to  be  judged  on  the  ground  of  its  origin 
and  of  its  continued  validity.  In  his  theory  Klee  was  a 
Kantian,  but  in  practice  he  was  an  ardent  Roman  Cath- 
olic ajwlogist.  It  maj^  even  be  questioned  whether  the 
strong  traditionalistic  faith  of  Klee  and  his  school,  which 
permits  only  a  historical  demonstration  of  the  truth  of 
revelation,  has  rendered  any  great  and  lasting  service  to 
Roman  Catholic  theology.  Klee's  system  coincides  with 
the  final  development  of  abstract  Protestant  supranat- 
uralism,  inasmuch  as  he  makes  the  truth  of  the  whole 
S}-sicni  of  revelation  to  depend  upon  historical  proofs. 
jMevertlieless  his  system  is  much  more  dangerous  than 
Hermes's,  for  while  the  latter  identified  philosophical 
certainty  with  confidence  of  faith,  Klee  identified  phi- 
losophy with  ecclesiastical  Christianity  itself.  He  gave 
permanent  form  to  these  doctrines  in  System  der  Kuihol. 
Dor/iiuitik  (Bonn,  1831).  "When  Clement  August  became 
archbishop,  Klee's  system  prevailed ;  he  was  appointed 
examinator,  and  his  lectures  on  dogmatics,  which  had 
always  been  well  attended,  were  crowded.  The  exile 
of  the  archbishop,  however,  changed  his  position,  and  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Munich  in  1839.  He  died  there  July 
28, 1841.  Besides  the  above  mentioned  works  he  wrote 
Commtntar  iibcr  d.  A2)ostels  Paidus  Sendschreiben  a.  d. 
Homer  (Mentz,  1830)  ■.—Enajkl.d.  Theolnrjie  (ibid.  1832) : 
— Audi'i;um)  d.Jiriej'es  a.  d.  Ilehriier  (ibid.  1833)  : — Die 
Ebe  (ibid.  1833)  :—}>».  Katlwl.  Ikujmutik  (ibid.  1834-35, 3 
vols. ;  3d  cd.  1844) : — Doymewjeschichte  (ibid.  1835-37,  2 
vols.).  His  Grujidrisx  d.  Kal/iol.  Moi-al  was  published 
after  his  death  (in  1843)  by  llimioben.  See,  besides  the 
authorities  cited  in  the  article  Hermes,  Herzog,  Reul- 
Unq/klojmdie,  vii,  711 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex. 
vi,  213  sq. ;  Migue,  Conclusions,  p.  1239. 

Klefeker,  Bkhnhakd,  a  German  preacher  of  dis- 
tinction, was  born  at  Hamburg  Jan.  12,  1760,  and  was 
educated  at  Leipzig  University,  which  he  entered  in 
1779,  and  where,  under  the  instruction  of  that  eminent 
German  pulpit  orator  ZoUikoffer,  he  laid  the  foimdation 


for  his  future  excellency  as  a  preacher.  In  May,  1791, 
he  was  called  as  regular  preacher  to  Osnabriick,  and, 
after  a  stay  of  five  years,  removed  thence  to  his  native 
city  to  assume  the  pastorate  of  St.  James's  Church. 
Here  he  labored  Avith  great  acceptance  and  success  until 
his  death,  June  10, 1825.  Though  Ivlefeker  aimed  to  be 
eminently  successful  in  the  pidpit,  his  literary  efforts 
betoken  a  mind  of  rare  activity.  He  published,  besides 
several  w^orks  on  ])ractical  religion  and  his  Sermons,  a 
homiletical  magazine  (flomileiisches Ideennuiffazin,  1809- 
19,  8  vols.  8vo)  : — Praktische  Vorlesungen  ii.  das  N.  Test. 
(1811-12,  3  vols.  8vo).  See  Doring,  Deutsche  Kanzel- 
redner,  p.  158  sq. 

Klein,  Priedrich  August,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Fricdrichshaide,  near  Ronneburg,  Nov. 
7,  1793;  entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1811,  and 
became  a  minister  at  Jena  in  1819;  but  only  two  years 
later  lie  was  suddenly  taken  ill,  and  died  Feb.  12,  1823, 
having  a  year  before  his  death  received  the  honorable 
appointment  of  professor  of  theology  at  the  university. 
Klein  published  in  1817  Vertraute  Briefe  ii.  Christentlmm 
u.  Protestantismits,  and  in  1817  began  with  Schroter  the 
publication  of  the  theological  journal  Piir  Christenthnm 
und  Gottesgelahrtheit.  Of  his  other  ]3ublications  the  fol- 
lowing deserve  our  notice:  Eeredsamkeit  des  Geistlichen 
(1818,  8vo): — Grundlinien  des  ReHgidsismvs  (1819,  small 
8vo)  : — PJogmatik  d.  evanr/el.  jjrotesf.  Kirche  (1822,  8vo). 
See  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theologen  Deutschlunds,  ii,  108  sq. 
(J.H.W.) 

Klein,  Georg  Michael,  a  German  Roman  Cath- 
olic priest,  was  born  at  Alizheim  in  1777,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  high-school  in  ^^'^irzburg.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1800,  but,  securing  the  friendship  of  the 
celebrated  German  philosopher  ScheUing,  Klein  there- 
after devoted  himself  zealously  to  the  study  of  meta- 
physics. He  became  professor  at  Wilrzburg  in  1804, 
and  in  1808  removed  to  Bamberg  in  the  same  capacity. 
In  1815  he  went  to  Regensburg  University  as  professor 
of  philosophy,  but  in  the  year  following  he  returned 
again  to  Wlirzburg.  He  died  in  1819.  His  works  are, 
Eeitrm/e  eum  Studium  der  Philosophie  des  All  (Wlirzb. 
1805,  8vo)  :—Verstandeslehre  (1810)  -.—  Versuch  d.  Ethik 
als  Wissenschdft  zu  hegriinden  (Rudolfst.  1811,  8vo) : — 
Iktrstellung  der  philosnp/ii.fclim  EeUgions-  v.  Sitienlthre 

(Wlirzb.  1818,  8vo) — by  far  his  ablest  work Kuthol, 

Recd-Encyklop.  xi,  850. 

Kleinknecht,  Conrad  Daniel,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Leiphcira  Aug.  22,  1691,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Jena.  By  advice  of  the 
celebrated  Orientalist  and  theologian  Buddeus,  in  whom 
Kleinknecht  found  a  warm  friend,  he  accepted  a  posi- 
tion as  teacher  in  the  Orphanage  of  Halle,  which  he 
held  until  1719.  In  1725  he  became  pastor  at  Pfuhl,  in 
1731  at  Leipheim,  and  died  July  11,  1753.  He  was  es- 
pecially active  in  behalf  of  missions,  and  sought  to  in- 
terest the  state  authorities  for  them.  For  a  list  of  his 
writings,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlunds,  ii, 
115  s(i. 

Klemni,  Joiiann  Christian,  a  German  theologian, 
born  at  Stuttgard  Oct.  22,  1688,  was  the  son  ofjohaun 
Conrad  Klemni,  who,  at  the  time  of  his  death  in  1717, 
was  professor  of  theology  at  Tubingen.  Young  Klemm 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Stuttgard  and  Tu- 
bingen, and  secured  the  degree  of  A.ISI.  in  1707.  Short- 
ly after  he  began  to  lecture  at  the  university,  in  1717 
he  became  professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy,  in 
1725  of  theology,  and  the  year  following  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  Tlie  degree  of  D.D.  was  bestowed  upon 
him  in  1730.  He  was  promoted  to  a  fuU  or  regular  pro- 
fessorship in  1736.  He  died  Oct.  1,  1754.  A  list  of^  his 
works  is  given  by  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolor/en  Deutsch- 
lunds, ii,  118  sq.  See  also  Allgemeines  Hist. Lex.  s.  v.; 
Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  s.  v. 

Kleptomania  ( K-Xt Trrw,  to  steal,  and  /lavici,  viad- 
nt'ss),  a  form  of  partial  mental  derangement  which  is 
manifested  by  a  [iropensity  to  steal  and  hoard  articles 


KLEPTOMANIA 


117 


KLEPTOMANIA 


that  can  be  surreptitiously  appropriated.  The  propen- 
sity to  acquire  becomes,  in  such  cases,  so  irresistible,  and 
the  will  so  impotent,  that  the  appropriation  is  generally 
regarded  as  involuntary,  and  the  perpetrator,  therefore, 
irresponsible;  but,  in  order  to  constitute  a  case  of  moral 
irresponsibility,  it  should  undoubtedly  be  insisted  on 
that  to  the  phenomena  of  moral  there  should  always  be 
superadded  those  of  intellectual  disorder,  the  assumption 
being  that  so  long  as  the  intellect  is  unperverted  the 
person  will  be  found  to  possess  a  consciousness  of  the 
nature  of  the  criminal  act  in  relation  to  law.  The  plea 
of  insanity  in  the  agent  should  not  be  admitted  where 
it  is  evident  that  the  subject  is  perfectly  aware  of  the 
tendency  of  his  or  her  actions;  the  simple  moral  inabil- 
ity to  resist  this  temptation  is  only  in  the  same  predica- 
ment with  that  of  cverj'-  unquestioned  candidate  for  the 
penitentiary  or  gallows.  A  state  which  may  seem  to 
descr\-e  the  name  of  moral  insanity,  as  exhibiting  a  per- 
version of  tlie  moral  sentiments,  tendencies,  and  percep- 
tions, with  a  loss,  to  a  great  extent,  of  self-control,  is 
often  prominent  in  the  early  stages  of  mental  disease, 
and  befi)re  the  intellect  is  palpably  affected.  Up  to  this 
point  tlie  patient  should  undoubtedly  be  held  personally 
responsible  for  his  or  her  conduct  in  a  criminal  sense. 
When  certain  delusions,  when  delirium  or  incoherency 
supervene,  the  case  then,  without  question,  may  be  set 
down  as  that  of  insanity,  which  would  absolve  the  pa- 
tient from  responsibility.  The  question  here  suggests 
itself  as  to  the  place  which  morbid  impulses  ouglit  to 
have — how  nearly  are  they  allied  to  insanity,  and  how 
far  can  they  be  urged  as  extenuating,  or  even  excusing 
misdemeanors  or  crimes?  This  strange  thraldom  to  a 
morbid  prompting  not  unfrequently  has  its  outlet  in 
crimes  of  the  deepest  dye.  When  lord  Byron  was  sail- 
ing from  Greece  to  Constantinople,  he  ;vas  observed  to 
stand  over  the  sleeping  body  of  an  Albanian  with  a 
poniard  in  his  liand,  and  after  a  while  to  turn  away 
muttering,  "  I  sliould  like  to  know  how  a  man  feels  who 
has  committed  a  murder!"  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
lord  Byron,  urged  by  a  morbid  impulse,  was  on  the  very 
eve  of  knowing  what  he  desired  to  know.  But  one  of 
the  most  singular  instances  of  morbid  impulses  in  con- 
nection with  material  things  is  related  in  the  case  of  a 
young  man  who,  in  visiting  a  large  manufacturing  estali- 
lishment,  stood  opposite  a  large  hammer,  and  watched 
with  great  interest  its  perfectly  regular  strokes.  At  first 
it  was  beating  immense  lumps  of  crimson  metal  into 
thin  black  sheets,  but  the  supply  becoming  exhausted, 
at  last  it  only  descended  on  the  polished  anvil.  Still 
the  young  man  gazed  intently  on  its  motion ;  then  he 
followed  its  strokes  with  a  corresponding  motion  of  his 
head;  then  his  left  arm  moved  to  the  same  tune;  and, 
finally,  he  deliberately  placed  his  fist  on  the  anvil,  and 
in  a  second  it  was  crushed  to  a  jelly.  The  only  expla- 
nation he  could  afford  was  that  lie  felt  an  impulse  to  do 
it ;  that  he  knew  he  should  be  disabled ;  that  he  saw  all 
the  consequences  in  a  misty  kind  of  manner,  but  that  he 
still  felt  a  power  within  above  sense  and  reason — a  mor- 
bid impulse,  in  fact,  to  which  he  succumbed,  and  by 
which  he  lost  a  good  right  hand.  This  incident  sug- 
gests many  things  besicles  proving  the  peculiar  nature 
and  power  of  morbid  impulses — such,  for  instance,  as  a 
law  of  sympathy  on  a  scale  hitherto  undreamt  of,  as 
well  as  a  musical  tone  pervading  all  things.  An  illus- 
trious physician  has  lately  left  on  record  the  opinion  that 
"  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  terril)le  scenes  which  ac- 
companied the  final  suppression  of  the  Communist  out- 
break was  a  contagious  mental  alienation.  Tlie  minds 
of  the  Parisians  were  gradually  unhinged  by  the  priva- 
tions of  the  siege.  The  revolt  of  the  18th  of  March  gave 
the  last  blow  to  lirains  which  were  already  shaken,  and 
at  length  the  greater  part  of  the  po]iulation  went  raving 
mad.  Women  are,  under  such  circumstances,  fiercer  and 
more  reckless  than  men.  This  is  because  their  nervous 
system  is  more  fully  developed ;  their  brain  is  weaker, 
and  their  sensibilities  are  more  acute  than  those  of  the 
Stronger  sex ;  and  they  are  consequently  far  more  dan- 


gerous in  such  paroxysms.  None  of  them  knew  exactly 
what  they  were  fighting  for;  they  were  possessed  by 
one  of  the  various  forms  of  mania — that  which  impelled 
the  French  Jansenists  of  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century  to  torture  themselves  with  a  strange  delight  in 
pain  of  the  acutest  liinil.  The  men  who  threw  them- 
selves on  the  bayonets  of  the  soldiers  in  a  paroxysm 
of  passion  were  a  few  moments  afterwards  utterly  pros- 
trate and  begging  for  mercy.  They  were  no  more  cow- 
ards in  the  last  state  than  they  were  heroes  in  the  first — 
they  were  simply  madmen."  In  recurring  to  the  "  Reign 
of  Terror"  of  the  first  French  IJevo'.ution,  Lewis  Cass  has 
this  profound  reflection :  "  In  surveying  the  French  na- 
tional character  of  the  present  day"  (this  was  written  in 
1840),  "it  is  difficult  to  recognise  those  traits  of  cruelty 
which  were  so  shockingly  developed  during  the  Revolu- 
tion. Amonomania  must  have  prevailed,  hurrying  the 
nation  into  acts  inconsistent  with  its  general  feeling,  and 
marking  that  time  of  political  effervescence  as  an  ex- 
traordinary period  in  human  history."  The  general  term 
monomania,  implies  that  the  individual  is  deranged  only 
on  one  suliject,  or  in  reference  to  one  object,  or  in  one 
particular  train  of  thought  or  faculty  of  thinking,  and 
that  his  intellect,  judgment,  and  emotions  are  otherwise 
sound,  at  least  when  not  exercised  on  the  subject  of  his 
derangement.  This,  however,  is  not  strictly  true.  In 
almost  all  cases  of  so-called  monomania  there  are  other 
morbid  indications  besides  the  salient  one — morbid  dis- 
likes or  suspicions,  morbid  vanity  or  irritability.  Mono- 
mania seems  to  arise  in  the  failure  of  the  faculties  round 
a  given  centre  of  thought,  in  a  paralysis  of  power  along 
a  given  line  of  mental  direction,  iniaccompanied  by  any 
parallel  paralysis  of  interest,  so  that  the  patient  busies 
himself  involuntarily  on  a  subject  on  which  he  has  lost 
the  power  of  bringing  his  faculties  properly  to  bear.  It 
is  the  attempt  of  weakened  faculties  to  work  upon  an 
overstrained  nervous  string,  so  that  all  mental  power 
disappears  just  where  the  wish  to  apply  it  is  greatest. 
Now  these  morbid  centres  of  partial  imbecility  are, 
cceteris  jniribus,  more  likely  to  spring  up  in  minds  below 
the  average  in  general  power  than  in  those  above  them, 
though  the  centre  of  the  disease  itself  will  often  be  on 
the  noblest  or  most  sensitive  part  of  the  mind.  These 
peculiarities  are  nearly  always  distinctly  marked  in 
monomania,  particularly  in  that  form  of  it  which  is 
called  kleptomania.  It  is  usually  exhibited  by  persons 
who  have  no  motive  to  steal,  and  is  frequently  satisfied 
by  purloining  articles  of  no  value.  A  baronet  of  large 
fortune  stole,  while  on  the  Continent,  pieces  of  old  iron 
and  of  broken  crockery,  and  in  such  quantities  that  tons 
of  these  collections  were  presented  to  the  custom-house 
officers.  In  the  second  volume  of  the  Medical  Critic  the 
case  of  a  female  is  detailed  who  could  not  resist  the  im- 
pulse of  appropriating  everything  within  her  reach.  In 
searching  this  woman  on  one  occasion  there  were  found 
15  bags  upon  her  person,  in  which  there  were  1182  arti- 
cles, mostly  worthless,  viz.,  104  bits  of  paper,  82  sewing- 
needles,  18'  old  gloves,  12  moulds  for  wax  leaves,  19  but- 
tons, GO  feathers,  8  parcels  of  dried  fish,  135  bits  of  rib- 
bons, 9  bottles,  CI  lozenges,  and  a  variety  of  other  arti- 
cles, the  refuse  of  the  place,  to  which  she  had  at  various 
times  taken  a  fancy.  Another  case  reported  by  high 
medical  authority  is  that  of  a  rich  but  eccentric  gentle- 
man living  in  an  old  manor-house  in  Lincohishire,  Eng- 
land. He  Avas  a  good  business  man,  and  managed  his 
estate  with  care  and  prudence,  auditing  his  steward's 
yearly  accounts  with  the  skill  of  an  expert.  His  neigh- 
bors were  all  kindly  disposed  towards  him,  and  he  was 
charitably  disposed  tOAvards  the  poor.  Even  the  ser- 
vants who  saw  him  every  day,  altliough  they  confessed 
that  he  was  "certainly  very  peculiar  at  times,"  never 
once  dreamed  of  impugning  his  intellect.  He  was  in- 
sane in  one  direction  only,  and  one  might  have  passed  a 
lifetime  with  him  without  discovering  it.  He  would  be 
seized  by  a  sudden  determination  to  travel,  and  on  such 
occasions  he  would  travel  in  state,  with  a  retinue  of 
servants.     After  a  fortnight's  or  perhaps  a  month's  ab- 


KLEPTOMANIA 


118 


KLEPTOMANIA 


sence,  lie  would  return  home.  Invariably,  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  next  day  after  his  return,  towels,  which  had 
been  taken  from  an  open  portmanteau,  were  found  scat- 
tered about  the  room.  ^Vlter  breakfast,  his  custom  was 
to  retire  to  the  library  and  write  the  addresses  of  all  the 
hotel-keepers  at  wliose  houses  he  had  slept  during  his 
absence  on  so  many  slips  of  writing-paper,  with  direc- 
tions to  his  servants  to  inclose  to  each  address  the  num- 
ber of  towels  specitied  upon  each  piece  of  paper,  and  to 
copy  such  other  ■\\Titing  as  they  might  find  there,  and 
send  this  in  a  letter, -with  the  towels,  to  the  hotel-keeper. 
This  gentleman  was  one  of  the  unhappy  race  of  klepto- 
maniacs, whose  particular  mania  impelled  him  to  pur- 
loin towels.  He  subsequently  gave  to  a  friend  a  liistorj^ 
of  his  case,  and  said  he  was  goaded  to  these  journeyings 
and  pilferings  by  an  irresistible  impulse,  which  he  insist- 
ed was  tlie  residt  of  demoniacal  possession.  He  was  never 
impelled,  however,  a  second  time  on  the  same  journey; 
so  that,  while  no  hotel-keeper  woidd  be  likely  to  suspect, 
during  his  visit,  a  gentleman  of  his  rank  and  st}'le  as  one 
■who  would  steal  his  towels,  it  never  transpired  publicly, 
so  far  as  is  known,  that  he  was  a  thief,  although  his 
own  consciousness  of  the  fact  embittered  his  existence. 
Sometimes,  in  the  case  of  this  form  of  monomania,  there 
exists,  in  the  mind  of  the  sufferer,  the  delusion  that  what 
he  steals  is  his  own  property,  or  has  been  stolen  from 
him,  and  that  he  merely  reclaims  his  own.  Sometimes 
he  imagines  that  God  orders  him  to  steal.  The  case  is 
recorded  of  a  .Scotch  clerg3-man,  distinguished  for  his 
learning,  piety,  and  charity ;  he  stole  Bibles  with  a  spe- 
cial view  to  the  glory  of  God  by  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel.  His  manse  was  a  little  "  missionary  society  of 
stolen  Bibles,"  and  he  was  as  much  in  earnest  in  the  con- 
version of  souls  by  the  contraband  process  as  the  most 
enthusiastic  foreign  missionary  coidd  be  in  his  calling. 
He  was  at  last  detected  in  wholesale  Bible-stealing.  It 
was  farther  discovered  that  he  had  organized  a  wide 
missionary  district,  and  left  a  Bible  or  a  Testament  at 
every  cottage  where  it  was  needed  along  the  route. 
The  most  touching  fact  in  the  story  is  that  he  was  ar- 
rested while  on  his  knees  by  the  bedside  of  a  dying  old 
man,  with  a  stolen  Bible  lying  witle  open  before  liim  on 
the  bed.  '-What  made  you  steal  the  Biljle,  Mr.  B.?" 
asked  the  sheriff,  with  pious  horror  on  his  face.  "  God 
made  me  steal  them,  good  man,"  was  the  reply;  '-he 
was  weary  of  seeing  his  poor  people  perish  of  Gospel- 
hunger  because  the  rich  Bible  Society  could  not  afford 
to  feed  them  without  the  baubees,  and  so  God  set  me  to 
steal  for  them  and  save  them."  He  could  not  be  per- 
suaded that  he  had  done  wrong.  The  delusion  of  the 
clergyman,  who  was  a  very  poor  man,  naturally  suggest- 
ed insanity.  But  he  was  perfectly  sane  upon  all  other 
points,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  would  have  received 
the  benefit  of  Ids  malady— whether,  indeeil,  it  would 
have  been  admitted  as  a  malady  at  all — if  a  learned  and 
pluloso]ihical  physician  in  a  neighboring  town  had  not 
positively  sworn  that  he  was  the  '•  victim  of  moral 
mania."  There  is  this  peculiarity  sometimes  in  the 
case  of  kleptomaniacs,  that  their  purloining  is  confined 
to  single  articles.  The  case  is  reported  of  a  lady  who 
could  not  resist  the  temptation  to  steal  silk  stockings. 
Another  lady  would  steal  gloves  whenever  the  opportu- 
nity was  afforded.  A  boy  was  arrested  some  months 
since  in  Brooklyn  for  stealing  slii)pers  from  the  feet  of 
ladies  while  walking  in  the  street.  His  friends  came 
forwaril  and  testified  that  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
steahng  sli|)pers,  and  was  never  known  to  have  stolen 
anything  else,  all  his  life.  A  letter-carrier  in  Harlem, 
N.  Y.,  was  detected  in  abstracting  letters  and  concealing 
them  under  a  rock,  which  he  had  practiced  for  more 
than  a  year.  They  -wotc  most  carefully  hoarded  in  his 
place  of  concealment,  and  were  found  unopened.  It  was 
proven  in  his  case,  we  believe,  that  he  had  a  mania  for 
stealing  letters  without  any  apparcift  motive,  as  he  never 
made  any  use  of  them  cxcejit  to  hoard  them. 

The  cases  quoted  are  sufficient  to  prove  that  the  form 
of  moral  insanity  to  wluch  the  name  of  kleptomania  has 


been  given  reallj'  exists.  From  these,  as  well  as  many 
other  instances  which  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader, 
it  will  be  seen  that  there  can  be  little  difficulty  for  a 
skilfid  physician,  after  a  short  examination,  in  distin- 
guishing between  a  real  victim  of  this  disease  and  an 
ordinary  thief.  And  this,  as  well  as  every  other  true 
form  of  insanity,  ^ve  presume,  frees  every  one,  whether 
previously  bad  or  good,  from  moral  responsibility  in  this 
particular  regard.  \Mien  the  actual  condition  exists, 
no  matter  what  the  conduct  maj-  have  been  which  pre- 
ceded and  conduced  to  it,  the  earthly  account  of  the 
subject  has  already  been  closed,  and  the  deeds  that  fol- 
\o\v,  ^ve  are  sure,  \vill  be  mercifully  judged  of  by  him 
who  knows  whereof  his  poor  frail  creatures  are  made, 
and  remembers  that  they  are  but  dust.     (E.  de  P.) 

It  is  proper  to  add  to  the  above  remarks,  which  are 
evidently  just  in  their  conclusion,  some  considerations 
setting  the  question  of  moral  responsibility  in  such  cases 
in  a  fuUer  light. 

1.  The  distinction  is  well  made  in  the  beginning  of 
the  article  that  some  intellectual  defect  must  be  proven 
in  order  to  constitute  real  insanity  in  any  case.  It  is 
not  enough  that  a  perversion  of  the  moral  faculties  ex- 
ists, for  that  is  the  quintessence  of  guilt ;  and  on  this 
ground  he  who  should  most  effectually  obliterate  his 
own  conscience  would  thereby  the  most  completely  ex- 
cuse himself  in  whatever  crime  he  might  thus  render 
himself  capable  of  committing.  The  mere  fact  that  the 
persons  laboring  under  kleptomania  are  frequently  not 
conscious  of  any  wrong-doing  on  their  own  part  is  not 
of  itself  an  adequate  plea  in  their  justification. 

2.  The  actual  presence  of  mental  imbecility  in  these 
peculiar  cases  is  proved  by  the  fact  of  the  ubsurd  man- 
ner in  which  the  subjects  of  the  disease  steal.  In  the 
first  place,  they  do  not  commit  theft /b?'  their  own  hene- 
jit ;  they  do  not  appropriate  the  articles  taken  to  their 
own  use,  nor  do  they  liave  any  occasion  for  them.  The 
moral  motive,  i.  e.  gain,  is  evidentl}-  absent,  and  their 
conduct  is  at  once  understood,  when  the  circumstances 
become  known,  as  very  different  from  ordinarj'  cases  of 
shop-lifting.  In  the  second  place,  there  is  usually  a 
])ettiiiess,  oftentimes  an  absolute  puerility  in  the  acts 
committed,  that  marks  the  person  as  for  the  time  '"non 
compos  mentis."  The  articles  purloined  are  frequently 
worthless  in  themselves,  and  alwaj-s  relatively  so.  The 
conduct  of  the  individual  so  strongly  resembles  that 
harmless  and  unmeaning  gathering  of  sticks  and  straws 
which  is  one  of  the  most  common  signs  of  lunacy,  that 
everj'  one  informed  with  the  case  spontaneously  sets  it 
down  in  the  same  categorj'.  In  the  third  place,  the  im- 
pulse to  these  acts  comes  on  i»  sudden  Jit.s,  quite  at  vuri- 
eince  vil/i  the  I'sual  couise  of  the  individual's  conduct. 
A  general  good  character  is  always  held  to  be  one  of  the 
strongest  evidences  against  the  probability  of  a  partic- 
idar  offence ;  in  these  cases,  the  isolated  nature  of  the 
acts,  their  sporadic  occurrence,  the  peculiar  line  in  which 
they  take  place,  all  go  to  show  the  abnormal  condition 
of  the  mind  at  the  time.  The  mere  violence  of  the  im- 
pulse to  commit  them,  it  is  true,  is  not  a  valid  excuse; 
for  it  is  hard  even  for  the  subject  himself  to  be  sure 
that  this  is  really  irresistible ;  but  thej'rantic  character 
of  it,  as  he  experiences  it,  and  as  it  appears  to  others,  is 
a  legitimate  proof  of  its  insanity.  In  short,  the  utter 
and  marked  want  of  congruity  between  the  behavior  of 
the  person  under  these  circumstances  and  ordinary'  ra- 
tional life  stamps  the  act  as  that  of  a  special  mania,  un- 
accountable to  the  individual  himself  in  his  lucid  mo- 
ments. The  foregoing  criterion,  we  may  remark,  will 
serve  to  distinguish  genuine  cases  of  irresjwnsible  klep- 
tomania from  deliberate  and  culpable  thievishness, 
whether  habitual  or  occasional. 

3.  The  question  whether  this  may  be  a  congenital  ten- 
dency we  cannot  here  digress  to  consider,  except  so  far 
as  to  remark  that  this,  if  proved  in  the  affirmative, 
would  not  really  affect  the  main  issue  of  moral  responsi- 
bility; for  human  depravity  is  all  confessedly  inherited, 
but  we  do  not.  on  that  account,  hold  any  one  free  from 


KLESCHIUS 


119 


KLEY 


the  obligation  to  restrain  its  manifestation,  and,  by  using 
the  lielps  within  his  reach,  even  ultimately  eradicating 
it.  In  like  manner  we  pass  by  the  interesting  cognate 
subject  of  the  peculiar  passion  for  intoxicating  drinks 
experienced  by  the  habitual  inebriate,  and  its  violent — 
seemingly  overwhelming — tendency  to  return  on  the 
slightest  stimulus,  even  after  years  of  reform ;  merely 
observing  that  here,  whether  in  instances  of  inherited 
or  acquired  appetite,  the  disease — for  it  undoubtedly  is 
such — is  a  compound  one,  i.  e.  both  of  the  body  and  the 
mind,  the  latter  only— as  being  the  controlling  element 
— being  the  subject  of  moral  consideration ;  and  that  the 
responsibility  in  these  cases  is  at  most  simply  shifted  to 
Mill  abstinence  henceforth  from  the  deadly  seducer. 
This  last  thought,  however,  may  essentially  apply  to 
kleptomania  likewise ;  for  just  as  it  is  thQ  first  drop  that 
brings  back  the  drunkard's  fatal  appetite,  so  perhaps  it 
was  the  indiUgence  in  the  first  petty  theft  that  devel- 
oped the  uncontrollable  passion  for  purloining.  In  this 
light  the  subject  has  a  grave  lesson  for  all  fallen  human- 
ity, inasmuch  as  each  son  of  man  bears  within  his  bosom 
the  germ  of  every  hydra  sin,  wliicli  perchance  needs 
but  one  fecundative  act  to  cause  it  to  spring  forth  into 
virulent  hfe. 

Klescliius,  Daniel,  a  German  theologian,  born  at 
Iglau,  in  ]Moravia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 
was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Strasburg  and  Wit- 
tenberg, and  tlieu  preached  for  a  number  of  years  in 
Hnngaria  and  Croatia.  In  1673  he  went  to  Jena,  taught 
there  fur  a  time,  and  then  removed  to  Weissenfels,  where 
he  became  a  professor  at  the  gymnasium.  Kleschius 
was  a  verj'  peculiar  character.  He  made  many  predic- 
tions, among  others  that  the  year  1700  Avould  bring  the 
final  judgment  day.  He  lived,  however,  beyond  the 
time  appointed.  He  died  about  1701.  iicQ  AUfjemeines 
Hist.  Lex.  vol.  iii,  s.  v. 

Klesel.     See  Kiilesl, 

Klette,  JoiiANN  Georg,  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
was  born  at  Eadeberg,  in  Meissen,  October  12,  IGoO,  and 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg.  He  was 
made  professor  of  theology  and  metaphysics  at  Zerbst 
in  1681.  In  1606  he  became  pastor  in  that  place,  and 
died  Dec.  28, 1697. 

Kleuker,  Johaxn  Friedricii,  one  of  the  most  em- 
inent modern  German  theologians,  was  bom  at  Osterode 
Oct.  21, 1719.  He  studied  history,  philosophy,  and  the- 
ology at  the  University  of  Gottingen.  In  1773  he  be- 
came a  private  tutor  in  Blickeburg,  and  there  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Herder,  through  whose  influence  he  was 
appointed  prorector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Lemgo,  and,  in 
1778  rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Osnabriick.  Herder 
also  induced  and  encouraged  him  to  write  on  the  tlieo- 
logical  questions  of  the  day.  In  acknowledgment  of  his 
literary  activity  and  profound  learning,  he  was  made 
D.D.  by  the  University  of  Helmstitdt  in  1791.  In  1798 
he  was  appointed  fourth  ordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Kiel,  which  position  he  filled  with  great  success,  lec- 
turing on  the  exegesis  of  the  O.  and  N.  Test.,  Christian 
apologetics.  Christian  anticiuities,  ancient  Church  his- 
tory, the  doctrine  of  Christ  and  of  the  apostles,  symbol- 
ics, and  Christian  science,  of  which,  in  1800,  he  publish- 
ed a  Griuidriss  or  EncyUopadie  d.  Theologie  in  2  vols., 
for  the  use  of  his  numerous  pupils.  The  last  few  years 
of  his  life  were  spent  in  retirement  after  he  had  vainly 
tried  to  oppose  the  progress  of  scientific  rationalism. 
Kleuker,  says  Ilagenbach  (see  below),  "  was  one  of  the 
few  men  who,  in  doctrine  and  writings,  stood  in  avowed 
opposition  to  the  prevailing  theological  spirit  of  his 
times,  of  which  he  said  that  'it  had  so  poisoned  tlie 
whole  atmosphere  that  men  hardly  dared  to  speak  of 
Christ  as  anything  more  than  a  passing  shadow.'"  He 
was  not  even  satisfied  with  Herder,  who,  as  lie  held, 
made  too  many  concessions  to  the  new  style  of  doctrine 
and  thinking.  Yet  his  simple,  evangelical  faith,  his 
humble  piety,  and  his  active  interest  in  all  that  was 
grand  and  good,  secured  him  the  intimate  friendship  of 


that  class  of  men,  while  his  profound  learning,  especial- 
ly in  Oriental  and  in  classical  antiquities,  procured  him 
the  respect  and  consideration  of  all  scholars.  In  judg- 
ing a  theologian,  his  influence  on  his  associates  and  on 
the  age  in  whicli  he  lived,  it  does  not  suffice  to  examine 
simply  his  ViTitings;  as  much,  if  not  more,  can  be  deter- 
mined of  his  character  by  the  testimony  of  his  life  and 
death.  With  pleasure,  then,  do  we  point  to  the  dying 
testimony  of  tliis  celebrated  German  theologian.  His 
biographer  (see  below)  saj's  of  his  last  moments :  "  I  had 
the  fortune  to  be  present  when  Kleuker  died,  for  I  must 
call  it  a  good  fortune  to  see  a  true  Christian  die  as  calm- 
ly as  he  did.  As  I  came  in,  the  approach  of  death  was 
clearly  indicated  by  his  cold  hands,  almost  motionless 
pulse,  and  difficult  breathing.  A  kind  of  prophetic  spir- 
it appeared  to  come  over  him  when  he  once  more  warn- 
ed against  the  errors  of  his  contemporaries  by  proclaim- 
ing the  great  truths  that  he  had  so  often  taught.  After 
saying, '  It  is  jilainly  recorded  in  all  passages  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  that  there  is  only  one  true  Sa\-iour, 
and  by  them  all  the  error  of  our  day  Avhich  looks  to  self- 
redemption  for  salvation  is  refuted,'  he  sweetly  fell  back 
into  the  corner  of  the  sofa,  bowed  his  head,  and,  without 
experiencing  the  least  convulsive  struggle  with  death, 
fell  asleep,  and  passed  away  into  the  better  world,"  May 
23, 1827.  Kleuker's  activity  as  a  writer  was  wonderful. 
He  wrote  first  a  Latin  programme,  entitled  Genius  e 
sc)-ij)tis  (intiquitaHs  monumentishiinriendus  (1775),  which 
was  followed  in  quick  succession  by  Zend-Avesta  nach 
Anquetil  dii  Perron  (1776-1777,  3  parts):  —  Anhanrj 
2.  Zend- A  vesta  (1781  -1783,  2  vols.) :—  Zend- A  vesta  im 
Kleinen  (1789) : — Menschlicher  Versuch  ii.  d.  Sohn  Gottes 
n.  d.  Menschen,  in  d.  Zeit  wie  ausser  d.  Zeit  (1776) : — Ge- 
dunken  Pascals  (1777)  •.—  Uebersetzuriff  u.  Erkliirung  d. 
Schriften  Salomons  v..  d.Salomonischen  Denkwiirdigl-eiten; 
Uebersetzunrj  der  Werke  Plato's  (1778-1797,  6  vols.)  :— 
Johaimes,  Petriis,  imd  Pauliis  als  Christologen  hetrachtet 
(1785): — a  prize  essay,  entitled  Ueber  d.Katur  u.d.Ur- 
sjn-iinrj  d.Emanationslehre  b.  d.Kabbalisten  (1785) : — HoU- 
icells  merkwiirdifje  historische  Nachrichten  v.Indostan  u. 
Bengalen,  etc.  (from  the  English,  1778) : — Abhandlungen. 
ii.  d.  Gesch.,  etc.,  A  siens,  von  i>ir  William  Jones  (from  Lhe 
English,  1795-1797,  4  vols.) : — Einige  Belehningen  iiber 
Toleranz,  Vernunft,  OJ}'enbaritng,Watuleriing  d.  Israeliten. 
durchs  rotke  Meer  jind  Anferstehung  Christi  von  d.  Tod- 
ten  (1778) : — Neue  Priifung  it.Erkldrungd.vorziiglichsten 
Beiveise  f.  d.  Warheit  ii.  d.  gottlichen  Urspning  d.  Chris- 
tenthums  w.  d.  Offenbarung  iiberhaiipt  (3  parts,  1788) : — 
AusfUhiiche  Untersuchung  d.  Griinde  J'. d.  Aecktheit  und 
Ghntbwiirdigkeit  d.  schriftlichen  Urkunden  d.  Christen- 
thums  (5  vols.)  : — Qirintus  Septimiiis  Florens  TertuUia- 
nus^s  Vertheidigung  d.  christlichen  ISache  gfgen  d.Heiden 
mit  erlduternden  Anmei-kungen  (from  the  Latin,  1798) : — 
Briefe  an  eine  christliche  Freundin  iiber  d.  Ilerder'sche 
Schrift  V.  Gottes  Sohn  (1802)  :—Ueb. d.  Ja  ii.Nein  d.bib- 
lisch-christlichen  u.  d.Vermtnftiheolog. (1819) : — Biblische 
Sgmpathien  od.erldiitcrnde  Bemerkimgen  ii.Betrachtun- 
gen  ii.d.Berichte  d.Evangelisten  v.Jesu  Lehren  v.Thaten 
1820): — Ueb.d.alten  und  neuen  Protestantismiis  (1823). 
See  H.  P.  Sexto,  Exjwsitio  Sermanis  Jesu.Jok.  V,  39  et 
siqyer  ejus  sententia  de  nexu  inter  scriptontm  Mosaico— 
7-um  argumentum  et  doctrinam  suam  nonnulla  (Helmst. 
1792, 8vo);  Notiz  unci  Kai-akteristik  cl.  iztlebenden  theolo- 
gischen  Schriftsteller  Deiitschkmds  (1797,  p.  108  sq.) ; 
Xeiie  Kielische  gelehrte  Zeititng  (2  Jahrg.  1798),  p.  282- 
286 ;  .J.  O.  Tliiess,  Gelchrtengesch.  d.  Universitdt  zu  Kiel,  i 
375-447;  YlaX]cn,  J.  F.  Kleuker  n.  Briefe  seiner  Freunde 
((iiittingen,  1842) ;  Ilagenbach,  Ch.  Hist.  18th  and  mh 
C'ra/.ii,  190  sq.;  U^rzog, Real-Encykl.y\i,7i2.  (J.H.W.) 
Kley,  Eduaku,  a  Jewish  preacher  and  educator  of 
note,  born  June  10,  1789,  at  Bemstadt,  in  SOesia,  was 
prominently  connected  with  the  reformatory  movements 
in  the  synagogue  at  the  opening  of  the  19th  centurj-. 
He  was  a  teacher  and  preaclier  at  Berlin  when,  in  1818, 
the  Progressive  Jews  of  Hamburg  called  him  to  the  su- 
perintendency  of  their  schools,  and  later  to  the  duties  of 
a  pastorate.     Kley  was  the  first  Jew  who  preached  in  a 


KLTNG 


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KLOPSTOCK 


temple  (the  name  for  the  houses  of  worship  of  Eeformed 
Jews),  and  \vho  used  a  German  liturgy  and  introduced 
an  organ.  ]\Iay  9, 1840,  he  resigned  his  pastoral  office, 
but  the  superintendence  of  the  Jewish  schools  he  held 
until  1848,  when  his  advanced  age  obliged  him  to  fore- 
"•o  all  active  labors.  His  admirers  presented  him  with 
a  large  fiuid  for  Ins  support,  Ijut  he  declined  to  use  it  for  j 
himself,  and  founded  the  "  Eduard  Ivley  Stiftung"  for 
the  support  and  assistance  of  old  teachers  not  sulti^dt- 
ly  provided  for  by  the  state.  He  died  Oct.  4, 1867.  His  ! 
sermons,  which  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be  of  su- 
perior order,  were  published  at  Hamburg  in  1826-'27, 
1844, 8vo.  He  also  published  two  volumes  of  homilies :  ! 
Predir/t  Skizzen,  or  Beitraije  zii  einer  Iciinftigen  Ilomiledk  1 
(Leipz.  1856,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  Die  deutsche  Synafjogm 
oder  UrdnuMj  des  Gottesdimstes  (Berlin,  1817-18,  2  vols. 
8vo) : — '■'I  T^^i:},  Katechismus  d.  Mosaischen  Eelir/ioiis- 
khre  (Berl.  1814 ;  3d  ed.  Leipz  1839  and  1850).  Kley  is 
often  and  justly  called  the  Schleiermacher  of  the  Jewish 
pulpit  of  Germany  in  our  age.  See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Ju- 
(kuthums  It.  s.Sekten,'ni,3o6;  Kayserling  (DT.M.),Bib- 
liothek  Jiid.  Kanzelrediier  (Berl.  1870,  8vo),  i,  47  sq. ;  II- 
lustrirles  Monatsheftf.  d.  gesammten  Int.  d.  Judenthums,  ii, 
419  sq. ;  Jonas,  LebenssUzze  v.  Herrn  Dr.  E.  Klerj  (Ham- 
burg, 1859, 12mo) ;  Furst,  Bih.  Jud.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kling,  Chi:istian  Fiiiedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Altdorf,  in  Wlirtemberg,  Nov.  4, 1800,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Tiibingen,  where  he 
became  "  repetent"  in  1824.  Two  years  later  he  entered 
the  ministry,  and  settled  at  AYaiblingcn  until  1832,  when 
he  removed  to  Marburg  as  professor  of  theology.  In 
1840  he  was  appointed  to  and  accepted  a  like  position 
at  Bonn  University,  which  he  held  until  1847 ;  then  be- 
came preacher  at  Ebersbach,  in  Wurtcmberg ;  later  dea- 
con at  Marbach,  and  died  in  18G1.  Kling  was  a  ready 
writer,  and  contributed  largely  to  the  difterent  (Jerman 
periodicals;  he  was  one  of  the  ablest  assistants  on  the 
Theolorjische  Studien  uml  Kritiken.  He  edited  J.  F.  von 
Flatt's  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Pastorcd  Briefe  (1831),  and 
contributed  a  Commentcmj  to  the  Corinthians  to  Lange's 
Bibelicerk  (translated  by  Daniel  W.  Poor,  D.D.,  Scrib- 
ner's  edit.  New  York,  1871,  royal  8vo). 

Klinge,  Zaciiarias  Laurentius,  a  Swedish  theo- 
logian who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, was  first  professor  of  theology  at  Dorpat,  then 
preacher  at  the  Swedish  court,  and  later  pastor  at  Stock- 
holm and  bishop  of  Gothenburg.  He  died  Sept.  3, 1671. 
He  wrote  Theutnim  BiMicum,  etc.  See  A  Ugemeines  Hist. 
Lexikon,  iii,  38. 

Klingler,  Antonius,  a  German  Reformed  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Zurich,  Switzerland,  Aug.  2, 1649 ;  was 
educated  at  several  of  the  most  celebrated  German  uni- 
versities ;  and  became  doctor  theologia;  in  1677,  and  pro- 
fessor at  the  gymnasium  at  Hanau  in  the  same  year. 
In  1680  he  was  offered  a  professorship  at  the  University 
of  Groiiingen,  but  he  declined  this  honor  in  favor  of  a 
pastorate  in  his  native  place.  He  died  there  in  August, 
1713.  Klingler  published  several  theological  works,  of 
■which  his  best  is  Bella  Jehovoe.  See  AUgemeines  Hist. 
Lexikon,  iii,  38. 

Klopstock,  Friedricu  Gottlieb,  an  eminent 
German  ])oct,  one  of  the  forerunners  of  the  great  tier- 
man  poetic  renaissance  of  the  18th  centurj- — '•  the  Ger- 
man ]Milton,"  as  he  is  frequently  styled — was  born  at 
(Juedlinburg,  Saxony,  July  2,  1724.  He  received  his 
early  education  at  the  school  of  his  native  place,  and 
when  sixteen  years  of  age  was  admitted  to  the  (Jymna- 
sium  at  Naumburg,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  style  of  the  classical  authors  of  his  country.  While 
here  his  private  hours  were  devoted  to  compositions 
both  in  prose  and  verse,  particularly  to  the  writing  of 
pastorals,  which  were  in  great  voji;ue  among  the  tier- 
mans,  and  it  is  said  tliat  even  at  that  early  period  he 
had  decided  to  write  a  poem  of  greater  length  than  any 
that  liad  liitlicrto  been  attempted  by  his  countrymen, 
and  one  that  shoidd  do  honor  to  German  literatiu-e, 


which  was  at  this  time  rather  at  low  ebb.     Franco  was 
in  the  avantguard  of  political  influence,  and  ever^'thing 
French  was  considered  worthy  of  imitation ;  but  French 
influence  was  most  completely  manifest  in  the  social  life 
of  the  Germans,  particularly  in  their  literature,  aiid,  as 
a  late  writer  in  the  Westminster  Revieto  (Oct.  1871,  p. 
212)  has  it,  "at  no  time,  perhaps,  was  it  more  difficult  to 
form  and  express  original  views  in  Germany."     Klop- 
stock had  acquired  the  English  language,  and  in  his 
readings  of  English  works  his  eye  had  fallen  upon  the 
immortal  production  of  jMilton.    Trained  from  his  youth 
to  a  religious  life,  and  destined  for  the  ministry,  he  nat- 
urally decided  to  present  his  nation  with  a  like  work 
that  should  standby  the  side  of  the  English  production. 
If  no  more,  he  was  determined  that  the  German  mind 
shoidd  turn  towards  English  literature,  and  drink  at  its 
fountains,  rather  than  be  any  longer  subjected  to  that 
cold,  correct,  and  imimaginative  spirit  which  had  hith- 
erto tyrannized  over  their  thoughts  and  habits.     Bod- 
mer,  the  great  leader  of  the  so-called  "  Swiss  school"  of 
German  Uterature,  and  others  of  the  Swiss  school,  were 
already  fiuniishing  his  countrymen  with  able  translations 
of  English  poets;  among  other  works,  he  translated  Blil- 
ton's  Pcn-adhe  Lost.     In  1745  Klopstock  went  to  the 
University  of  Jena  to  study  theology,  but,  amid  the  pur- 
suit of  studies  in  divinity,  his  attention  at  everj-  conven- 
ient moment  was  occupied  with  the  great  work  which 
he  had  projected.     During  his  residence  at  that  insti- 
tution he  composed  the  first  three  cantos  in  prose ;  but 
after  his  removal  to  Leipzig   (in  1746),  having  made 
trial  of  hexameters  in  imitation  of  the  melodious  strains 
of  Homer  and  Yirgil,  and  being  pleased  with  the  success 
of  the  experiment,  he  resolved  to  execute  the  whole 
poem  in  that  measure.     Finally,  in  1748,  the  first  three 
cantos  of  his  Messiah  were  published  in  the  Bremer 
Beitrdge,  a  joiu'nal  which  had  been  started  by  men  de- 
termined, like  Klopstock,  to  break  loose  from  that  .'hal- 
low despotism  which,  under  the  leadership  of  the  pe- 
dantic Gottsched,  had  so  long  hung  over  them.     The 
fame  of  Klopstock,  whom  the  year  previous  such  men 
as  Gellcrt,  Kabener,  Hagedoni,  and  Gleim  had  pointed 
out  as  the  man  likely  and  competent  to  inaugurate  a 
new  era  in  German  poetry,  now  spread  far  and  wide; 
j  for  that  poem    enjoyed   an   extraordinary  jwpularity 
among  all  who  could  appreciate  the  attractions  of  ele- 
gant diction  and  high  devotional  feeling.     It  was  the 
I  subject  of  admiration  in  every  circle — even  in  the  pid- 
pit  it  attracted  notice,  and  was  often  quoted  with  ap- 
plause.    It  gratified  its  pious  author  by  its  subser- 
viency to  the  purposes  of  practical  religion,  i'or  many 
portions  of  it  were  set  to  sacred  music,  and  sung  at  the 
family  worship  of  the  Germans,  and  many  of  its  finest 
passages  were  introduced  to  give  point  and  liveliness  to 
1  the  pages  of  religious  and  devotional  works  of  that  day. 
j  It  raised  the  name  of  Kloi)stock  to  the  highest  pinnacle 
I  of  renown,  insomuch  that  all  classes  of  his  countrymen, 
I  even  the  peasantrj',  learned  to  understand  and  love  him 
as  a  sacred  poet.     His  fame  was  spread  even  to  foreign 
countries — for  in  1750,  when,  on  the  invitation  of  some 
friends,  he  went  to  spend  some  time  in  German  Switz- 
erland (at  Zurich),  in  the  enjoyment  of  its  wild  and  ro- 
mantic scenery,  he  was  received  with  a  degree  of  re- 
spect almost  bordering  on  veneration.     While  in  that 
country  his  mind  seems  to  have  taken  a  patriotic  ten- 
dency :  the  ancient  Hermann  (the  Arminius  of  Tacitus) 
became  his  favorite  hero,  whose  deeds  he  aftcr\vards  cel- 
ebrated in  some  dramatic  works.    In  Denmark  the  min- 
ister Bernstorff  had  become  acquainted  with  the  tliree 
cantos  of  the  Messiah,  and  Klopstock  was  offered  a  pen- 
sion of  8400  by  the  Danish  king  on  condition  of  coming 
to  Copenhagen,  and  there  finishing  his  poem.     He  set 
out  in  1751,  travelled  through  Brunswick  and  Hamburg, 
and  at  the  latter  place  formed  an  intimacy  with  Marga- 
retlia  ]Moller,  daughter  of  a  respectable  merchant.     At 
Copenhagen  he  was  received  l>y  Bernstorff  with  the 
greatest  respect,  and  introchiced  to  the  king,  Frederick 
V,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  travels.     In  1754  he 


KLOPSTOCK 


121 


KLOPSTOCK 


went  to  Hamburg,  which  was  at  this  time  a  sort  of  lit- 
erary capital  of  Germany,  and  more  particularly  of  its 
northern  half,  as  'Weimar  became  some  years  later  of  the 
southern  half.  Not  only  could  Klopstock  claim  it  as  his 
residence,  but  it  also  contained  for  some  time  the  great 
Lessing,  who,  by  the  way,  was  no  mean  defendant  of 
Klopstock  in  the  attacks  made  against  the  latter  by 
Gottsched  and  his  school;  Herder  occasionally  visited 
the  Hanse  city,  and  a  number  of  lesser  lights,  such  as 
Voss,  Claudius,  Keimerus,  the  Stolbergs,  etc.,  gathered 
there  about  the  two  chief  luminaries.  "  Klopstock," 
says  iNIrs.  ^\'ild^worth  {Christum  Sin;jcrs  of  Germamj,  p. 
326  sq.),  speaking  of  his  residence  at  Hamburg,  "  enjoy- 
ed a  sort  of  reverence  not  unlike  that  paid  to  Dr.  John- 
son in  England,  but  in  some  respects  more  flattering,  as 
he  was  a  man  of  whom  it  was  much  easier  to  make  a 
popular,  and  especially  a  ladies'  hero."  Here  the  Messiah 
was  at  last  tinished  in  1773,  having  thus  occupied  twen- 
ty-seven years  in  preparation.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
odes  and  lyrics  was  brought  out,  and  here  he  devoted  the 
autumn  of  his  long  life  to  the  study  and  purification  of 
the  German  language  and  its  grammar.  He  had  always 
been  a  passionate  lover  of  his  country,  but  this  did  not 
prevent  him  from  taking  the  keenest  interest  in  the  Amer- 
ican War  of  Independence,  and  the  opening  of  the  French 
Revolution.  He  was  among  those  who  hailed  the  ear- 
lier years  of  the  latter  with  eager  sympathy,  and  the 
hope  of  a  coming  brighter  a;ra  lor  humanity,  and  who 
afterwards  underwent  the  bitterness  of  profound  disap- 
pointment. The  National  Assembly  had  marked  their 
recognition  of  his  friendship  for  the  French  people  by 
according  him  the  rights  of  a  French  citizen,  but  when 
the  terrible  massacres  of  1793  took  place  he  sent  back 
to  them  his  diploma.  In  Hamburg  he  married  his  "be- 
loved" Margaretha,  with  whom,  however,  he  enjoyed 
only  a  short  union;  she  died  in  childbed  in  1758.  In 
1771  he  was  honored  with  the  appointment  of  Danish 
ambassador  to  Hamburg,  and  flourished  at  this  place 
the  remainder  of  his  days,  dividing  his  time  between 
his  public  duties  and  the  pursuits  of  literature.  In  1792 
Klopstock  marrietl  for  the  second  time,  choosing  the 
Frau  von  Winthern,  an  old  love  of  his,  who  had  mean- 
while become  a  widow,  and  who  survived  him.  He  died 
in  1803,  and  was  buried  ('March  22)  by  Hamburg  with 
royal  honors,  a  distinction  which  in  Germany  is  gener- 
ally accorded  only  to  roj'al  personages. 

His  work  of  next  importance  to  the  Messiah  is  a 
drama,  above  alluded  to,  entitled  Ilermann^s  Schlacht 
(the  Battle  of  Arminius),  the  subject  of  which  is  the 
defeat  of  the  Koman  general  Varus  by  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans. It  is  scarcely  so  much  a  drama  as  a  lyric  poem 
in  a  dramatic  form.  It  was  composed  in  17(J4.  His 
otlier  dramas  are  of  a  similar  character,  and  were  writ- 
ten evidently  witli  intent  to  arouse  German  patriotism 
from  its  lethargy,  and  to  breathe  into  the  German  heart 
the  air  of  freedom.  But  the  Messiah  alone  is  of  special 
interest  to  oia  readers,  and  we  therefore  give  a  particu- 
lar description  of  it. 

Klopstock's  Messiah  is  a  poem  in  twenty  cantos, 
written  in  hexameters,  except  where  certain  choral 
songs  occur  in  unrhymed  lyrical  measure.  "  The  action 
opens  after  the  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  when 
the  Messiah  withdra\vs  from  the  people,  and,  alone  on 
the  Jlount  of  Olives,  renews  his  solemn  vow  to  the  Al- 
mighty Father  to  undertake  the  work  of  redemption ;  it 
closes  when  that  work  is  completed,  and  he  sits  down  at 
the  riglit  hand  of  God.  Around  the  central  figiure  of 
the  God-man  are  grouped  an  infinite  variety  of  specta- 
tors and  actors :  angels  and  seraphs,  among  whom  Elva 
and  Gabriel  are  especially  appointed  to  attend  on  the 
divine  sufferer;  evil  spirits  who  conspire  against  him, 
but  one  of  whom,  Abljadonna,  repents  and  at  last  ob- 
tains mercy ;  Adam  and  Eve,  and  the  patriarchs,  who 
watch  with  profound  interest  and  gratitude  the  repara- 
tion of  the  fall ;  and  the  inhabitants  of  another  world, 
like  in  nature  to  man,  but  unfallen,  who  are  ]iermitted 
to  know  what  is  taking  place  among  their  sinful  kin- 


dred. Even  the  Father  himself  is  introduced  as  speak- 
ing, and  the  scene  is  sometimes  laid  in  the  highest 
heaven.  The  earthly  actors  are  the  mother  and  disci- 
ples of  .Jesus,  the  Jews,  and  the  Komans,  who  lead  him 
to  death,  and  a  number  of  those  who  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  him  in  his  ministrations,  among  whom  the 
most  clearly  drawn  are  two  female  figures,  both  named 
Cidli :  one,  the  wife  of  Gedor,  is  a  reminiscence  of  ^Meta, 
and  her  death  is  an  exact  transcript  of  jNIeta's  death-bed ; 
the  other  is  the  daughter  of  Jairus,  between  whom  and 
Semida,  the  youth  of  Nain,  there  exists  a  pure  but  ar- 
dent attachment,  which  at  last  finds  satisfaction  in 
heaven.  The  immense  number  of  personages  thus  in- 
troduced produces  a  confused  impression  ;  everything  is 
described  by  one  or  another  of  them,  and  talked  over  at 
length ;  scarcely  anything  actually  takes  place  before 
the  reader ;  there  is  an  absence  of  local  coloring  and  of 
character,  and  very  few  of  the  actors  have  any  distinct 
individuality  at  all ;  while  the  effort  to  keep  the  whole 
tone  of  the  poem  at  the  highest  possible  pitch  of  inten- 
sity and  awe  gives  rise  to  an  overstrained  inflation  of 
both  thought  and  style,  which  becomes  in  the  long  nni 
inexpressibly  fatiguing.  Yet  Klopstock's  poem  has  made 
for  itself  and  for  him  a  place  in  the  literature  of  his 
country  which  does  not  depend  on  the  number  of  read- 
ers it  now  attracts.  Its  subject  is  linked  bj'  a  thousand 
invisible  fibres  to  the  whole  Christian  thought  of  centu- 
ries past,  while  its  spirit  of  mercy,  forgiveness,  and  tol- 
erance— in  a  word,  of  redemption — is  essentially  char- 
acteristic of  the  later  developments  of  Christianity.  To 
treat  such  a  theme  worthily  at  all — to  embody  it  in  a 
form  which,  however  fuU  of  defects,  j'et  possesses  a  cer- 
tain dignity  and  real  genius — marks  its  author  as  a 
great  poet,  if  not  one  of  the  greatest,  and  gives  him  a 
place  historically  even  higher,  perhaps,  than  he  has  a 
right  to  command  as  an  artist."  The  poem  certainly 
abounds  in  passages  of  the  most  bcautifid  and  sjilendid 
poetry.  An  exuberant  imagination  everywhere  scat- 
ters its  wealth,  and  Klopstock  has  been  said  by  one 
critic  to  be  "  as  superior  to  Pindar  in  richness  and  deep 
feeling  as  the  spiritual  world  he  paints  transcends  in  in- 
trinsic magnificence  the  scenes  celebrated  by  the  Gre- 
cian bard ;"  and  by  another  critic,  "  now  to  rival  the 
tenderness  of  David,  now  to  soar  in  the  loftiest  fiights 
like  Isaiah.  The  purity  and  pathos  of  its  religious  sen- 
timents arc  equal  to  the  excellence  of  its  poetry.  But 
all  good  and  candid  judges  will  allow  that,  though  ex- 
hibiting a  sublimity  and  beauty  of  no  common  order,  it 
has  failed  to  accomplish  the  confident  expectations  of 
the  Germans,  that  it  woultl  eclipse  the  Paradise  Lost  of 
Jlilton."  For,  notwithstanding  its  grandeur,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly tedious  to  read ;  and  even  at  the  time  of  Klop- 
stock's greatest  popularity  this  seems  to  have  been  felt, 
for  Lessing  observes,  in  an  epigram,  that  everybody 
praises  Klopstock,  but  few  read  him.  His  odes  are  val- 
ued by  his  own  countrymen  more  than  his  epic,  and 
some  are  truly  sublime;  but  the  construction  of  the  lan- 
guage is  so  singular,  and  the  connection  of  the  thoughts 
so  often  non-apparent,  that  these  odes  are  reckoned 
among  the  most  difficult  in  the  language.  Both  in  his 
Messiah  and  his  odes  he  is  dignified  and  sublime,  but 
his  rhapsodical  manner  contrasts  strangely  with  the 
pedantry  which  is  always  apparent.  Goethe,  in  his 
conversations  with  Eckermann,  expressed  his  opinion 
that  German  literature  was  greatly  indebted  to  Klop- 
stock, who  was  in  advance  of  his  times,  but  that  the 
times  had  since  advanced  beyond  Klopstock.  The  young 
Hardenberg  (who  wrote  under  the  name  of  "Novalis") 
has  happily  said  that  Klopstock's  works  always  resemble 
translations  from  some  unknown  poet,  done  by  a  clever 
but  unpoetical  philologist.  As  for  the  theological  as- 
pect of  his  poem  of  the  jlfessi.ah,  Klopstock  fell  into  the 
almost  inevitable  fault,  in  treating  this  subject  poetical- 
ly, of  dividing  the  kingdom  of  heaven  between  the  Fa- 
ther and  the  Son  (ditheism),  and  even  opposing  them 
to  each  other,  as  when  he  makes  Christ  say  to  God,  "  I, 
who  am  God  as  well  as  thou,  swear  to  thee  by  myself. 


KLUGE 


122 


KNAPP 


that  I  will  redeem  mankind."  (Comp.  Hurst's  Hagen- 
bach,  Church  History  of  the  18th  and  I9th  Centuries,  i, 
249;  ii, '277sq.) 

The  Messiah  was  first  published  in  fratcmonts.  and  then 
as  a  whole  (iUtona,  1780 ;  7tli  ed.  Lpz.  1817) :  it  has  been 
translated  into  Latin,  English,  French,  I'olish,  Dutch, 
and  S^vedish.  Klopstock  also  wrote  the  folloAving 
shorter  poems:  Oden  ii.Elegien  (Hamb.  1771,  2  vols. ;  Gth 
ed.  Lpz.  18l'7  ;  trans,  into  English  by  W.  Kind,  1847)  :— 
Geistliche  Lieikr  (Kopenh.  1758-G9,  2  vols.) ;  besides  dra- 
mas under  the  following  titles:  Adam's  Tod  (Kopenh. 
17u7 ;  4th  ed.  1773)  : — Salomo  (^lagdeb.  1764) : — David 
(Hamburg,  1772) ;  etc.  His  complete  works  have  been 
published  mider  the  title  Klopstock' s  sdmmtliche  Werke 
(Lpzg.  1798-1817,  12  vols.;  1822-24,  12  vols;  1823-29, 
18  vols.;  1839,  9  vols.;  1839,  1  vol.;  Kopenh.  1844,  10 
vols.,  with  3  supplements.  See  Cramer,  Klopstock;  er  u. 
i'lher  ihn  (Dessau,  1780,  5  vols.  8vo) ;  Mme.  de  Stael,  De 
VAUemarpie;  Klamer-Schmidt,  A7()/;stoc^•  u.  s.  Freunde 
(Halberstadt,  1810) ;  H.  Doring,  Klopstock's  Lebm  (Wei- 
mar, 1825);  Enfjlish  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Herzog,  Real-Encij- 
llop.  vol.  vii,  s.  V. ;  Kurtz,  Litei-aturgesch.  vol.  ii  (see  In- 
dex in  vol.  iii) ;  and  especially  the  valuable  work  of 
Koberstein,  Grundriss  d.  Gesch.  der  deuischen  Literatur, 
iii,  260  sq.,  2884  sq.,  etc. ;  LtibeU,  Entwichelum/  d.  deiit- 
schen  Poesie  v.  Klopstock  bis  Goethe  (Braunschw.  1856), 
vol.  i ;  Gervinus,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Dichtuno  (Leipzig, 
1844,  5  vols.  8vo,  2d  ed.),  iv,  115  sq. ;  British  and  For- 
eir/ii  Quarterly  Bevicu;  Jan.  1843.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kluge,  David,  a  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Tilsit,  Prussia,  April  14, 1G18,  and,  upon  the  urgent  re- 
quest of  his  father,  studied  theology,  although  his  own 
inclinations  were  in  favor  of  medicine.  In  1641  he  be- 
gan to  lecture  at  the  University  of  Kostock,  v.here  he 
had  pursued  his  theological  studies  for  several  yeai's,  in 
addition  to  his  course  at  Ktinigsberg  Universitj%  Later 
lie  travelled  abroad,  and  visited  the  high-schools  of 
Sweden  and  the  Netherlands.  He  began  to  preach  in 
1644  at  JIarienwcrder ;  removed  in  1646  to  Saalfeld,  and 
in  1657  to  Elbingen,  in  1660  to  Wissmar,  and  in  1665  to 
Hamburg.  He  died  there  April  14, 1688.  For  a  list  of 
his  works,  see  Jiicher,  Gclehrt.  Lex.  ii,  2118  sq. 

Kluge,  Johann  Daniel,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Weissenfels  June  6,  1701,  and  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Leipzig  and  AVittenberg.  He  was 
made  a  professor  at  the  gymnasium  in  Dortmund  in 
1730;  in  1735  he  removed  to  Weissenfels  as  preacher 
and  superintendent  of  the  churches,  and  in  1745  accept- 
ed a  call  as  court  preacher  to  Zerbst,  where  he  died  July 
5, 1768.  Kluge  was  well  acquainted  with  dogmatics  and 
the  exegesis  of  the  N.  T.,  as  is  evinced  by  his  A\Titings 
in  those  departments,  lie  contributed  largely  to  peri- 
odicals, and  published  in  book  form  Concilium  syntag- 
matis  confessioninn  Eccles.  Luther  (Hamb.  1728,  4to)  : — 
Commentatio  de  Mart.  Chemnitii  auctoritate  commentitioi 
honorum  operum  in  acta  justijicationis  j)i'cesenti(e  /also 
prcetexta  (ibid.  1734, 4to): — Commentatio  in  lociim  (Tim. 
iii,  2)  (Dortra.  1747, 4to) : — Ecloyce  in  pericopas  epistol- 
icas  (ibid.  1 748, 4to),  etc.  Sec  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolo-  \ 
gen  Dtutschlands,  ii,  131  sq. 

Kllipfel,  Emanuel  Christoph,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  Jan.  29, 1712,  at  llattcnhofcn,  in  Wlir- 
temberg,  and  educated  at  Tiibingen.  In  1741  he  became 
jiastor  at  Geneva  of  a  German  Lutheran  church,  and  in 
1745  he  became  the  instructor  and  travelling  preacher 
of  the  king  of  Saxony,  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
I'aris.  On  his  return  to  Saxony  he  was  promoted,  and 
llnally.  in  1752,  became  one  of  the  highest  dignitaries  in 
the  Church  of  Saxonj-.  He  died  Nov.  21,  1776.  Al- 
though a  superior  scholar  and  a  ready  writer,  Klupfel 
has  left  us  only  two  small  contributions  to  theological 
literature :  Dissert,  de  nominihus,  llehrms  appellativis 
Alrph  prceformativo  (Tiibingen,  1733,  4to)  : — Bedenken 
iiber  die  Frage ;  ob  die  Ehe  mil  des  Brudeis  Wiftwe  er- 
laubt  sfi  (Gotha.  1752, 8vo).  —  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theolog, 
Deutschkvuh,  ii,  123  sq. 


Kliipfel,  Engelbert,  a  German  Roman  Catholic 
theologian  of  note,  was  born  at  Wipfelda,  between  AN'iirz- 
burg  and  Schweinfurt,  Jan.  18,  1733.  He  received  his 
early  education  in  the  school  of  Wurzburg,  and  in  1750 
joined  the  Augustinian  Hermits  of  that  city.  In  1751, 
however,  he  renounced  his  vows  at  Obemdorf,  and  went 
to  study  philosophy  at  Freiburg.  Next  he  removed  to 
Erfurt,  and  was  finally  ordained  priest  at  Constance  in 
1756.  In  1758  he  became  professor  of  philoso])liy  at 
Mannerstadt,  and  in  1763  at  Oberndorf;  afterwards  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Mentz,  and  finally  at  Constance. 
The  Austrian  court  wishing  to  replace  the  Jesuits  by  the 
Augustinians,  he  was  made  professor  of  the  University 
of  Freiburg,  in  Breisgau,  in  1768.  The  Jesuits,  however, 
tried  to  revenge  themselves,  and  Kliipfel's  Theses  de  statu 
7iaturce  purm  imjwssibili  were  attacked  by  professor  \A'ald- 
ner  as  tending  to  Jansenism.  But  Kliipfel  was  sustained 
b}'  the  court.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  he  un- 
dertook the  publication  of  that  gigantic  task,  Noi-a  bib- 
liotheca  ecclesiastica  (Freib.  7  vols.  8vo,  1775-1790,  after 
the  plan  oi ^rn^siV s BiUiotheca  Ci'itica),&\\  effort  which 
was  highly  commended  bj'  his  contemporaries,  and  even, 
brought  him  a  recognition  from  Maria  Theresa  in  her 
own  handwriting,  with  the  proffer  of  assistance,  if  need- 
ed, to  complete  the  work.  The  Koman  Catholic  popula- 
tion, nevertheless,  were  opposed  to  him,  and  when,  in  a 
discourse  at  the  jubilee  of  1776,  he  attacked  the  system 
of  indulgences,  he  was  called  by  them  "  IMartin  Luther," 
and  "  the  enemy  of  indulgences."  He  was  involved  in  a 
controversy  also  with  the  Protestants  by  his  recension  of 
Semler's  Institutio  ad  Christianam  doctrinam  Ubercditer 
discendam.  His  principal  "work  is  his  Instituiiones  theo- 
logim  dogmatic(e  (1789),  which  has  been  used  as  a  text- 
book in  many  iniiversities,  but  was  quite  transformed  by 
Ziegler.  He  resigned  his  professorship  in  1805,  and  died 
July  8, 1811.  Kliipfel  was  a  man  of  very  varied  scholar- 
ship, and,  being  blessed  with  a  long  life  and  good  health, 
he  furnished  the  world,  besides  the  extraordinary  works 
already  mentioned,  as  a  result  of  his  study  of  the  Church 
fathers,  a  treatise  entitled  Tertulliani  mens  de  indissolii- 
bilitate  matrimonii  in  injidelitate  conti-acti,  conjuge  alter- 
utro  ad  Jidem  Christi  converso  (in  the  first  vol.  of  Rieg- 
ger's  Oblectamenta  Ilistorice  et  Juris  ecclesiastici  [1776]) : 
—  Vindicim  raticinii  Jesaice  vii,  14  de  hnmanuele  (1779, 
4to),  etc.  See  De  vita  et  scriptis  Com-adi  Celtis  opus 
piosthumum  Engelbeiti  Kluepfelii  (pub.  by  J.  C.  Ruef  and 
C.  Zell,  Friburgi,  1827)  ;  J.  L.  Hug,  Elogium  Kluepfelii 
Friburgi;  Herzog,  Jieal-Encykiop.  yu,7Gl ;  also  Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Dentschlunds,  ii,  126  sq.  (where,  by  mis- 
take, he  is  treated  as  Kliipfel,  Johann  Andreas).  (J. 
H.  W.) 

Knapp,  Albert,  a  German  theologian,  and  one  of 
the  ablest  ^vorkers  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church  of  the 
19th  century,  peculiarly  distinguished  for  his  poetical 
gifts  and  influence  in  establishing  a  school  of  religions 
poetn,',  was  born  in  Tiibingen  July  25, 1798.  His  child- 
hood was  passed  in  the  village  of  Alpirsbach,  under  the 
old  11th-century  Benedictine  cloister,  and  he  enjoyed  the 
careful  instruction  of  Handel,  afterward  pastor  at  .Stamm- 
heim.  Night  and  day  he  dreamed  poetry.  His  miivcr- 
sity  studies,  upon  Avhich  he  entered  in  1816,  were  rather 
poetic  than  theological;  the  authorities  did  not  restrain 
his  choice,  and  for  that  he  always  expressed  his  grati- 
tude. In  1820  he  was  established  vicar  near  Stuttgard, 
and  here,  through  intercourse  with  the  pious  AMlhclm 
Hofacker  (q.  v.),  he  received  that  deep  religious  impres- 
sion which  ever  after  characterized  his  work.  In  1831 
he  became  deacon  at  Kirchheim,  where,  at  the  instance 
of  a  friend,  he  began  tlie  publication  of  the  Chriftoterpe, 
an  annual  which  contained  religious  selections  from  va- 
rious eminent  authors,  was  popular,  and  often  sought  as 
a  Christmas  gift  in  families,  but  ceased  with  the  year 
1853.  In  1836  he  was  made  pastor  at  Stuttgard.  and  la- 
bored there  with  great  zeal  for  the  cause  of  his  IMaster, 
exercising  a  large  influence  until  his  death,  .June  18, 
1864.  The  prayer  expressed  in  one  of  his  best  liymns 
was  answered :  "  Grant  me  one  thhig  here  below — thy 


KNAPP 


123 


KNAPP 


Spirit  and  thy  peace,  and  the  honor  in  my  grave  of  hav- 
ing known  thy  love." 

Albert  Kiiapp  is  chiefly  known  by  his  religious  poems, 
and  as  the  best  of  these  may  be  pointed  out  his  Chi-ist- 
Ik'he  Gedichte  (in  2  vols.  Stuttg.  18-29-,  3d  ed.  Basle,  18-13), 
Ilerhstbliithen  (1859),  and  Christoterpe,  alreadj'  referred 
to.  To  the  hj'mnology  of  the  Church  Ivjiapp  render- 
ed special  service  in  preserving,  in  the  revision  of  the 
Church  hymn-book,  many  forgotten  treasures.  His  Lie- 
derschatz,  generally  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  most 
valuable  collections  of  Christian  hymns  of  all  ages,  was 
first  published  in  1837  (2d  ed.  1850,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  the 
Ecangdlsche  Gesant/buch  in  1855.  His  avowed  principle 
of  modernizing  obsolete  forms  in  the  old  hymns  was 
sharply  assailed,  and  he  himself  restoretl  at  a  later  day 
some  of  the  original  expressions.  As  a  preacher  the 
manifold  richness  of  his  thought  and  delicacy  of  diction 
was  his  attraction.  He  did  not  suffer  himself  to  appear 
the  poet  in  his  sermons,  never  having  once  so  used  a 
poem  of  his  own,  nor  even  having  appointed  one  of  his 
own  hymns  to  be  sung,  yet  no  one  could  listen  to  him 
without  acknowledging  a  rare  union  of  extensive  learn- 
ing with  original  genius.  His  singular  merit  as  a  hymn- 
maker  remains,  notwithstanding  a  haste  of  composition 
and  lightness  of  tone  in  some  of  his  poems,  and  although 
the  subjective  individuality  of  the  author,  according  to 
the  spirit  of  the  times,  often  characterizes  his  weiglitier 
pieces,  yet  his  individuality  is  ons  of  simple  faith. 
In  theologj'  he  was  fully  evangelical  in  his  doctrine  of 
salvation,  which  he  defended  not  in  mere  polemic,  but  in 
heart-devotion  against  all  opposers.  See  his  preface  to 
the  Christoierpe  of  I84G  for  a  statement  of  his  belief.  He 
grounded  all  defence  of  doctrine  upon  the  necessities  and 
joyful  faith  of  spiritual  experience,  and  severely  con- 
demned a  merely  external  method  and  the  zeal  of  argu- 
mentative orthodoxy.  He  had  no  sympathy  with  sects 
as  such.  Knapp's  biographical  contributions  in  the 
Christoterpe  are  of  great  interest  and  beauty;  we  name 
that  on  his  own  "  Childhood  Days"  in  the  issue  of  1849, 
on  Ludwig  Hofecker  (1848),  Hedhigcr  (1836),  Steinhofer 
(1837),  Jacob  Balde  (1848),  Jeremias  Flatt  (1852).  The 
writer's  poetic  humor  and  narrative  power,  joined  with 
love  for  his  theme,  make  these  sketches  perfect  art- 
■\\-orks.  Dr.  Friederich  Wilhelm  Krummacher,  in  his 
autobiography  (translated  by  Easton,  Edinb.  18G9,  8vo, 
p.  203, 204),  pays  the  following  tribute  to  the  high  poet- 
ical talents  of  our  subject :  "That  in  Albert  Knapp  there 
^vas  a  true  poetic  inborn  genius  no  one  will  seriously 
deny,  and  yet  he  is  not  generally  mentioned  in  our  re- 
cent histories  of  literature  as  ranked  among  the  'Suabian 
poets,'  although,  without  doubt,  he  would  have  been 
named  among  them,  and  in  the  very  foremost  rank,  had 
he  consecrated  his  harp  to  the  spirit  of  the  world  instead 
of  seeking  aU  his  inspiration  from  the  Spirit  of  God;  but 
■worldly  fame,  to  which  the  way  and  the  door  stood  wide 
open  for  him,  he  gladly  cast  at  his  feet,  and  recognised 
it  as  his  calling,  as  it  indeed  was  the  impulse  of  his 
heart,  to  sing  the  praises  of  the  heavenly  Prince  of  Peace, 
througli.  whom  he  knew  he  was  redeemed  and  ordained 
'  to  the  inheritance  of  the  saints  in  light.'  Instead  of 
worldly  fame,  there  was  destined  for  him,  so  long  as  a 
Church  of  Christ  shall  remain  on  earth,  the  glorious  re- 
ward of  (iod,  that  his  Eiiies  u'iinsch  ich  niir  vor  allem 
Andern,  his  An  dein  Bluten  uml  J-Jrhkichen,  his  Abend 
ist  es,  Ilerr,  die  Stunde,  and  many  others  of  his  hymns, 
will  never  cease  to  be  sung  in  it.  We  bless  him  in  the 
name  of  many  thousands  to  whom  the  melodies  of  his 
harp,  breathing  peace  and  joy,  have  lightened  their  steps 
on  the  way  to  the  city  of  God,  and  we  hope  that  the 
people  of  Stuttgard  may  long  refresh  themselves  at  the 
'  streams  of  living  water'  which,  according  to  the  word 
of  the  Lord,  yet  flow  for  them  to  this  hour  from  the  life 
and  labors  of  their  highly-gifted  pastor."  See  Herzog, 
Reid-Eiiri/klop.  xix,  s.  v. 

7:^napp,  Georg  Christian,  an  eminent  German 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Glaucha,  near  Halle, 
in  1753.    He  entered  the  university  of  that  city  in  1770, 


and  afterwards  also  spent  a  semester  at  the  University 
of  Gottingen.  He  began  lecturing  on  philosophy  in 
1775,  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  in  1777,  and 
regular  professor  in  1782.  In  1785  he  became  director 
of  Franke's  celebrated  orphan  asylum  and  educational 
institute,  previously  presided  over  by  his  father,  which 
he  managed  for  forty  years  in  conj miction  with  Nie- 
meyer.  in  the  division  of  labor  he  had  charge  of  the 
orphan  asylum,  the  Latin  school,  and  the  Biblical  and 
missionary  departments,  which,  notwithstanding  deli- 
cate health,  he  conducted  in  a  manner  that  gahied  him 
the  esteem  of  all.  He  died  Oct.  14, 1825.  Naturally  in- 
clined to  mysticism,  which  in  latter  years  caused  his 
writings  and  teaching  to  assume  a  supernaturalistic 
form,  he  did  not  succeed,  notwithstanding  the  jwpular- 
ity  of  his  lectures,  in  forming  a  school  of  his  own  in  the 
midst  of  the  nationalistic  tendencies  of  his  colleagues. 
Constitutional  timidity  also  impaired  much  of  his  influ- 
ence, as  he  shrank  from  all  personal  argum.enfs  either 
with  the  students  or  with  the  other  professors.  Dr.  F. 
W.  Krummacher  has  described  him  as  '•  tlie  last  descend- 
ant of  the  old  theological  school  of  Halle,"  and  assures 
us  that  he  "  was  well  able,  from  intellectual  ability  and 
scientific  attainment,  to  have  waged  a  successful  war 
against  the  then  reigning  Rationalism,  and  to  have  toss- 
ed from  their  airy  saddles  its  champions  among  his  col- 
leagues who  were  intoxicated  with  triumph,"  but  that 
"  his  excessive  gentleness  and  modesty,  bordering  even 
on  timidity,  led  him  carefully  to  avoid  everj-thing  like 
direct  polemics."  (Compare,  for  a  fuller  descrii)tio)i  of 
his  character,  etc.,  F.  Vr.  Krummacher's  Autobiography, 
translated  by  the  Kev.  M.  G.  Easton  [Edinb.  18G9, 8vo],p. 
55  sq.).  His  principal  works  are,  I'salmen  iibersetzt  tind 
mil  Anmerkuiif/eii  (1778;  3d  ed.  1789) : — a  very  careful- 
ly edited  and  useful  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  jVo- 
V7im  Tcstamentum  Grace  recoffiiovit  atque  insif/nioris  lec- 
tioniim  varietdtis  et  ar()Uinentorinn  notitiam  subjunxit 
(Halle,  1797,  4to  ;  the  last  ed.  in  1829,  2  vols.  8vo;  also  N. 
Y,  1808):  —  Scripta  varii  argumenti  maicimam  pai-tem 
exegetica  atque  historica  (Halle,  1805,  8vo;  a  second  and 
enlarged  edition  in  1823,2  vols.  8vo) : — the  following 
dissertations — Ad  vaticiniwn  Jacobi  {l~7i};  De  versione 
A  lexandrina  in  emendenda  lectione  exempli  Ilebraici  caute 
adhibendu  (Halle,  1773, 177(;).  After  Ins  death  K.  Thilo 
published  his  Vorlesungcn  iiber  d.  GUuihcnslelire  (183(3,  2 
parts,  which  were  translated  by  Dr.  Leonard  Woods  un- 
der the  title  Lectures  on  Christian  Theology  [Andover, 
1831-39,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  often  since],  and  have  been  ex- 
tensively used,  especially  in  this  country) ;  and  Guerike 
his  Bibl.  Glaubenslehre  z.  prahtischen  Gebrauch  (1840). 
Knapp  also  wrote  Traliat  ii.d.  Frage :  Was  soil  ich  thun, 
dass  ich  selig  icerde?  (1806) : — Anleitung  z.  einem  gottse- 
ligen  Leben  (1811).  Some  valuable  biographical  sketch- 
es which  he  contributed  to  the  paper  entitled  Frcmke's 
Sliftungen,  were  republished  under  the  title  Lehen  und 
Karakter  einiger  gelehrten  it.frommen  Manner  d.vorigen 
Jahrh.  (1829).  See  Niemeyer.  Epicedien  -zum  A  ndenken 
atif  Knapp  (1825) ;  K.  Thilo,  in  the  preface  to  Knapp's 
Vorlesungen  ii.d.  Glaubenslehre ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyldop. 
vii,  763 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Do- 
ring,  Gckhiie  Theol.  Deiitschlands,  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Knapp,  Johann  Georg,  father  of  Georg  Chris- 
tian, was  himself  a  tlieologian  of  some  note.  He  was 
born  at  Oehringen  Dec.  27,  1705,  of  pious  parents,  and 
went  to  the  University  of  Altdorf  to  study  theology. 
He  removed  to  Jena  in  1723  to  continue  his  preparatory 
studies  for  the  ministerial  office,  and  completed  them  at 
Halle,  where,  in  1728,  he  was  ajipointed  instructor  at  the 
royal  predagogium.  In  1732  he  became  pastor  to  the 
Prussian  military  school  at  Berlin,  but  remained  there 
oidy  one  year,  and  then  returned  to  Halle  to  fiU  an  ad- 
junct professorship  in  theology  at  the  university.  He 
was  made  ordinary  or  regular  jirofessor  in  1739.  After 
the  decease  of  the  celebrated  Franke  he  was  placed  over 
the  orphan  asylum,  and  held  this  position  until  his  death, 
July  30,  1771.  Knapp  took  a  particidar  interest  in  the 
cause  of  missions,  and  published  Neuere  Gesch.  d,  evan- 


KXATCIIBULL 


124 


KNEELING 


gel.  MisaioTisamtfalteii  ziir  Bekekruvg  d.  Ileideiim  Ostindien 
(Halle,  1770,  ^vo),  and  other  rejwrts  of  missions.  He 
also  publislied  several  valualile  dissertations,  for  a  list  of 
■which,  see  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theolog.  Ueutsc/daiuk,  ii,  144. 
(J.  II.W.) 

Kuatchbull,  Sir  Norton,  a  learned  English  baro- 
net. 1)1  iru  in  Kent  in  1001,  was  a  man  of  considerable 
erudition,  and  devoted  himself  with  some  success  to  the 
study  of  the  J5iblical  writings.  In  1659  he  gave  to  the 
world  Animadfersiones  in  Lihros  Noi-i  Testam.,  which 
speedily  \vent  through  a  considerable  number  of  editions 
(a  translation  of  it,  prepared  by  himself  or  under  his  su- 
perintendence, appeared  at  Cambridge  in  1G93),  and  was 
reprinted  both  at  Amsterdam  and  Frankfort,  at  which 
latter  place  it  formed  part  of  the  supplement  to  N.  Gurt- 
ler's  edition  of  Walton's  Po/i/r/lof,  1095-1701.  He  died 
in  1684.  "  KnatchbuU's  remarks  are  sensible,  and  show 
very  fair  learning;  but  they  are  entirely''  wanting  in 
deijth,  and  we  cannot  read  them  without  wonder  at  the 
small  amount  of  knowledge  which  procured  for  their  au- 
thor such  a  wide-spread  reputation"  (Kitto,/>'jW.Q/c/op. 
vol.  ii,  s.  v.).  Dr.  Campbell  calls  Knatchbull  '•  a  learned 
man,  but  a  hardy  critic." 

Knauer,  Joseph,  a  German  Roman  Catholic  prelate 
of  note,  was  born  at  Rothflossel,  near  Mittelwalde,  in  the 
duchy  of  (Jlatz,  Dec.  1, 17G4,  and  was  educated  at  Bres- 
lau  University.  He  was  ordained  priest  March  7, 1789, 
and  became  at  once  chaplain  to  the  dean  of  Mittelwalde. 
In  1794  he  was  appointed  priest  at  Alpendorf,  and  rose 
gradually  to  distinction  in  his  Church  until  in  1841  (Au- 
gust 27)  he  was  honored  with  the  ajipointment  of  arch- 
bishop of  Breslau.  He  died  jNIay  IG,  1844. — Kuthol.  lieal- 
Enciildopddie,  xi,  852. 

Knead  Qd''0,lusli),  to  prepare  dough  by  working  it 
with  the  hands;  a  task  usually  performed  by  women 
(Gen.  xviii,  G;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  24;  2  Sam.  xiii,  8;  Jer. 
vii,  18) ;  once  spoken  of  a  male  baker  (Hos.  vii,  4).  See 
Dough. 

KXEADING- TROUGH  (rriX'r-S,  mishe'reth,  so 
cnlk'd  from  t\\Q  fermentation  of  the  dough),  the  vessel  in 
which  the  materials  of  the  bread,  after  being  mixed  and 
leavened,  is  left  to  swell  (Exod.  viii,  3 ,  xii,  34 ,  rendered 
"  store"  in  Dent,  xxviii,  5, 17) ;  probably  like  the  wooden 
liowl  used  by  the  modern  Arabs  for  the  same  purpose. 
On  the  monuments  of  Egypt  wc  find  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  making  bread  represented  with  great  minute- 
ness. ISIen  were  chiefly  occupied  in  it,  as  with  us  at  the 
present  day.  Their  grain  was  ground  in  hand-mills,  or 
pounded  in  mortars,  and  then  kneaded  into  dough,  which 
was  sometimes  done  by  the  hand,  in  a  large  circular 
bowl, or  in  a  trough  with  the  feet  (Williinson,  Anc.  Eg. 
i,  174-G).  See  Bake.  The  process  of  making  bread  in 
Egypt  is  now  generally  performed  in  villages  by  wom- 
en, among  whom  proficiency  in  that  art  is  looked  upon 
as  a  sort  of  accomplishment.  Except  in  large  towns, 
each  family  l)akes  its  own  bread,  which  is  usually  made 
into  small  cakes  and  eaten  new,  the  climate  not  admit- 
ting of  its  being  kept  long  without  turning  sour.  When 
the  dough  is  sufhciently  kneaded,  it  is  made  up  into  a 
round  flat  cake,  generally  about  a  span  in  width,  and  a 
finger's  breadth  m  thickness.  See  Cake.  A  lire  of 
straw  and  dung  is  then  kindled  on  the  tloor  or  hearth, 
which,  when  sutllcicntly  heated,  is  removed,  and  the 
dough  Ijcing  jilaccd  on  it,  and  covered  with  hot  embers, 
is  thus  soon  baked.  Sometimes  a  circle  of  small  stones 
is  placed  upon  the  hearth  after  it  has  been  heated,  into 
v.-hicli  some  ]iastc  ii  poured,  and  covered  with  hot  em- 
bers: this  ]iroduce8  a  kind  of  biscuit.  SccOvex.  "The 
modern  Oriental  kneading-trciu^h'?.,  in  which  the  dough 
is  prepared,  have  no  resemblance  to  ours  in  size  or  shape. 
As  one  person  does  not  bake  bread  for  many  families,  as 
in  our  towns,  and  as  one  family  docs  not  bake  bread  suf- 
ficient for  many  days,  as  in  our  villages,  but  every  fam- 
ily bakes  for  the  day  only  the  quantify  of  bread  which 
it  re(iuires,  but  a  comparatively  small  (piantity  of  dough 
13  prepared.     This  is  done  i:i  small  ■wooden  bov.'ls ,  and 


that  those  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  of  the  same  de- 
scription as  those  now  in  use  appears  from  their  being 
al)le  to  carrj'  them,  together  with  the  dough,  wrapped 
up  in  their  cloaks,  upon  their  shouklers  without  diffi- 
culty. The  Bedouin  Arabs,  indeed,  use  for  this  puqjose 
a  leather,  which  can  be  drawn  up  into  a  bag  by  a  run- 
ning cord  along  the  border,  and  in  which  they  prepare 
and  often  carry  tlieir  dough.  This  might  ecjually,  and 
in  some  respects  better  answer  the  described  conditions; 
but,  being  especially  adapted  to  the  use  of  a  nomade  and 
tent-dwelling  people,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  Israel- 
ites, who  were  not  such  at  the  time  of  the  Exode,  then 
used  the  wooden  bowls  for  their  'kneading -troughs' 
(Exod.  viii,3;  xii,  34;  Deut.  xxviii,  5,  7).  It  is  clear, 
from  the  history  of  the  departure  from  Egypt,  that  the 
flour  had  first  been  made  into  a  dough  In-  Mater  only, in 
which  state  it  had  been  kept  some  little  time  before  it 
was  leavened ;  for  when  the  Israelites  were  unexpected- 
ly (as  to  the  moment)  compelled  in  all  haste  to  with- 
draw, it  was  found  that,  although  the  dough  had  been 
prepared  in  the  kneading-trough,  it  was  still  unleavened 
(Exod.  xii,  34 ;  compare  Hos.  vii,  4) ;  and  it  was  in  com- 
memoration of  this  circumstance  that  they  and  their 
descendants  in  all  ages  were  enjoined  to  eat  only  un- 
leavened bread  at  the  feast  of  the  Passover"  (Kitto). 
See  Bread. 

EInee  (Heb. and  Chald.  Tp3,6e'reZ-;  Qr.yovv;  Psa. 
cix,  24 ;  in  Dan. v,  6,  the  Chald.term  is  ri25'n N,  arl-ubak'). 
The  Hebrew  word,  as  a  verb,  signifies  to  bend  the  knee 
(2  Chron.  vi,  13),  also  to  bless,  to  pronounce  or  give  a 
blessing,  because  the  person  blessed  kneels.  See  Bless- 
ing. In  this  sense  it  refers  to  the  benediction  of  dying 
parents  (Gen.  xxvii,  4, 7, 10, 19),  of  the  priest  to  the  peo- 
ple (  Levit.  ix,  22, 23),  of  a  prophet  (Numl).  xxiv,  1 ;  Deut. 
xxxiii,  n.  It  also  signifies  to  salute,  which  is  connect- 
ed with  blessing  (2  Kings  iv,  29).  In  relation  to  God, 
to  praise,  to  thank  him  (Deut.  viii,  10 ;  Psa.  xvi,  7). 

The  expression  is  also,  ni  another  form,  used  in  refer- 
ence to  camels,  as  to  make  them  bend  the  knee  in  order 
to  take  rest:  "And  he  made  his  camels  to  kneel  down 
without  the  city"  (Gen.  xxiv,  1 1).     See  Camel. 

To  bow  the  knee  is  to  perform  an  act  of  worship  (1 
Kings  xix,  18),  and  in  this  sense  it  is  used  in  the  Heb. 
in  Isa.  Ixvi,  3 ;  "He  that  worships  idols"  is,  literally,  "He 
that  bows  the  knee"  to  them.     See  Worship. 

Tliat  kneeling  was  the  posture  of  prayer  ^ve  learn  from 
2  Chron.  vi,  13 ;  Dan.  vi,  10 ;  Luke  xxii,  41 ;  Acts  vii,  60 ; 
Eph.  3, 14.     See  Prayer. 

Knees  are  sometimes  put  symbolically  for  persons,  as 
in  Job  iv,  4;  Heb.  xii,  12  (Wemyss).     See  Kneel. 

For  the  peculiar  terra  in  Gen.  xii,  43  (see  IJeinecciiis, 
Be  nomine  Ti1|inX,Weissenf.  1726),  see  Abeech. 

Kneel  (TI'^3,  to  bend  the  knee  [q.  v.],  yovvTrsrUo), 
the  act  of  reverence  and  worship  (Psa.  xcv,  6 ;  Dan.  vi, 
10 ;  Acts  Ix,  40 ;  xxi,  5).     See  Attitlde. 

Kueelers.  See  Genuflectentes  ;  Catechu- 
mens. 

Kneeling,  the  act  of  bending  the  knee  in  devotion- 
al exercises,  is  a  practice  of  great  antiquity.  Reference 
to  it  is  made  in  all  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  both  of  the 
O.-T.  and  N.-T.  writings,  as  in  Isaac's  blessing  on  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxvii,  29),  compared  with  his  brother's  subsequent 
conduct  (xlii,  G),  and  with  an  edict  of  Pharaoh,  "Bow 
the  knee''  (xii,  43),  and  again  in  the  second  command- 
ment (Exod.  XX,  5).  Then  we  find  David  exclaiming, 
"Let  us  worship  and  bow  down,  let  us  kneel  before  the 
Lord  our  maker"  (Psa.  xcv,  6);  "We  will  go  into  his 
tabernacle,  and  fall  low  on  our  knees  before  his  footstool" 
(cxxxii,  7).  Solomon  "  kneeled  on  his  knees"  before  the 
altar  of  the  Lord,  with  his  hands  spread  up  to  heaven  (1 
Kings  viii,  54) ;  Ezra  fell  upon  his  knees,  and  spread  out 
his  hands  unto  God,  and  made  his  confession  (Ezra  ix, 
5-15);  Daniel  "kneeled  upon  his  knees  three  times  a 
day,"  .and  ])rayed  "as  he  did  aforetime"  (Dan.  vi,  10); 
the  holy  martyr  Stephen  "  kneeled  down,  and  cried  with 


KNEELING 


125 


KNEPH 


a  loud  voice,"  praying  for  his  murderers  (Acts  vii,  CO) ; 
Peter  likewise  '•  kneeled  down  and  prayed"  (Acts  ix,  40) ; 
Paul  also  (Acts  xx,  3G ;  xxi,  5).  That  the  posture  was 
a  customarj'  one  may  be  inferred  from  the  conduct  of 
the  man  beseeching  Christ  to  heal  his  son  (Matt,  xvii, 
14),  and  of  the  rich  j'oung  man  (Mark  x,  17),  as  also  of 
the  lei)or  (Mark  i,  40) ;  yea,  we  have  even  the  example 
of  Christ  himselt^  who,  according  to  Luke  (xxii,  14), 
'•  kneeled  ilown"  when  he  prayed.  That  the  practice 
was  general  among  the  early  Christians  is  plain  from 
the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  from  Eusebius's  IJistor;/  (ii,  33), 
and  from  numberless  other  authorities,  and  especially 
from  the  solemn  proclamation  made  by  the  deacon  to 
tlie  people  in  all  the  liturgies, "  Flectamus  genua"  (Let 
us  bend  our  knees),  whereupon  the  people  knelt  till,  at 
the  close  of  the  prayer,  they  received  a  corresponding 
summons,  '•  Levate"  (Arise),  and  from  the  fact  that  prayer 
itself  was  termed  icXhig  yovarwv,  bending  the  knees. 

In  the  days  of  Irenanis,  and  for  some  time  after,  four 
postures  were  in  use  among  Christians,  namely,  stand- 
ing (for  which  see  reason  below),  prostration  (as  a  sign 
of  deep  and  extraordinary  humiliation),  bowing,  and 
kneeling.  The  posture  of  sitting  during  the  time  of 
public  prayer,  of  modem  days,  seems  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the  early  Christians.  Kneeling  at  public  de- 
votions was  the  common  practice  during  the  six  work- 
ing days,  and  was  understood  by  the  early  Church  to 
denote  humility  of  mind  before  God,  and  "as  a  symbol 
of  our  fill  by  sin."  A  standing  posture  in  worship  (ex- 
plained as  being  emblematic  of  Christ's  resurrection  from 
the  dead,  and  the  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  also  as  being  a 
sign  of  the  Christian's  hope  and  expectation  of  heaven) 
was  assumed  by  the  early  Christian  worshippers  (ex- 
cept penitents)  on  Suntlays  and  during  the  tifty  days 
between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide,  "as  a  symbol  of  the 
resurrection,  whereby,  through  the  grace  of  Christ,  we 
rise  again  from  our  fall."  Cassian  says  of  the  Egyptian 
churches  that  from  Saturday  night  to  Sunday  night, 
and  all  the  days  of  Pentecost,  they  neither  knelt  nor  fast- 
ed. The  Apostolical  Constitutions  order  that  Christians 
should  pray  three  times  on  the  Lord's  day,  standing,  in 
honor  of  him  who  rose  the  third  day  from  the  dead,  and 
in  the  writings  of  Chrysostora  we  meet  with  frequent 
allusions  to  the  same  practice,  especially  in  the  oft-re- 
peated form  by  which  the  deacon  called  upon  the  people 
to  pray, "  Let  us  stand  upright  with  reverence  and  de- 
cency." TertiUlian  says,  "  Wc  count  it  unlawful  to  fast, 
or  to  worship  kneeling,  on  the  Lord's  day,  and  we  enjoy 
the  same  immunity  from  Easter  to  Pentecost."  This 
practice  was  confirmed  by  the  Council  of  Nice,  for  the 
sake  of  uniformity,  and  it  is  from  this  circumstance, 
probably,  that  the  Ethiopic  and  Muscovitish  churches 
adopted  the  attitude  of  standing  generally,  a  custom 
which  they  continue  to  this  day.  From  Cyril's  writ- 
ings it  wotdd  appear  that  also  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist  a  standing  attitude  was  assumed  by  the  earlj' 
Christians.  He  saj's  "  it  was  with  silence  and  downcast 
eyes,  bowing  themselves  in  the  posture  of  worship  and 
adoration."  Tlie  exact  perioil  when  hieelinf/  at  the 
Lord's  Suii[)er  became  general  cannot  be  ascertained,  but 
it  has  prevailed  for  many  centuries,  and  it  is  now  gener- 
ally, though  not  altogether,  practiced  as  the  proper  pos- 
ture for  communicants. 

In  ordination,  also,  a  kneeling  posture  was  early  prac- 
ticed. Dionysius  says,  "The  person  to  be  ordained 
kneeled  befnrc  the  bisliop  at  the  altar,  and  he.  laying  his 
hand  ujion  his  head,  did  consecrate  him  with  a  holy 
prayer,  and  then  signed  him  with  the  sign  of  the  cross, 
after  which  the  bishop  and  the  clergy  present  gave  him 
the  kiss  of  peace."  Ifwould  appear,  however,  that  bish- 
ops elect  did  not  relish  much  the  humiliating  posture  of 
kneeling  at  their  ordination,  for  Theodorct  inlbrms  us 
that  "it  was  a  customary  rite  to  bring  the  person  about, 
to  be  ordained  bishoj)  to  the  holy  table,  and  make  him 
kneel  upon  his  knees  hij  forced  But  this,  no  doubt,  was 
a  significant  mode  of  showing  with  what  reluctance  men 
should  undertake  so  important,  so  weighty  a  charge  as 


that  of  bishop  in  the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ.  Indeed, 
so  solemn  and  onerous  were  its  responsibilities  esteemed, 
that  we  read  of  several  who  absconded  as  soon  as  they 
understood  that  the  jwpular  voice  had  chosen  them  to 
fill  this  honorable  post ;  and  many  of  them,  -when  cap- 
tured, were  brought  by  force  to  the  holy  altar,  and  there, 
against  their  ^yill  and  inclination,  were  ordained  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,  being  held  down  on  their  knees  by 
the  officers  of  the  church.    See  Election  of  Clergy. 

In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  act  of  kneeling  be- 
longs to  the  highest  form  of  worship.  It  is  especially 
practiced  in  the  perfonnance  of  monastic  devotions  and 
in  acts  of  penance.  It  is  also  frequently  employed  dur- 
ing the  mass,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  consecrated  ele- 
ments when  reserved  for  subsequent  communion.  In 
acts  of  penance  this  Church  has  carried  the  practice  to 
great  excess,  subjecting  the  penitent  to  sufferings  which 
remind  us  of  the  legend  told  of  St.  James,  that  he  con- 
tracted a  hardness  on  his  knees  equal  to  that  of  camels 
because  he  was  so  generally  on  his  knees.  "  Instances," 
says  Eadie,  "are  innumerable,  and  ever  recurring  in  the 
Romish  Church,  of  delicate  women  being  obliged  to 
walk  on  rough  pavements,  for  hours  in  succession,  on 
their  bare  knees,  until  at  length  nature,  worn  out  by  the 
injurious  and  demoralizing  exercise,  compels  them  to 
desist.  To  encourage  the  penitent  and  devout  in  acts 
of  this  nature,  the  most  wonderful  tales  are  related  of 
the  good  resulting  from  self- mortification  and  entire 
siUjmission  to  the  stern  discipline  of  the  Chiu-ch."  See 
the  article  Gexuflexiox. 

In  the  Anglican  Chiu-ch  the  rubric  prescribes  the 
kneeling  posture  in  many  parts  of  the  service,  and  this, 
as  well  as  the  practice  of  bowing  the  head  at  the  name  of 
Jesus,  was  the  subject  of  much  controversy  with  the  Pu- 
ritans. A  like  controversy  was  in  1838  provoked  in  Ba- 
varia by  a  ministerial  decree  obliging  Protestants  to  join 
Bomanists  in  this  ceremony  when  required  of  them,  and 
ended  only  with  its  repeal  in  1844  (for  details  on  this 
pjint,  see  the  Roman  Catholic  version  in  Wetzer  und 
Welte,  Kirchen  Lex.  vi,  23G ;  the  Protestant  side  in  Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyhlopadie,  s.  v.  Baiern).  See  Eadie,  Ecclcs. 
Diet.  s.  v.;  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Hook,  Church  Did. 
s.  v.;  Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  391  sq.,  631  sq. ;  Cole- 
man, Christian  Antiquities  (see  Index). 

Kneph  or  Knuphis,  also  known  under  the  name 
of  Nuji  ( r  Nee,  in  Egyp- 
tian mythology  is  the  old- 
est designation  of  deity, 
and  signifies  either  sjnrit  or 
water,  perhaps  in  allusion 
to  the  Spirit  of  God,  who 
"in  the  beginning  moved 
\\\vm  the  face  of  tlie  wa- 
ters." Greatly  distorted  by 
the  priests,  the  legend  is  in 
brief  that  from  his  mouth 
came  the  egg  which  gave 
existence  to  all  things  tem- 
poral ;  hence  the  egg  is 
ills  symbol ;  likewise  the 
snake,  which  assumes  the 
shape  of  a  ring,  to  indicate 
his  eternal  existence.  His 
representation  is  frequent- 
ly found  on  Egyjitian  monuments,  sometimes  with  a 
snake  holding  an  egg  between  its  head  and  tail.  The 
Egyptians  of  Thebes  knew  only  this  one  god  to  be  hn- 
mortetl;  all  others  they  supposed  to  be  more  or  less  sub- 
ject to  temporal  changes. 

In  the  later  idolatrj'  Kneph  was  the  special  god  of 
Upper  Egypt,  where  he  was  represented  in  human 
shape,  with  the  head  of  a  ram ;  still  regarded  as  tho 
creator  of  other  gods,  he  was  figured  at  Elephantine 
sitting  at  a  potter's  wheel  fashioning  the  limbs  of  Osiris, 
while  the  god  of  the  Nile  is  pouring  water  on  the  clay. 
"The  idea,"  says  Trevor  {Anc.  Eimpt,  p.  131),  "seems 
to  be  the  same  as  in  Job  (x,  8,  9 ;  Rom.  ix,  23) :  '  Thine 


Figure  of  Kueph. 


KNIBB 


126 


KNIFE 


hands  have  made  me  and  fashioned  me  together  round 
about,  llcmeinlier.  I  beseech  thee,  that  thou  hast  made 
ine  as  (lie  clay.'''  (Comp. Herodotus, ii, 41.)  See  Voll- 
mer,  [VOrterb.  d.  J/)/tkol.  p.  106G.  See  Egypt.  (J.  U. 
W.) 

Kiiibb,  WiLLiA jr,  a  Baptist  missionary  to  Jamaica, 
was  burn  at  Kettering,  in  Nortliamptonshire,  England, 
about  1800.  He  sailed  as  a  missionary  to  Kingston, 
Jamaica,  in  1824;  in  1828  removed  to  the  IJidgeland 
jMission,  in  the  north-western  part  of  the  island,  and 
subsecpiently  became  pastor  of  the  mission  church  at 
Falmouth.  He  exercised  a  very  important  part  in 
bringing  about  the  Emancipation  Act  of  1833,  by  which 
sla^-ery  Avas  abolished  in  the  island,  and  afterwards  so 
exposed  the  apprenticeship  sj-stem  established  by  the 
same  act  as  to  secure  the  complete  emancipation  of  ap- 
prentices in  the  island.  In  1838  he  erected  a  normal 
school  at  Kettering,  in  Trelawnej^,  for  training  native 
and  other  schoolmistresses  for  both  Jamaica  and  Africa, 
and  in  1842  he  visited  England  to  promote  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  theological  seminarj'  in  connection  with 
the  native  mission  to  Africa.  He  died  at  Ketteruig 
July  lo,  1845.     See  Enfjlish  Cyclop,  s.  v.     (J,  L.  S.) 

Knife  is  the  representative  in  the  Auth,  Version  of 
several  Ileb.  terms :  !3"ltl  (che'rch,  from  its  laying  waste), 
a  sharp  instrument,  e.  g.  for  circumcising  (Josh,  v,  2,  3)  ; 
a  razor  (Ezek.  v,  1) ;  a  graving-tool  or  cliisel  (Exod.  xx, 
25) ;  an  a.re  (Ezek.  xxvi,  9) ;  poet,  of  the  curved  fusks 
of  the  hippopotamus  (Job  xl,  19) ;  elsewhere  usually  a 
"sword."  r?2X"5  {maake'leth,  so  called  from  its  use 
in  enthuf),  a  large  knife  for  slaughtering  and  cutting  up 
food  ((ien.  xxii,  6,  10;  Judg.  xix,  29;"Prov.  xxx,  14). 
■j^SilJ  {snkkin',  so  called  from  sejmraiing  parts  to  the 
view),  a  knife  for  any  purpose,  perhaps  a  table-knife 
(Prov.  xxiii,  2).  C^5n^  (inachalaph',  so  called  from 
f/lidiiiff  through  the  flesh),  a  hitfcher's  knife  for  slaugh- 
tering the  victims  in  sacrifice  (Ezra  i,  9).     See  Sword. 


Ancient  Etruscan  Sacrificial  Knife. 


"The  jirobable  form  of  the  knives  of  the  Hebrews 
wiU  be  best  gathered  from  a  comparison  of  those  of 
other  ancient  nations,  both  Eastern  and  Western,  which 
have  come  down  to  us.  No.  1  represents  the  Roman 
cultcr,  used  in  sacrificing,  which  may  be  compared  with 
No.  2,  an  Egyptian  sacrificial  knife.  Nos.  3,  4,  and  5 
arc  also  Egyjitian  knives,  of  which  the  most  remarka- 
ble, No.  3,  is  from  the  Louvre  collection;  the  others  are 
from  the  MonnmcnH  Reali  of  KosclUni.  Nos.  G-9  are 
liomau,  from  Barihelemy.  In  No.  7  we  have  probably 
the  form  of  the  jiruning-hook  of  the  Jews  (m^T'2,  Isa. 
xviii,  5),  though  some  rather  assimilate  this  to  the 
sickle  ('^;).  It  was  probably  with  some  such  instru- 
ment as  No.  9  that  the  priests  of  J'aal  cut  thepiselves" 
(Kittol.  See  Akmor.  The  knife  used  by  the  fisher- 
man fur  splitting  his  fish  ((j.  v.)  was  of  a  circular  form, 
wit!)  a  handle,  as  likewise  that  used  by  the  currier  for 
cutting  leather  ((\.  v.),  only  larger  and  heavier.     In  the 


Ancient  Egyptian  semicircular  Knives. 

British  Museum  various  specimens  of  ancient  Egj^itian 
knives  may  be  seen.  There  are  some  small  knives,  the 
blades  of  bronze,  the  handles  composed  of  agate  or  hem- 
atite. There  is  likewise  a  species  of  bronze  knife  with 
lunated  blade ;  also  the  blade  of  a  knife  composed  of 
steatite,  inscribed  on  one  side  with  hieroglyphics.  There 
is  also  an  iron  knife  of  a  late  period  and  peculiar  con- 
struction :  it  consists  of  a  broad  cutting-blade,  moving 
on  a  pivot  at  the  end,  and  working  in  a  groove  by  means 
of  a  handle.  The  following  summary  comparison  of  the 
Biblical  instruments  of  cutlery  with  those  used  at  vari- 
ous times  in  the  East,  as  to  materials  and  application,  is 
chiefly  from  Smitli's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  s.  v. 


Various  Forms  of  ancient  Knives. 

1.  The  knives  of  the  Egyptians,  and  of  other  nations 
in  early  times,  were  probably  only  of  hard  stone,  and 
the  use  of  the  fiint  or  stone  knife  was  sometimes  re- 
tained for  sacred  purposes  after  the  introduction  of  iron 
and  steel  (Pliny,  J/ist;  Xat.  xxxv,  12,  §  1G5).  Herodo- 
tus (ii,  80)  mentions  knives  both  of  iron  and  of  stone  in 
different  stages  of  the  same  process  of  embalming  (see 
Wilkinson,  A  nc.  Eyypt.  ii,  1 G3).  The  same  may  perhaps 
be  said,  to  some  extent,  of  the  Hebrews  (compare  Exod. 
iv,  25). 


KNIGHT 


121 


KNIGHTHOOD 


AiicieutEgyptiau  Flint  Ki;ivL--  Jr.uii  un-  Berlin  Museum). 

No.  1  for  general  purpotes;  No.  ■.:  probably  lor  incisions 

in  embalming. 

2.  Ill  their  meals  the  Jews,  like  other  Orientals,  made 
little  use  of  knives,  but  they  were  required  for  slaughter- 
ing animals  either  for  food  or  sacritice,  as  well  as  for  cut- 
ting up  the  carcase  (Lev.  vli,  oo,  3-i ;  viii,  15,  20,  25 ;  ix, 
13;  Numb.xviii,  18;  lSam.ix,24;  Ezek.xxiv,4;  Ezra 
i,  9 ;  jNIatt.  xxvi,  23 ;  Russell,  .1  liqjpo,  i,  172 ;  Wilkinson, 
i,  1G9 ;  Mishna,  TamV/,  iv,  3 ).     See  Eating. 


Ancient  Egyptian  Slaughteriug-kuivcs.  No.  1  is  cutting 
up  an  il)ek.  No.  2  is  sharpening  a  knife  on  a  steel  at- 
tached to  his  apron.  Over  them  is  the  hieroglyph  for 
the  act. 

Asiatics  usually  carry  about  with  tliem  a  knife  or 
dagger,  often  with  a  highly-ornamented  handle,  which 
may  be  used  when  required  for  eating  purposes  (Judg. 
iii,  21 ;  Layard,  Mn.  ii,  342,  200 ;  Wilkinson,  i,  358,  300 ; 
Chardin,  Vo'jugc.  iv,  18 ;  Nicbuhr,  Voyarie.  i,  340,  pi.  71). 
See  Girdle. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Knive^  (from  the  British  ^Museum). 
Two  of  them  have  a  hook  at  the  handle,  as  if  for  sus- 
pending in  the  girdle.  For  another  form  used  by  sol- 
diers, see  Bucket. 

3.  Smaller  knives  were  in  use  for  paring  fruit  (Jo- 
sephus,  Ant.  xvii,  7;  War.  i,  33,  7)  and  for  sharpening 
pens  (Jer.  xxxvi,  23).     See  Penknife. 

4.  The  razor  was  often  used  for  Nazaritish  purposes, 
for  which  a  special  chamber  was  reserved  in  the  Temple 
(Numb,  vi,  5,  9,  19 ;  Ezek.  v,  1 ;  Isa.  vii,  20  ;  Jer.  xxxvi, 
23  ;  Acts  xviii,  18  ;  xxi,  24;  Mishna,  Midd.  ii,  5).  See 
ILvzou. 

5.  The  pruning-hooks  of  Isa.  xviii,  5  were  probably 
curved  knives.     See  Pruning-iiook. 

6.  Tlie  lancets  of  the  priests  of  Baal  were  doubtless 
pointed  knives  (1  Kings  xviii,  28).     See  Lancet. 

Knight,  James  (1),  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  who 
floiirished  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century,  was  vi- 


car of  St.  Sepulchre's,  London.  Nothing  further  is  known 
to  us  of  his  personal  history.  He  wrote  in  Defence  of 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  two  treatises  (1714-15),  which 
are  highly  commended  by  Dr.  Waterland  (INIoyer's  Lec- 
tures), knight  also  pnlilished  five  separate  Sermons 
(1719-36),  and  eight  sermons  delivered  at  lady  Meyer's 
Lecture  in  1720-21  (1721,8vo).— AllibonCjZ'ic^o/iw^r- 
^wA  and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knight,  James  (2),  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  at  Ilalitax,  Yorlishire,  England,  July  10,1709,  and 
was  educated  for  the  ministry  at  Homerton  College, 
where  he  is  said  to  have  made  rapid  attainments  in  Bib- 
lical science.  Upon  his  graduation  he  was  called  to  the 
Church  in  Collierskents,  Southwark,  where  he  was  or- 
dained in  1791.  In  1833  he  resigned  his  pastorate  there, 
after  a  foitlifid  and  successful  service.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  London  j\Iissionary  Society.  IMr. 
Knight's  sermons,  some  of  which  have  been  published, 
were  celebrated  for  their  sacred  unction,  and  their  thor- 
ough and  searching  appeals  to  the  conscience.  His  em- 
inent piety  was  both  the  strength  and  ornament  of  his 
character.  He  knew  how  not  only  to  discuss  a  subject 
with  logical  precision,  but  also  to  infuse  into  it  the  si)ir- 
it  of  vital  evangelical  piety.  See  Morison,  Missionuru 
Fathers. 

Knight,  Joel  Abraham,  a  INIethodist  minister, 
was  born  at  Hull.Yorkshire,  England,  April  23, 1754;  was 
ordained  at  Spatields  Chapel,  London,  jSIarch  9,  1783, 
where  he  was  also  appointed  master  of  the  charity 
school  and  assistant  preacher.  In  1788  he  preached  at 
Pentouville  Chapel,  and  in  1789  became  pastor  of  the 
Tabernacle  and  Tottenham  Court  chapels,  London,  a  po- 
sition which  he  occupied  until  his  death,  April  22, 1808. 
Mr.  Knight  was  a  zealous  worker  in  the  formation  and 
proceedings  of  the  London  jNIissionary  Society  in  1795. 
His  sermons,  some  of  which  were  published  ii»  London 
in  1788-9,  were  always  richly  imbued  with  the  distin- 
guishing doctrines  of  evangeiical  Christianity,  but  they 
especially  taught  that "  the  cordial  reception  of  the  doc- 
trine of  salvation  by  grace  must  necessarily  produce 
obedience  to  the  law  of  God."  In  speech  he  was  inva- 
riably chaste,  and  in  manner  affectionate  and  pathetic. 
— Morison,  Missionary  Fathers.     (H.  C.  W.) 

Knight,  Samuel,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of  note, 
was  born  in  London  in  1075,  and  was  educated  at  St. 
Paul's  School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
first  became  chaplain  to  Edward,  earl  of  Oxford,  and  was 
by  him  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Borough-green,  in 
Cambridgeshire,  in  1707;  was  made  prebendary  of  Ely 
and  rector  of  Bluntcshan\  (Huntingdonshire)  in  1714; 
became  chaplain  to  (ieorge  II  in  1730,  and  was  promoted 
to  the  archdeaconry  of  Berks  in  1735.  He  died  Dec.  10, 
1746.  Between  the  years  1721  and  1738  he  published 
several  of  his  Sermom.  He  also  wrote  Life  of  Dr.  John, 
Coles,  Dean  ofSt.PanVs  (London,  1724,  8vo;  new  edit. 
Oxford,  1823,"8vo)  -.—Life  ofFrasmus  (Cambridge,  1726, 
8vo).—GP7ieird  Biny.  Diet,  viii, 40  sq. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Fnyl.  and  A  mer.  A  nthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knighthood,  the  condition,  honor,  and  rank  of  a 
knight,  also  the  service  due  from  a  knight,  and  the  ten- 
ure of  land  by  such  service.  In  a  secondary  sense,  the 
word  is  employed  to  denote  the  class  of  knights — the 
aggregate  body  of  any  particidar  knightly  association; 
the  institution  itself,  and  the  spirit  of  the  institution. 
In  these  remoter  meanings  it  becomes  identical  with 
Chiv(dry,  and  it  is  in  this  point  of  view  that  it  ivill 
principally  be  considered  here.  The  term  is  one  of 
various  significance,  and  is,  therefore,  apt  for  ambigu- 
ities; it  is  one  whose  applications  were  of  gradual  de- 
velopment, and  which  is,  accordingly,  of  diverse  histor- 
ical import.  Its  explanation  is  thus  necessarily  intri- 
cate and  midtifarious,  and  care  is  requisite  to  avoid 
confounding  different  things,  or  different  phases  of  the 
same  thing,  under  the  single  common  name.  Neglect 
of  this  precaution  has  occasioned  much  of  the  extrava- 


KNIGHTHOOD 


128 


KNIGHTHOOD 


gance  and  complexity  which  are  noticeable  in  specula- 
tions on  this  subject. 

A  kniijht  under  the  feudal  system — miles  in  the  La- 
tinity  of  feudal  jurisprudence— was  one  holduig  land  by 
military  service  {sercilium  militare),  with  horse,  and 
shield,  and  lance,  and  armor  cap-a-pie  (Blackstone,  Com- 
mentaries!, ii,  G2-3).  Knighthood  in  this  application  cor- 
responds closely  witli  the  French  designation  checalerie, 
and  its  consideration  is  inextricably  intertwined  with 
that  of  chivalry. 

The  characteristics  of  knighthood  have  undergone 
many  modifications  in  the  lapse  of  long  centuries.  The 
lord  mayor  of  London  is  knighted  for  the  presentation 
of  an  address  to  the  sovereign,  and  JMichacl  Faraday  is 
deservedly  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  for 
chemical  and  other  scientific  discoveries;  but  in  the 
main  conccjition  and  strict  usage  of  the  term  knight- 
hood, liege  service  in  war  is  implied. 

"A  kniirht  ther  was,  and  that  a  worthy  man, 
That  from  the  tyme  that  he  ferst  bigau 
To  ryden  out,  he  lovede  chyvah-ye, 
Troulhe  and  honour,  f'redom  and  curfesye. 
Ful  worthi  was  he  hi  his  lordes  werre. 
And  therto  had  he  riden,  uoman  ferre, 
As  wel  in  Cristendom  as  in  hethenesse, 
Aud  ever  honoured  for  his  worthinesse.'' 

Tlic  character  of  knighthood,  however,  as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  mere  tenure  of  land  by  knight-service,  was 
entirely  personal,  and  hence  it  is  conferred  and  attaches 
only  for  life,  and  is  not  descendible  by  inheritance.  It 
cannot  be  assumed  by  one's  own  act,  but  must  be  be- 
stowed by  another  of  knightly  or  of  superior  rank.  The 
knight's  estate  was  held  by  knight-service,  or  chivaliy, 
and  the  heir  at  full  age  was  entitled  and  could  be  com- 
pelled to  receive  knighthood.  Compulsory  writs  for  the 
latter  purpose  were  frequently  issued  from  the  proper 
courts.  But,  until  the  dignity  w^as  conferred,  the  as- 
pirant was  no  knight.  ISLiny  entitled  to  claim  the  dig- 
nity declined  to  do  so,  though  holding  land  by  knightl}' 
tenure,  because  unable  to  bear  the  ex,)enses  incident  to 
the  rank.  Hence  arose  the  old  adage:  ^' Bon  escuijer 
vault  mieiilx  que  pauvn  chei'alier."  But  the  reality  or 
the  obligation  of  jjcrsonal  military  service  was  always 
entailed  by  knighthood. 

I.  Orifjiii  of  Knifjhthood  or  Cliivalrj/. — Under  the  im- 
pulse of  the  same  uncritical  spirit  which  referred  the 
descent  of  the  Britons  to  Brutus  and  wanderers  from 
Troy,  the  origin  of  knighthood  has  been  traced  back  to 
the  judges  of  Israel  or  to  the  heroes  of  the  Iliad.  More 
modest  inqmrers  have  been  content  to  go  no  further 
back  than  to  Constantine's  supposed  "Order  of  the 
Golden  Angel"  (313),  or  to  the  equally  imaginary  Ethi- 
opian "  Order  of  St.  Anthonj-,"  and  the  anchorites  of 
the  African  deserts.  Others,  more  modest  still,  ascend 
onlj'  to  "  King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table,"  or  to  Charles  Martel  and  the  "  Order  of  the 
Gennet,"  or  to  '•  Cliarlemagne  and  his  Paladins."  In 
all  such  genealogies  there  is  much  fantasy,  confusion, 
and  retrospective  legend.  The  incidents  of  war  must 
in  all  ages  present  some  general  resemblances.  There 
must  always  have  been  leaders  and  followers,  brothers 
in  arms,  and  associations  of  warriors — "  i-irere  fortes  ante 
A^amemnona."  Such  tendencies  in  human  nature  as 
prompted  these  miUtarj'^  unions  might  furnish  the  im- 
pulse to  subsequent  institutions,  but  to  ascribe  the  ori- 
gin of  the  institutions  themselves  to  the  first  recorded 
manifestation  of  these  tendencies  is  to  renounce  all  his- 
torical discrimination.  When  the  origin  of  knighthood 
is  investigated,  what  is  desired  is  the  discovery  of  the 
existence  of  a  definite  institution,  with  precise  and  dis- 
tinctive cliaracteristics,  animated  l)y  a  peculiar  spirit, 
which  gave  its  coloring  to  society  for  many  generations, 
and  which  still  exercises  a  potent  influence  over  life  and 
manners.  What  is  contemplated  is  "a  military  insti- 
tution, prompted  liy  enthusiastic  1)enevolence,  sanctioned 
by  religion,  and  combined  with  religious  ceremonies,  the 
purpose  of  which  was  to  protect  the  weak  from  the  op- 
pression of  the  powerful,  and  to  defend  the  right  against 


the  wrong"  (James,  History  of  Chivalry,  chap.  i).  The 
only  important  omissions  in  this  definition  arc  the  obli- 
gation of  ^•honneur  aux  dumes,"  knightly  trutli,  and  the 
thorough  interpenetratioii  of  Cliristiaii  pn)fession,  if 
rarely  of  Christian  practice. 

The  germ  of  knighthood,  but  only  the  germ,  may  un- 
questionably be  found  in  the  ancient  usages  of  the  Teu- 
tonic trifles  aud  in  the  Teutonic  comitatus,  which  co- 
alesced with  Ii(jman  customs  and  with  the  suggestions 
of  the  times  in  shaping  feudalism.  The  very  name  of 
knight. — cniht,  cnicht,  bo}',  servant,  military  follower — 
would  indicate  such  a  derivation.  "  Arma  sumere  non 
ante  cuiquam  moris  quam  civitas  suflFecturum  proba- 
verit.  Turn  in  ipso  concilio  principum  aliquis,  vel  pa- 
ter, vel  propinqui,  scute  framcaque  juvenem  ornant. 
Hoc  apud  illos  toga,  hie  publicus  juventa;  honos;  ante 
hoc  domus  pars  videntur,  mox  reipublic;i?.  .  .  .  Ceteris 
robustioribus  ct  jam  pridem  probatis  adgregantur;  nee 
rubor  inter  comites  aspici"  (Tacitus,  Germ.  c.  xiii ;  comp. 
c.  xiv).  To  this  same  source  must  be  ascribed  in  part, 
but  only  in  part,  the  chivalrous  deference  for  women : 
"  in  esse  quin  etiam  sanctum  aliquid  et  providum  per- 
tant;  nee  aut  consilia  earum  aspernantur  aut  responsa 
neglegunt"  {ibid,  c.  viii).  The  intensification  and  spir- 
itualization  of  this  deference  are  due  to  Christianity. 

Ethnical  temperaments,  ethnical  tendencies,  and  eth- 
nical usages  are  seldom  entirely  eradicated.  They  con- 
tinue under  many  transmutations  and  disguises;  lurk 
under  new  forms,  animate  new  institutions,  and  enter 
into  strange  and  often  undetected  combinations.  With 
this  explanation,  knighthood  may  be,  in  some  measure, 
referred  to  the  rude  warriors  of  the  forests  of  Germany, 
who  are  described  in  the  satirical  romance  of  Tacitus  in 
terms  more  appropriate  to  the  Indians  of  North  Ameri- 
ca than  to  any  populations  which  really  occupied  the 
provinces  of  the  crumbling  empire  of  Rome.  The  act- 
ual historical  origin  of  knighthood,  though  verj'  ob- 
scure, may  be  safely  assigned  to  a  much  later  age,  and 
to  other  more  potent  influences  than  those  which  flowed 
from  the  Rhine,  and  the  Elbe,  and  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic. 

AVithoiit  recurring  to  the  details  of  the  feudal  system 
[see  Fief],  it  may  be  stated  that  feudal  services  {ser- 
rilia)  were  strictly  limited,  and  jirescribed  military 
service  for  a  fixed  time  and  of  a  fixed  amount.  Cir- 
cumstances might  occur  which  woidd  demand  longer, 
less  restricted,  and  less  formallv  organized  warfare. 
Such  circumstances  did  occur  in  the  ninth,  tenlli,  and 
eleventh  centuries.  During  the  Norman  ravages  of 
France,  on  the  disruption  of  the  Carlovingian  empire  and 
the  decay  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty,  universal  anar- 
chy, misery,  and  outrage  covered  the  land.  The  ]ierils 
from  the  barbarous  enemy  were  scarcely  greater  than 
those  from  violent  and  rapacious  barons,  and  from  law- 
less and  lordlcss  plunderers.  The  multiplied  horrors  of 
the  dismal  period  were  aggravated  by  general  destitu- 
tion, by  famine,  by  plague,  and  by  disastrous  ])rodigies  on 
the  earth  and  in  the  heavens.  The  bonds  of  authoritj'- 
were  snapped ;  the  regular  organization  of  tlie  feudal 
society  was  rent  and  suspended ;  immediate  protection 
and  prompt  redress,  without  too  nice  distinction  of  rank 
and  sidjordination,  were  demanded  on  all  sides.  Tliose 
who  had  the  power,  the  heart,  and  the  will,  found  abun- 
dant work  for  active  hands  to  do  in  the  defence  of  wom- 
en and  children,  of  the  old  and  infirm,  of  unarmed  mer- 
chants and  pilgrims,  of  priests  and  monks;  and  rode 
through  the  coimtry  endeavoring  to  repress  disorder,  if 
unable  to  establish  order.  The  conilition  of  things  was 
even  worse  than  such  as  might  now  provoke  Lyncli  law 
or  instigate  vigilance  committees.  Of  course,  the  vigi- 
lance committees  of  the  closing  millennitmi  assumed  the 
moidd  of  the  time  iij  which  their  services  were  rendered. 
Accordingly,  the  avengers  of  iniquity  were  guided  by 
an  earnest,  though  usually  rude  and  blundering  sense  of 
Christian  obligation  in  their  generous  warfare.  It  thus 
became  the  avowed  duty  of  the  true  knight  to  serve 
women,  to  protect  the  feeble,  to  minister  to  the  wound- 


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129 


KNIGHTHOOD 


ed,  to  comfort  the  wretched,  to  repress  or  punish  wrong, 
aiid  in  all  honor  to  uphold  and  to  do  the  right. 

"He  had  abroad  in  amies  wouue  muchell  fame, 
And  flid  far  laudes  with  giorie  of  his  might ; 
Plaine,  faithful,  true,  and  enimy  of  shame, 
And  ever  lov'd  to  light  for  ladies  right; 
But  in  vaiue-glorious  frayes  he  litle  did  delight." 

While  these  calamitous  generations  writhed  through 
their  long  agony  in  France,  the  progress  of  the  Holy 
Warfare  in  Spain  agamst  the  Saracens  invited  and  en- 
riclied  the  princes,  nobles,  and  adventurers  who  fought  for 
the  Cross  against  the  Crescent.  Religious  fervor  was  thus 
intimately  conjoined  with  martial  prowess.  But,  both 
in  France  and  Spain,  and,  in  less  degree,  in  other  coun- 
tries, similar  necessities  concurred  in  the  production  of 
like  phenomena.  In  all  cases  there  was  a  relaxation 
of  the  direct  connection  of  military  achievement  with 
landed  estates  and  feudal  subordination.  High  moral 
qualities  and  Christian  zeal  were  required  of  the  land- 
less or  lonely  luiight,  or  were  annexed  as  requirements 
to  complete  the  character  of  the  accomplished  feudal 
vassal.  Thus  the  true  knight  came  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  knight  by  feudal  tenure;  though  the  feudal 
knight  might  possess,  and  was  expected  to  possess, 
knightly  characteristics  in  addition  to  his  feudal  do- 
main and  its  attendant  obligations. 

Doubtless  in  France  and  Spain,  and  elsewhere,  chiv- 
alrous emprise  was  encouraged,  if  not  originated  by  the 
Church,  the  sole  moral  authority  of  those  days,  which 
was  anxious  for  peace,  earnest  for  order,  vowed  to  the 
maintenance  of  right,  and  eager  to  subordinate  to  spir- 
itual ride  and  guidance  the  military  ardor  and  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  time. 

All  these  influences  and 'all  these  tendencies,  of  va- 
rious age  and  origin,  converged  and  commingled,  with 
augmented  energy  in  each,  in  the  Crusades.  These  ro- 
mantic and  persistent  enterprises  maj'  have  been  under- 
taken and  prolonged  by  the  instigation  and  for  the  in- 
terest of  the  Pajjacy,  but  they  were  none  the  less  the 
outburst  of  popular  enthusiasm,  and  of  a  popular  en- 
thusiasm which  gave  form  and  active  reality  to  an  in- 
stinctive perception  of  urgent  policy.  Whole  nations 
are  not  impelled  for  centuries  to  arduous  and  perilous 
undertakings  by  any  extrinsic  force;  the  enduring  im- 
pidse  by  which  they  are  set  and  kept  in  motion  must 
be  a  living  power  in  their  ovni  bosoms, "  bequeathed  by 
bleeding  sire  to  son."  Looking  back  from  the  safe  van- 
tange  gromid,  which  has  been  secured  only  within  two 
hmidred  years,  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate  justly  the 
alarming  dangers  to  which  Christianity  and  Christian 
nations  were  exposed  from  Moslem  aggression  at  the 
commencement  of  the  second  millennium  of  our  rera. 
The  apprehension  -was  not  dispelled  entirely  till  the 
victory  of  John  Sobieski  under  the  walls  of  Vienna 
(1683).  It  is  equally  difficult  to  estimate  now  the  effect 
of  a  wild,  warlike  fanaticism  against  Saracens  and  Pa- 
gans in  implanting  the  recently  acquired  and  imper- 
fectly received  creed  in  tiu'bulent  spirits,  and  perhaps 
still  more  difficult  to  recognise  the  service  rendered  bv 
the  Holy  Wars  m  diftusing  and  deepening  the  sentiment 
of  a  common  faith,  a  common  interest,  a  common  civil- 
ization throughout  Western  Europe — a  Christendom,  or 
dominion  of  Christ. 

All  of  these  feelings  were  quickened  bj'  the  Crusades, 
and  were  both  exalted  and  rendered,  in  some  sort,  self- 
conscious  by  them.  It  must  be  rememliered  that  the 
Crusades  did  not  begin  with  Peter  the  Hermit  and  the 
Council  of  Clermont,  but  that  the  crusading  spirit  had 
been  previously  manifested  and  cherished  in  Spain,  in 
Sicily,  and  in  Northern  Africa.  This  spirit  only  re- 
ceived its  fuU  development  and  definite  purpose  by  be- 
ing directed  to  the  recovery  of  Jerusalem.  Through 
distant  i^iatic  expeditions  the  desultorj'  and  unregu- 
lated adventure  for  the  maintenance  of  Christian  belief 
and  Christian  security  was  generalized,  organized,  dis- 
ciplined, and  refined.  The  disorderly  violence  of  mar- 
tial barons  was  withdrawn  from  domestic  discords,  and 

v.— I 


guided  to  a  great  Em*opean  aim.  War  was  in  some 
degree  sanctified ;  it  was  ennobled,  at  least  in  the  con- 
ception of  the  warrior,  by  being  emploj-ed  for  the  de- 
fence and  maintenance  of  the  faith.  A  strange  but  not 
unfruitful  miion  was  thus  effected  between  devotion 
and  mUitary  prowess.  There  is  no  question  here  of 
the  use  which  was  made  of  this  combination  for  the 
extension  of  ecclesiastical  domination.  All  that  is  con- 
templated is  the  consequence  of  this  vmion  in  the  pro- 
duction of  chivalry  and  of  the  knightly  character — a 
magnificent  and  previously  unimagined  ideal,  however 
far  human  vices,  and  passions,  and  frailties  may  have 
prevented  the  perfect  realization  of  that  ideal.  Is  Chris- 
tianity to  be  condemned  in  these  late  ages  because  so 
few  of  those  who  profess  its  behests  reach  their  per- 
formance, and  because  so  many  fail  to  add  the  Christian 
graces  to  the  plainer  merits  of  Christian  belief  and  mor- 
als ■?  The  vision  of  the  Holy  Grail  may  visit  this  sor- 
rowfid  earth,  but  it  is  not  on  earth  that  it  can  be  won 
even  by  Sir  Galahad. 

Another  influence  must  be  admitted  to  have  exercised 
a  beneficial  effect  on  the  formation  of  knighthood.  This 
is  the  contact  and  comparison  with  the  intellectual  and 
social  culti'j-e  of  the  degenerate  Greeks,  and  with  the 
elegance  and  courtesy  of  the  Saracens.  This  influence 
must  have  commenced  early,  for  Bohemond,  and  Tan- 
cred,  and  Raj'mond  of  Toulouse,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, and  Robert  of  Normandy  carried  with  them  to  the 
Holy  Land  in  the  First  Crusade  much  of  that  courtly 
bearing  and  generous  sentiment  which  did  not  become 
generally  disseminated  through  the  Christian  West,  or 
through  the  nobUitj'  at  home,  tiU  the  Second  and  Third 
Crusades.  These  qualities  may  have  been  directly  and 
indirectly  communicated  by  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  Sic- 
ily, and  Southern  France. 

Old  institutions  of  the  German  forest  life ;  the  effects 
of  feudal  organization  and  of  feudal  society ;  the  neces- 
sities of  a  ravaged,  ruined,  and  distracted  country ;  the 
operation  of  religious  zeal,  and  even  of  general  religious 
fanaticism;  the  action  of  the  priesthood,  and  collision 
with  cultivated  Greeks  and  brilliant  Saracens,  all  con-  . 
tributed  to  the  formation  of  the  type  of  a  Christian 
soldier — a  true  knight,  a  preux  chevalier,  sans  (ache  et 
sans  reproche.  The  judgment  is  accordingly  correct 
which  regards  the  sera  of  the  Crusades,  when  the  regu- 
lar and  permanent  Orders  were  instituted,  as  the  true 
period  of  the  formation  of  that  ideal  of  knighthood 
which  is  one  of  the  most  precious  bequests  for  which 
modern  times  are  indebted  to  the  Jliddle  Ages.  Un- 
doubtedly there  was  a  previous  growth  of  the  same 
kind,  but  the  growth  did  not  proceed  to  mature  and 
perfect  fruitage  until  aU  agencies  were  efficacioush* 
combined  on  the  sacred  soil  of  Palestine. 

It  is  a  cause  of  great  embarrassment  in  endeavoring 
to  ascertain  the  characteristics  and  origin  of  any  insti- 
tution which  has  widely  prevailed  in  obscure  ages,  that 
such  institutions  only  gradually  assume  the  complete 
form  which  is  their  familiar  shape,  that  many  concur- 
rent streams  flow  in  at  different  periods  and  add  their 
contributions,  and  that  the  darliuess  of  the  foregone 
time  affords  everj^  ojiiportunify  and  every  temptation  to 
throw  back  into  the  past  those  characteristics  M'hich 
only  belong  to  the  institution  in  its  final  development. 
The  same  confusion  which  presented  Virgil  as  a  necro- 
mancer to  mediaeval  fancy,  and  made  Theseus  a  feudal 
duke  of  Athens  in  the  imagination  of  Chaucer  and 
Shakespeare,  and  exhibited  Dan  Hector  and  Sir  Alex- 
ander to  the  admiring  regards  of  baronial  circles  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  pushed  back  the  distinctions  of 
knighthood  to  periods  in  which  the  germs  of  chivalr}- 
existed  only  in  a  loose  and  disconnected  form.  By 
this  glamour  the  Arthurian  cycle  and  the  Carlovingian 
myths  were  fashioned,  and  the  inventions  and  ideas  of 
the  twelfth  centurj^  were  provided  with  a  historical  ex- 
istence in  the  sixth  and  eighth.  After  knighthood  be- 
came an  established  institution,  it  prevailed  so  widely 
and  so  generally  that  it  seemed  to  be  a  necessary  part 


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130 


KNIGHTHOOD 


of  social  order.  Saladin  is  said  to  have  sought  and  re- 
ceived the  accolade  from  a  Christian  captive,  and  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Manuel  Coruncnus  lield  jousts  and 
tourneys  on  the  plains  of  Antioch  {Nicet.  Chomat,  iii,  3 ; 
comp.  Joann.  Cantacuzenus,  1, 42). 

II.  Nature  of  Kuiyhthood. — A  knight  was  a  soldier 
{miles),  usually,  but  not  necessarily,  of  gentle  blood — a 
soldier  wlio  fought  on  horseback  {caballarius,  chevalier, 
cahallero)  with  panoply  complete — 

"From  top  to  toe  no  place  appeared  bare, 
That  deadly  dint  of  Steele  endanger  may." 

In  the  feudal  hierarchy  he  was  the  holder  of  a  knight's 
fee,  but,  as  chivalry  was  developed,  he  might  be  "lord 
of  his  presence  and  no  land  beside."  The  quality  was 
thus  distinguished  from  the  estate,  and,  although  pen- 
alties were  imposed  for  conferring  the  cliaracter  on  any 
one  not  of  knightly  blood  and  of  knightly  havings,  yet 
tlie  lionor,  once  bestowed,  was  indelible  except  by  degra- 
dation for  unworthy  conduct.  This  point  was  decided 
in  an  English  court  of  law  by  lord  Coke,  and  the  deci- 
sion was  more  recently  confirmed  by  lord  Kenyon  in  the 
case  of  "Sir  John  Gallini,"  a  ballet-master.  Knight- 
hood thus  came  to  designate  personal  character  and 
station,  in  contradistinction  to  political  rank.  The  im- 
poverished warrior,  like  "  Walter  the  Penniless,"  or  Ber- 
trand  du  Guesclin,  or  the  Chevalier  Bayard,  might  be 
the, pearl  of  knights,  and  might  sit  down  with  princes; 
the  powerful  and  wealthy  baron  might  be  wholly  des- 
titute of  knightly  estimation. 

It  was  a  precious  service  that  was  rendered  to  morals 
and  civility  when  lofty  virtues  were  thus  broadly  dis- 
criminated from  territorial  possessions  and  worldly  rank. 
It  was  a  noble  model  of  personal  purity  and  elevation 
which  was  presented  for  imitation  to  a  warlike  and 
stormy  age.  The  knightly  cliaracter,  and  tlie  obliga- 
tions imposed  by  tliat  character,  are  strikingly  delinea- 
ted in  the  instructions  of  Alphonso  V  of  Portugal  to  his 
son  and  heir,  when  he  knighted  him  after  the  conquest 
of  ArzUla  (1-471),  in  the  presence  of  his  slain  Count  de 
Itlarialva.  "  First,  to  instruct  you,"  said  the  king, "  what 
the  nature  of  knighthood  is,  know,  my  son.  that  it  con- 
sists in  a  close  confederacy  or  union  of  power  and  virtue, 
to  establish  peace  among  men,  whenever  ambition,  av- 
arice, or  tyranny  troubles  states  or  injures  particulars; 
for  knights  are  bound  to  employ  their  swords  on  these 
■"/ccasions,  in  order  to  dethrone  tyrants  and  put  good 
men  in  their  place.  But  they  are  likewise  obliged  to 
keep  fidelity  to  their  sovereign,  as  well  as  to  obey  their 
("hicfs  in  war,  and  to  give  them  salutary  counsels.  It 
is  also  the  duty  of  a  knight  to  be  frank  and  liberal,  and 
to  think  nothing  his  own  but  his  horse  and  arms,  which 
he  ought  to  keep  for  the  sake  of  acquiring  honor  with 
them,  by  using  them  in  defence  of  his  religion  and  coun- 
try, and  of  those  who  are  unable  to  defend  themselves ; 
for,  as  the  priesthood  was  instituted  for  divine  service, 
so  was  chivalry  for  the  maintenance  of  religion  and 
iustice.  A  knight  ought  to  be  the  husband  of  widows, 
the  father  of  orphans,  the  protector  of  the  poor,  and  the 
prop  of  those  who  have  no  other  support;  and  they  v.ho 
do  not  act  thus  are  unworthy  to  bear  that  name.  These, 
my  son,  are  the  obligations  which  tlic  order  of  knight- 
hood will  lay  upon  you."  Striking  the  infant  thrice  on 
the  helmet  with  his  sword,  Alphonso  added,  "  May  God 
make  you  as  good  a  knight  as  this  whose  body  you  see 
before  you,  pierced  in  several  places  for  the  service  of 
God  and  of  his  sovereign"  (cited  by  lord  Lyttelton,  Hist, 
of  lion.  If.  iii,  159,  IGO.  Sec  also  Digby,  Mores  Catholi- 
ci,  bk.  ix,  chap,  x ;  .James,  Jlist.  of  Chiralrii,  chap.  i). 

This  lofty  exemplar  may  have  been  rarely  approached 
in  the  ages  of  chivalry.  The  Black  Prince  was  guilty 
of  sanguinary  atrocities.  The  passions  of  men  were 
brutal  and  untamed;  temptations  were  great  and  fre- 
(pient;  but  continual  failures  would  not  furnish  strange 
instances  of  the  disproportion  between  concej^tion  and 
performance.  IMuch,  however,  was  achieved  by  the  con- 
stant contemplation  of  excellence,  even  though  it  was 
unattained;  and  by  the  repeated  efforts  after  each  de- 


clension to  aspire  to  tlie  perfection  so  often  abandoned. 
Much,  too,  was  gained  by  the  partial  and  occasional  ac- 
complishment of  the  high  duties  prescribed.  Even 
more,  perhajis,  was  slowly  secured  by  the  bitter  shame 
and  repentance  which  ever  revived,  and  thus  perpetu- 
ated, the  desire  and  the  image  of  better  things.  "  Altius 
ibunt  qui  ad  summa  nituntur." 

INIuch  corruption  undoubtedly  flowed  from  the  con- 
junction of  chivalrj' with  the  Provenc^al  courts  of  love, 
which  were  of  mingled  Greek  and  Saracenic  descent. 
They  contributed  much  to  the  obscuration  and  debase- 
ment of  the  wise  ideal,  but  they  contributed  fully  as 
much  to  the  refinement  and  polish  of  the  intercourse 
between  the  sexes.  They  added  literary  and  intellect- 
ual culture  to  martial  bearing;  they  toned  down  the 
rough,  blunt  manner  of  the  battle-field  to  the  elegant 
and  respectfid  courtesies  of  the  boudoir.  They  exacted 
from  "  the  dauntless  in  war"  that  he  should  be  equally 
gentle  in  peace  and  "  faithful  in  love."  Thus  gallantry 
was  mellowed  and  softened  into  civility,  which  was  the 
antithesis  of  military  hntsquerie,  as  in  tlie  abbe  Talley- 
rand's celebrated  witticism.  Hence  sprung  that  thor- 
oughly modem  and  Christian  product,  "  the  gentleman 
of  the  olden  time,"  of  which  Sir  Harr}'  Lee  of  Ditchley 
may  be  taken  as  a  specimen.  If  fearful  licentiousness 
accompanied  these  amiable  graces  in  Provence,  Langiie- 
doc,  Aquitaine,  and  other  sunny  southern  lands,  at  any 
rate  vice  was  stripped  of  its  brutality  and  coarseness, 
and  lost  its  brazen  shamelessness  and  virulent  conta- 
gion. But,  tliough  truth  and  fidelity  to  his  "  faire  la- 
dye"  were  always  demanded  of  the  knight,  the  sensual- 
ism of  the  countries  of  romance  was  only  accidentally 
connected  with  knightly  conduct,  and  never  formed  any 
part  of  its  nature.     Moreover,  though  it  be  true  that 

"The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them. 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  then-  bones," 

the  converse  is  equally  true ;  and  modern  generations 
unquestionably  owe  much  of  tliose  rarely-attained  per- 
fections which  are  now  most  admired  to  the  fragrant 
nastiness  and  ornate  priu-icnce  of  the  Cours  d' Amour 
and  Jeux  Floraiix. 

In  the  splendid  Arthurian  cycle — a  brighter  realm 
of  romance  than  all  the  legends  of  Homer  and  the 
Homerid.T — the  heroes  and  heroines  are  sadly  stained 
and  spotted  ■with  moral  blurs  and  blotches,  and  even 
with  gross  crimes.  Sir  Lancelot,  "  first  of  knights," 
bears  an  ineradicable  brand ;  but  still  is  scarce 

"Less  than  archangel  ruined,  and  the  excess 
Of  glory  obscured." 

The  birth  and  the  marriage  of  king  Arthur  are  equally 
foul;  and  the  champions  and  dames  that  encircled  him 
are  all  tainted,  except  Sir  Galahad — "  among  the  faith- 
ess,  faithful  only  he."  But,  despite  the  endless  detaU 
of  weakness,  of  ruth,  and  of  sin,  the  central  idea  comes 
forth,  like  the  sun  emerging  from  a  bank  of  clouds — the 
noblest  dream  of  human  fantasy,  the  highest  evidence 
of  ethereal  aspirations  from  the  midst  of  vicious  indul- 
gences and  multiplied  contaminations.  This  type  is 
true  knighthood,  '\^'hat  knighthood  was  has  been  al- 
ready partly  explained  ;  what  it  is  in  the  Arthurian  ro- 
mances is  shown  by  Arthur's  latest  bard : 

"In  that  fair  Order  of  the  Table  Round, 
A  glorious  conijinny,  the  flower  of  men, 
To  serve  as  model  "for  the  mighty  world, 
And  be  the  fair  beginning  of  a  time. 
I  made  them  lay  tlieir  hands  in  mine,  and  swear 
To  reverence  tlie  king,  as  if  he  were 
Their  conscience,  and  their  conscience  as  the  king; 
To  break  the  heathen,  and  uphold  the  Christ; 
'J'o  ride  abroad  redressing  human  wrongs; 
To  speak  no  slander,  no,  nor  listen  to  it; 
To  lead  sweet  lives  in  purest  chastity; 
To  love  one  maiden  only,  cleave  to  her, 
And  worship  her  by  years  of  nolile  deeds, 
Until  they  won  her;  for  indeed  I  knew 
Of  no  more  subtle"  master  under  heaven 
Than  is  the  maiden  jiassion  for  a  maid, 
Not  only  to  keep  duwii  the  base  in  man, 
But  teach  high  ihou^'hts,  and  amiable  words, 
And  courtliness,  and  the  desire  of  fame, 
And  love  of  truth,  and  all  that  makes  a  man." 


KNIGHTHOOD 


131 


KNIGHTHOOD 


III.  Classes  and  Derjrees  of  Knighthood. — Kiiiglitliood 
may  be  loosely  distributed  into  six  classes:  1.  Feudal 
kuiglithood;  2.  Simple  knighthood;  3.  Regular  knight- 
hood, or  the  knighthood  of  the  spiritual  orders,  like  the 
Knights  of  IMalta;  4.  Honorary  knighthood,  as  of  the 
(Jarter;  5.  Titidar  knighthood,  as  in  England  and  many 
other  countries,  constituting  a  dignity  of  lesser  nobility ; 
G.  Social,  or  fantastic  knighthood,  as  the  Templars  in 
Freemasonry,  the  Knights  of  Pythias,  etc.  The  first  of 
these  classes  furnishes  the  foundation  and  origin  of  all 
the  rest,  but  needs  no  further  notice  than  has  been  al- 
ready given.  The  last  is  foreign  to  the  present  pur- 
pose. The  fifth  may  be  excluded,  as  it  is  political  rather 
than  chivalrous.  Simple,  regular,  and  honorary  knight- 
hood require  further,  but  brief  consideration. 

Each  of  these  classes  exhibits  the  same  general  con- 
stitution, though  the  third  is  only  an  imitation,  and  a 
jireposterous  prolongation  of  the  first  with  the  forms  of 
the  second.  In  each  there  are  usually  three  degrees. 
In  actual  chivalry,  these  were  the  page,  the  squire,  and 
the  knight.  The  young  son  of  a  kniglit,  or  of  a  noble 
who  was  also  a  knight,  was  placed  at  the  age  of  seven 
years  in  the  service  and  cliarge  of  another  knight,  se- 
lected on  account  of  family  connection,  friendship,  or 
personal  renown.  The  education  of  the  young  in  the 
ages  of  chivalry  vf&s  secured  by  attendance  on  their 
elders  in  the  field,  in  hunting,  at  the  table,  and  in  the 
concerns  of  domestic  life  (see  Correspondeiwe  of  Simon 
de  Montfort  and  bishop  Grosseieste,  and  the  Treatises  on 
Manners  in  The  Babees'  Boke),  The  page,  or  varlet,  or 
valet  {rassaletus,  rarletus,  raktns)  was  taught  to  ride, 
to  run,  to  leap,  to  shoot  with  the  bow,  to  hawk,  to  play 
on  the  lute.  He  was  taught  obedience  and  attention  to 
his  superiors,  and  was  supposed  to  be  kept  in  the  ob- 
servance of  religion  and  morals.  He  attended  his  patron 
in  war,  but  armed  only  with  a  short  dagger.  His  per- 
son was  safe  in  the  melee,  for  it  was  dastardly  to  assail 
a  page.  In  the  intervals  of  serious  occupation  he  re- 
ceived guests  and  ministered  to  their  comforts,  and 
waited  on  the  chatelaine  and  the  other  ladies  of  the 
household,  receiving  instruction  in  legend,  and  poesy, 
and  song ;  in  manners,  and  in  the  formalities  of  love. 
The  character  of  the  instruction  in  the  last  easy  science 
may  perhaps  be  conjectured  from  the  tenor  of  the  lessons 
composed  for  his  daughters  by  the  knight  De  la  Tour 
Landry  in  1.571. 

At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  young  valet — the  term  is 
often  extended  to  the  second  stage — received  a  sword, 
consecrated  by  religious  benedictions,  in  exchange  for 
his  dagger,  and  entered  on  the  degree  of  squire  (esciiyer, 
scutifei;  armir/er).  His  exercises  were  now  mainly  di- 
rected to  the  pursuits  of  war.  He  was  trained  to  vault 
on  horseback  without  touching  the  stirrup.  He  was 
taught  the  inaner/e,  and  the  whole  art  of  '•  noble  horse- 
manship." He  carried  the  knight's  lance,  or  shield,  or 
helmet,  or  groomed  his  horse,  or  led  his  destrier.  He 
attended  him  in  the  tourney  and  in  the  battle.  He  was 
not  a  regular  combatant  in  the  fight,  but  he  rescued,  or 
defended,  or  remounted  his  principal.  He  cultivated 
courtsisie,  prosecuted  his  pleasant  studies  in  the  art  of 
love,  began  to  wear  ladies'  favors,  sought  to  become 
deliDmuiir — that  is,  neither  shy,  nor  haughty,  nor  awk- 
ward ;  and  diligently  imitated  the  procedure  and  im- 
biljcd  the  spirit  of  his  senior. 

At  full  age — though  the  honor  was  often  postponed, 
and  sometimes  accelerated— the  squire  was  advanced  to 
the  complete  knightly  dignity,  which  was  bestowed 
with  mitch  solemnity,  ceremonial,  and  religious  inter- 
vention. These  accompaniments  were,  of  course,  dis- 
pensed with  when  the  jiromotion  Avas  conferred  on  the 
battle-field.  Usually,  however,  the  reception  of  knight- 
hood was  ordered  at  some  high  festival,  and  was  sur- 
nnnuled  with  imposing  and  onerous  rites. 

I\  .  Institution  of  a  Knii/ht. — Various  procedures  were 
adopted  in  different  countries,  in  different  orders,  and  at 
different  times.  They  were  all  symbolic,  in  accordance 
with  that  love  of  symbol  and  allegory  which  charac- 


terizes unlettered  times.  There  was,  however,  such  a 
general  resemblance  in  the  form  and  spirit  of  the  cere- 
monial that  a  general  description  of  the  procedure  may 
be  readily  given.  It  is  onh^  necessary  to  understand 
that  some  of  the  incidents  were  at  times  omitted,  and 
that  others  were  frequently  modified. 

The  most  elaborate  of  all  investitures  appears  to  have 
been  the  old  procedure  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  as  de- 
scribed in  a  manuscript  in  Frend,  first  published  by  Ed- 
uardus  Bissajus,  and  cited  textually  by  Du  Cange  (s.  v. 
Miles).  The  novice  was  intrusted  to  the  charge  of 
select  squires.  His  beard  was  shaven  and  his  hair 
was  shorn.  In  the  evening,  prudent  and  distinguished 
knights  were  sent  to  instruct  him  in  his  obligations, 
ilinstrels  and  squires  came  singing  and  dancing  to  con- 
duct him  to  the  bath  that  had  been  prepared.  He  was 
stripped  naked  and  put  into  the  bath.  He  then  re- 
ceived further  instructions.  When  he  issued  from  the 
bath,  he  was  put  to  bed  to  dry  off.  When  dr)^,  he  was 
taken  up  and  clad  warmlj^,  with  a  red  garment  over  the 
rest,  having  sleeves  and  a  cowl  like  a  hermit's.  The 
knights  led  him  to  the  chapel,  the  attendant  squires 
singing  and  dancing  again.  He  remained  at  his  vigils 
and  prayers  all  night.  At  break  of  day  he  confessed 
and  received  mass,  after  which  he  was  put  to  bed.  After 
he  had  rested,  the  knights  and  squires  reappeared,  and 
clothed  him.  He  was  then  conducted  on  horseback, 
with  song  and  dance,  to  the  great  hall.  His  spurs  were 
fastened  on  by  the  two  noblest  knights  present,  who 
crossed  and  kissed  him  whan  they  had  discharged  their 
office.  His  sword,  suspended  from  a  baldric  {cingulum^, 
was  buckled  on  by  another  knight.  The  king,  or  of- 
ficiating knight,  then  struck  him  thrice  on  the  cheek 
(alopa,  a  slap),  or  on  the  neck  or  helmet,  with  the  flat 
of  his  sword  {accollare,  adobare,  adojitaro :  see  these 
titles  in  Du  Cange,  and  that  author's  Dissertation  xxii 
snr  Joinville),  and  kissed  him.  The  spurred  and  belted 
knight  was  now  led  back  to  the  chapel,  when  he  knelt, 
and,  laying  his  hand  on  the  altar,  swore  to  uphold  Holy 
Church  through  life.  Guizot  enumerates  twenty-six 
engagements  in  a  knightly  oath.  The  postulant,  \vith 
his  attendant  knights,  next  proceeded  to  hold  high  fes- 
tival, but  the  young  knight  was  not  allowed  to  eat,  to 
drink,  or  to  move,  or  to  look  about  him,  while  the  rest 
were  feasting.  After  further  ceremonial,  he  mounted 
his  horse,  assumed  his  arms,  and  exhiliitcd  feats  of  war- 
like dexterity  for  the  entertainment  and  admiration  of 
the  assembled  ladies. 

This  is  an  abridged,  if  not  a  brief  account  of  knight- 
ly investiture.  These  minute  and  tedious  formalities, 
which  are  travestied  by  Don  (Juixote,  belong  only  to 
times  of  peace,  and  subsequent  to  the  establishment  of 
the  regular  orders. 

Y.  The  Regidar  Orders  grew  out  of  the  necessities  of 
the  Holy  War  in  Spain  and  in  Palestine.  The  knights, 
like  priests,  were  vowed  to  celibacy,  and  were  designed 
to  be  ecclesiastical  soldiers.  They  were  to  protect  pil- 
grims, to  feed  the  hungry,  to  entertain  the  poor,  to 
shield  the  weak,  to  nurse  the  sick  and  the  wounded,  to 
assert  the  faith,  to  defend  the  Christian  land,  and  to  do 
zealously  all  duties  of  charity,  devotion,  and  war.  The 
most  noted  of  these  Orders  were — 

(I.)  The  Knyjhts  of  the  Iloly  Sejndchre,  instituted  by 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon  in  1099  to  guard  the  sepulchre  of 
Christ.  They  were  distinguished  by  a  golden  cross, 
cantoned  with  four  crosses  of  the  same,  pendent  from  a 
black  ribbon.  They  languished  and  expired  after  the 
fall  of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Jerusalem. 

(II.)  Knif/hts  of  St.  John  ofJervsalem,  or  Knights  Hos- 
pitallers, afterwards  successively  Knights  of  Rhodes  (q. 
V.)  and  Knights  of  Malta  (q.  v.).  TJiey  were  founded 
about  1048  by  some  Neapolitan  merchants,  and  organ- 
ized in  1104.  In  peace  they  wore  the  black  robe  of  the 
Augustiuian  fraternity,  with  a  cross  of  white  cloth  ;  in 
war  they  exchanged  the  black  robe  for  a  white  go\ni. 
On  the  expulsionof  the  Christians  from  Palestine  they 
passed  over  to  Cyprus,  where  they  remained  tdl  their 


KNIGHTHOOD 


132 


KNILL 


conquest  of  Rhodes,  1308.  Driven  out  of  Rhodes  by 
the  Turks,  15-22,  they  received  Malta  from  the  emperor 
Oharles  V,  1530.  The  order  expired  with  the  surrender 
of  the  island  to  Napoleon  in  1798,  See  Hospitallers. 
(III.)  The  Kiiif/hts  of  the  Temple,  or  Red  Cross  Knights, 
founded  in  1118  by  two  French  Crusaders,  Hugo  de  Pa- 
ijanis  and  Godfrey  Aldemar  (or  of  St.  Omer),  and  organ- 
ized in  1128.  Their  rules  were  tlrawn  up  for  them  by 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux.  Their  badge  was  a  red  cross  em- 
broidered on  a  white  cloak  ;  their  emblem,  two  luiights 
on  one  horse,  to  indicate  their  vow  of  poverty.  They 
soon,  however,  acquired  immense  wealth,  and  were  ac- 
cused of  horrid  vices  and  crimes ;  but  Ashmole  remarks 
that  many  sober  men  judge  that  their  wealth  was  their 
greatest  crime.  After  sharp  persecutions  and  iniqui- 
tous trials,  they  were  suppressed  with  savage  cruelty  in 
France  by  Philippe  le  Bel,  1310,  and  soon  after  in  other 
countries.  They  were  charged  with  the  possession  of 
40,000  lordships  in  Europe.     See  Templars, 

(IV,)  The  Knights  of  Mart/,  or  the  Teutonic  Order, 
established  for  the  support  of  poor  pilgrims  of  all  na- 
tions by  wealthy  German  knights,  organized  in  1190  by 
the  survivors  of  the  army  of  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
Their  distinctive  garb  was  a  white  mantle,  having  on 
the  front  a  black  cross  with  a  white  potence.  Before 
the  loss  of  Palestine,  the  Teutonic  knights,  under  their 
grand-master  Hermann  von  Salza,  had  directed  their  ef- 
forts and  arms  against  the  Prussians,  Lithuanians,  and 
heathen  tribes  of  north-eastern  Europe,  By  the  secu- 
larization of  Prussia,  in  1525,  under  their  grand-master 
Albert  of  Brandenburg,  the  order  was  broken  up,  was 
deprived  of  its  most  valuable  possessions,  and  passed  out 
of  notice.     See  Teutonic  Knights. 

(V.)  The  Knights  of  San  Salvador,  founded  by  Al- 
phonso  V  of  Aragon  in  1 118.  Extinguished,  and  its  com- 
manderies  added  to  the  crown,  by  Charles  II,  1665. 

(VI. )  Tlie  Knights  of  Santiago  de  la  Espada,  in  Spain, 
refer  their  origin  to  837,  but  received  their  detinite  con- 
stitution in  1170, 

(VII.)  The  Knights  of  Alcantara,  1158,  and, 
(VIII.)  The  Knights  of  Calatrava,  1199,  were  insti- 
tuted to  guard  the  western  and  southern  portions  of 
Spain  against  the  Moors.     The  grand-mastership  of 
both  was  ultimately  assumed  by  the  crown  of  Spain. 

The  regular  orders  of  knighthood  were  designed  to 
promote  Christian  virtues  and  Christian  conduct,  and 
to  employ  chivalrous  energies  for  the  maintenance  and 
extension  of  Christianity,  and  the  protection  of  Chris- 
tendom against  Saracens  and  Pagans.  These  functions 
they  unquestionably  discharged  in  their  better  age,  and 
while  such  services  were  essentially  necessary.  With 
merit  came  favor,  and  power,  and  wealth,  and  arro- 
gance, and  negligence,  and  itUeness,  and  luxury,  and 
other  vices.  It  is  the  old  and  oft-repeated  stoiy  of  en- 
ergy declining  into  corruption.  But  they  had  afforded 
Europe  time  and  security  to  develop,  knit  together, 
and  confirm  its  civilization  and  its  strength.  When 
they  were  extinguished  by  secular  greed  for  their  pos- 
sessions, their  aptitude  had  disappeared,  "  Othello's 
occupation  was  gone"  when  "  villainous  saltpetre"  had 
totally  changed  the  organization  of  armies  and  the  con- 
duct of  battles.  It  was  chiefly  during  this  period  of 
confusion  that  sovereigns  and  princes,  desirous  of  pre- 
serving the  amusements,  exercises,  attachments,  loyaltj', 
splendors,  and  honors  of  knighthood — perhaps,  also,  of 
perpetuating  its  spirit — instituted  princely  in  imitation 
of  the  regular  orders,  Tlie  enimieration  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  multitude  of  such  associations  would  afford 
little  additional  illustration  of  knighthood.  It  must  suf- 
fice to  name  a  few  of  these  imitative  establishments. 

VI,  Honorary  Knighthood.  —  Of  this  there  were  the 
following  orders :  ...... 

"  Instituted 

The  Order  of  the  White  Elephant  of  Denmark..' 1190. 

"  the  White  Eagle  of  Poland l.B-2.5. 

"  the  Garter 1343, 

the  Bath 139!). 

"  the  Golden  Fleece 1430. 

"         the  Thistle 1&40. 


Institfltcd 
The  Order  of  Saint  Esprit 157S. 

"  Saint  Louis 1693. 

"  Saint  Andrew  and  Saint  Catharine 1698. 

"  the  Bhick  Eagle  of  Prussia 1705. 

"  Saint  Geor>re"(i'or  Russia) 1769. 

"  Saint  Patrick 1783, 

"  the  Legion  of  Honor 1802, 

"  the  Iron  Crown  (for  Italy) 1805. 

There  is  no  necessity,  and  would  be  little  propriety  in 
noticing  titular  and  social,  or  fantastic  knighthood  here. 
In  1790,  Burke  lamented  that  "  the  age  of  chivalry 
was  gone,"  Its  expiring  gleams  gilded  the  stark  forms 
of  Bayard  at  the  Sesia  and  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney  at  Zut- 
phen.  An  institution  which,  even  after  a  long  decline, 
could  breed  such  characters  as  these,  had  obviously  ren- 
dered an  enduring  ser^dce  to  humanity.  The  age  of 
chivalry  may  be  gone,  and  the  forms  of  chivalry  may 
be  relegated  to  the  domain  of  Romance,  but  its  spirit 
lives  on,  offering  examples  which  the  young  still  wel- 
come in  their  dreamy  and  joyous  days,  and  which  the 
mature  and  the  old  still  contemplate  with  fond  and  rev- 
erential regard.  The  ideal  remains — purified  by  time, 
freed  from  the  frailities  and  alloys  of  its  former  embodi- 
ment— and  aids  in  fashioning  modem  sentiment  to  the 
conception  and  admiration  of  the  Christian  gentleman. 
Disregarding  the  vices  which  connected  themselves  with 
chivalry,  but  which  were  not  of  its  essence,  knighthood 
merits  the  commendation  invariably  bestowed  upon  it 
by  discerning  historians.  It  aimed  to  achieve — as  far  as 
the  circumstances  of  its  actual  manifestation  permitted ; 
it  did  achieve,  in  thought,  if  rarely  in  act — what  the  oath 
of  the  new-made  knight  bound  him  to  pursue  as  his  rule 
of  action  through  life.  Its  influences  are  transmitted  to 
the  passing  generation,  which  has  itself  witnessed  shin- 
ing illustrations  of  their  aliiding  efficacj', 

VII.  Lite  rat  lire. — jMills,  History  of  Chivalry  (London, 
1825) ;  James,  History  of  Chivalry  and  the  Crusades  (Lon- 
don, 1830),  are  well  known  to  general  readers.  P'amiUar 
also  are  the  notices  in  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  bk,  ii, 
chap,  v;  Robertson,  History  of  Charles  V,  Introduction; 
Hallam,  Middle  Ages,  and  Guizot,  Hist,  de  la  Cirilisation 
en  France,  ii  Cours,  chap.  vi.  The  more  important  and 
authoritative  Avorks  on  the  subject  are  less  known,  and 
some  of  them  are  inaccessible  to  students  in  this  coun- 
try. Among  them  may  be  specified.  Lord  Lyttelton, 
Life  and  History  of  Henry  II  (London,  1777,  0  vols.  8vo : 
tedious,  but  full  of  information);  K.H.Digby,77/e5?-o«c?- 
stone  of  Honor  (London,  1845-8, 3  vols.  12mo),  and  ]\Iores 
Catholici,  or  The  Ages  of  Faith  (London,  1844-7.  3  vols. 
8vo)  ;  Dugdale,  Dissertation  tqwn  Knighthood  in  The 
Antiquities  of  Warwickshire  (London,  1056,  folio);  Sel- 
den.  Titles  of  Honor  (1614,  4to)  ;  Scf:^ar,  Honor,  Military 
and  Civill  (1G02,  folio) ;  Spelman,  Z'isse?'to^i!0  de  Milite; 
Upton,  De  Studio  J\[ilitari,  etc.  (Londini,  1054,  folio) ; 
Clarke,  Histo}-y  of  Knighthood ;  Sir  H.  N.  Nicolas's  He- 
raldic Worl-s  ;  Du  ('ange.  Gloss.  Med.  et  Inf.  Latin,  title 
Miles,  Adobare,  Alopa,  Armiger,  Calcar,  Cingulimi,  Val- 
etus,  etc.,  and  Dissertations  sur  Joinville ;  Muratori,  An- 
tiq.  Italicce  ;  ]\Iir;eus,  Origines  Fgnestrium  sire  Militari- 
um  Ordinum;  Favin,  Theatre  d^Honneur  et  de  Chera- 
lerie ;  Menestrier,  De  la  Chevalerie  ancienne  et  moderne ; 
Vulson  de  la  Colombiere,  Le  Vrai  Theatre  d^Honneur  ct 
de  la  Chevalerie ;  De  la  Curne  de  St,  Palaj-e,  Memoires 
sur  Vancienne  Chevalerie  (Paris,  1759-1780) ;  Amjiere,  De 
la  Chevalerie ;  Perrot,  Collection  Historique  des  Ordres  de 
Chevalerie  (Paris,  1836) ;  Gourdon  de  Genouillac,  Dic- 
tionnaire  Historique  des  Ordres  de  Chevalerie  (Paris, 
1853);  Reibisch,  Ge,sc///c/(^e  des  Rittencesens  (Stuttgard, 
1842),  A  very  copious  account  of  the  regular  and  nat- 
ural Orders  of  Honorary  Knighthood — extending  to  137 
associations,  but  not  including  the  Order  of  the  Victoria 
Cross  and  other  recent  orders — ma.y  be  found  in  the  En- 
cyclopcedia  Londinensis.     (G,  F,  H,) 

Knill,  RiciiART),  an  English  missionary'  of  the  In- 
dependents, was  born  of  humble  parentage,  at  Brami- 
ton,  April  14,  1787,  In  1816  he  proceeded  as  a  mis- 
sionary to  India  luider  the  London  Society,  where  he 
continued  until  1819,  and  then  returned  to  England, 


KNIPPERDOLLIXG 


133 


KNOBEL 


Shortly  after  liis  arrival  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  Rus- 
sia, to  take  charire  of  an  English  congregation  in  that 
city,  over  which  lie  presided  many  j^ears.  Subsequent- 
ly he  was  appointed  travelling  agent  for  the  London 
Missionary  Society,  and  for  eight  consecutive  years  la- 
bored to  awaken  the  Christian  mind  to  the  duty  of 
sending  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen,  a  work  for  which  he 
was  peculiarly  qualified.  In  1842  he  became  minister 
of  a  congregation  in  Wotton- under -Edge,  and  finally 
received  a  unanimous  invitation  to  the  pastorate  of 
Queen -Street  Chapel,  Chaster,  where  he  finished  his 
eminently  useful  career  in  1857.  His  style  of  preaching 
vvas  simple,  graphic,  chaste,  and  fidl  of  unction,  with  a 
fund  of  illustration  that  rendered  it  always  effective. 
See  Life  of  Rev.  Richard  Knill,  by  the  late  Rev.  Angell 
James  and  Charles  M.  Birrell  (Loud.  2d  ed.  1859,  r2mo; 
N.  Y.  18G0,  IGmo). 

Knipperdolling,  Bernard,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Anal)aptists  of  JMiinster,  was  born,  probably  in  that 
cit}',  to\vards  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  His  at- 
tachment to  Lutheran  principles  caused  him  to  be  ex- 
iled from  JMiinster,  and  in  his  travels  he  connected  him- 
self Avith  the  Anabaptists  in  Sweden.  Returning  to 
Miinster,  he  became  the  leader  of  the  religious  enthu- 
siasts there,  together  with  Rothmann,  SLatthiesen,  and 
Eockhold,  and,  creating  disturbances,  he  was  imprisoned 
by  order  of  tlie  bishop  of  JMiinster,  Imprisonment  by 
no  means  dampened  his  ardor,  and  no  sooner  had  he 
been  released  than  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
partisans,  and  actually  succeeded  in  becoming  master  of 
the  city.  Taken  and  imprisoned  again,  he  was  released 
by  his  friends,  and  soon  acquired  such  reputation  that 
the  Anabaptists  elected  him  in  153-1:  burgomaster  of 
Miinster.  The  same  rabble  which  had  succeeded  in 
electing  him  to  the  principal  office  of  the  city  now  as- 
sumed control  over  him,  and,  making  common  cause 
with  the  fanatical  Bockhold,  better  known  as  John  of 
Leydeii,  and  with  JMatthiesen,  they  immediately  filled 
all  public  offices  with  their  adherents,  and  proclaimed 
equality  of  estates,  conamunlty  of  goods,  and  polygamy. 
All  who  showed  the  least  signs  of  opposition  were  sum- 
marily dealt  with;  but  so  severe  became  Knipperdol- 
ling,  who  had  subsequently  been  elected  stadtholder, 
and  hail  appointed  John  of  Leydeii  king  of  Miinster, 
tliat  he  was  arrested  by  order  of  the  "  king"  and  impris- 
oned. Tlie  Roman  Catholic  party  finally  gained  the 
upper  hand  in  153G,  when  Knipperdolling  Avas  taken, 
condemned  to  have  his  body  torn  with  red-hot  pincers, 
and  to  be  afterwards  put  to  the  sword,  which  sentence 
M'as  executed  Jan.  23,  153G,  He  persisted  to  the  last 
in  his  opinions,  and  refused  to  become  reconciled  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  body  was  exhibited  in 
an  iron  cage  (which  still  remains)  suspended  from  the 
belfry  of  St.  Lambert's  Church,  IMiinster.  See  Catrou, 
Hist,  des  A  nabaptistes,  vol.  ii ;  IMencken,  Scriptores  Rev. 
Germ,  iii,  1534  sq. ;  Hamelmann,  Ili'^t.  Eccles,  renati 
Evang.  in  Urhe  Moiiast.  0pp. ;  Conr.  Heresbachie,  Ilisf. 
facHonis  Monasteriensis,  edit.  Boutcrwek  (Elberf.  18G6, 
8vo).     See  Anabaptists.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Knipstro  (also  Kniepstroh  or  Knipstrow,  Latin 
Knipstroviiis),  John,  a  German  reformer,  Avas  born  at 
Sandow,  near  Lovelberg,  Silesia,  May  1,  1497.  Educa- 
ted among  the  Franciscans,  he  was  sent  by  the  abbot  of 
his  convent  to  finish  his  studies  at  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  Here  he  was  a  witness  of  the 
famous  "Actus  disputationis"  in  which  John  Tetzel 
attempted  to  overthrow  Luther's  theses  against  indul- 
gences. Knipstro,  who  had  read  the  theses,  answered 
Tetzel  so  conclusively  that  the  latter  withdrew  from  the 
contest.  Knipstro  was  then  sent  to  the  convent  of  Pv- 
ritz,  in  Pomerania,  in  the  hope  that  quiet  and  rest  woiild 
calm  his  revolutionary  ardor;  but  he  improved  his  time 
in  reading  the  Bible  and  Luther's  works,  and  finally 
brought  the  whole  convent  to  share  in  his  vie^vs.  The 
town  heard  of  this,  and  Knipstro  was  invited  by  the  cit- 
izens to  preach  to  them,  which  he  did  with  such  success 


that  the  whole  town  soon  became  Protestant,  but  the 
bishop  interfered  in  favor  of  Roman  Catholicism,  and 
Knipstro  was  obliged  in  1522  to  flee  to  Stettin,  where 
he  married.  In  1524  he  went  to  Stargard,  and  thence 
to  Stralsund,  where  his  elocjuence  proved  fatal  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  part}-,  and  where,  in  1525,  he  was  ai> 
pointed  superintendent  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  He 
took  part  as  such  in  the  General  Sj-nod  of  Pomerania 
in  1535,  and  was  then  appointed  the  first  general  super- 
intendent of  the  Church  in  Wolgast.  In  1539  he  was 
made  professor  at  the  LTnivcrsity  of  Greifswald,  Pome- 
rania, and  ill  1547  became  its  rector.  A  controversy 
with  Frever,  a  professor  in  the  same  institution,  gave 
him  such  annoyance  that  he  withdrew  to  Wolgast,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  teaching  and  to 
Church  administration.  He  died  at  the  last-named 
place  Oct.  4,  155G.  His  works  are :  Voni  rechten  Ge- 
hrauch  d.  Kirchen-G titer  (Stralsund,  1533):  —  Bedenlxn 
wider  d.  Interim,  etc.  (Stralsund,  1548) : — Epistolu  ad  J), 
^felanchthonem,  qua  Consensus  Ecclesive  Pomeranicm  ud 
suspiciendam  A  jig.  Confessionem  7-epeiitionem  declaratur 
(1552) : — Widerleffunff  d.  Behenntniss  Andr.  Osiandri  v.  d. 
Rechtfertigung  (1555?): — Forma  repetendi  catecMsmi 
(1555?).  See  Mayer,  Vita  Knipstrovii;  Jitnicke,  Ge- 
lehrtes  Pommcrliiml ;  H.  Schmid,  Einleitung  z.  Branden- 
burg Kirchen  Gesch. ;  J.  H.  Balthasar,  Sammlung  eiiii- 
ger  rommerschen  Kirchen- Hist,  gehorigen  Schriften,  i, 
93;  ii,  317sq. ;  Ze[\^r,  Universal  Lexikon,  s.y.\  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxvii,  896 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encg- 
Uopddie,  vii,  765.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Knittel,  Franz  Anton,  a  German  theologian  of 
note,  was  born  at  Salzdahlum,  April  3,  1721,  and  was 
successively  archdiaconus,  general  superintendent,  and 
consistorialrath  at  Wolfenbiittel.  He  died  April  13, 
1792.  He  is  celebrated  as  the  discoverer  (in  the  library 
at  Wolfenbiittel)  of  a  MS.,  a  fragment  of  Ulfila's  Gothic 
version  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  It  is  a  palimp- 
sest, the  newer  surface  being  occupied  Avith  the  Origines 
and  some  letters  of  Isidorus  Hispalensis.  The  portions 
of  the  Gothic  version  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  con- 
tained in  it  are  xi,  33-36 ;  xii,  1-5, 17-21 ;  xiii,  1-5 ;  xiv, 
9-20 ;  XV,  3-13.  These  Ivnittol  printed  (in  all  probabil- 
ity in  1762  or  17C3)  in  a  volume  entitled  Ulphilce  TV?- 
sio  Gothica  nonnullorum  capitum  Ep.  ad  Rom.  rene- 
randum  antiquitatis  nionumentiim  .  .  .  e  Latina  codicis 
cujusd.  MSti  rescripti  .  .  .  una  cum  variis  varies  littera- 
turce  monimentis  hue  usque  ineditis,  etc.  The  text  is 
printed  on  one  side  of  the  page  in  Gothic  letters,  under 
each  word  is  Knittel's  reading  of  it  in  italics,  and  under 
that  a  Latin  translation  of  each.  On  the  other  side 
there  is  a  Latin  version  found  in  the  Ck)dex,  under  that 
the  reading  in  the  Vulgate,  and  under  that  the  Greek 
text.  There  are  also  twelve  plates,  containing  admira- 
blj^-executed  fac-similes  of  different  codices;  and  among 
the  notes  is  found  an  extract  of  considerable  length  from 
Otfried's  Gospel  Harmon;/.  The  volume  contains  also 
two  fragments  from  ancient  Greek  codices  of  the  N.  T. 
in  the  Wolfenbiittel  librarj',  and  a  copious  critical  com- 
mentary by  Knittel,  and  is  altogether  a  splendid  one ; 
but,  as  Knittel's  knowledge  of  Gothic  was  rather  imper- 
fect, its  literary  merits  are  not  quite  equal  to  its  sump- 
tuous appearance.  Knittel  deserves,  however,  the  praise 
of  great  laboriousness,  as  is  evinced  by  his  collection  of 
a  vast  amount  of  curious  matter  not  elsewhere  to  be 
found.  The  book  is  very  rarely  to  be  met  with  at  pres- 
ent; at  least  copies  containing  aU  the  plates. — Kitto, 
Diet,  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Diiring,  Gelehrten  Theol. 
Deutschlunds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.     See  Gothic  Version. 

Knobel,  Karl  August,  a  German  theologian,  high- 
ly distinguished  as  an  exegetical  scholar  in  the  Old 
Testament  and  as  archreologist,  was  born  Aug.  7,  1807, 
near  Sorau,  Silesia.  In  this  toAvn  he  studied  under  as- 
sociate principal  Scharbe,  who  inspired  Knobel  Avith  a 
zeal  for  learning,  and  also  befriended  him  with  money 
to  pursue  his  university  course  at  Breslau  after  his  fa- 
ther's death.     David  Schultz,  to  whose  children  he  be- 


KNOBELSDORFF 


134 


KNOP 


came  tutor,  exerted  a  special  influence  in  determining 
his  choice  of  teaching  as  a  profession,  and  in  fixing  tlie 
unfailing  rationaUstic  tendency  of  his  mind,  lie  began 
lecturing  in  1831,  and  his  fresliness,  power,  and  genuine 
worth  at  once  drew  and  ever  attracted  to  him  numerous 
hearers.  In  1835  lie  was  made  extraordinary  professor, 
and  in  1837  he  received  from  Breslau  the  degree  of  doc- 
tor in  theology,  chiefly  in  recognition  of  his  exceeding- 
Iv  valuable  -work  on  Hebrew  Prophecy  {Prophetismits  d. 
ilehiiier,  Breslau,  1837,  2  vols.  8vo).  The  fame  of  this 
work  brought  him  at  once  the  offer  of  a  professorship 
in  Gottingen,  in  Ewald's  place,  and  of  one  in  Giessen, 
which  latter  he  accepted.  Thenceforth  his  attention 
was  confined  to  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament;  but 
his  cold,  critical,  rationalistic  spirit  avails  but  little  to  a 
right  appreciation  of  the  theological  import  or  even  po- 
etical beauty  of  the  Scriptures.  His  publications  during 
his  twenty-four  years'  labor  at  Giessen  (nearly  all  exe- 
getical)  bear  the  same  defect  of  insight,  with  the  dis- 
play of  great  learning.  The  Commentary  on  the  Prophet 
Isuiiih  appeared  in  the  Kurzcjef.  exeyet.  Handb.  z.  A.  T. 
in  1843  ("id  ed.  185i,  3d  ed.  1861) ;  o\\  Genesis  in  1852  (2d 
ed.  18G0);  Exodus  and  Leviticus,  I8b7 ;  Xumbe/s,  Deu- 
teronomy, and  Joshua,  18G1.  These  commentaries  are 
characterized  by  special  sobriety  and  thoughtfulness, 
healthy  linguistic  and  historical  views,  -(vith  compre- 
hensive kno\vledge  of  Oriental  antiquity.  In  the  first- 
mentioned  feature  they  have  the  advantage  of  Hitzig. 
Knobel  is  independent,  and  gives  positive  views  on 
many  points  which  he  was  obliged  earnestly  to  defend. 
He  was  in  conflict  with  Ewald,  as  also  specially  in  ref- 
erence to  the  origui  of  the  Pentateuch  with  Hupfeld, 
Tuch,  Bcrtheau,  and  Stiichlin.  He  is  deserving  of 
credit  for  his  ingenuity  in  bringing  out  the  "  Composi- 
sition  theory"  concerning  the  production  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. Knobel  died,  after  long  and  severe  suffering, 
from  a  cancer  in  the  stomach.  May  25, 18G3.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  works  already  mentioned,  Knobel  published 
Commentar  iiber  Koheleth  (Lpz.  1836,  8vo) ;  and  VOlker- 
taftl  der  Genesis  (1850,  8vo),  a  very  learned  work,  and 
frequently  cited  in  the  cxegetical  department  of  this  Cy- 
clopcedia.  See  Ilerzog,  Real-EncyklopiUdie,  vol.  xix,  s.  v. 
(E.  B.  0.) 

Knobelsdorff,  ErsxAcnius  of,  a  German  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  in  1519, 
at  Heilsberg,  Prussia ;  was  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  Lcipzig,Wittenberg,  and  Par- 
is, and  upon  the  completion  of  his  studies  took  orders 
in  the  Church.  During  a  visit  of  the  bishop  and  car- 
dinal of  Wermeland  to  Pome,  Knobelsdorff  administered 
the  duties  of  th»  episcopal  office,  and  in  1563,  upon  the 
return  of  the  bishop,  was  appointed  dean-cathedral.  He 
died  in  1571.  His  writings  are  of  but  little  account. 
See  AUyem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii.  41. 

Knock  (-B-l,Cant.  v,  2;  '-beat,"  Judg.  xix,  22; 
Kpoino,  'Slntt.  vii,  7 ;  Rev.  iii,  20,  etc.),  "  Though  Orien- 
tals arc  very  jealous  of  their  privacy,  they  never  knock 
when  about  to  enter  your  room,  but  walk  in  without 
warning  or  ceremony.  It  is  nearly  impossible  to  teach 
an  Arab  servant  to  knock  at  your  door.  They  give 
warning  at  the  outer  gate  or  entrance  either  by  calling 
or  knocking.  To  stand  and  c(dl  is  a  very  common  and 
respectful  mode.  Thus  ]\Ioscs  commanded  the  holder 
of  <a  ]iledge  to  stand  without,  and  call  to  the  owner  to 
come  forth  (Deut,  xxiv,  10),  Tliis  was  to  avoid  the  vio- 
lent intrusion  of  cruel  creditors,  Peter  stood  knocking 
at  the  outer  door  (Acts  xii,  13, 16),  and  so  did  the  three 
men  sent  to  Joppa  b}'  Cornelius  (Acts  x,  17,18),  The 
idea  is  that  the  guard  over  your  privacy  is  to  be  placed 
at  the  entrance  to  your  premises"  (Thomson,  Land  and 
Book,  i,  192  sq,).    See  House. 

Knollis,  FuANCTS,  a  distinguished  English  states- 
man, was  born  at  Grays,  Oxfordsliire,  about  ]'530.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  Admitted  at  court, 
he  showed  great  zeal  for  the  lleformaticm,  and  wlien 
queen  Mary  ascended  the  throne  he  was  obliged  to  retire 


to  the  Continent,  At  Elizabeth's  accession  lie  returned, 
became  privy  counsellor,  treasurer  of  the  queen's  house- 
hold, and  knight  of  the  Garter,  He  was  one  of  the  judges 
of  Mary  Stuart,  He  died  in  1596.  Knollis  wrote  a  trea- 
tise on  the  Usuipation  of  papal  Bishops  (1608,  8vo). 
See  'riirner,  History  of  the  lieiyn  of  Edicard  VI,  Mary, 
and  Elizabeth ;  Rose,  New  General  Biographical  Diction- 
ary ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gin.  xxvii,  915,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Knollys,  ILvNsAKn,  an  eminent  English  Baptist 
minister,  was  born  in  Chalk  well,  Lincolnshire,  in  1598. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Cambrulge,  and 
after  his  graduation  was  ordained  as  a  deacon,  and  then 
as  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  pre- 
sented by  the  bishop  of  Lincohi  with  the  living  at  Hum- 
berstone.  About  1632,  beginning  to  doubt  the  lawful- 
ness of  conformity  to  the  Clnirch  of  England,  he  resign- 
ed his  living,  but  continued  to  preach  several  j-ears  lon- 
ger. In  1636  he  was  arrested  for  preaching  tjie  Gos- 
pel, and  thrown  into  prison  ;  but  his  keeper,  being  con- 
science-stricken, connived  at  his  escape,  and  he  came 
over  to  America  early  in  1638.  He  arrived  at  Boston, 
Masg.,  a  persecuted  fugitive,  in  a  state  of  utter  destitu- 
tion, and  was  obliged  to  work  daily  at  manual  labor  for 
his  subsistence.  At  first  he  met  with  a  cold  reception 
in  Boston,  which  was  then  in  a  ferment  on  the  question 
of  Antinomianism,  and  suspicious  of  all  new-comers ; 
but,  being  invited  to  preach  in  Dover,  N.  H,,  he  went 
thither,  and  in  1638  founded  the  first  church  in  that 
place.  He  returned  to  England  in  1641,  where  he  spent 
the  next  fifty  years  of  his  life,  during  that  most  agitated 
period  of  English  history,  and  died  Sept.  19, 1691.  Mr. 
Knollys  was  an  able  minister,  a  most  accomplished 
teacher  of  j'outh,  a  bold  pioneer  of  religious  liberty,  a 
man  of  large  public  spirit,  and  pre-eminently  great  in 
the  purity  of  his  character.  He  published  a  little  work 
on  the  Rudiments  of  Hebrew  Grammar  (1648,  12mo); 
also  Elnminf)  Fire  in  Zion  (1646,  4to)  ;  and  his  Autobi- 
oyraphy  in  1672,  which  was  brought  down  to  his  death 
by  ^Vm,  Kirtin  (1692,  8vo;  1813, 12mo),  See  Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  vi,  1.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Kiiop,  that  is,  Kxob  (Anglo-Saxon  cnceji),  a  word 
employed  in  the  A.Y.  to  translate  two  terms,  of  the  real 
meaning  of  which  all  that  we  can  say  with  certainty  is 
that  they  refer  to  some  architectural  or  ornamental  ob- 
ject, and  that  they  have  nothing  in  common. 

1.  Kaphtor'  (~i1PS3  or  "IPSS)  occurs  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  candlestick  of  the  sacred  tent  (Exod.  xxv, 
31-36,  and  xxxvii,  17-22,  the  two  passages  being  iden- 
tical). The  knops  are  here  distingiushed  from  the  shaft, 
branches,  bowls,  and  flowers  of  the  candlestick ;  but  the 
knop  and  the  flower  go  together,  and  seem  intended  to 
imitate  the  produce  of  an  almond-tree.  In  another  part 
of  the  work  they  appear  to  form  a  boss,  from  which  the 
branches  are  to  spring  out  from  the  main  stem.  In 
Amos  ix,  1  the  same  word  is  rendered,  with  doubtful  ac- 
curacy, "  lintel,"  The  same  rendering  is  used  in  Zeph. 
ii,  14.  where  the  reference  is  to  some  part  of  the  palace 
of  Nineveh,  to  be  exposed  when  the  wooden  upper  stor}' 
— the  "  cedar  work" — was  destroyed.  The  Hebrew  word 
seems  to  contain  the  sense  of  "  covering"  and  '•  crown- 
ing" (Gcsenius,  Thes.  Heb.  p,  709),  Josephus's  descrip- 
tion (.4??^iii,6,7)  names  both  balls  {crcpaipia)  and  pome- 
granates (po'i(TKoi),  cither  of  which  may  be  the  hiphtor. 
The  Targum  agrees  with  the  latter,  the  Sejit.  {^(jxnfHoTii- 
pfc)  with  the  former.  See  Lintk.l. — Smith.  All  these 
circumstances  point  to  a  signification  corresponding  es- 
sentially to  that  of  crorcn  ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  sacred 
candelabrum,  the  term  seems  to  point  to  a  sharp  orna- 
mental swell  placed  (like  a  horizontal  button )  immedi- 
ately beneath  the  cups  that  surmounted  each  arm  and 
section  of  the  shaft.     See  Tabeunaci.e. 

2,  The  second  term,  peka'im'  (C^i'pB),  is  found  only 
in  1  Kings  vi,18.  and  vii,  24,  It  refers  in  the  former  to 
carvings  executed  in  the  cedar  wainscot  of  the  interior 
of  the  Temple,  and,  as  in  the  preceding  word,  is  associ- 
ated with  flowers.     In  the  latter  case  it  denotes  an  or- 


KNORR 


135 


KNOW 


nament  cast  round  the  great  reservoir  or  "  sea"  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple  below  the  brim  :  there  was  a  double  row 
of  them,  ten  to  a  cubit,  or  about  two  inches  from  centre 
to  centre.  The  word  no  doubt  signifies  some  globidar 
thing  resembling  a  small  gourd  (being  only  the  masc. 
of  the  fem.  term  so  rendered  in  2  Kuigs  iv,  39)  or  an 
egg,  tliough  as  to  the  character  of  the  ornament  we  are 
quite  in  the  dark.  The  following  wood-cut  of  a  portion 
of  a  richly  ornamented  door-step  or  slab  from  Kouyun- 
jilv  probably  represents  something  approximating  to  the 
'■  knop  and  the  llower"  of  Solomon's  Temple.  But  as  the 
building  from  -which  this  is  taken  was  the  work  of  a 
king  at  least  as  late  as  the  sonftf  Esar-haddon,  contem- 
porary with  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Jlanasseh,  it 
is  only  natural  to  suppose  tliat  the  character  of  the  or- 
nament would  have  undergone  considerable  modification 
from  what  it  was  in  the  time  of  Solomon. — Smith, 


Oiuameutal  Border  of  a  Slab  from  Kouyuujik. 
IMr.  Paine  suggests  (Temple,  of  Solomon,  p.  41)  that  the 
difference  in  gender  (above  noted)  of  the  terms  for  the 
gourds  (or  ciicumhers,  as  he  renders)  is  accounted  for  by 
the  circumstance  that  these  ornaments  were  artificial 
(hence  in  the  masc),  while  the  real  fruit  is  fem.  He 
thinks  that  on  the  laver  they  were  arranged  in  vine- 
form,  ten  in  each  of  the  two  rows,  like  a  netting  {ib.  p. 
50).     See  Sea,  Brazen, 

Knorr,  Georg  Ciiristiax  vox,  a  German  divine, 
was  born  at  Oettingen  in  1C91,  and  was  educated  at  Jena 
from  1708  to  1712.  His  dissertation  for  the  master's  de- 
gree was  an  attack  on  Leibnitz,  and  created  quite  a  sen- 
sation at  the  time ;  it  was  entitled  Doctrime  ortJwdoxcc 
de  orifjine  mali  contra  recentiorum  quorundam  Injpothe- 
ses  modesta  assertio  (Jena?,  1712,  4to).  In  1716  he  be- 
came conrector,  and  a  few  months  later  rector  over  the 
schools  at  Oettingen ;  and  in  1726  was  called  to  Blanken- 
burg,  as  librarian  to  the  duke  of  Brunswick.  Some  time 
after  this  he  joined  the  Komanists.  He  died  in  1762. 
There  are  no  works  of  special  merit  from  the  pen  of 
Knorr  except  tlie  dissertation  already  mentioned. — Do- 
ring,  Gdehrte  Tlieol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knorr  von  Rosenrotli,  Abraham,  a  Lutheran 
divine,  descended  from  a  noble  family  noted  in  the  an- 
nals of  the  history  of  Silesia,  flourished  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury as  pastor  at  Alt  Rauden,  in  the  duchy  of  Wohlau, 
and  was  the  father  of  Christian  and  Caspar,  both  also 
noted  Lutheran  pastors. 

The  former  of  these  two  sons,  namely.  Christian,  was 
born  July  15, 1631,  and  was  educated  at  the  high-schools 
in  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig.  He  was  then  sent  abroad, 
and  visited  Holland,  France,  and  England  in  turn,  and 
on  liis  return  devoted  himself  at  Sulzbach  to  the  study 
of  the  Oriental  languages,  especially  the  Hebrew,  of 
which  he  had  accjuired  the  rudiments  while  abroad.  He 
took  up  the  writings  of  the  Cabalists,  and  even  attempt- 
ed to  prove  the  authenticity  of  the  N.-T.  Scriptures  by 
this  Jewish  philosophical  system,  in  his  Kahbala  denu- 
duta,  sive  doctrina  Hebrcnorum  transcendentalis  (part  i, 
Sulzl)ach,  1677-8,  4to ;  pt.  ii,  F.  ad  JL  1684,  4to :  a  third 
part  was  suppUed  by  Pagendorm).  His  other  writings, 
allot  this  eccentric  nature,  do  not  deserve  mention  here, 
as  they  have  lost  all  value  as  literary  contributions. 
See,  for  details,  Alh/em.  I  list.  Lex.  iii.  42;  Griitz,  Gesch. 
d.  Jnden,  X,  2\K,  »^l.     (.LH.W.) 

Knorr  von  Rosenroth,  Christian.  See  Knorr 
VON  RosENRorii,  Abraham. 

Knott,  Edward,  an  English  Jesuit,  whose  true 
name  was  Matthinx  Wikon,  and  memorable  for  his  con- 
troversy with  Chillingworth,  which  caUed  forth  the  fa- 


mous book  called  The  Religion  of  Protestants,  was  bom 
at  Pegsworth,  near  INIoqieth,  in  Northumberland,  in  1580. 
He  M'as  entered  among  the  Jesuits  in  1606,  being  al- 
ready in  priests'  orders ;  and  is  represented  in  the  Bibli- 
otheca  Patrum  Socieiatis  Jesu  as  a  man  of  low  stature, 
but  of  great  abiUties.  He  taught  divinity  a  long  time 
in  the  English  college  at  Rome,  and  was  a  rigid  observ- 
er of  that  discipline  himself  which  he  as  rigidly  exacted 
from  others.  He  was  then  appointed  sub-provincial  of 
the  province  of  England;  and,  after  he  had  exercised 
that  employment  out  of  the  kingdom,  he  was  twice  sent 
thither  to  perform  the  functions  of  his  office.  He  was 
present,  as  provincial,  at  the  general  assembly  of  the  or- 
ders of  the  Jesuits  held  at  Rome  in  1646,  and  was  elect- 
ed one  of  the  definitors.  He  died  at  London  January 
4, 1655-6.  Knott  was  a  great  controversialist,  and  wrote 
largely,  displaying  in  all  his  works  great  acuteness  and 
learning.  His  first  book  was  a  little  work  entitled  Char- 
ity Mistaken  (Loud.  1630), with  the  "want  Avliereof  Cath- 
olics are  imjustly  charged,  for  affirming,  as  they  do  with 
grief,  that  Protestancy,  unrepented,  destroys  salvation," 
which  was  answered  by  Dr.  Potter,  provost  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford  (in  1633),  by  a  piece  entitled  Want  of 
Charity  justly  charged  on  all  such  Romanists  as  dare, 
without  truth  or  modesty,  affirm  that  Protestancy  destroy- 
eth  Salvation.  To  this  Knott  replied,  under  the  title 
Mercy  and  Truth,  or  Charity  maintained  by  Catholics  (in 
1634),  which  occasioned  Chillingworth  to  publish  The 
Religion  of  Protestants.  Sec  Chillingworth.  Knott 
came  to  the  defence  in  1638,  in  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Christianity  Maintained,  and  later  in  a  work  under  the 
title  of  Infidelity  Umnmhed,  etc.  (Ghent,  1652, 4to).  At 
this  time,  however,  Chillingworth  had  been  dead  nine 
j'cars,  and  in  behalf  of  the  noted  deceased  a  reply  was 
made  by  Thomas  Smith,  fellow  of  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge (in  1653),  in  the  preface  to  an  English  transla- 
tion of  DaiUe's  A pologyfor  the  Reformed  Churches.  See 
Gen.  Bing.  Diet,  viii,  49  sq. ;  'SVoo<\,  A  thenm  Oxon.;  De 
Maizeaux,  Life  of  Chillingworth.     (J.  IL  W.) 

Knott,  John  W.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born 
near  BlairsviUe,  Westmoreland  County,  Pa.,  Oct.  7, 1812. 
He  was  educated  at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  and  studied 
theology  at  Western  and  Princeton  theological  semina- 
ries. After  graduation  he  preached  at  Gilgal,  Pa.,  for 
about  a-  year,  when  he  removed  to  Ohio,  and  was  in- 
stalled over  the  churches  of  Leesville  and  Ontario ;  there 
he  continued  three  years,  and  then  for  four  years  served 
as  pastor  of  the  churches  at  HayesviUe  and  Jerome- 
ville.  He  was  next  called  to  the  churches  of  Keene  and 
Jefferson,  where  he  officiated  for  seven  years.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  life,  with  intervals  of  relaxation 
on  account  of  ill  health,  he  preached  at  Eden,  Caroline, 
W^aynesburg,  Nevada,  and  Sandusky,  Ohio,  He  died  at 
Shelby,  Ohio,  Sept.  3,  1864.  jMr.  Knott  made  mau}^  sac- 
rifices of  personal  advancement  and  comfort  to  further 
the  cause  of  religion.  He  was  a  man  of  unbounded 
faith  in  the  Bible,  from  which  he  drew  all  his  theology 
and  philosopliy.  The  burden  of  his  preaching  Avas  Je- 
sus Christ  and  him  crucitied.  He  believed,  "  when  he 
had  proven  his  position  from  the  Bible,  he  had  estab- 
lished it  immovably."  See  AVilson,  I'resb.  Historical 
Almanac,  18()5. 

Know  (properly  "'l'^,  ytvioaKuj)  is  a  term  used  in  a 
variety  of  senses  in  the  Scriptures,  It  signifies  partic- 
idarly  to  understand  (Ruth  iii,  11),  to  approve  of  and 
delight  in  (Psa.  i,  6 ;  Rom.  \dii,  29),  to  chcrisli  (John  x, 
27),  to  experience  (Eph.  iii,  19).  In  Job  vii,  10  it  is 
used  of  an  inanimate  object :  '•  He  shall  return  no  more 
to  his  house,  neither  shall  his  place  know  liim  any  more." 
By  a  euphemism  it  frequently  denotes  sexual  connection 
((ien.  iv,  1  ;  Matt,  i,  25).  The  other  scriptural  applica- 
tions of  the  word  are  mostly  obvious,  as  follows:  (1,)  It. 
imports  to  have  acquired  information  respecting  a  sub- 
ject. (2.)  It  implies  discernment, judgment, discretion; 
the  power  of  discrimination.  It  may  be  partial ;  we  see 
but  in  part,  we  know  but  in  part  (1  Cor.  xiii,  9).     (3.) 


KNOWLEDGE 


136 


KNOWLEDGE 


It  frequently  signifies  to  liave  ascertained  by  experi- 
ment ((Jen.  xxii,  12).  (4.)  It  implies  discovery,  detec- 
tion ;  by  the  law  is  the  knowledge  of  sin  (Rom.  iii,  20). 

Natural  knowledge  is  acquired  by  the  senses,  by 
sight,  hearing,  feeling,  etc. ;  by  reflection ;  by  the  prop- 
er use  of  our  reasoning  powers ;  by  natural  genius ;  dex- 
terity improved  by  assiduity  and  cultivation  into  great 
skiU.  .So  of  luisbandry  (Isa.  xxviii,  30),  of  art  and  ele- 
gance (Exod.  XXXV,  31),  in  the  instance  of  Bczaleel. 
Spiritual  knowledge  is  the  gift  of  God,  but  may  be  im- 
proved by  stud}',  consideration,  etc.     See  Knowledge. 

Particuku-  Phrases. — The  priests'  lips  should  keep 
knowledge  (IMal.  ii,  7) ;  not  keep  it  to  themselves,  but 
keep  it  in  store  for  others;  to  communicate  knowledge 
is  the  way  to  preserve  it.  Knowledge  is  spoken  of  as 
an  emblematical  person,  as  riches,  and  treasures,  as  ex- 
cellency, and  as  the  gift  of  God  (Prov.  i,  29;  viii,  10, 
etc.).  See  Wisdoji.  "  Knowledge  puffeth  up,  but  char- 
ity editieth"  (1  Cor.  viii,  1) ;  i.  e.  the  knowledge  of  spec- 
idative  and  useless  things,  which  tend  only  to  gratify 
curiosity  and  vauitj',  which  contribute  neither  to  our 
own  salvation  nor  to  our  neighbor's,  neither  to  the  pub- 
lic good  nor  to  God's  glory ;  such  knowledge  is  much 
more  dangerous  than  profitable.  The  true  science  is 
that  of  salvation;  the  best  employment  of  our  knowl- 
edge is  in  sanctifying  ourselves,  in  glorifying  God,  and 
in  edifying  our  neighbor :  this  is  the  only  sound  knowl- 
edge (Prov.  i,  7). 

God  is  the  source  and  fountain  of  knowledge  (1  Sam. 
ii,  3 ;  2  Chron.  i,  10 ;  James  i,  5).  He  knows  aU  things, 
at  all  times,  and  in  all  places.  See  Omniscience.  Je- 
sus Christ  is  possessed  of  universal  knowledge ;  knows 
the  heart  of  man,  and  whatever  appertains  to  his  medi- 
atorial kingdom  (John  ii,  2-1,  25;  xvi,  30;  Col.  ii,  3). 
Men  know  progressively,  and  ought  to  follow  on  to 
kno^v  the  Lord  (Hos.  vi,  3) ;  what  we  know  not  now  we 
may  know  hereafter  (John  xiii,  7).  Holy  angels  know 
in  a  manner  much  superior  to  man,  and  occasionally  re- 
veal part  of  their  knowledge  to  him.  Unholy  angels 
kno^v  many  things  of  which  man  is  ignorant.  The 
great  discretion  of  life  and  of  godliness  is  to  discern 
what  is  desirable  to  be  known,  and  what  is  best  un- 
known ;  lest  the  knowledge  of  "  good  lost  and  evil  got," 
as  in  the  case  of  our  first  parents,  shoidd  prove  the  lam- 
entable source  of  innumerable  evils  (Gen.  ii,  9 ;  iii,  7). 

Knowledge  of  God  is  indispensable,  self-knowledge  is 
important,  knowledge  of  others  is  desirable ;  to  be  too 
knowing  in  worldly  matters  is  often  accessory  to  sinful 
knowledge ;  the  knowledge  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  is 
a  mean  of  escaping  the  pollutions  which  are  in  the 
world  (John  xvii,  3).  Workers  of  iniquity  have  no 
knowledge,  no  proper  conviction  of  the  divine  presence 
(Psa.  xiv,  4).  Some  men  are  brutish  in  their  knowl- 
edge (Jer.  Ii,  17);  e.  g.  he  who  knows  that  a  wooden 
image  is  but  a  shapely-formed  stump  of  a  tree,  yet  wor- 
ships it ;  he  boasts  of  his  deity,  which,  in  fact,  is  an  in- 
stance of  his  want  of  discernment,  degrading  even  to 
brutality  (Isa.  xlv,  20).  Some  are  wicked  in  their 
knowledge,  "knowing  the  depths  of  Satan,  as  they 
speak"  (llev.  ii,  20). — Calmet.     See  Gnosticisji. 

Knowledge.  By  this,  according  to  Sir  William 
Hamilton,"  is  understood  the  mere  possession  of  truths," 
and  tlie  possession  of  those  truths  about  which  our  fac- 
ulties have  been  previously  employed,  rather  than  any 
separate  power  of  the  understanding  by  which  truth  is 
perceived.  "  I  know  no  authority,"  says  Dr. Keid,  "be- 
sides that  of  ilr.  Locke,  for  calling  knowledge  &  faculty, 
any  more  than  for  calling  ojiinion  a  faculty."  Knowl- 
edge is  of  two  kinds,  viz.  historical  or  empirical,  and 
philosophical,  or  scientific  or  rational.  Historical  is  the 
knowledge  that  the  thing  is,  philosophical  is  tJic  knowl- 
edge why  or  how  it  is.  The  first  is  called  historical, 
because  in  this  knowledge  we  know  only  the  fact — only 
that  that  phenomenon  is;  for  history  is  properly  only 
the  narration  of  a  consecutive  series  of  phenomena  in 
time,  or  the  description  of  a  co-existent  series  of  jilio- 
iiomena  in  space;  the  second  philosophical,  to  imply 


that  there  is  a  way  of  knowing  things  more  completely 
than  they  are  known  through  simple  experiences  me- 
chanically accumulated  in  memory  or  hea]ied  up  in  cv- 
clopredias.  It  seeks  for  \vide  and  deep  truths,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  multitudinous  detailed  truths  which 
the  surface  of  things  and  actions  presents,  and  therefore 
a  knowledge  of  the  highest  degree  of  generalitj'.  "  The 
truth  of  philosophy,''  sa\-s  Herbert  Spencer,  "  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  highest  scientific  truths  that  each 
of  these  bears  to  lower  scientific  truths.  As  each  widest 
generalization  of  science  comprehends  and  consolidates 
the  narrower  generalizations  of  its  own  division,  so  the 
generalizations  of  philof'ophy  comprehend  and  consoli- 
date the  widest  generalizations  of  science.  It  is  there- 
fore a  knowledge  the  extreme  opposite  in  kind  to  that 
which  experience  first  accumulates.  It  is  the  final 
product  of  that  process  which  begins  with  a  mere  colli- 
gation of  crude  observations,  goes  on  establishing  prop- 
ositions that  are  broader  and  more  separated  from  par- 
ticular cases,  and  ends  in  universal  propositions.  Or, 
to  bring  the  definition  to  its  simplest  and  clearest  form, 
knowledge  of  the  lowest  kind  is  ununified  knowledge ; 
science  is  partially  unified  knowledge ;  philosophy  is 
completely  unified  knowledge." 

This  term,  however,  is  associated  with  the  greatest 
problems  and  controversies  of  philosophy,  all  of  which 
are  involved  in  the  discussion  of  what  is  meant  by 
knowledge.  The  different  problems,  therefore,  of  the 
philosoph}'  of  mind  will  be  found  discussed  under  those 
names  that  severally  suggest  them.^ — Watts,  On  the 
Mind;  Dr.  John  TLAwaxAs,  Uncertainty,  Deficiency,  and 
Corruption  ofJIuman  Knowledge ;  Eeid,  Intellectual Poic- 
ei-s  of  Man ;  Stennett,  Sei-mon  on  A  cts  xxvi,  24,  25  : 
Vphnia,  Intellectual  Philosojjhy ;  Douglas,  <9m  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Society ;  Robert  Hall,  Works  ;  A  mer.  Li- 
brary of  Useful  Knowledye.  See  Faith  and  Reason  ; 
Idealisji  ;  Judgjient  ;  Moral  PHiLosopin' ;  Relig- 
ious PniLOSOPIIY.      (E.  DE  P.) 

Knowledcje  of  God.  By  this  is  not  meant  a  mere 
knowledge  of  his  existence,  for  the  devils  believe  that 
God  is ;  they  tremble  as  they  believe  it,  and  they  hate 
the  God  before  whom  they  tremble.  It  cannot  be  a 
mere  partial  acquaintance  with  the  character  of  God, 
because  we  cannot  for  a  moment  doubt  that  the  Jews 
were  partially  acquainted  with  God's  character,  and  yet 
our  Lord  said  to  them, "  Ye  neither  know  me  nor  my 
Father."  Neither  can  it  be  a  dry,  uninfliiential,  notional 
knowledge  of  God,  however  accurate  in  its  outline  that 
knowledge  may  be.  The  knowledge  of  God  includes 
far  more  than  this.  It  implies  a  real,  personal,  experi- 
mental, sanctif\-ing  acquaintance  with  him.  It  espe- 
cially regards  liim  as  a  reconciled  God  in  Christ — that 
is,  the  reconciliation  of  all  his  perfections  in  the  Avay  of 
his  mercy,  uni'olding  them  as  the  basis  for  the  soul's 
confidence;  that  he  is  righteously  and  holily  merciful, 
pardoning  sin  at  the  expense  of  no  other  perfection,  but 
in  the  full  and  perfect  harmony  of  all  his  perfections. 
Without  this  knowledge,  all  our  advances  in  other 
branches  of  knowledge  are  but  vain  and  unprofitable. 
All  other  knowledge  is  useful,  cntertaininy ;  this  alone  is 
needful.  This  may  do  without  other  knowledge,  but  no 
other  Itnowledge  will  do  without  this.  If  you  teach 
men  the  elements  of  education,  you  put  into  their 
hands  a  powerful  weapon  either  Jbr  good  or  for  evil,  ac- 
cording to  the  direction  that  may  be  given  to  it.  If 
you  put  into  their  hands  the  elements  of  sound  relig- 
ious knowledge,  j'ou  give  their  minds  a  right  and  safe 
exercise,  while  the  knowledge  will  keep  them  from  the 
abuse  of  the  tremendous  power  you  put  into  their  hands. 
See  Charnock,  Works,  ii,  3)S1 ;  Saurin,  Sermons,  i,  serm.  1 ; 
Gill,-Bof/?/  of  IJirinity,  iii,  12  (8vo);  Tillotson,  *SVn»o?i*, 
serm.  113;  AVatts,  ll't)?-A>",  i,  serm.  45;  Ha]!,  Sermon  on 
the  Advantages  of  Knowledge  to  the  lower  Classes ;  Yos- 
ter,  Essay  on  Popular  Ignorance;  D\\\(iht,  Theology ; 
Martensen,  Dogmatics.     See  Know.     (E.  de  P.) 

KnoTwledge,  Divine.     See  O.mniscience. 


KNOWLER 


137 


KNOX 


KnO'wler,  Wili.iaji,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine, 
was  born  in  May,  1C99,  and  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge.  He  was  first  chaplain  to  the  first 
marquis  of  Rocldngham,  and  was  by  him  presented  with 
the  rectory  of  Irthlingborrow,  and  afterwards  with  Bod- 
ilington,  both  in  Northamptonshire.  He  died,  in  all 
prol)abiiity,  in  1773.  Dr.  Knowler  pubUslied  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  Chrysostom's  Cominenta)-i/  on  St. PauPs 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  with  an  account  both  of  Chrj'- 
sostom  and  of  Jerome. — Neio  Gen.  Biof/r.  Did.  viii,  b'd ; 
Allilwne,  Did.  KnrjL  and  Am.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knowles,  James  Davis,  a  Baptist  minister, 
was  born  in  Trovidence,  R.  I.,  July,  1798.  He  learned 
the  printing  business,  and  in  1819  became  co-editor  of 
the  lihode  Island  American.  Having  joined  the  Bap- 
tist Church  in  ]\Iarch,  18-.'0,  he  was  in  the  fall  following 
licensed  to  preach.  Shortly  after  he  entered  the  soph- 
omore class  of  Columbian  College,  Washington,  D.  C, 
graduated  in  1824,  and  was  immediately  appointed  one 
of  the  tutors  of  the  college,  which  position  he  held  imtil 
called  as  pastor  to  the  Second  Baptist  Church  of  Boston, 
where  he  was  ordained  Dec.  28, 1825.  In  1832  impaired 
health  obliged  him  to  resign  his  pastoral  charge,  and  he 
became  i:)rofessor  of  pastoral  duties  and  sacred  rhetoric 
in  the  Newton  Theological  Institution,  acting  at  the 
same  time  for  over  two  years  as  editor  of  the  Christian 
Revietr,  a  Baptist  quarterly.  He  died  jMa}'  9, 1838.  Mr. 
Knowles  published  a  number  of  occasional  Sermons,  A  d- 
dresses,  etc. ;  Memoir  of  Mrs.  A  mi  II.  Judson,  late  Mis- 
sionary to  Burmah  (1829);  and  Memoir  of  Ror/er  Wil- 
liams, the  Founder  of  the  State  of  Rhode  Islaml  (Boston, 
1834) Sprague,  Annals,  vi,  707 ;  Appleton, New  Amer- 
ican Ci/clopcedia,  x,  192. 

Knowles,  James  Sheridan,  the  celebrated 
modern  dramatist  of  England,  in  later  years  a  minister 
in  the  Baptist  Church,  was  born  at  Cork,  Ireland,  in 
1784,  and  early  distinguished  himself  as  a  dramatic 
writer.  About  1845  he  began  to  entertain  religious 
scruples  about  his  connection  with  the  stage,  was  finally 
converted,  and  in  1852  joined  the  Baptist  Church  and 
entered  the  ministry.  He  died  Dec.  1,  18G2,  at  Tor- 
quay, in  Devonshire.  Several  of  his  sermons  have  been 
puljlished,  but  they  do  not  so  greathr  merit  our  notice  as 
his  exposition  of  the  Protestant  view  on  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, which  he  defended  in  The  Idol  demolished  bij  its  own 
Priest  (Lond.  1851,  12mo),  an  answer  to  cardinal  Wise- 
man's lectures  on  transubstantiation.  He  also  wrote 
The  Rock  of  Rome,  or  the  Arch  Ileresi/  (London,  1849, 
1850,  1851).  His  dramatic  works  have  been  collected 
and  published  in  3  vols.  sm.  8vo,  in  1843  and  since.  See 
Allibone,  Diet.  Enf/l.  and  A  m.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  North 
Amer.  Review,  xl,  141  sq. •,  Chambers,  C'ycloj}.  s.  v.  (J. 
H.W.) 

KnoTwles,  John,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  in  Liiicolnsliirc,  England,  and  educated  at  Magda- 
len College,  Cambridge.  In  1G25  he  was  chosen  fellow 
of  Katharine  Hall,  and  while  cmphn-ed  in  his  duties  as 
a  teacher,  upon  the  invitation  of  the  mayor  and  alder- 
men of  Colchester,  became  their  lecturer.  In  conse- 
quence of  his  opposition  to  archbishop  Laud,  his  license 
was  revoked  in  1G39,  and  he  immediately  removed  to 
New  England,  and  was  ordained  co-pastor  at  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  Dec.  19.  In  October,  1G49,  he  departed  to 
Virginia,  in  response  to  a  call  for  ministerial  aid  in  that 
destitute  region.  In  a  few  months,  however,  he  return- 
ed to  Watertown,  whence  he  returned  to  England  in 
1G50,  where  he  soon  became  preacher  in  the  cathedral 
at  Bristol.  From  fhis  place  he  was  ejected  at  the  Res- 
toration, and  in  1GG2  was  prevented  from  public  minis- 
trations by  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  Ey  permission  of 
king  Charles  in  1G72,  he  became  colleague  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Kentish  at  St.  Katharine's,  London,  where  he 
preached  till  near  the  close  of  his  Ufe,  April  10,  1085. 
It  is  said  of  him  that  sometimes,  while  preaching,  his 
very  earnestness  and  zeal  so  exhausted  him  that  he 
fainted  and  fell.     Mr.  Knowles  is  represented  as  having 


been  "  a  godly  man  and  a  prime  scholar." — Sprague,  ^w- 
iials  of  the  A  inerican  Pulpit. 

Knowles,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  of 
great  learning  and  talents,  was  born  at  Eh'  in  1723 ; 
studied  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  fellow,  and  was  afterwards,  for  over  thirty  years, 
lecturer  of  St.  ]\Iary's,  in  Bury  St.  Edmund's.  He  be- 
came successively  prebendary  of  Elj^,  rector  of  Ickworth 
and  Chedburgh,  and,  finally,  vicar  of  Winston,  Suffolk. 
He  died  in  1802.  His  principal  works  are,  The  Passion 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (Lond.  1780, 12mo ;  a  new  ed., 
with  additions,  by  the  Rev.  II.  Hasted,  London,  1830, 
12mo)  : — Twelve  Sermons  on  the  Attribictes  (Camb.  1750, 
8vo)  : — A  nswer  to  Bp.  Clayton! s  Essay  on  Spirit  (Lond. 
1753,  8vo):  —  Primitive  Christianity  (1789,  8vo).  He 
also  WTOte  several  pamphlets  on  religious  subjects.  See 
Gent.  Marjazine,  vol.  Ixxii ;  Chalmers,  Gen.  Biotj.  Did.  ; 
Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  Am.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knowlton,  Gideox  A.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
mmister,  was  born  in  East  Iladdam,  Conn.,  entered  the 
itinerancy  in  Central  New  York  in  1800,  was  mostly  em- 
ploj-ed  in  what  was  the  old  Genesee  Conference,  sta- 
tioned at  Albany  in  1804,  at  Saratoga  in  1805,  and  died 
at  Whitest^wn,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  15,  1810.  He  was  deeply 
pious,  a  '"plain,  practical,  and  useful  preacher."  and  of 
great  and  exemplary  faithfuhiess  in  the  work  of  his 
Master. — Minutes  of  Conferences,  i.  195. 

Knowne  Men,  or  jusf-fastmen,  a  name  for  per- 
sons who,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII,  suffered  martyr- 
dom at  the  instigation  of  John  Longland,  bishop  of  Lin- 
coln, either  for  reailing  the  Scriptures  or  treatises  of 
Scripture  in  EngUsh,  or  for  hearing  the  same  read.  See 
Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation,  p.  180,  note  3  ;  Fox, 
Book  of  Martyrs  (Lond.  1583),  p.  820-37 ;  Burnet,  Hist, 
of  the  R  format  ion  (London,  1681),  i,  27  sq. 

Knox,  John  (1),  the  Reformer  of  Scotland. 

I.  Early  Life. — He  was  born  in  GifFord,  a  vUlage  in 
East  Lothian,  in  1505,  of  respectable  parents,  members 
of  the  Romish  Chiu-ch,  who  were  able  to  give  their  son 
a  liberal  education.  After  spending  some  time  at  the 
grammar-school  of  Haddington,  he  was  sent  by  his  fa- 
ther, in  1521,  to  the  University  of  Glasgow.  Here  he 
studied  under  Jlayor,  a  famous  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  A  disciple,  by  the  way,  of  Gerson  and  Pe- 
ter d'Ailly,  he  advocated  the  supremacy  of  general  coun- 
cils over  the  popes,  and,  carrying  this  view  into  polities, 
held  also  that  the  king's  authoritj^  is  derived  from  the 
people — a  doctrine  which  he  inculcated  in  his  pupils 
(Knox  as  well  as  Buchanan),  and  which  fully  explains  the 
democratic  tendencies  of  the  Scottish  reformer.  Soon 
after  taking  the  degree  of  M. A.,  Knox  became  an  assist- 
ant professor,  and  rivalled  his  master  in  the  subtleties 
of  the  dialectic  art.  He  obtained  clerical  orders  even 
before  he  reached  the  age  fixed  by  the  canons,  and  about 
1530  went  to  St.  Andrew's,  and  began  to  teach  there.  A 
veil  of  obscurity  hangs  over  his  life  for  several  of  the  fol- 
lowing years.  It  is  supposed,  however,  that  the  study 
of  the  fathers,  especially  Jerome  and  Augustine,  shook 
his  attachment  to  the  Romish  Church  as  early  as  1535, 
but  he  did  not  become  an  avowed  Protestant  until  1542 
— a  fact  which  shows  that  he  did  not  act  from  hasty  or 
turbulent  impulses,  but  with  prudence  and  deliberation, 
Ilis  reproof  of  existing  corruptions  compelled  him  to  re- 
tire from  St.  Andrew's  to  the  south  of  Scotland,  and  he 
was  degraded  from  his  orders  as  a  heretic.  He  now  be- 
came a  tutor  to  the  sons  of  two  noble  families,  and  oc- 
casionally preached  to  the  people  in  the  neighborhood. 
During  this  period  he  became  a  frequent  companion  of 
the  reformer  and  martyr  Geo.  Wishart,  to  whose  instruc- 
tions he  was  greatly  indebted.  When  Wishart  was  ap- 
prehended, Knox  would  fain  have  clung  to  him  and 
shared  his  fate,  but  his  friend  refused,  saying,  '•  Nay,  re- 
turn to  your  bairns,  and  God  bless  j'ou ;  one  is  suffi- 
cient for  a  sacrifice."  Wishart  was  burnt  at  the  stake, 
under  cardinal  Beaton's  orders,  in  ^M arch,  1540,  and  with- 
in two  mouths  afterwards  the  cardinal  was  put  to  death 


KNOX 


138 


KNOX 


in  liis  own  castle  of  St.  Andrew's  by  a  band  of  nobles  and  | 
others  who  held  the  castle  as  a  stronghold  of  the  re- 
furniing  interest.  Knox,  who  was  dail_y  in  danger  of 
liis  life  from  Beaton's  successor,  determined  to  go  to 
Germany  to  inirsue  his  studies,  but  was  induced  by  the 
parents  of  his  pupils  to  give  up  his  purpose  and  take 
refuge  in  the  castle,  which  he  did  with  many  other 
Protestants  in  Easter,  1547.  Here  for  the  first  time  he 
entered  upon  the  public  ministry  of  the  Gospel,  and  he 
distinguished  himself  both  as  a  powerfid  preacher  and 
a  fearless  opponent  of  the  papacy.  But  this  did  not 
continue  long.  * 

II.  His  Ej-ik. — The  arrival  of  a  French  fleet  enabled 
the  regent  of  Scotland  to  invest  the  castle  by  sea  and  by 
land,  and  on  the  last  day  of  July  the  garrison  was  com- 
IX'lled  to  surrender,  wliich  tliej^  did  upon  honorable  terms. 
But  instead  of  being  simply  expatriated  according  to 
the  engagement,  they  were  taken  to  France,  whore  the 
principal  gentlemen  were  held  as  prisoners,  and  Knox 
and  others  were  made  galley-slaves.  The  following 
winter  the  galleys  lay  on  the  Loire,  but  the  next  sum- 
mer they  cruised  on  the  east  coast  of  Scotland,  often  in 
sight  of  the  steeple  of  St.  Andrew's.  Knox's  constancy 
continued  unshaken  under  all  toils  and  trials,  which 
were  greatly  increased  at  one  time  by  disease,  until  in 
Feb.  15-19,  after  nineteen  months  of  bondage,  he  was  re- 
leased through  the  personal  interposition  of  Edward  Yl 
of  England  with  the  king  of  France.  He  immediately 
repaired  to  England,  where  he  was  warmly  welcomed 
by  Cranmer  and  the  council.  He  was  stationed  in  the 
nortli  at  Berwick,  and  afterwards  at  Newcastle,  where 
he  labored  indefatigably,  preaching  often  every  daj'  in 
the  week,  notwithstanding  many  bodily  infirmities.  He 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  English  reformers,  was 
made  one  of  king  Edward's  chaplains,  was  consulted  in 
the  revision  of  the  Prayer-book,  and  also  of  the  j\rticles 
of  Religion,  and  was  oifered  the  bishopric  of  Rochester, 
but  declined  it  from  scruples  as  to  the  divine  authority 
of  the  office.  After  five  years  of  great  and  faithful  ac- 
tivity, at  the  end  of  which  he  married  a  Miss  Bowes,  of 
Berwick,  the  accession  of  jNIary  to  the  throne  put  an  end 
to  his  usefidness  and  endangered  his  life.  His  own  de- 
sire was  to  remain  and  meet  the  issue,  for,  as  he  said, 
"never  could  he  die  in  a  more  honest  quarrel," but  the 
tears  and  importunity  of  friends  prevailed  on  him  to  Hy. 
Accordingly,  in  January,  1554,  he  took  ship  to  Dieppe, 
Mhere  lie  sjjent  his  first  leisure  in  writing  suitable  ad- 
vices to  those  whom  he  coidd  no  longer  reach  by  his 
voice.  Afterwards  he  travelled  in  France  and  Switzer- 
land, visiting  particidar  churches  and  conferring  with 
the  learned.  At  Geneva  he  studied  Hebrew,  anil  form- 
ed with  the  celebrated  Calvin  an  intimate  friendship, 
Avhich  ended  only  with  Calvin's  death.  By  Calvin's 
infiucnce  he  was  induced  to  take  charge  of  the  Church 
of  English  exiles  at  Frankfort-on-the-ilain,  but  un- 
happy disputes  about  the  service-book  led  to  his  with- 
drawal after  less  than  six  months'  service,  in  March, 
1555.  He  immediately  turned  his  steps  to  Geneva, 
where  he  took  charge  of  an  English  congregation.  But 
in  the  same  year  he  made  a  flying  visit  to  Scotland, 
during  which  he  preached  incessantly,  and  labored  night 
and  day.  Among  the  many  distinguished  converts  he 
made  at  this  time  figured  three  young  lords,  wlio  after- 
wards played  no  unimportant  part  in  the  affairs  of  their 
country:  Archibald  Horn,  later  earl  of  Argyle;  James 
Stuart,  natural  brother  of  ^lary,  and  later  earl  of  Mur- 
ray, and  regent  during  the  minority  of  James  YI;  and 
John  Erskine,  who,  under  the  title  of  earl  of  JMarr,  also 
acted  as  regent.  His  influence  rendered  the  reformers 
more  decided  in  their  course,  and  he  instituted  in  1556 
the  first  of  those  rehgious  bonds  or  covenants  which  are 
so  marked  a  feature  in  Scottish  ecclesiastical  hi^torj'. 
But  he  judged  that  the  time  was  not  ripe  for  a  general 
movement,  and  accordingly  returned  to  Switzerland. 
After  his  departure  he  was  cited  to  appear  before  an  as- 
sembly of  the  h'omish  clergy,  and  in  his  absence  was 
condemned  to  be  burnt  as  a  heretic,  and  the  sentence 


was  executed  upon  his  effigj'.  In  Geneva  he  spent  near- 
ly three  years,  the  happiest  and  most  tranquil  of  his  life. 
He  counted  it  "  the  most  perfect  school  of  Christ  that 
ever  was  in  the  earth  since  the  days  of  the  apostles." 
He  was  surrounded  by  Ids  family,  and  lived  in  the  great- 
est harmony  with  his  colleague,  Goodman,  and  the  small 
flock  under  his  charge.  During  his  stay  he  took  part 
in  the  preparation  of  what  is  called  the  Geiuva  Bible. 
He  also  wrote  a  muuber  of  letters  and  apjieals  which 
were  forwarded  to  Scotland,  and  had  great  influence  in 
guiding  the  counsels  of  the  friends  of  the  Reformation. 
His  most  singular  treatise  was  a  volume  entitled  The 
First  Blast  of  the  Tnnrqwt  cir/ainst  the  monstrous  Regi- 
tnent  of  Women.  Although  undoubtedly  honest  in  liis 
opinions,  it  is  certain  that  he  was  led  to  them  bj'  his  ab- 
horrence of  Bloody  ISIary,  who  was  then  wearj-ing  Eng- 
land by  her  cruelties.  But  it  was  an  unfortunate  pub- 
lication, for  it  subjected  him  to  the  resentment  of  two 
queens,  during  whose  reign  it  was  his  lot  to  live ;  the 
one  his  native  princess,  Marj-,  queen  of  Scots,  and  the 
other  Elizabeth,  exercising  a  sway  in  Scotland  scarcely 
ini'erior  to  that  of  any  of  its  own  sovereigns.  Although 
his  residence  at  Geneva  was  so  agreeable  in  many  ways, 
yet  duty  to  Scotland  was  always  uppermost  in  his  mind, 
and  when  a  summons  came  from  the  leading  Protestants 
there  for  his  return,  he  j-ielded  at  once. 

HI.  His  Life-icork  in  Scoilmul. — The  inducement  for 
him  to  return  was  the  concession  of  liberty  of  worship 
promised  by  the  queen  regent,  but  upon  his  arrival 
at  Leith  in  May,  1559,  he  foimd  that  she  had  thrown 
off  all  disguises  (she  had  just  stipidated  to  assist  the 
Guises  in  their  plans  against  Elizabeth),  and  was  deter- 
mined to  suppress  the  Reformation  by  force.  Not  only 
did  she  refuse  the  demands  of  the  Protestants,  but  even 
summoned  a  number  of  the  preachers  for  trial  at  Stir- 
ling. But  Knox  was  not  disheartened.  He  wrote  to 
his  sister,  "  Satan  ragcth  to  the  uttermost,  and  I  am 
come,  I  praise  my  God,  even  in  the  brunt  of  the  battle." 
The  regent,  alarmed  at  the  attitude  of  the  Protestants, 
promised  to  put  a  stop  to  the  trial,  and  induced  the  ac- 
cused to  stay  awaj',  and  then  outlawed  them  for  not  ap- 
pearing. The  news  of  this  outrage  came  to  Perth  on 
the  day  when  Knox  preached  against  the  idolatrv'  of 
the  mass  and  of  image  worship.  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  service,  an  encounter  between  a  boy  and  a  priest  who 
was  preparing  to  celebrate  mass  led  to  a  terrible  riot. 
The  altar,  the  images,  and  all  the  ornaments  of  the 
church  were  torn  down  and  trampled  under  foot;  nor  did 
the  "rascall  multitude,"  as  Knox  called  them,  stop  till 
the  houses  of  the  Gray  and  Black  Friars  and  the  Car- 
thusian Monastery  were  laid  in  ruins.  Treating  this 
tumult  as  a  designed  rebellion,  the  regent  r.dvanced  upon 
Perth  with  a  large  force,  but  finding  the  Protestants  pre- 
pared to  resist,  made  an  accommodation.  Henceforth 
the  latter  came  to  be  distinguished  as  the  Congregation, 
and  their  leaders  as  the  lords  of  the  Congregation.  Un- 
der the  advice  of  Knox,  they  reformed  the  worship 
wherever  their  power  extended,  and  the  iconoclasm  of 
Perth  was  repeated  at  St.  Andrew's  and  many  other  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  not.  however,  by  a  riotous  proceeding, 
but  by  the  harmonious  action  of  the  authorities  and  the 
people.  The  briefest  and  best  defence  of  this  course  is 
the  reformer's  pithy  saying,  that  -'the  rookeries  were 
demolished  that  the  rooks  might  not  return."  The  con- 
test between  the  two  parties  went  on  for  a  year,  during 
part  of  which  Knox  prosecuted  a  flaming  evangelism  in 
the  Southern  and  eastern  counties,  while  at  otlier  times 
he  acted  as  chief  agent  in  securing  foreign  help  for  liis 
oppressed  countrj-men.  In  this  occuiTcd  the  only  seri- 
ous blot  on  his  fair  fame.  He  wrote  to  the  ICnglish 
governor  of  Berwick  that  England  might  send  troops  to 
their  aid,  and  then,  to  escape  reproach  from  France, 
might  disown, them  as  rebels.  The  rebuke  -which  he 
received  from  Sir  James  Croft  was  well  deserved.  The 
civil  war  was  at  length  terminated  by  the  entrance  of 
an  English  army,  wliich  invested  Edinburgh,  and  by  the 
death  of  the  queen  regent.    These  events  led  to  a  truce, 


KNOX 


139 


KNOX 


and  the  calling  of  a  free  Parliament  to  settle  religious 
dilTerences. 

This  body  met  in  August,  1560,  and,  carrying  out  what 
was  undoubtedly  the  wish  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
people,  established  the  Reformed  religion,  and  interdict- 
ed by  law  any  performance  of  lioman  Catholic  worship. 
In  all  this  Knox  was  not  only  an  active  agent,  but  the 
agent  above  aU  others.  The  Confession  of  Faith  and 
tlie  First  I?ook  of  Discipline  both  bear  the  impress  of  his 
mind.  Thus  a  great  step  was  taken,  from  which  there 
never  afterwards  was  any  serious  recession.  Knox  did 
not  attain  all  that  he  desired,  especially  in  respect  to  the 
jirovision  for  the  support  of  the  Church  and  of  educa- 
tion throughout  the  country.  8till  he  accomplished  a 
radical  work,  of  which  all  that  followed  was  only  the 
expansion  and  consolidation.  Tlie  arrival  in  the  next 
year  (1501)  of  the  youthful  queen  Mary,  who  had  high 
notions  of  prerogative,  as  well  as  an  ardent  attachment 
to  liomanism,  occasioned  new  dilHculties,  in  which  Kuox, 
as  minister  in  the  metropolis,  was  actively  engaged.  He 
had  iirolonged  interviews  witli  her,  in  which  she  exert- 
ed all  her  wiles  to  win  him  to  her  side,  but  in  vain.  He 
was  always  uncompromising,  and  once  drove  her  into 
tears,  for  which  he  has  often  been  censured ;  but  his  own 
statement  to  Mary  at  the  time  was  that  he  took  no  de- 
light in  any  one's  distress,  that  he  could  hardly  bear  to 
see  his  own  boys  weep  when  corrected  for  their  faults, 
but  that,  since  he  had  only  discharged  his  duty,  he  was 
constrained,  though  unwillingly,  to  sustain  her  majesty's 
tears  rather  than  hurt  his  conscience  and  betray  the 
commonwealth  through  his  silence.  Meanwhile  his  ac- 
tivity in  the  pulpit  was  unabated.  In  the  Church  of 
St.  Giles,  where  sometimes  as  many  as  three  thousand 
hearers  were  gathered,  he  jireached  twice  on  Sundays, 
and  thrice  gn  other  days  of  the  week.  To  these  were 
added  other  services  in  the  surrounding  country.  The 
effect  of  these  prodigious  labors  was  immense,  as  we 
learn  from  what  the  English  ambassador  wrote  to  Cecil : 
"  Where  your  honor  exhorteth  us  to  stoutness,  I  assure 
you  the  voice  of  one  man  is  able  in  an  hour  to  put  more 
life  in  us  than  six  hundred  trumpets  continually  blus- 
tering in  our  ears."  The  vehemence,  however,  oi'  his 
public  discourses  offended  some  of  his  friends,  and  his 
unyielding  opposition  to  the  court  led  to  his  alienation 
from  the  more  moderate  party  who  tried  to  govern  the 
country  in  the  queen's  name;  so  that  from  15G3  to  15G5 
he  retired  into  comjjarative  privacy,  but  he  continued 
his  labors  in  the  pulpit  and  in  the  assembl}'  of  the  kirk. 
The  rapid  series  of  events  which  followed  Clary's  mar- 
riage with  Darnley  in  July,  15G5,  tlic  murder  of  liizzio 
in  the  next  year,  the  murder  of  Darnley  in  15G7,  and 
the  queen's  marriage  with  Bothwell,  brought  Knox  again 
to  the  front.  ]Mary  was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  favor 
of  her  son,  and  Murray,  Aug.  15G7,  became  regent.  Fiu- 
ther  reforms  were  effected  by  the  Parliament  of  15G7. 
The  sovereign  was  bound  to  be  a  Protestant,  and  some 
better  jirovlsion  w'as  made  for  the  support  of  the  clerg}'. 
Knox  and  ISIurray  were  in  complete  accord,  and  the  af- 
fairs of  religion  seemed  so  settled  that  the  former  deem- 
ed his  work  done,  and  thought  of  retiring  to  Geneva  to 
end  his  days  in  peace.  But  in  1570  Jlurray  was  as- 
sassinated. Knox  shared  in  the  general  grief,  and  this 
event,  with  the  confusions  that  followed,  led  to  a  stroke 
of  apoplexy,  which  affected  his  speech  considerably.  He 
recovered  in  part,  and  was  able  to  resume  preaching, 
but  misunderstandings  sprang  up  between  him  and  the 
nobles,  and  even  some  of  his  brethren  in  the  General 
Assembly.  His  life  having  been  threatened,  he,  in  1571, 
by  the  advice  of  his  friends,  who  feared  bloodshed,  re- 
tired to  St.  Andrew's,  where  ho  preached  with  all  his  for- 
mer vigor,  although  unable  to  walk  to  tlie  pulpit  with- 
out assistance.  In  the  latter  part  of  1572  he  was  re- 
called to  Edinburgh,  and  came  back  to  die,  "  weary  of 
the  world,"  and  "  thirsting  to  depart."  One  of  his  last 
public  services  was  an  indignant  denunciation  of  the  in- 
human massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's.  On  the  24th  of 
November  he  quietly  fell  asleep,  not  so  much  oppressed 


with  years  as  worn  out  by  his  incessant  and  extraordi- 
nary labors  of  body  and  mind.  In  an  interview  with 
the  session  of  his  Church  a  few  days  before,  he  solemnly 
protested  the  sincerity  of  his  course.  Many  had  com- 
plained of  his  severity,  but  God  knew  that  his  mind  was 
void  of  hatred  to  those  against  whom  he  had  thundered 
the  severest  judgments,  and  his  only  object  was  to  gain 
them  to  the  Lord.  He  had  never  made  merchandise  of 
God's  word,  nor  studied  to  please  men,  nor  indulged  his 
own  or  others'  private  passions,  but  had  faithfidly  used 
whatever  talent  was  given  to  him  for  the  edification  of 
the  Church. 

IV.  His  Character. — Knox  was  a  man  of  small  stat- 
ure, and  of  a  weakly  habit  of  body,  but  he  had  a  vigor- 
ous mind  and  an  unconquerable  will.  Firmness  and 
decision  characterized  his  entire  course.  His  piety  was 
deep  and  fervent,  and  the  zeal  which  consumed  him 
never  knew  abatement.  Yet  it  was  not  uninteUigent. 
He  was  well  educated  for  his  time,  and  always  endeav- 
ored to  increase  his  knowledge,  even  in  middle  life  seiz- 
ing his  tirst  opportunity  to  learn  Hebrew.  An  inward 
conviction  of  eternal  realities  inspired  him  with  a  bold 
and  fervid  eloquence  which  often  held  thousands  of  his 
countrymen  as  if  under  a  spell.  In  dealing  with  men, 
he  was  shrewd  and  penetrating  to  the  last  degree.  No 
outward  show  or  conventional  jiretence  deceived  him, 
^'\'hether  he  encountered  queens,  nobles,  or  peasants,  he 
went  straight  to  the  heart  of  things,  and  insisted  upon 
absolute  reality.  His  mind  was  not  of  a  reflective  or 
speculative  cast,  and  his  writings,  which  are  not  few, 
have  at  this  day  mainly  an  antitpiarian  interest.  His 
earnestness  was  all  in  a  practical  direction,  as,  indeed, 
his  life  was  one  long  contlict  from  his  flight  from  St. 
Andrew's  in  1542  until  his  return  thither  in  1571.  His 
language  was  such  as  became  his  thought  —  simjDle, 
homely,  and  direct.  "  He  had  learned,"  as  he  once  said 
in  the  pulpit,  "plainly  and  boldly  to  call  wickedness  by 
its  own  terms,  a  tig  a  fig,  and  a  spade  a  spade."  Nor 
did  he  ever  quaU.  Nothuig  daunted  him;  his  spirit 
rose  high  in  the  midst  of  danger.  The  day  his  body 
was  laid  in  the  grave,  the  regent  INIorton  said  truh', 
"  There  lies  he  who  never  feared  the  face  of  man."  Just 
such  a  man  was  needed  for  the  work  to  which  Provi- 
dence calk'd  him.  To  lay  the  axe  to  the  root  of  the 
tree  and  warn  a  generation  of  vipers  requires  one  stem 
as  Elijah,  vehement  as  John  the  Baptist.  It  has  been 
asked  if  the  work  would  not  have  been  done  better  had 
the  spirit  of  love  and  moderation,  as  well  as  of  power, 
presided  over  it;  the  answer  is  that,  considering  the 
character  of  the  times  and  the  jieople,  in  that  case  jier- 
haps  the  thing  would  not  liave  been  done  at  all.  But 
it  was  done,  thoroughly  done,  and  more  effectually  than 
in  any  other  country  in  Europe.  The  First  Book  of 
Discipline  required  a  school  in  every  parish,  a  college  in 
every  "  notable  town,"  and  three  universities  in  the 
kingdom.  The  burst  of  Carlyle  {Essay  on  Sir  Walter 
Scott)  is  well  deserved:  "Honor  to  all  the  brave  and 
true ;  everlasting  honor  to  brave  old  Knox,  one  of  the 
truest  of  the  true !  That,  in  the  moment  while  he  and 
his  cause,  amid  civil  broils,  in  convidsion  and  confusion, 
were  still  but  straggling  for  life,  he  sent  the  schoolmas- 
ter forth  into  all  corners,  and  said,  '  Let  the  people  bo 
taught;'  this  is  but  one,  and,  indeed,  an  inevitable  and 
comparatively  inconsiderable  item  in  his  great  message 
to  men.  His  message  in  its  true  compass  was.  Let  men 
know  that  they  are  men ;  created  by  God,  responsible 
to  God;  who  work  in  any  meanest  moment  of  time 
what  will  last  through  eternity.  This  great  message 
Knox  did  deliver  with  a  man's  voice  and  strength,  and 
found  a  people  to  believe  him  ....  The  Scotch  na- 
tional character  originates  in  many  circumstances;  first 
of  all,  in  the  Saxon  stuff  there  was  to  work  on;  but 
next,  and  Iteyond  all  else  except  that,  m  the  Presbyte- 
rian Gospel  of  .l<ihn  Knox." 

Says  Cunningham  (Church  Bist.  of  Scotland  [Edinb. 
1859,  2  vols.  >Svo],  i,  407  sq.),  "  Knox  was  not  perfect,  as 
no  man  is.    He  was  coarse,  tierce,  dictatorial ;  but  he  kad 


KNOX 


140 


KNUTZEN 


great  redeeming  qualities — qualities  which  are  seldom 
found  in  such  stormy,  changeful  periods  as  that  in  which 
he  lived  He  was  consistent,  sincere,  unseltish.  From 
first  to  last  he  pursued  the  same  straight,  unswerving 
course,  turning  neither  to  the  right  hand  nor  to  the  left; 
tirni  amid  continual  vicissitudes;  and  if  he  could  have 
biu-ncd  and  disembowelled  unhappy  Papists,  he  would 
have  done  it  with  the  fullest  conviction  that  he  was  do- 
ing Goil  ser\-ice.  He  hated  Popery  with  a  perfect  ha- 
tred ;  and  regarding  Mary  and  lier  mother  as  its  chief 
personations  in  the  land,  he  followed  them  through  life 
with  a  rancor  which  was  all  the  more  deadly  because  it 
was  rooted  in  religion.  He  was,  perhaps,  fond  of  power 
and  popularity,  but  he  gained  them  by  no  mean  compli- 
ances. On  a  question  of  principle  he  would  quarrel  with 
the  highest,  and,  having  quarreled,  he  would  not  hesi- 
tate to  vilify  them  to  their  face.  His  hands  were  clean 
of  bribes.  He  did  not  grow  rich  by  the  spoils  of  the 
Keformation.  He  was  content  to  live  and  die  the  min- 
ister of  St.  Giles's.  Is  not  such  a  one,  rough  and  bear- 
ish though  he  be,  more  to  be  venerated  than  the  supple, 
time-serving  Churchmen  who  were  the  tools  of  the  Eng- 
lish Keformation?  Does  he  not  stand  out  in  pleasing 
relief  from  the  grasping  barons  with  whom  he  was  as- 
sociatetl,  who  hated  monks  because  they  coveted  their 
corn-fields,  and  afterwards  disgraced  the  religion  they 
professed  by  their  feuds,  their  conspiracies,  and  cold- 
blooded assassinations?"  But  perhaps  the  greatest  trib- 
ute that  has  ever  been  paid  to  the  memory  of  John 
Knox  lias  of  late  been  penned  by  Froude  {Hist,  of  Eng- 
land, X,  457  sq.).  Frequently  the  charge  of  fanaticism 
has  been  laid  at  the  door  of  the  great  Scottish  reformer; 
this  Froude  unhesitatingly  refutes,  and  assures  us  that 
it  was  only  against  Popery,  the  system  that  enslaves 
both  the  Church  and  the  State,  that  he  fought.  '•  He 
was  no  narrow  fanatic  who,  in  a  world  in  which  God's 
grace  was  equally  visible  in  a  thousand  creeds,  could  see 
truth  and  goodness  nowhere  but  in  his  own  formula. 
He  was  a  large,  noble,  generous  man,  with  a  shrewd 
perception  of  actual  fact,  who  found  himself  face  to  face 
with  a  system  of  liideous  miquity.  He  believed  him- 
self a  prophet,  with  a  direct  commission  from  heaven  to 
overthrow  it,  and  liis  return  to  Scotland  became  the  sig- 
nal, tlierefore,  for  the  renewal  of  the  struggle." 

y.  Works  and  IJferature. — Besides  the  Geneva  Bible 
and  occasional  pamphlets,  John  Knox  wrote.  History  of 
the  Reformation  of  Religion  tcit/iin  the  Reahn  of  Scot- 
land from  1422  to  15G7  (Lond.  1G44,  folio;  Edinb.  1732, 
folio).  His  ]Vo)-ks  have  been  collected  and  edited  by 
Duv.  Laing  (Edinb.  184G,  8vo).  See  M'Crie,  Life  of 
John  Knox  (Edinb.  1814,  and  often  since);  Ch.  Nie- 
meycr,  Knox  Leben  (Lpz.  1824,  8vo) ;  T.  Brandes,  Life 
of  John  Knox  (London,  1863)  ;  Hetherington, //is^  q/ 
Ch.  of  Scotland ;  Burton,  IJist.  of  Scotland,  particularly 
ch.  xxxviii;  Ty tier, //«*Y.  o/' ,Sco//awf/,  vols,  vi  and  vii ; 
Hartiwick,  IIij<t.  of  the  Reformation,  p.  142  sq. ;  Russell, 
Ch.  in  ScotlanJ;  Ilallam,  Const.  Hist.  Engl,  i,  140,  note, 
171,  280;  iii,  210;  Fronde,  Hist,  of  Engl.  vols,  iv,  v,  vi, 
vii,  ix,  and  x,  and  his  Studies  on  ()reat  Subjects,  series  i 
and  ii ;  Edinb.  Rev.  xcv,  236  sq. ;  Westminster  Rev.  xli,  37 
sq. ;  London  Qu.  Rev.  ix,  418  sq. ;  Ixxxv,  148  sq. ;  J/eth. 
(pi.  Rrr.  ii,  325  sq. ;  Edinb.  Rev.  July,  1853.     (T.W.  C.) 

Knox,  John  (2),  D.D.,  an  American  divine  of  the 
Reformed  (I)utcli)  Church,  was  born  in  1700  near  Gct- 
tysl)iirgh.  Pa.,  grathiated  at  Dickinson  College  in  1811, 
studied  theology  under  Dr.  Joint  iNI.  Mason  in  New 
York,  was  licensed  to  preach  by  flic  Associate  Reformed 
Presbytery  of  Pliiladelphia  in  1815,  became  pastor  of 
the  Collegiate  Reformed  Dutch  Cluirch,  New  York,  in 
181fi,  and  remained  there  until  his  deatli  in  1858.  This 
brief  chronological  record  covers  the  life  and  ministry 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  useful  of  American  pas- 
tors. Witliout  the  rare  gift  of  jiopular  eloquence,  he 
was  remarkable  for  clearness  of  thought  and  (xu-ity  of 
diction,  for  comprehensive  and  instructive  discourses, 
and  for  jjractical  usefulness.  'I'he  best  designation  of 
Lis  character  is  that  of  its  completeness.     He  was  a  ju- 


dicious counsellor,  a  safe  guide,  a  devout  believer,  and 
a  model  pastor.  In  the  ecclesiastical  assemblies  of  the 
Church  he  was  often  a  conspicuous  leader.  In  the 
American  Tract  Society,  with  which  he  was  for  many 
j'ears  closely  identified  as  a  member  of  its  executive 
committee,  he  did  much  to  shai^e  the  policy  and  direct 
the  publications  of  that  grand  catholic  institution.  He 
was  active  in  many  other  public  charities  of  the  coun- 
trj'.  Dr.  Knox  puljlished  a  number  of  occasional  ser- 
mons, among  Avhich,  those  on  "  I'arental  Responsibility" 
and  on  '•  Parental  Solicitude"  are  worthy  of  particidar 
notice.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several  useful  tracts 
and  addresses,  and  w\is  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  re- 
ligious newspapers.  He  was,  m  respect  of  piety,  a  very 
Barnabas,  "  a  son  of  consolation,"  "  fidl  of  faith  and  of 
the  Holy  Ghost." — Memorial  Sermon,  by  Dr.  Thomas 
De  Witt ;  Sprague,  Annals,  vol.  ix.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Knox.Vicesimus,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
writer  and  divine,  l)orn  at  Newington  Green,  Middlesex, 
Dec.  8,  1752,  was  a  son  of  the  Rev.Yicesimus  Knox, 
LLB.,  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  and  head 
master  of  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London.  Yoimg 
Yicesimus  Knox  was  also  educated.at  St.  John's  College, 
Oxford,  and  in  1778  was  elected  master  of  Tunbridge 
School,  Kent,  where  he  remained  some  thirty-three 
years,  and  was  then  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son.  He 
was  also  rector  of  RumweU  and  Ramsden  Crays,  in  Es- 
sex, and  minister  of  the  chapelry  of  Shipboume,  in 
Kent.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  resided  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  much  admired  as  a  preacher,  and  fre- 
quently gave  his  aid  in  behalf  of  public  charities  by  de- 
livering a  sermon.  He  died  while  on  a  visit  to  his  son 
at  Tunbridge,  Sept.  6, 1821.  Dr.  Knox's  chief  theolog- 
ical works  were :  1.  Essays,  Moral  and  Literary  (Lond. 
1777,  12mo,  anonjTnously ;  republished  in  1778,  with 
additional  essays,  m  2  vols.  12mo :  manj'  additions  have 
been  since  published) : — 2.  Liberal  Education,  or  a  prac- 
tical Treatise  on  the  Methods  of  acquiring  useful  and  po- 
lite Learning  (1781,  8vo;  enlarged  in  1785  to  2  vols. 
8vo) :  this  work  was  chiefly  intended  to  point  out  the 
defects  of  the  system  of  education  in  the  English  uni- 
versities, and  is  said  to  have  had  some  effect  in  produ- 
cing a  reformation  :  —  3.  Sermons  intended  to  j^romote 
Euith,  Hope,  and  Charity  (1792,  8vo) : — 4.  Christian 
Philosophy,  or  an  A  ttempt  to  display  the  Evidence  and 
Excellence  of  Revealed  Religion  (1795,  2  vols.  12mo) : — 
5.  Considerations  on  the  Nature  and  Efficacy  of  the 
LorcVs  SupiJer  (1799,  12mo).  He  also  published  occa- 
sional sermons  and  pamphlets.  Dr.  Knox's  writings 
were  once  much  esteemed.  His  style  has  considerable 
neatness  and  elegance,  but  he  has  little  originality  or 
power  of  thought,  and  his  popularity  has  for  some  years 
been  gradually  decreasing.  They  have  been  reprinted 
under  the  style  Works  (Lond.  1824,  7  vols.  8vo). — Engl. 
Cyclop,  s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  English  and  A  merican 
A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Knutzen,  Martin,  a  German  writer  and  philoso- 
pher of  the  Leibnitz- Wolfian  school,  was  born  in  Kiinigs- 
berg,  Prussia,  in  1713,  and  held  a  professorship  of  jihi- 
losophy  in  the  university  of  his  native  place.  He  died 
there  in  1751.  His  most  important  work  is  Von  der  im- 
mdteriellen  Natur  d.  Seek  (Frankfort,  1744,  8vo).  See 
Krug,  Philosopih.  Worterb.  ii,  G27. 

Knutzen,  Matthias,  a  noted  German  atheist, 
was  born  at  Oldensworth,  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  in  the 
early  part  of  tlie  17th  century,  and  was  educated  at 
Kcinigsberg  and  Jena  Universities.  He  was  the  fomider 
of  tlie  Conscientiarians,  advocating  the  doctrine  that 
reason  and  conscience  are  sufficient  to  guide  all  men ; 
besides  conscience,  he  asserted  there  is  no  other  God,  no 
other  religion,  no  other  laA\-ful  magistracy.  He  gave 
the  substance  of  liis  system  in  a  short  letter  (preserved 
in  the  edition  of  J/icralii  syntagma  historic  ecehsiasti- 
cw  [1G99]),  dated  from  Rome,  the  contents  of  which 
may  be  reduced  to  the  followhig  heads:  '"First,  there  is 
neither  a  God  nor  a  devil ;  secondly,  magistrates  are  not 


KOA 


141 


KOEBERGER 


to  be  valued,  churches  are  to  be  despised,  and  priests 
rejected;  thirdly,  instead  of  magistrates  and  priests,  we 
have  learning  and  reason,  which,  joined  with  conscience, 
teach  us  to  live  honestly,  to  hurt  no  man,  and  to  give 
every  one  his  due ;  fourthly,  matrimony  does  not  differ 
from  fornication ;  lifthly,  there  is  but  one  life,  which  is 
this,  after  which  there  are  neither  rewards  nor  punish- 
ments; the  holy  Scripture  is  inconsistent  with  itself." 
Knutzen  boasted  of  numerous  followers  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Europe;  and,  as  he  prided  himself  in  having 
found  adherents  to  his  doctrine  at  Jena,  I'rof.  John  Mu- 
sreus  attacked  and  refuted  him,  mainly  to  dispel  the  im- 
pression which  Knutzen  had  sought  to  make  that  Jena 
was  likely  to  become  a  convert  to  his  views.  He  died 
about  1G78,  or  later.  See  Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Gen. 
Biofj.  Did.  s.  v.:  Kossel,  in  Stud,  und  Krit.  18M;  Hall, 
EncjUop.  vol.  Ix vi.     ( J.  H.  W.) 

Ko'a  (Hcb.  id.  ^"Ip,  Sept.  '\xouk  v.  r.  }Lov^,  Kov^'e, 
Aove  ;  \w]^.principes),  a  word  that  occurs  but  once,  in 
the  prophetic  denunciations  of  punishment  to  the  Jewish 
peo])le  from  the  various  nations  whose  idolatries  they 
had  adopted :  "  Tlie  Babylonians  and  all  the  Chakteans, 
Pekod,  and  Shoa,  and  Koa,  and  all  the  Assj-rians  with 
them:  all  of  them  desirable  young  men,  captains  and 
riders,  great  lords  and  renowned,  all  of  them  riding  upon 
horses"  (Ezek.  xxiii,  23).  The  Sept.,  Symmachus,  The- 
odotion,  Targums,  Peshito,  and  Engl.  Vers.,  followed  by 
many  interpreters,  regard  it  as  a  proper  name  of  some 
province  or  place  in  the  Babylonian  empire ;  but  none 
such  has  been  found,  and  the  evident  paronomasia  with 
the  preceding  terna  in  the  same  verse  suggests  a  sym- 
bolical signification  as  an  appellative,  which  appears  to 
be  furnished  by  the  kindred  Arabic  kua,  the  designation 
of  a  he-camd  or  stallion  for  breeduig  (a  figure  in  keep- 
ing with  the  allusions  in  the  context  to  gross  lewdness, 
as  a  type  of  idolatry),  and  hence  tropically  a  prince  or 
noble.  This  is  the  sense  defended  by  J.  D.  Michaelis 
{Siippl.  2175),  after  Jerome  and  the  Heb.  interpreters, 
and  adopted  by  Gesenius  (Thesaur.  Heb,  p.  1207).  See 
SnoA;  Pekod. 

Koach.     See  Ciiameleox. 

Kobavius,  Andreas,  a  noted  Jesuit,  was  born  at 
Cirkwitz  in  151)4,  and  died  at  Trieste  Feb.  22, 1644.  Of 
his  personal  history  nothing  further  seems  to  be  known. 
He  wrote  Vita  B.  Jvhannis  fumlatoris  frutruni  miseri- 
cordice. — Allgem.  Hisior.  Lex.  iii,  43. 

Kobler,  John,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Culpepper  Co.,  Ya.,  Aug.  29, 17G8;  was 
converted  in  1787;  entered  the  itinerancy  in  1789;  vol- 
unteered as  missionary  to  the  North-western  Territory', 
and  for  eighteen  years  labored  with  great  success  in  that 
vast  and  varied  field.  In  1809  his  health  obliged  him 
to  locate,  but  he  labored  as  his  strength  permitted  till 
his  death.  In  1839  the  Baltimore  Conference,  unsolicit- 
ed, placetl  his  name  on  its  list  as  a  superannuate.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  with  great  usefulness  at 
Fredericksburg,  Va.,  where  he  died  July  20, 1843,  full  of 
years  and  honored  labors. — Minutes  of  Con f.  iii,  465. 

Kobuda'isi,  a  celebrated  Buddhist  pilgrim  of  Ja- 
pan, was  born  in  the  year  774.  In  earl}'  j'outh  he  be- 
gan studying  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  writers,  and.  in 
order  to  have  more  time  to  indulge  in  his  studies,  he 
embraced  religious  life  at  the  age  of  twenty.  Having 
become  high-priest,  he  accompanied  a  Japanese  ambas- 
sador to  China  in  804,  to  study  more  thoroughly  the 
doctrines  of  Chakia.  A  learned  Indian  named  Azari 
gave  him  the  information  he  desired,  and  presented  him 
with  the  books  he  had  himself  collected  in  his  pilgrim- 
ages. Another  hermit  of  northern  Hindustan  gave  him 
also  a  work  he  had  translated  from  the  Sanscrit,  and 
several  jMSS.  on  religious  subjects.  With  these  Kobu- 
da'isi returned  to  Japan  in  806,  where,  by  his  preaching 
and  miracles,  he  succeeded  in  converting  tlie  religious 
emperor  of  Japan,  who  embraced  Indian  Buddhism,  and 
was  baptized  according  to  the  rite  of  Chakia.     Encour- 


aged by  his  success,  Kobuda'isi  published  a  number  of 
ascetic  works,  and  a  treatise  in  which  he  exposed  the 
fundamental  dogmas  of  Buddhism.  According  to  Ko- 
buda'isi, the  four  scourges  of  humanity  are  hell,  women, 
bail  men,  and  war.  There  is  no  end  to  the  number  of 
miracles  he  is  said  to  have  wrought,  or  to  the  number 
of  pagodas  he  caused  to  be  built.  He  also  caused  tlie 
foundation  of  three  chairs  of  theology  for  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  sacred  writings.  He  died  in  835.  See  Tit- 
Sing,  Bibliotkeque  Juponaise  ;  Abel  ^evmx^t,  Nouveuux 
Melanges  Asiatiques;  Hoefer,  A o«f.  i)to^.  Gener.  xxvii, 
935.     (.J.  N.  P.) 

Koburg.     See  S.vxony. 

Koch,  Henry,  a  pioneer  minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Church  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  was  born  in 
Northampton  Co.,  Pa.,  in  1795 ;  pursued  his  theological 
studies  with  Rev.  Dr.  Becker,  of  Baltimore,  Md. ;  was 
licensed  and  ordained  in  1819,  and  settled  in  what  is  now 
Clarion  Co.,  Pa.  He  died  August  7, 1845.  He  laid  the 
foundations  of  numerous  congregations.  Five  charges 
have  grown  up  on  his  field,  which  constitute  the  heart 
of  what  is  now  Clarion  Classis.    His  memory  is  blessed. 

Koch,  John  Henry,  a  German  Methodist  minis- 
ter, was  born  of  Lutheran  jiarentage  in  Wollmar,  elec- 
torate of  Ilessen,  Germany,  Feb.  14, 1807,  and  emigrated 
in  1834  to  this  countrj'.  At  New  Orleans,  La.,  he  was 
attacked  with  yellow  fever,  and  resolved  on  his  sick-bed 
to  serve  God  with  his  whole  heart.  He  removed  after- 
wards to  Cincinnati,  where  brother  Nuelson  invited  him 
to  attend  the  meetings  of  German  Methodists,  and'there, 
under  the  preaching  of  father  Schmucker  and  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Nast,  he  was  awakened  and  converted.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  in  1841,  and  in  1845  joined  the  Ken- 
tucky Conference.  He  was  successively  appointed  to 
the  following  charges :  West  Union,  Pomeroy,  Captina, 
in  Ohio ;  Wheeling,  W.  Va. ;  Portsmouth,  Madison,  New 
Albany,  JMount  Vernon,  Ind. ;  Louisville,  Ky. ;  Madison 
Street,  La wrenceburgh,Batesville,  Poland  and  Greencas- 
tle,  La  Fayette  and  Bradford.  His  health  failing,  he  re- 
fired  from  the  effective  service,  but  re-entered  tlie  ac- 
tive ;vork  three  years  later,  and  served  two  years  at 
jNIadison  and  one  year  at  Charlestown,  Ind.,  where  he 
died  Oct.  1, 1871.  "  Brother  Koch  was  an  earnest  Chris- 
tian and  a  faithful  itinerant.  Many  were  converted  un- 
der his  ministry,  and  great  is  his  reward  in  heaven." — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  1871,  p.  227. 

Kochano'wski,  John,  a  Polish  nobleman  and  dis- 
tinguished poet,  who  was  born  in  1532,  and  died  in  1584, 
deserves  our  notice  for  his  translation  of  the  Psalms  into 
Polish  verse,  which  he  performed  in  so  masterly  a  man- 
ner that  he  was  surnamed  the  "  Pindar  of  Poland."  See 
Bentkowski,/7/«to?7/  of  Polish  Literature  (see  Index). 

Kochberg,  Johannes,  a  German  theologian  and 
descendant  of  a  noble  family,  flourished  in  the  early  part 
of  the  second  half  of  the  14th  centur}%  He  was  in  high 
position  at  the  convent  St.  Michael,  at  Jena,  about  1366. 
— A  Ihjem.  Histor.  Lex.  iii,  43. 

Kocher,  Johann  Cheistoph,  D.D.,  a  German  the- 
ologian, was  born  at  Lobenstein  April  23, 1699.  He  was 
successively  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Osnabriick,  su- 
perintendent at  Brunswick,  and  professor  of  theology  at 
Jena,  and  died  there  Sept,  21,  1772.  He  published  a 
continuation  of  Wolf's  Cura.  Philologica,  under  the  title 
Analecta  Philologica  et  Exegetica  in  Ctuatuor  Evangelia 
(Altenburg,  1766, 4to).  "  It  supplies,"  says  Orme, "  some 
of  the  desiderata  of  Wolfs  work,  and  brings  down  the 
account  of  the  sentiments  of  the  modern  writers  on  the 
Gospels  to  the  period  of  its  publication"  {Bihlioth.  Bib.  p. 
276).  For  a  list  of  all  his  works,  see  During,  Gclehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  147  sq. 

Kodashim.     See  Talmlt). 

Koeberger,WENCESLAus,  a  noted  Flemish  painter 
and  architect,  was  born  in  Antwerp  about  1550 ;  studied 
in  his  native  city,  and  later  at  Rome ;  and  died  either 
in  1610  or  iii  1634.     He  selected  chiefly  reUgious  sub- 


KOFFLER 


142 


KOHEN 


jects,  and  among  his  best  paintings  are  "  the  ]\Iart}Tdom 
of  Saint  Sebastian,"  and  "Christ  taken  from  the  Cross 
and  supported  by  Angels."  See  Descamps,  Vies  des  Pein- 
ins  Miimamh,  etc, 

Kofller,  John,  a  Roman  Catholic  missionary  to 
Cochin  China.  Wc  have  no  details  of  his  life  until  af- 
ter he  departed  for  that  country  in  1740.  He  remained 
there  fourteen  years,  and,  being  made  physician  to  the 
king,  availed  himself  of  this  position  to  further  his  mis- 
sionary purposes.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians  in 
China  led,  however,  to  similar  measures  in  Cochin  Chi- 
na, and,  with  the  exception  of  Koffler,  whom  the  king 
prized  highly  on  account  of  his  medical  knowledge,  all 
the  missionaries  were  arrested  aud  shipped  to  Macao 
Aug.  27, 1750.  The  same  fate  also  overtook  Koffler  in 
1755.  Arriving  at  Macao,  he  was  arrested,  and  sent 
with  his  colleagues  to  Portugal,  where  they  were  im- 
prisoned as  having  encroached  upon  the  monopoly 
granted  to  the  Portuguese  government  by  the  Holy  See, 
and  which  it  claimed  gave  that  nation  the  exclusive 
right  of  evangelizing  the  East  Indies.  Koffler  was 
finally  released  through  the  intervention  of  the  empress 
INIaria  Theresa  in  1705,  and  was  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Transylvania,  where  he  labored  until  his  death  in  1780. 
Whik'  in  prison  he  wrote  a  memoir  of  his  travels,  which 
was  published  by  Eckart,  and  reprinted  by  De  Murr, 
under  the  title,  Joannis  Koffier  historica  Cochinchinw 
Descriptio  in  epitome  redacia  ah  J.  F.  Echirt,  edetife  De 
Murr  (1805,  8vo).  See  Migne,  Biog.  Chretienne  et  An- 
ftchrefienite ;  De  Monteron  et  Esteve,  ^^ssion  de  la  Co- 
chiiwhine  et  du  Ton/an,  1858.  —  Hoefer,  A'out;  Bio(j,  Gen, 
xxvii,  28.     (.J.  N.  P.) 

Kcgler,  Ignaz,  a  Jesuit  German  missionary  to  Chi- 
na, \vas  born  at  Landsberg,  Bavaria,  in  1G80,  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  in  109(5,  prepared  for  missionary 
work  in  1715,  and  departed  the  year  following  for  Chi- 
na, where  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  emperor  in  a  re- 
markalih  degree.  Kogler  was  master  of  the  sciences, 
and  especially  in  astronomy  displayed  superior  acquisi- 
tion. He  died  in  Pekin  in  1710. — Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biofjr. 
Generale,  xxvii,  950. 

ICo'hath  (Heb.  Kohnth',  rtip,  assemUy,  Numb,  iii, 
10,29;  iv,2,4,15;  vii,9;  xvi,  1  Softener  Kehath',  rnp, 
Gen.  xlvi,  11 ;  Exod.  vi,  10, 18 ;  Numb,  iii,  17,  27  ;  xxv'i, 
57,  58;  Josh,  xxi,  5,  20,  20;  1  Chron.  vi,  1,  2, 16,  18,  22, 
38,  01,  60,  70 :  xv,  5 ;  xxiii,  6, 12 ;  Sept.  KaoS,  but  Ko3- 
in  Gen.  xlvi,  IH,  the  second  son  of  Levi,  and  father  of 
Amrara,  Izhar,  Hebron,  and  Uzziel  (Gen.  xlvi,  1 1 ;  Numb, 
iii,  19,  etc.).  B.C.  1873.  The  descendants  of  Kohath 
formed  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  Levitical 
tribe.  This  division  contained  the  priestly  family  which 
was  descended  from  Aaron,  the  son  of  Amram.  In  the 
service  of  the  taljernacle,  as  settled  in  the  wilderness, 
they  had  the  distinguished  charge  of  bearing  the  ark 
and  the  sacred  vessels  (Exod.vi,  10;  Numb,  iv,  4-6).  See 
Kouatihte. 

Ko'hathite  (collective  "^rrip,  Kohathi',  Numb, 
iii,  27, 30 ;  i v,  18, 34, 37 ;  x,  21 ;  xxvi,  57 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv, 
12;  or  ''rnp,  Kehathi',  Josh,  xxi,  4,  10;  1  Chron.  vi, 
33,  .W ;  ix,  32  ;  2  Chron.  xx,  19 ;  xxix,  12 ;  Sept.  Kan^  ; 
Auth.  Vers.  "  Kohathites"),  the  descendants  of  Kohath, 
the  second  of  the  three  sons  of  Levi  (Gershon,  Kohath, 
jNIerari),  from  whom  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the 
Levites  derived  their  origin  and  their  name  (Gen.  xlvi, 
1 1  ;  Kx.id.  vi.  16,  18  ;  Numb,  iii,  17  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  12, 
etc.).  Kiihath  was  the  f  itber  of  Amram,  and  he  of  Mo- 
ses and  Aaron.  From  him,  therefore,  were  descended 
all  the  priests;  and  hence  those  of  the  Kohathites  who 
were  not  priests  were  of  the  highest  rank  of  the  Levites, 
though  not  the  sons  of  Levi's  lirst-born.  Korah,  the  .son 
<if  Izhar,  was  a  Kohathite,  and  hence,  perha]is,  his  im- 
]iatience  of  the  superiority  of  his  relatives,  JIoScs  and 
Aaron.  In  the  journeyings  of  the  tabernacle  the  sons 
of  Kohath  hail  charge  of  the  most  holy  portions  ef  the 
vessels,  to  carry  them  by  staves,  as  the  vail,  the  ark, 


the  tables  of  show-bread,  the  golden  altar,  etc.  (Numb, 
iv) ;  but  they  were  not  to  touch  them  or  look  upon 
them  "lest  they  die."  These  were  all  previously  cov- 
eretl  by  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Aaron.  In  the  reign  of 
Ilezekiah  the  Kohathites  are  mentioned  first  (2  Chron. 
xxix,  12),  as  they  are  also  1  Chron.  xv,  5-7,  11,  when 
Uriel  their  chief  assisted,  with  120  of  his  brethren,  in 
bringing  up  the  ark  to  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  David. 
It  is  also  remarkable  that  in  this  last  list  of  those  whom 
David  calls  "chief  of  the  fathers  of  the  Levites,"  and 
couples  with  "  Zadok  and  Abiathar  the  priests,"  of  six 
who  are  mentioned  by  name  four  are  descendants  of 
Kohath,  viz.,  besides  Uriel,  Shemaiah,  the  son  of  Elza- 
phan,  with  200  of  his  brethren;  Eliel,  the  son  of  He- 
bron, with  80  of  his  brethren ;  and  Amminadab,  the  son 
of  Uzziel,  with  112  of  his  brethren.  For  it  appears  from 
Exod.  vi,  18-22,  comp.  with  1  Chron.  xxiii,  12,  and  xxvi, 
23-32,  that  there  were  four  families  of  sons  of  Kohath — 
Amramites,  Izharites,  Hebronites,  and  Uzzielites;  and 
of  the  aljove  names  Elzaphan  and  Amminadab  were 
both  L^zzielites  (Exod.  vi,  22),  and  Eliel  a  Hebronite. 
The  verses  already  cited  from  1  Chron.  xxvi ;  Numb,  iii, 
19,  27;  1  Chron.  xxiii,  12,  also  disclose  the  wealth  and 
importance  of  the  Kohathites,  and  the  important  offices 
tilled  by  them  as  keepers  of  the  dedicated  treasures,  as 
judges,  officers,  and  rulers,  both  secidar  and  sacred.  la 
2  Chron.  xx,  19  they  appear  as  smgers,  with  the  Kor- 
hites. 

The  number  of  the  sons  of  Kohath  between  the  ages 
of  thirt}^  and  fifty,  at  the  first  census  in  the  wilderness, 
was  2750,  and  the  whole  number  of  males  from  a  month 
old  was  8600  (Numb,  iii,  28 ;  iv,  36).  Their  number  is 
not  given  at  the  second  numbering  (Numb,  xxvi,  57), 
but  the  whole  number  of  Levites  had  increased  by  1300, 
viz.  from  22,000  to  23,300  (Numb,  iii,  39;  xxvi,- 62), 
The  place  of  the  sons  of  Kohath  in  marching  and  en- 
campment was  south  of  the  tabernacle  (Numb,  iii,  29), 
which  was  also  the  situation  of  the  Reubenites.  Samuel 
was  a  Kohathite,  and  so  of  course  were  his  descendants, 
Ileman  the  singer  and  the  third  division  of  the  singers 
which  was  under  him.  See  Hemax;  Asaph;  Jedu- 
THUX.  The  inheritance  of  those  sons  of  Kohath  who 
were  not  priests  lay  in  the  half  tribe  of  IManasseh,  in 
Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vi,  01-70),  and  in  Dan  (Josh,  xxi,  5, 
20-20).  Of  the  personal  history  of  Kohath  we  know 
nothing,  except  that  he  came  down  to  Egypt  with  Levi 
and  Jacob  (Gen.  xlvi,  11),  that  his  sister  was  Jochcbed 
(Exod.vi, 20),  and  that  he  lived  to  the  age  of  133  years 
(Exod.  vi,  18).  He  live<l  about  eighty  or  ninety  j-ears 
in  Egypt  during  Joseph's  lifetime,  and  about  thirty 
more  after  his  death.  He  may  have  been  some  twenty 
years  younger  than  .Josejih  his  uncle.  A  fuU  table  of 
the  descendants  of  Kohath  may  be  seen  in  Uurrington's 
Genecdorjieit,  Tab.  X,  No.  1. — Smith.     See  Levite. 

Koheleth.     See  Ecclesiastes. 

Kolien,  Naphtliali,  a  great  Cabalistic  rabbi,  "a 
man  wliose  life  was  full  of  incidents  which  would  give 
a  biography  of  him  the  air  of  a  romance,"  was  born 
at  Ostrow,  in  the  L'kraine,  Poland,  about  1600.  While 
yet  a  j'outh  he  was  carried  off  by  some  Cossacks  into 
the  wilds  of  Poland,  and  for  several  years  there  follow- 
ed the  employments  of  a  hunter  and  a  shepherd.  He 
learned  to  excel  in  horsemanship  and  archery,  in  which 
he  took  great  delight  all  his  after  life.  At  length  he 
succeeded  in  making  his  escape  from  the  Tartars,  and 
travelled  in  Poland.  Here  new  impulses  stirred  with- 
in him,  and  his  naturally  vigorous  mental  powers  were 
roused  to  earnest  efforts  after  learning.  He  made  rapid 
progress  in  the  study  of  the  Talmud  and  Cabala,  was 
ordained  rabbi,  and  subsequently  elected  chief  rabbi  at 
Posen.  He  studied  the  Caliala  profoundly,  and  was  at 
once  admired  and  feared  for  his  supposed  ability  to  com- 
mand the  intervention  of  the  supernatural  powers.  But 
in  1711,  while  he  was  in  charge  of  the  Hebrew  congre- 
gations at  Frankfort-on-the- Maine, where,  as  in  Poland, 
he  enjoyed  for  a  time  a  high  reputation  as  an  expound- 


KOHEN 


143 


KOHLREIF 


er  of  the  law  and  a  Cabalistic  hicrophant,  there  occurred 
a  frightful  contiagratioii,  iu  -which  all  the  Jewish  quar- 
ter was  burned  to  ashes.  Iu  this  wofid  calaraitj'  Kohen, 
as  a  potent  Cabalist,  was  called  upon  by  the  distracted 
people  to  bring  into  exercise  those  supernatural  re- 
sources which  he  professed  to  command,  in  order  to 
stay  the  progress  of  the  fiery  flood.  lie  was  weak 
enough  to  make  the  trial.  Of  course  he  utterly  failed. 
This  exposure,  combined  -^vith  the  circumstance  that  the 
fire  had  first  broken  out  in  his  own  house,  turned  the 
popular  feeling  of  the  Jews  against  him,  and  Eabbi 
Naphthali  Kohen  was  once  more  obliged  "  to  grasp  the 
wandering  staff,"  and  begin  the  world  anew.  He  now 
hent  his  steps  towards  the  place  of  his  birth,  and  ended 
his  days  in  connection  with  the  spiagogue  at  Ostrow. 
Kohen  was  quite  a  poet,  and  wrote  several  hymns  and 
anthems  which  have  become  the  common  property  of 
the  synagogue  and  the  Jewish  people.  iVIany  curious 
notices  of  him  may  be  found  in  the  Jiklische  Merkwur- 
dir/lfiten  of  Johann  Jacob  Schudt.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Juden,  X,  348  sq. ;  see  also  Etheridge,  Introd.  to  Hebrew 
Literatiii-e,  p.  4A5  sq.     (J.  H.W.) 

Kohen,  Neheniiah,  a  noted  Jewish  fanatic,  who 
flourished  in  Poland  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, and  pretended  to  be  a  prophet  or  preciu-sor  of  the 
Messiah,  was  a  rival  of  the  celebrated  iSabbathai  Zewi, 
who  claimed  about  the  same  time  to  be  the  veritable 
Messiah  so  long  looked  for  by  his  people.  Invited  by 
Sabbathai  to  visit  him,  Nehemiah  quickly  set  out  for 
Abydos,  and  was  immediately  upon  arrival  admitted  to 
an  audience  which  lasted  some  three  days.  The  rival- 
ry which,  on  accomit  of  their  pecidiar  profession,  natu- 
rally existed  between  the  two  pretenders,  made  each  fear 
for  his  life  from  the  other,  and,  as  Sabbathai  had  actually 
hired  several  base  fellows  to  assassinate  Nehemiah,  the 
latter  fled  to  Adrianople.  He  there  embraced  JMoham- 
medanism,  and  revealed  to  the  Turkish  government  the 
plottings  of  Sabbathai,  and  this  course  ultimately  led 
to  the  accession  of  this  pretended  Messiah  likewise  to 
the  fold  of  the  prophet  of  Islam.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  d. 
Judcn,  X,  241  sq.     See  Sabbathai. 

Kohen-Zedek,  ben-Josepii,  a  noted  Jewish  rabbi, 
and  head  of  the  school  at  Pumbaditha,  flourished  from 
917  to  93G.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  presidents  of  this 
Jewish  high-school,  and  labored  earnestly,  and  for  some 
time  with  considerable  show  of  success,  to  make  it  the 
first  and  best  authority  of  Pabbinic  learning.  Sura 
Academy  was  several  times  worsted  in  the  struggle,  and 
Kohen-Zedek  well-nigh  succeeded  in  abolishing  the 
exiliarchate  which  Sura  possessed,  but  in  925  he  was 
finally  led  to  acknowledge  David  ben-Sakkai  as  exili- 
arch,  and  in  turn  secured  Sura's  confirmation  of  his  ga- 
onate  at  Pumbaditha.  Kohen-Zedek  died  in  936.  See 
Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  296  sq. 

Kohl,  JoiiANN  Petek,  a  learned  German,  was  born 
at  Kiel  IMarch  10,  1698.  In  1725  he  was  called  to  St. 
I'ctersburg  to  teach  belles-lettres  and  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory. Three  years  after  he  left  tliat  city  because  he  be- 
came passionately  in  love  with  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
Peter  the  (ireat,  a  passion  which  caused  him  to  commit 
many  extravagances.  He  retired  first  to  Hamburg,  af- 
terwards to  Altona,  where  he  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  life  in  study.  He  bequeathed  his  fine  library,  which 
contained  some  rare  manuscripts,  to  the  library  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Altona.  He  died  October  9, 1778.  His 
works  are,  Theologim  gentilis  Cimbricm  jmrioris  specimen 
(Kiel,  1723,  8vo)  : — Ecclesia  G7-(eca  Liitherizans,  sive  ex- 
ercitatio  de  consensu  ef  dissrnsu  orientalis  Grcecce  speciatim 
Enssicce  el  occidentfdis  Lnllteranm  ecclesim  in  dogmatibus 
(Lubeck,  1723, 8vo)  : — Introductio  in  historiam  et  i-em  lit- 
eruriam  Slavorum  in  primis  sacram,  sire  historia  crit- 
ica  i^ersionum  Slavonica7-um  maxime  insifpiium,  nimiruni 
codieis  sacri  et  Ephi-emi  Syri;  accedunt  duo  sermones 
Ephremi,  nnndum  editi,  de  S.  Cocna  fidei  Luther ancR  testes 
(Altona,  1729, 8vo).  The  conclusions  of  these  two  ser- 
mons of  saint  Ephrem  by  KoliI  have  been  refuted  by  Le 


Bran  and  Renaudot :  also  by  an  unknown  person,  who 
has  published  Antiruthicon,  seu  confutatio  annotatiomun 
Kohlii  ad  S.  Ephremi  Sermones  (Rome,  1840,  8vo)  : — 
Deliciw  Epistolic(P,  sice  epistolarum  argumenti  mm  minus 
raritdte  quam  orationis  cultu  insignium  fasciculus,  Ma- 
joragii,Graivii,Bartholini,  Schejferi  aliorumqrie  vironim, 
cum  jircejcdione  de  vita  scriptisque  Majoragii  (Leipzig, 
1731,  8vo) : — De  Epistolis  a  Jo.  Hevelio  partim,  jmrtim 
ad  ipsum  scripiis  adhuc  ineditis — dissertations  placed  in 
the  supplement  of  the  Leipzig  A  eta  Eruditorum,  ix,  359. 
Kohl  also  intended  to  publish  several  works  on  the  ec- 
clesiastical history  of  the  Slavic  nations,  but  the  MSS. 
of  only  a  few  have  been  found. — lloefer,  A'^ouc.  Biog.  Ge- 
nerate, xxvii,  30. 

Kohler,  Christian  and  Jerome,  two  I>rothers 
who  distingiushed  themselves  among  the  enthusiasts  of 
Berne  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  were  natives 
of  Brligglen.  Ignorant  and  poor.  Christian  became  a 
mechanic  and  Jerome  a  wagoner,  and  they  appear  to 
have  led  very  irregidar  lives  until  1745,  when  they  were 
converted  in  a  revival  then  taking  place  in  the  country. 
They  soon  claimed  to  have  dreams  and  visions  in  which 
Christ  and  other  persons  appeared  to  them,  and  they 
went  about  preaching  and  exhorting.  They  may  at 
first  have  been  sincere,  but  appear  afterwards  to  have 
made  popular  credulity  a  means  of  gain.  They  claimed 
to  be  the  t\vo  witnesses  spoken  of  in  the  book  of  Reve- 
lation, and  made  many  followers.  Among  other  things, 
they  predicted  the  end  of  the  world  for  Christmas,  1748, 
and  afterwards  renewed  their  prediction  for  later  pe- 
riods. They  pretended  to  be  able  to  redeem  souls  out 
of  purgatory,  and  thus  swindled  a  great  many  persons. 
Finally,  a  price  was  set  on  their  heads.  On  Oct.  8, 1752, 
Jerome  was  caught;  he  was  brought  to  Borne,  judged, 
and  executed,  Jan.  16,  1763.  His  brother,  in  the  mean 
time,  was  made  prisoner  at  Neueburg,  but  of  his  subse- 
quent fate  there  is  no  record.  Their  principal  disciple 
in  Viol,  John  Sahli,  was  condemned  to  death  for  contu- 
macy March  19,  1753;  but  their  other  followers  were 
not  much  disturbed,  and  the  sect  died  out  slowly.  See 
Kyburg,  Das  entdeckte  Geheimniss  d.  Bosheit  in  d.  Briig- 
gler-Sekte  (Ziir.  1753);  Originalakten  im  Berncr  Staats- 
archii: ;  Simler,  Sammlung  z.  Kirchengesch.  pt.  i,  p.  249 ; 
JMcister,  Helcetische  Scenen  d.  neuern  Schicarmerei  u.  In- 
toleranz  (Ziirich,  1785"),  p.  161 ;  Schlegel,  Kirchengesch. 
d.  18  Jahrh.  (pt.  ii,  HeUbronn,  1788) ;  Tillier,  Gesch.  d. 
eidgenossischen  Freistaates  Bern  (Berne,  1839),  vol.  v; 
Hagenbach,  D.  ernngel.  Protestantismus  in  s.  geschichtl. 
Entivickelung,  iii,  193  sq. ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kiixhen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  239. 

Kohler,  Johann  Bernhard,  a  German  philo- 
sophical writer,  -was  born  at  Liibeck  Feb.  10,  1742,  and 
was  educated  in  the  celebrated  universities  of  Germany, 
France,  and  Holland.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  Greek  and  Oriental  languages  at  the  L'ni- 
versity  of  Kcinigsberg.  He  died  April  3,  1802,  at  Basle, 
Switzerland.  Those  of  his  works  of  special  interest  to 
us  are,  De  Dote  apud  rete7-es  Ilebrceos  nubentium  (Lub, 
1757): — Obserrationes  in  Saci-um  Codicem,ex  scripto}-i- 
bus profunis  (Gcitt.  1759)  : — Obserr.  in  Sacrum  Codicem, 
maxime  ex  scriptoribus  Grcrcis  et  A  rabicis  (Lpzg.  1763  ; 
Leyd,  1765) : — Emendationes  in  Dionis  Chrysostomi  Ora- 
tiones  Parsicas  (Gritt.  1770,  4to). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biogr. 
Gener.  xxviii,  4;  Neue  Allgem.  deutsche  Biblioth.  Ixxii, 
339. 

Kohlreif,  Gottfried,  a  German  theologian,  bom 
at  Strehtz  C)ct.  11,  1674,  was  the  son  of  M.  C.  Kohlreif, 
a  noted  preacher  at  the  court  of  the  duke  of  Strelitz, 
Gottfried  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Rostock, 
where  he  entered  in  1692.  Shortly  after  the  opening 
of  the  University  at  Halle  he  went  thither  to  attend 
lectures  on  philosophy,  but  returned,  after  a  sliort  stay 
at  that  place,  and  at  Leipzig,  Wittemberg,  and  Berlin, 
to  Rostock  (1695),  About  1699  he  went  to  Hamburg, 
and  resided  there  until  1701,  when  he  became  pastor  of 
a  church  at  New  Brandenburg;  later  he  removed  to 


KOIXONIA 


144 


KOLLOCK 


Eatzeburg,  where  he  died,  August  13,  1750.  Kohlreif 
wrote  largelj' in  tlie  different  departments  of  theological 
science,  but  he  has  earned  special  credit  by  his  contri- 
butions to  Biblical  chronology.  His  most  important 
works  are,  Chronoloyia  Sacra  (Hamburg,  1724,  8vo) : — 
Chronolo;ji(t.  Liphrathon  (Liib.  and  Lpzg.  173"2,  8vo) : — 
Gesch.  <l  I'hilhti'r  v.  Moahiter  (Katzeb.  1738,  8vo).  A 
complete  Hst  of  liis  writings  is  given  by  During,  Ge- 
lehrte  Thcol.  I>e>itschlands,  ii,  163  sq. 

Koiuoiiia  {Koivojvia),  the  Greek  word  for  commun- 
ion, was  one  of  the  names  by  wliich  tlie  early  Church 
referred  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  See  Kiddle,  Christian 
Antiquities,  \).bA2  sq.     See  Communion. 

Kokabim.     See  Talmud. 

Koken,  Johann  Karl,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Hildesheim  June  9,  1711,  and  was  educated  at 
the  universities  of  Helmstildt  and  Gottingen.  In  1740 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Martin's  Church,  Hildesheim,  and 
in  175G  became  superintendent  of  the  Hildesheim  church- 
es. In  1757  the  theological  faculty  of  Kinteln  conferred 
on  Koken  the  doctorate  of  theology.  He  died  March 
15,  1773.  Besides  a  number  of  small  but  valuable  con- 
tributions to  practical  religious  literature,  he  wrote  Vor- 
treffiichkeit  d.  christl.  Rdiyion  Ql^desh.  1761,  4to ;  1762, 
4to) : — Kern  der  Sittenlehre  Jesun.  seiner  Apostel  (Brera. 
1766-72,  6  vols.  8vo).  See  DiJruig,  Gelehrte  Theologen 
Deutschlands,  ii,  168  sq. 

Kolai'ah  (Ileb.  Kolayah',  '^TJ^'P,  voice  of  Jehovah), 
the  name  of  two  men. 

1.  (Sept.  Kw/\f af  v.  r.  KoiX/ac  or  KoiXiag' ;  Vulg.  Co- 
lias.')  The  father  of  Ahab,  which  latter  was  one  of  the 
false  and  immoral  prophets  severely  denounced  by  Jer- 
emiah (Jer.  xxix,  21).     B.C.  ante  594. 

2.  (Sept.  Kw\£trt,Vulg.  Colaja.)  Son  of  Maaseiah 
and  father  of  Pedaiah,  a  Benjamite,  and  ancestor  of  Sal- 
lu,  which  last  led  back  a  party  from  Babylon  (Neh.  xi, 
7).     B.C.  much  ante  536. 

Kollar,  Jan,  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  Slavic 
poets  and  preachers,  was  born  July  29,  1793,  at  Mosch- 
owze,  in  the  north-west  of  Hungary,  studied  at  Presburg 
and  Jena,  and  in  1819  became  pastor  of  a  Protestant 
congregation  at  Pesth.  He  ■wrote  many  poems  of  great 
literary  value,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  zeal- 
ous advocates  of  Panslavism.  In  1831  he  published  a 
volume  of  his  sermons,  Kazne  (Pesth,  1831,  8vo),  which 
were  found  so  eloquent  that  they  were  at  once  translated 
into  several  of  the  modern  languages.  The  revolution 
in  Hungary  compelled  him  to  abandon  his  countrj'.  He 
withdrew  to  Vienna,  where  he  was  made  professor  of 
archeology  in  1849,  and  died  there  Jan.  29, 1852.  See 
For.  Quart.  Rev.  April,  1828 ;  Jungmann,  Gesch.  d.  Bohm- 
ischen  Litteratur ;  Chambers,  Ctjclojh  s.  v. 

Kolle,  John,  a  German  Methodist  minister,  was 
born  at  Billcnhauson,Wurtembor£r,  Germany,  on  the  19th 
of  July,  1823 ;  came  to  the  United  States  Aug.  25, 1852 ; 
became  acquainted  with  some  intelligent  and  pious 
members  of  the  jMethodist  Episcopal  Church,  and  soon 
was  led  to  a  knowledge  of  his  sins,  and  was  enabled  to 
realize  by  faith  that  Jesus  was  his  Saviour.  In  1857  he 
was  licensed  to  preach,  and  in  the  spring  of  1858  was 
sent  to  Cape  Girardeau,  and  joined  the  Southern  Illinois 
Conference.  In  1861  he  was  ordained  a  deacon,  and 
sent  to  Benton  Street,  St.  Louis,  where  he  labored  two 
years  with  great  acceptabihty.  In  1803  he  was  ordain- 
ed an  elder,  and  sent  to  St.  Charles,  where  he  again  la- 
bored successfully  for  two  years.  His  next  appoint- 
ments were  Jlanchester  Jlission,  one  j'ear,  and  ITnion 
Mission,  three  years.  After  this  he  was  sent  to  Boone- 
ville  and  !Manito  IMission,  where  he  labored  till  his  course 
was  finished  on  the  18th  of  JNIarch,  1870.  "  As  a  preach- 
er, Kiille  was  faitliful  and  punctual.  He  was  a  diligent 
student,  and  accjuired  a  considerable  amount  flf  theolog- 
ical knowledge.  In  his  preaching  he  was  original  and 
practical,  and  it  was  easy  to  perceive  that  he  loved  the 
souls  of  those  to  whom  he  ministered.     His  motto  was 


'  Holiness  to  the  Lord,'  and  that  in  an  especial  sense, 
as  he  considered  it  to  be  his  calling  to  bear  the  vessels 
of  the  Lord."  He  contributed  largely  to  tlie  ChristUche 
Apologete,  the  German  organ  of  the  M.  E.  Church. — 
Cemference  Minutes,  1871. 

Kollenbusch  (also  Collenbusch),  Samuel,  M.D., 
an  eminent  (Jcrraan  pietist,  and  the  fomider  of  a  theo- 
logical scliool,  was  born  of  pious  parents  in  the  town  of 
Barmen  (Rhenish  Prussia),  Sept,  1, 1724.  He  hesitated 
long  between  theology  and  medicine,  but  finally  decided 
for  the  latter,  and  studied  at  Uuisburg  and  Strasburg. 
Through  all  his  studies,  however,  he  did  not  forget  to 
attend  to  his  spiritual  improvement,  and  attained  great 
Christian  self-control  and  perfection.  While  stuclying 
at  Strasburg  he  began  to  inquire  into  mysticism  and 
alchemy,  which  were  then  considered  as  having  a  close 
connection  with  each  other.  Upon  the  completion  of 
his  imiversity  studies  he  began  the  practice  of  medicine 
at  Duisburg,  but  in  1784  retired  to  Barmen,  and  there 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life,  partly  in  the  practice  of 
mcchcine,  partly  in  disseminating  his  peculiar  religious 
views.  He  died  Sept.  1,1803.  Dr.  Kollenbusch  can,  in 
many  respects,  be  considered  entitled  to  a  place  between 
the  mystic  separatist  Tersteegen  (q.  v.),  born  twenty- 
seven  j'ears  before  him,  and  Jung-Stilling  (q.v.),  sixteen 
years  younger.  Like  the  latter,  ho  first  inclined  to  Leib- 
nitz and  AVolfs  philosophical  system,  then  became  a 
Bcngelian,  though  without  approving  all  Bengcl's  views. 
He  attachetl  especial  importance  to  the  visions  of  Doro- 
theo  Wuppermann,  of  Wichlinghausen,  a  patient  of  his 
attacked  with  hysterics.  Among  the  results  of  Dr.  Kol- 
lenbusch's  practical  activity  are  to  be  named  the  Bar- 
men Missionary  Society,  ami  the  Iiarmen  Mission  estab- 
lishment. He  wrote  Erldiinniii  /lih/ischer  Wahrheiten 
(Elberf.  1807)  -.—GoldeveA  ej,f,l  iu  .■^dtiernen  Schalen  (Bar- 
men, 1854).  See  T.  W.  Krug,  Die  Lehre  d.  Dr.  A'.,  etc. 
(Elberfeld,  1846) ;  same,  Kritische  Gesch.  d.jirotest.-i-eliff. 
Schtvartnerei,  etc.  (Elberfeld,  1851)  ;  Baur, />/«  Dreieinig- 
keitslehre,  p.  655  sq. ;  Hase,  Dogmatik,  p.  344  sq. ;  Ha- 
genbach,  Hist,  of  Doctrines,  ii,  §  300. 

Kollock,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  Dec.  14, 1778,  at  New  Providence,  Essex  Coun- 
ty, N.  ,J.,  and  graduated  at  New  Jersey  College  in  1794. 
Having  devoted  himself  to  study  for  the  three  succes- 
sive years,  he  was  appointed  tutor  in  his  alma  mater. 
In  this  position  he  distinguished  himself  for  his  skill  in 
debate,  passing  his  leisure  hours  in  the  study  of  theol- 
ogy. In  1800  he  Avas  licensed,  and  preached  for  five 
months  at  Princeton,  where  he  also  delivered  a  series  of 
discourses  on  the  life  and  character  of  St.  Peter,  which 
were  remarkable  for  their  brilliancy  and  attraction.  On 
leaving  Princeton  he  took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Eliz- 
abethtown,  and  was  a  zealous  promoter  of  missions  to 
the  destitute  regions  in  Morris  and  Sussex  Counties.  In 
1803  he  returned  to  Princeton  as  pastor  and  professor, 
and  in  1806  accepted  a  call  from  the  Independent  Pres- 
byterian Church  at  Savannah,  Ga.,  where  his  labors  were 
abundant.  He  sailed  for  England  in  1817,  not  only  in 
quest  of  liealth,  but  also  to  collect  materials  for  a  life  of 
John  Calvin,  and  after  an  absence  of  eight  months  re- 
turned to  Savaimah,  where  he  died,  Dec.  29, 181 9.  A  col- 
lection of  his  Sermons  was  published  in  1822  (Savannah, 
4  vols.  8vo).  Dr.  J.  W.  Alexander  {Life  of  Dr.  A  rchi- 
bald  A  lexander,  \t.  359)  pays  Dr.  Kollock  a  very  high 
tribute  as  a  scholar,  and  says  of  him  as  a  preacher  that 
he  was  "one  of  the  most  ornate  yet  vehement  orators 
whom  our  country  has  produced." — Sprague,  A  nnals,  iv, 
263  sq.  ^0.^  Cambridge  GenercdEepository,\,\ob\  Chris- 
tian Review,  vol.  xiv ;  Kollock  (S.  K.),  Biograj)hy  of  H. 
Kollock. 

Kollock,  Shepard  Kosciusko,  a  Presbyteri- 
an minister,  and  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  June  29.  1795;  graduated  with  high 
lionors  from  Princeton  College  when  but  sixteen  years 
of  age,  and  soon  thereafter  ]iursued  a  course  in  theology 
with  the  l\ev.  Dr.  ]\l'Dowell,  and  afterwards  with  his 


KOLONTAJ 


145 


KONIG 


brother.  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Kollock.  He  was  licensed  June, 
1814,  and  preached  with  abundant  success  for  three  years 
in  (ieorj^ia,  M'hen  he  was  called  in  May,  1818,  to  Oxford, 
N.  C,  where  he  was  ordained.  He  soon  after  accepted 
the  position  of  professor  of  rhetoric  and  logic  in  the 
University  of  North  Carolina.  In  1825  he  was  called  to 
the  Church  at  Norfolk,  and  labored  there  ten  years ;  and 
was  next  agent  of  the  Board  of  Domestic  Missions. 
From  1838  to  18-18  he  was  pastor  at  Burlington,  N.  J., 
and  subsequently,  till  18()0,  had  charge  of  a  Church  at 
Greenwich,  N.  J.  For  the  last  five  years  of  his  life  he 
filled  the  position  of  preacher  to  the  benevolent  institu- 
tions of  Philadelphia,  where  he  died,  April  7, 18G5.  The 
following  writings  from  his  pen  give  evidence  of  uncom- 
mon culture  and  breadth  of  mind :  Hints  on  Preaching 
without  Reading ;  Pastoral  Reminiscences  (translated  into 
French)  i—r/ie  Bards  of  the  Bible:— Eloquence  of  the 
French  Pulpit  (1852) : — Character  and  Writings  ofFene- 
lon  (1853): — Character  and  Writings  of  Pascal : — *S7. 
Ignatius  and  the  Jesuits  (1854)  : — Character  ami  Writ- 
ings of  Nicole: — Sidney  Smith  as  a  Minister  of  Religion 
(185G) : — Pastoral  Reminiscences  (N.  Y.  1849, 12mo) ;  etc. 
.See  Princeton  Review,  Index,  ii,  229 ;  A  mer.  A  nn.  Cyclop. 
18(35,  p.  469  ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uihors, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim.  1866,  p.  126  sq. 

Kolontaj,  Hugo,  a  Polish  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian of  note,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Sandomir  April 
1, 1759;  was  educated  at  Pinczow  and  Cracow,  and  in 
1774  became  canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Cracow.  He 
was  a  decided  opponent  of  the  Jesuits,  and  did  all  in  his 
power  to  purge  the  schools  of  Poland  from  Jesuitical  aid 
or  influence.  In  1782  the  University  of  Cracow,  in  rec- 
ognition of  his  services,  elected  him  rector  for  three 
years,  but  his  opponents  succeeded  in  driving  him  from 
the  place  after  only  two  years  of  his  term  had  expired. 
During  the  Polish  Revolution  he  worked  earnestly  in 
behalf  of  reform,  and  Avhen  the  Revolution  failed  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  the  country,  and  thereafter  he  nev- 
er held  office  again,  though  he  was  permitted  to  return 
to  his  native  country.  He  died  at  Warsaw  February 
28, 1812.  His  works  are  all  of  a  secular  nature ;  their  ti- 
tles are  given  in  Brockhaus,  Conversations  Lexikon  (11th 
edition),  viii,  923. 

Komander,  Johanx  (Dorfmann),  a  German  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformation  period,  became  interested  in 
the  cause  of  the  Reformers  while  pursuing  his  studies 
at  Ziirich,  and  was  highly  prized  as  a  friend  by  Zwin- 
gle,  anil  after  his  secession  from  the  Romish  Church  (in 
1525),  in  whicli  he  had  been  priest,  became  the  chief 
support  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Blinden  region.  Here 
the  worthlessness  of  the  clergj',  who  were  often  ignorant 
of  the  language  of  tlie  people,  and  guilty  of  gross  im- 
morality, necessitated  reform,  for  which  a  people  of  truly 
independent  spirit  were  also  ready.  Many  prominent 
laymen  early  favored  the  movement,  particularly  Jacob 
Salzmann,  at  Chur.  At  the  Bundestag  of  1524,  held  at 
Ilanz,  a  complaint,  set  forth  in  an  act  of  eighteen  arti- 
cles, was  entered  against  the  corruptions  of  the  Church, 
and  especially  the  malpractices  of  the  clergy.  In  ac- 
cord witli  the  spirit  of  this  "Artikelbrief,"  which  was 
adopted  by  the  Assembly,  and  remained  for  centuries 
the  fundamental  law  in  Graubi'mden,  Komander  was 
appointed  pastor  at  St.  Martin's  Churcli,  of  which  posi- 
tion the  former  incumbent  confessed  himself  incapable, 
and  he  there  began  and  continued  his  labors  for  thirty- 
three  years.  He  met  bitter  opposition  and  yet  encour- 
aging success.  Zwingle,  especially,  sent  a  letter  of  con- 
gratulation in  January,  1525,  addressed  to  the  '-three 
Rhajtian  Federations."  The  most  troublesome  obsta- 
cles to  the  movement  were  the  Anabaptists,  whom  the 
Pajiists  themselves  encouraged  for  the  sake  of  creating 
division.  Brought  under  accusation  in  the  Bundestag 
of  1525,  Komander  asked  opportunity  for  a  public  de- 
fence of  his  position,  which  he  made  at  Ilanz  in  Janua- 
ry, 1526,  in  eighteen  theses.  He  could  only  with  difti- 
culty  secure  a  fair  and  orderly  debate,  but  finallv  brought 
v.— K 


all  his  opponents  to  acknowledge  his  first  thesis,  viz. 
"That  the  Church  is  born  of  the  AVord  of  God,  and 
must  abide  by  it  alone."  In  the  whole  affair  the  learn- 
ing of  the  Reformers  was  confessed ;  seven  priests  were 
won  to  the  evangelical  faith,  and  the  accusations  were 
not  established.  Komander  administered  the  Lord's 
Supper  in  the  evangelical  form  on  Easter  of  1526,  and 
had  the  images  removed.  The  Bundestag  of  this  year 
granted  fuU  liberty  and  protection  of  worship  under  thC 
new  form.  Against  the  intrigues  of  the  Catholic  bishop 
twenty  new  reform  articles  were  established.  The  ab*- 
bot  Schlegel,  former  accuser  of  Komander,  was  beheaded 
for  connivance  with  the  declared  enemies  of  the  Confed- 
eracy, and  the  bishop  fled.  Komander,  in  order  more 
perfectly  to  organize  the  reform  nlo^'ement,  secured  the 
formation  of  a  synod  that  shoidd  have  authority  in  the 
examination  and  appointment  of  pastors.  A  disputa- 
tion sustained  at  Sus,  in  the  Eugadine,  in  1537,  in  the 
Romance  language,  chiefly  by  GaUienus,  the  fast  friend 
of  Komander,  and  Blasius  his  colleague,  where  the  eigh- 
teen theses  defended  by  Komander  at  Ilanz  were  adopt- 
ed, secured  the  entire  prevalence  of  the  reform  in  the 
Eugadine.  Komander  prepared  a  catechism,  and  suc- 
ceeded, with  the' aid  of  Bullinger's  influence,  in  estab- 
lishing a  gymnasium  at  Chur  in  1543.  He  was  deeply 
interested  for  the  Italians  of  the  southern  districts,  but 
found  his  work  with  them  chiefly  a  matter  of  dispute 
on  sceptical  points.  The  Rha;tian  Confession  was  adopt- 
ed by  the  synod  with  particular  reference  to  the  errors 
of  the  Italians.  Komander  rejoiced  at  the  sudden  end 
of  the  Council  of  Trent  in  1552.  In  the  following  year 
he  had  to  counteract  the  pope's  endeavors  .to  bring  in 
the  Inquisition.  Prostrated  by  the  plague  of  1550, 
which  carried  off  1500  of  the  population  of  Chur,  he 
never  recovered  full  strength,  though  he  worked  on  till 
his  death  early  in  1557. — Heizog,  Real-Eneykloj).  s.  v. 
(E.  B.  O.) 

Komano-Bikuiii,  a  female  order  of  Japanese  Beg- 
hards,  or  begging  mnis,  who  accost  travellers  for  their 
charity,  singing  songs  to  divert  them,  though  upon  a 
strong,  wild  sort  of  tune,  and  stay  with  travellers  who 
desire  their  company.  INIost  of  them  are  daughters  of 
the  Jamabos  (q.  v.),  and  are  consecrated  as  sisters  of 
this  begging  order  by  having  their  heads  shaved.  They 
are  neatly  and  well  clad,  and  wear  a  black  silk  hood,, 
with  a  light  hat  over  it,  to  protect  their  faces  from  the- 
sun.  Their  behavior  is,  to  aU  appearance,  free,  yet  mod- 
est. They  always  go  two  and  tv,'o,  and  are  obliged  tO' 
bring  a  certain  portion  of  their  alms  to  the  temple  of  the- 
sun  goddess  at  Isye.    See  M'Farlane,  Japan,  p.  219,  220. 

Komp,  Heixrich,  a  German  Roman  Catholic  the- 
ologian of  note,  born  at  Fulda  in  1765,  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Heidelberg;  became  priest  in  1789,. 
in  1790  professor  at  the  gymnasium  of  his  native  place,, 
in  1792  professor  of  theology,  etc.,  in  1811  court  chap- 
lain to  prince  Primas,  grand  duke  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main  and  archbishop  of  Regensburg,  and  in  1829  cathe- 
dral scholastic.  He  died  Feb.  14,  iSiG.—Kathol.  Real- 
Encyliop.  xi,  858. 

Konar.ski,  Adaji,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  flour- 
ished about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century.  He  was 
bishop  of  Posen  from  1562  to  1574.  He  is  noted  for  his- 
efforts  to  improve  the  religious  educational  advantages 
of  the  youth  of  his  Church.  Upon  the  model  of  the 
school  at  Braunsberg,  one  of  the  most  noted  Roman 
Catholic  literary  institutions,  he  founded  a  Jesuit  col- 
lege at  Posen  in  1572,  furnishing  for  its  support  a  great 
part  of  his  own  income.  He  ^vas  at  the  head  of  the 
Polish  delegation  of  magnates  that  went  to  France  to 
meet  Henry  of  Yalois,  afterwards  king  of  Poland. — Wet- 
zer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lc.r.  vi,  243. 

Konig,  Christian  Gottlieb,  a  German  theolo- 
gian of  note,  was  born  at  Altdorf  March  26,  1711,  and. 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  place.  In 
1734  he  was  appointed  proiessor  at  Giessen  Universitj', 
but  resigned  this  position  onlj'  two  years  later.    In  1742 


KONIG 


146 


KONRAD 


he  became  pastor  at  Elberfeld,  and  remained  there  until 
1747,  when  he  removed  to  Amsterdam,  wliere  lie  taught 
the  Oriental  languages.  He  died  at  Leyden  in  1782. 
'His  [irineipal  work  is  Weissar/ung  Mosis  in  den  letzten 
Tageii  (Frankfort,  1741,  fol.).  A  list  of  his  writings  is 
given  in  Diiring's  Gelchrte,  Theol.  Deutschl.  ii,  152  sq. 

Konig,  Georg,  a  German  Lutheran  theologian,  was 
born  at  Amberg  Feb.  2, 1590,  and  was  educated  at  the 
imiversities  of  Wittenberg  and  Jena.  In  1G14  he  was 
called  as  j)rofessor  of  theology  to  Altdorf.  and  in  1644  he 
added  to  the  duties  of  his  chair  the  librarianship  of  that 
high-scluiol.  He  died  Sept.  10, 1054.  He  wrote  Casus 
Consciitiiitr,  etc. — .4  l/i/em.  IJigt.  Lexikori,  iii,  45. 

Konig,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  Lutheran 
theologian,  was  born  at  Dresden  October  16, 1619.  He 
studied  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg;  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Greifswalde  in  1651,  superintendent  of  Meck- 
lenburg and  Ratzeburg  in  1656,  and  tinally  professor  of 
theology  at  Rostock  in  1659,  where  he  died  Sept.  15, 1664. 
His  21i('olo[iia  positiva  aci'oamatica  (Rost.1664:  Cth  ed. 
Rost.  1680,  8vo;  Wittenb.  1755)  became,  notwithstand- 
ing its  dryness,  a  very  popular  text-book  of  dogmatics. 
Hahn,  Richter,  and  Haferung  have  expounded  and  com- 
mented upon  it,  and  it  became  the  foundation  of  J.  A. 
Quenstiidt's  celebrated  work.  See  W^alch,  Bib/,  theol.  sel. 
i,39;  Heinrich,  Fe?\'!«c/j  einer  Geschickte  cL  verschiedenen 
Lehrarten  d.  c/irisi lichen  Glavhenswurheiten,  etc.  (Leipz. 
1790);  iic\ix'6ckh,Kh-chenf/esch.seit  d.Refor.\m,\\  sq. ; 
Gass,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogmatik,  i,  321  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real- 
Encydopadie,  viii,  1  sq. 

Konig,  Mauritius,  a  Danish  prelate  of  note,  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Copenhagen,  and  later  bishop 
of  Ajdburg,  and  died  May  2,  1672. — Allgem.  Hist.  Lexi- 
kon,  iii,  46. 

Konig,  Samuel,  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  Swiss 
pietism,  was  bom  at  Gergensee,  in  the  canton  of  Berne, 
about  1670.  He  studied  at  Berne  and  Zurich,  and  af- 
terwards made  a  journey  to  Holland  and  England,  as 
was  customary  in  those  days.  He  evinced  great  zeal 
and  talents  in  the  Oriental  languages,  which  were  then 
much  studied  by  the  Protestants,  and  was  considered  by 
his  followers  as  a  first-class  Orientalist.  He  was  also 
noted  for  his  participation  in  the  mystic  tendencies  of 
his  day,  and  after  studying  Petersen's  chiliastic  exposi- 
tions,, became  himself  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Millennium.  After  his  return  to  Berne  he  was 
ordained,  and  appointed  at  first  preacher  in  the  hospital 
attached  to  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  About  the 
same  time  Spener's  pietism  was  beginning  to  gain  ad- 
herents in  Berne,  especially  through  the  efforts  of  Lutz 
(Lucius).  Kijnig,  who  at  first  held  aloof,  was  gradually 
drawn  into  connection  with  them,  and  thus  became  iden- 
tified with  the  development  of  jiietism  in  Berne.  Here, 
as  elsewhere,  pietism  was  strenuously  opposed  by  the 
orthodox  party  in  the  Church,  who,  on  April  3,1698,  ap- 
pointed a  special  committee  to  proceed  against  "Quaker- 
ism, unlawful  assemblies,  and  doctrinal  schisms."  In 
August  of  the  same  year  the  upper  council  appointed  a 
committee  on  religion,  for  tlie  purpose  of  ascertaining 
all  about  ]>ietism  (in  I5erne),  and  reporting  thereon  to 
the  council.  KiJnig  was  several  times  summoned  before 
this  committee,  and  courageously  defended  his  views  on 
these  occasions  on  chiliasm,as  also  his  sermons,  in  which 
he  insisted  with  peculiar  force  on  the  necessity  of  re- 
pentance and  of  regeneration.  Among  his  theological 
opponents  the  most  distinguished  were  the  professors  of 
theology,  Wyss  and  Niidorf.  Kiinig  was  finally  ejected 
and  exiled,  the  pietists  were  persecuted,  and  the  so-call- 
ed "  association  oath"  was  instituted,  July,  1699,  with  a 
view  to  prevent  sejiaration.  To  these  measures  were 
added  a  strict  censorship  of  books,  and  the  prohibition 
of  religious  reunions.  Konig  retired  to  Ilerliorn,  but 
was  soon  driven  out  from  that  place  also,  and  went  to 
the  county  of  Sayn-Wittgenstein,  the  general  refuge  of 
all  pietists  and  illumuiati.     In  1700  he  went  to  Halle, 


where  he  gained  many  adherents,  and  afterwards  to 
Magdeburg,  where  he  ibund  congenial  spirits,  especial- 
ly in  Petersen  and  his  wife,  Johanna  Eleonora  von  Mer- 
lau,  Nik.  von  Rodt,  and  Fellenberg.  Finally  he  return- 
ed to  active  life  as  pastor  of  a  French  Church  in  Biidin- 
gen.  Here  he  resided  eighteen  years,  during  which 
he  wrote  a  number  of  works.  In  1730  he  returned  to 
Berne,  and  secured  an  appointment  as  professor  of  mod- 
ern languages  and  mathematics  in  the  university.  He 
continued  to  hold  religious  meetings,  and  travelled  oc- 
casionally in  the  interest  of  pietism,  but,  having  at- 
tempted to  establish  meetings  for  mutual  edification  at 
Basel  (in  1732),  he  was  expelled  from  the  city.  Kiinig 
died  May  30,  1750.  His  principal  works  are,  Betrach- 
tiDiff  d.  imcendiyen  Reichs  Gott.es,  wie  es  im  Herzen  d.-Men~ 
schen  atij'gerichtet  wird  (Basel,  1734)  : — Theolocjia  Mys- 
iica  (Berne,  1736).  See  F.  Trechsel,  Samuel  KOnig  ii,  d. 
Pietismus  in  Berne  (^Berner  Tasrlienhuch,  1852) ;  Schle- 
gel,  Kirchengeschichte  d.  1 8'"'  Ja/irhuiiderts, ii  (1),367  sq.; 
Schuler,  Thaten  imd  Sitten  d.  Eidgenossen,  iii,  268  sq. ; 
Hurst's  Hageubach,  Ch.IJist.  18lh  and  Idth  Cent,  i,  179, 
183. 

Konigsdorfer,  Colestin  Bernhard,  a  German 
Roman  Catholic  monastic,  was  bom  Aug.  18, 1756,  at  the 
village  of  Flotzhcim ;  was  educated  at  Augsburg  from 
1768  to  1776,  and  entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1777, 
at  Donauworth.  He  was  ordained  priest  Dec.  23, 1780, 
and  was  sent  to  the  university  at  Ingolstadt  to  continue 
his  theological  studies  and  the  acquisition  of  the  Oriental 
languages.  In  1790  he  was  called  to  a  professorship  at 
Salzburg  LIniversity;  in  1794  was  elected  abbot  of  his 
convent,  and  remained  its  head  until  1803,  when  the  con- 
vent was  suppressed.  He  died  March  16,  1840.  Ko- 
nigsdorfer Avrote  Theologia  in  Compendiitm  redacta  (Ko- 
penh.  1787) — a  theological  compend  which  he  intended 
mainly  for  his  monastic  brethren : — Gesch.  d.  Klosteis  z, 
heiligen  Kreuze  in  Donamcorth  (1819-1829,  3  vols,  in  4 
parts).  He  also  published  several  sermons  (1800, 1812, 
1814).— A'o//io/.  Real-Encyliopddie,  vi,  328. 

Konigsdorfer,  Martin,  brother  of  the  preceding, 
a  popular  pulpit  orator,  was  borii  at  Flotzhcim  Oct.  20, 
1752 ;  studied  theology  at  Dillingen ;  was  ordained  priest 
at  Augsburg  March  15,  1777,  and  was  successively  ap- 
pointed to  Monheim,  Heideck,  Seiboldsdorf  near  Neu- 
burg,  and  Lutzungen  near  Hochstiidt.  He  died  about 
1815.  Konigsdorfer  was  noted  as  a  preacher  for  his  rare 
ability  in  adapting  himself  to  the  standard  of  his  audi- 
ences; thus,  in  his  appointments  in  rural  districts,  he 
knew  how  to  interest  the  peasants  in  liis  preaching,  and 
did  much  good  among  them.  He  ])ul)Ii;-hc(l  Kiiiltolische 
llomilien  ttnd  Erkldrungen  d.  hdt.  Krangdicn  uuf  alle 
Sonn-  V.  Feie7-tage{Aug»huTp,  1800,  and  often) : — Kathol. 
Geheimnisse  u.  Sittenreden  (1812-32,8  vols.  8vo) : — Ka- 
thol. Christenlehren  (1806,2  vols.): — Die  ch?istliche  Kin- 
derzucht  (six  sermons,  1814) : — Das  ewige  Priesterthum 
d.  Kathol.  Kirche  (1832).  —  Kathol.  Real-Encyldopddie, 
vi,  329. 

KonigS'warter,  Baron  Jonas,  a  celebrated  Jew- 
ish ]ihilanthropist,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Maiii 
about  1806,  and  removed  to  Vienna  about  1830,  when  a 
man  of  only  moderate  wealth.  There  bis  means  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  he  died  Dec.  24,  1871,  leaving  an 
only  son  heir  to  a  property  worth  fifteen  million  ilollars. 
He  was  a  great  benefactor  to  the  Jews  of  the  Austrian 
capital,  over  whom  he  presided  as  chief,  arid  took  par- 
ticular interest  in  all  tlio  charitable  institutions  of  Vi- 
enna. He  left  large  sums  to  benefit  each  of  these,  with- 
out any  regard  to  confession  or  creed. — New  York  Jew- 
ish Messenger,  Jan.  26,  1872. 

Konrad  of  Mai£I'.urg,  a  German  Dominican  of  the 
13th  century,  one  .of  the  most  trusted  of  Rome's  vota- 
ries, was  confessor  of  princess  St.  Elizabeth  of  Thurin- 
gia,  and  inquisitor  of  (iermany.  Of  his  personal  history 
hut  little  is  known.  Some  suppose  him  to  he  identical 
witli  the  Konrad  who,  as  a  scholastic  of  Jlcntz,  enjoyed 
the  favor  of  Honorius  HI  (q.  v.).     Konrad  of  Marburg 


KONRAD 


147 


KOPKE 


was  a  particular  favorite  of  pope  Gregory  IX,  by  whom 
he  was  intrusted  with  various  disciplinary  offices,  par- 
ticularly with  the  punishment  of  heretics  and  the  ex- 
tirpation of  heresy.  His  conduct  towards  St.  Elizabeth 
(i|.  V.)  was  perfectly  atrocious,  but  no  less  inhuman  was 
the  treatment  which  the  Patarenes  (q.  v.)  received  at 
his  hands.  He  was  finaUy  slain  in  I'ioS  by,  or  at  the 
instigation  of,  some  German  nobles  whom  he  had  op- 
posetl.  See  Hausrath,  Konrad  von  Marburg  (1861); 
Henke,  AT.  r.  Marburg  (1861) ;  Herzog.  Real-Eiicyklop. 
viii,  25;  and  the  Koman  Catholic  Kircken-Lexikon,  by 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  ii,  805  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Konrad  III,  emperor  of  the  Germans,  the  founder 
of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  eminent  among  the  Cru- 
saders, was  the  son  of  Frederick  of  Suabia,  and  ^vas  born 
in  1093.  He  was  elected  successor  to  Lothaire  by  the 
princes  of  Germany  at  Aix-la-ChapeUe,  Feb.  21,  1136, 
to  prevent  the  increasing  preponderance  of  the  Guelf 
party.  For  his  quarrels  with  Henry  the  Proud,  duke 
of  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  head  of  the  Guelf  party  in 
(iermany,  etc.,  see  Guelfs  and  Ghibellines,  When 
St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  commenced  to  preach  a  new 
crusade,  Konrad,  seized  with  the  general  infatuation,  set 
out  for  Palestine  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  [see  Cru- 
sades] in  company  with  his  old  enemy,  Guelf  of  Bava- 
ria, who  proved  treacherous,  however,  returned  to  Ger- 
many before  Konrad,  and  with  his  nephew,  Henry  the 
Lion,  renewed,  though  unsuccessfully,  the  former  at- 
tempt to  gain  possession  of  Bavaria.  Konrad  took  sides 
with  the  pope  and  the  northern  Italians  against  Poger 
of  Sicily,  but,  while  preparing  for  an  expedition  against 
the  latter,  he  was  poisoned,  Feb.  15,  1152,  at  Bamberg. 
Konrad  was  largely  endowed  with  the  virtues  necessary 
for  a  great  monarch,  and,  though  himself  unlearned,  was 
a  warm  patron  of  science  and  letters.  His  marriage 
with  a  Greek  princess  was  symbolized  by  the  two-head-  j 
ed  eagle  which  figured  on  the  arms  of  the  emperor  of  i 
(iermany,  and  now  appears  on  the  arms  of  the  sover-  j 
eign  of  Austria.     See  Germany.  j 

Konradin  of  Suabia,  the  last  descendant  of  the 
house  of  the  Hohenstaufen,  son  of  the  excommunicated 
Henry  IV,  was  born  in  1252.  He  deserves  our  notice 
for  the  relation  he  sustained  to  the  intriguing  pope  In- 
nocent IV,  and  the  treatment  he  received  at  the  pope's 
hands.  His  Italian  possessions  were  seized  by  Innocent 
IV  on  the  plea  that  the  son  of  a  prince  u-ho  dies  excom- 
municated has  no  hereditary  rights,  an  example  which 
the  other  enemies  of  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen  rejoiced 
to  follow.  Konradin's  cause  was  befriended  by  his  uncle 
M.infred,  who  took  up  arms  in  his  behalf,  drove  the 
]3ope  from  Naples  and  Sicily,  and,  in  order  to  consolidate 
his  nephew's  authority,  declared  himself  king  till  the 
young  prince  came  of  age.  The  pope's  inveterate  ha- 
tred of  the  Hohenstaufen  induced  him  thereupon  to 
offer  the  crown  of  the  Two  Sicilies  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  I 
a  consummate  warrior  and  able  politician.  Charles  im- 
mediately invaded  Italy,  met  his  antagonist  in  the  plain 
of  (irandella,  where  the  defeat  and  death  of  Manfred,  in 
1266,  gave  him  undisturbed  possession  of  the  kingdom. 
But  the  Neapolitans,  detesting  their  new  master,  sent 
deputies  to  Bavaria  to  invite  Konradin,  then  in  his  six- 
teentli  year,  to  come  and  assert  his  hereditary  rights. 
Konradin  accordingly  made  his  appearance  in  Italy  at 
the  head  of  10,000  men,  and,  being  joined  by  the  Neapol- 
itans in  large  numbers,  gained  several  victories  over  the 
French,  but  was  finally  defeated,  and,  along  with  his 
relative,  Frederick  of  Austria,  taken  prisoner  near  Tagl- 
iacozzo,  Aug.  22,  1268.  The  two  unfortunate  princes 
were,  trith  the  consent  of  the  pope,  executed  in  the  market- 
plice  of  Naples  on  the  iOth  of  October.  A  few  minutes 
before  his  execution,  Konradin,  on  the  scaffold,  took  off 
his  glove,  and  threw  it  into  the  midst  of  the  crowd,  as  a 
gage  of  vengeance,  requesting  that  it  might  be  carried 
to  his  heir,  Peter  of  Aragon.  This  duty  was  under- 
taken by  the  chevalier  De  Waldburg,  who,  after  many 
hair-breadth  escapes,  succeeded  in  fulfilling  his  prince's 
last  command.    See  Innocent  IV;  Sicilian  Vespers. 


Koolhaas,  Caspar,  often  named  with  Koomherfc, 
in  Holland,  as  the  predecessor  of  Arminius,  was  born  at 
Cologne  in  1536.  He  studied  at  Dtisseldorf,  and  in  1566 
renounced  many  advantages  to  join  the  Reformation. 
He  afterwards  held  some  situations  as  pastor  in  the 
duchies  of  Zweibriick  and  Nassau.  In  1574  he  was 
called  to  the  University  of  Leyden,  then  opening,  as  a 
professor.  He  subsequently  resigned  the  professorship, 
and  died  a  private  teacher  at  Le3'den  in  1615.  His 
opinions  had  been  the  cause  of  his  resignation :  he 
maintained  nearly  the  same  views  professed  afterwards 
by  the  Arminians  on  the  extension  of  the  authority  of 
superiors  in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  reduction  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church  to  a  icw  simple,  fundamental  points, 
and  the  correction  or  absolute  rejection  of  the  doctrine 
of  predestination.  His  work  Dejure  Christiani  magis- 
tratus  circa  disciplinam  et  regimen  ecclesim  gave  great 
offence.  He  was  summoned  before  a  synod  held  at 
Middelburg  in  1581,  and  requested  to  recant  and  sign 
the  Belgian  Confession,  but  refused,  and  ai)pealed  to  the 
States.  A  provincial  synod  of  Haarlem  excommunica- 
ted him  in  1582,  but  he  was  protected  by  the  chief  mag- 
istrate of  Leyden,  who  reported  to  the  Dutch  States 
against  the  renewal  of  religious  persecution,  as  well  as 
agauist  the  acts  of  the  synods,  and  the  encroachments 
of  the  ecclesiastical  college  on  the  rights  of  the  author- 
ities. See  A.  Schweizer,  Gesch.  d.  ref.  C'entraldogmen,  ii, 
40;  Benthem,  Holland  Kirchen-u.  Schulenstaat,  ii,  33; 
Ugtenbogaert  Kerkel.  Hist.  p.  214. — Herzog,  Real-Enoj- 
klopddie,  viii,  26. 

Koordistan.     See  Kurdistan. 

Koornhert.     See  Cornarists/ 

Kopacsy,  Joseph  von,  a  Hungarian  Roman  Cath- 
olic prelate,  was  born  of  noble  parentage  at  Wessprim 
in  1775,  and  was  educated  at  the  seminary  in  Presburg. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1798,  and  shortly  after  received 
an  appointment  as  professor  of  Church  history  and  ec- 
clesiastical law.  In  1806  he  became  preacher  at  Wess- 
prim, in  1822  he  was  made  bishop  of  Stuhlweissenburg, 
and  in  1824  bishop  of  Wessprim.  In  1839  he  wan  pro- 
moted to  the  archbishopric  of  Grau,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  made  primate  of  Hungary.  He  died  Sept.  18, 
1847.  Bishop  Kopacsj^  published  a  German  translation 
of  Fleury's  Customs  and  Usages  of  Jews  and  Christians 
{\m2,).—Kuthol.Real-Encgklop.  xi,  861. 

Koph.     See  Ape. 

Kopher.     See  Camphire. 

Kopiatai.     See  Copiat.e. 

KopisteiLski,  Zachartas,  a  Russian  theologian, 
flourished  ui  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  as  ar- 
chimandrite of  the  convent  of  St.  Anthony  at  Kief,  and 
died  there  April  18,  1626.  He  translated  into  Slavonic 
the  commentary  of  St.  Chrvsostom  on  the  Acts  and 
Paul's  epistles  (Kief,  1623  and  1624,  folio).  He  also  pub- 
lished a  Funeral  Sermon,  in  which  he  seeks  to  prove 
that  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory  is  sanctioned  by  apostolic 
authority ;  and  a  \oinacanon,  or  review  of  the  canons 
(Kief,  16*24  and  1629 ;  Moscow,  1639 ;  Lemberg,  1C46).— 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  75. 

Kopitar,  Bartiiolomaus,  a  learned  Orientalist, 
was  born  at  Pepnje  in  1780,  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna.  In  1809  he  was  appointed  assistant 
at  the  Imperial  Library,  was  promoted  to  the  head  libra- 
rianship  in  1843,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1844.  He  published 
an  edition  of  the  Polish  Psalter  found  in  the  convent  of 
St.  Flarian,  with  a  (Jerman  and  Latin  translation  (Vi- 
enna, 1834),  etc. — Kathol.  Real-Encijklop.  vi,  3()2. 

Kopke,  Adaji,  a  German  fanatic,  wlio  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  18th  centurv'  as  pastor  at  Walmo, 
was  an  ardent  follower  of  Dippel  (q.  v.),  and,  witli  Ha- 
genbach  {Church  Hist.  18th  and  ISth  Cent.,  transl.  by  Dr. 
Hurst,  i,  168  sq.),  we  are  in  doubt  what  place  to  assign 
any  of  Uippel's  followers;  he  was  measurably  a  iVIystie, 
yet  he  can  neither  be  definitely  classed  with  them  nor 
with  any  of  the  sects  known  as  Pietists  or  Rational- 


KOPPE 


148 


KORAH 


ists,  fanatics  or  scoffers,  Mystics  or  Illuminists.  He 
wrote  liistor.  Nachricht  v.  Caspa?-  Schwenkfeld  (Prenz- 
lau,  1745.  8vo) :  —  Wer/u-eiser  zum  guttlichen  Lebeit,  etc. 
(ibid,  1744, 8vo): — Die  reinigende  Kraft  des  Gottes-Blutes 
Jesii  C/iristi  (ibid,  1744,  8vo).  See  Kraft,  Tkeol.  Bibli- 
othel;  i,  202 ;  Walch,  Comp.  hiKf.  eccl.  recentiss.  p.  233  sq. ; 
Fuhrmann,  Ilamlivorterh.  d.  Kirckengesch.  ii,  591. 

Koppe,  JoHANN  Benjamin,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man IJiblical  scholar,  was  boni  at  Dantzig  Aug.  19, 1750. 
He  studied  philology  and  theology  at  the  universities 
of  Leipzig  and  Gottingen,  and  became  professor  of  Greek 
at  the  college  of  Mittau  in  1774,  and  professor  of  theol- 
ogy at  Gottingen  in  1775.  He  subsequently  became  (in 
1777)  director  of  the  seminarj-  for  preachers,  superin- 
tendent and  president  of  the  consistory  at  Gotha  (in 
1784),  and  preacher  at  the  court  of  Hanover  (in  1788). 
He  died  Feb.  12, 1791.  He  wrote  De  Critica  Veferis  Tes- 
tamenti  caute  adhibenda  (Gottingen,  1769): — Vindicice 
orandoi'um  a  damonum  ceque  imperio  ac  sacerdotiim 
fraudibus  (Gottmg.  1774,  8vo): — Israelitas  nan  215  sed 
430  annos  in  yEgypfo  commoratos  esse  (Gottingen,  1777, 
4to ;  reprinted  in  Post  and  Kuperti's  Sijlloge  Commenta- 
tionuni  theologicarum,  vol.  iv)  : — Interpretatio  Isaice,  viii, 
23  (Gott.  1780, 4to) :— ylcZ  Matthaum,  xii,  31,  De  Peccato 
in  Spiritiim  Sanctum  (Giitt.  1781,  8vo)  : — Super  Evan- 
gelio  Marci  ((iott.  1782, 4to) : — Exjylicatio  Moisis,  iii,  14 
(Getting.  1783,  4to)  : — Marcus  non  epitomator  Matthcei 
(Gott.  1783, 4to)  -.—Predigten  (Gott.  1792-3,  2  vols.  8vo). 
He  also  edited  three  vols,  of  the  Novum  Testamentum 
Greece  pierpetua  annotatione  illustratum,  published  at 
Gottingen,  10  vols.  8vo,  at  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
This  work,  which, he  began,  but  did  not  live  to  com- 
plete, bears  his  name,  as  the  plan,  which  is  excellent,  is 
his.  It  furnishes  "  a  corrected  edition  of  the  Greek  text, 
mostly  agreeing  with  Griesbach,  with  critical  and  philo- 
logical notes  on  the  same  page,  with  prolegomena  to 
each  book,  and  excursus  on  tlie  more  difficult  passages. 
On  this  plan  Koppe  gave  a  volume  on  the  Epistles  to 
the  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  Thessalonians,  and  anoth- 
•  er  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans,  which  closed  his  labors. 
Heinrichs,  in  continuation  of  the  original  design  of 
Koppe,  has  published  the  Acts,  and  all  tlie  remaining 
epistles  of  Paul,  except  those  to  the  Corinthians;  and 
Pott  has  published  the  Epistles  of  Peter,  and  that,  of 
James.  Koppe  is  esteemed  a  safe  and  judicious  critic; 
Heinrichs  and  Pott  less  so.  Koppe's  Romans  has  been 
republished  by  Ammon,  the  well-known  neologist,  with 
characteristic  notes  of  his  own"  (Orme).  See  Koppen- 
f'tadt,  Ucb.  Koppe  (1791,  8vo);  Schlichtegroll,  A> c?-ofo^. 
vol.  i;  Annalen  d.  Braunschu:  Lunebur(j.  Churlande,  vi, 
GO-84 ;  Hocfer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gencr.  xxviii,  79 ;  Herzog, 
Jieul-Encyk/op.  viii,  27.     (,f.  H.W.) 

Koppen,  Daniel  Joachim,  a  German  divine,  was 
born  at  Lliheck  in  1730.  He  was  pasior  at  Zettemin 
for  tliirty-nine  years,  and  died  .June  7,  1807.  Koppen 
secured  for  himself,  by  earnest  literary  labors,  the  repu- 
tation of  great  scliolarsliip,  and  his  works  are  all  valua- 
ble. Ho  wrote  Ilauptzweck  des  Predigtamtes  (Leipzig, 
1778,  8vo) : — Die  Bibel,  ein  Wei-k  der  gottlichen  Weisheit 
(ibid,  1787-88,  2  vols.  8vo;  2d  edition,  much  enlarged, 
1797-98):—  Wer  ist  Christ  (ibid,  1800,8vo).— Doring.Ge- 
If'hrfe  Theol.  Dentschlands,  ii,  155  s(j. 

Koppen,  Fiiedrich,  a  German  theologian  and 
philosoiiher,  was  l)<)rn  at  Liilieck  in  1775;  became  preach- 
er in  Bremen  in  1805;  jirofessor  of  pliikjsophy  in  1807, 
at  Landshut ;  and  in  182(5  was  ap[)ointcd  professor  at 
Erlangen.  He  died  Sept.  4, 1858.  Koppen  was  an  ar- 
dent follower  of  Jacobi  (q.  v.),  and  wrote  Ueber  die  Of- 
fetiharung  in  Bczhlmng  axif  Kantsche  u.  Firhtesche  Phi- 
losophie  (Liib.  1797;  2d  ed.  1802)  •.—Schelling's  Lehre  oder 
das  Game  der  Philosophie  des  absoluten  Nichts\l\amh. 
1805)  : — Darstellung  des  WeseiT^  d.  P/iilosopkie  (Nuremb. 
1810)  :~Pkilosop/iie  des  Chrhttenthums  (Leipz.  1813-15,2 
vols.;  2d  ed.  1825);  etc. — I'iqkt.  Universal  Lexikon,  in, 
711. 

Kor.     See  Cor. 


Ko'rah  (Heb.  Ko'rach,  TVyp,  ice,  as  in  Psa.  cxlvii, 
17  ;  Sept.  Koof ,  also  N.  T.  in  Jude  11 ;  Josephus  Kopf/^ , 
.4  nt.  iv,  2 ;  Vulg.  Core ;  Auth.Vers.  "  Kore"  in  the  patro- 
nymic, 1  Chron.  xxvi,  19,  and  "Core"  in  Jude  11),  the 
name  of  several  men. 

1.  The  tliird  son  of  Esau  by  his  second  Canaanitish 
wife  Aholibamah  (Gen.  xxxvi,  14 ;  1  Chron.  i,  35).  B.C. 
post  1904.  He  became  the  head  of  a  petty  Edomitish 
tribe  (Gen.  xxxvi,  18).  In  ver.  10  his  name  appears  as 
a  son  of  Eliphaz,  Esau's  son  ;  but  probably  by  a  confu- 
sion of  the  parentage,  for  in  the  jiarallel  passage  (1  Chron. 
i,  30)  this  name  is  omitted,  and  "  Timna"  inserted  after 
the  next  name — probably  another  interpolation  for  Tim- 
nah.     See  E.sau. 

2.  A  Lcvitc,  son  of  Izhar,  the  brother  of  Amram,  the 
father  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  who  were  therefore  cousins 
to  Korah  (Exod.  vi,  21).  B.C.  probably  not  much  ante 
1019.  From  this  near  relationship  we  may,  with  toler- 
able certainty,  conjecture  that  the  source  of  the  discon- 
tent which  led  to  the  steps  afterwards  taken  by  this  un- 
happy man,  lay  in  his  jealousy  that  the  high  honors  and 
privileges  of  the  priesthood,  to  which  he,  who  remained 
a  simple  Levite,  might,  apart  from  the  divine  appoint- 
ment, seem  to  have  had  as  good  a  claim,  should  have 
been  exclusively  appropriated  to  the  family  of  Aaron. 
When  to  this  was  added  the  civil  authority  of  Moses, 
the  whole  power  over  the  nation  would  seem  to  him  to 
have  been  engrossed  by  his  cousins,  the  sons  of  Amram. 
Lender  the  influence  of  these  fcellnj*s  he  organized  a 
conspiracy,  for  the  purpose  of  redressing  what  ajipeared 
to  him  the  evil  and  injustice  of  this  arrangement.  Da- 
than,  Abiram,  and  On,  the  chief  persons  who  joined  him, 
were  of  the  trilie  of  lieuben ;  but  he  was  also  supported 
by  many  more  from  other  tribes,  making  up  the  num- 
ber of  250,  men  of  name,  rank,  and  influence,  all  who 
maj'  be  regarded  as  representing  the  families  of  which 
they  were  the  heads.  The  appointment  of  Elizaphan  to 
be  chief  of  the  Kohathites  (Numb,  iii,  30)  may  have  fur- 
ther inflamed  his  jealousy.  Korah's  position  as  leader 
in  this  rebellion  was  evidently  the  result  of  his  personal 
character,  which  was  that  of  a  bold,  haughty,  and  am- 
bitious man.  Tliis  appears  from  his  address  to  jMoses 
in  ver.  3,  and  especiaUj'  from  his  conduct  in  ver.  19, 
where  both  his  daring  and  his  influence  over  the  con- 
gregation are  very  apparent.  Were  it  not  for  this,  one 
would  have  expected  the  Gershonites  —  as  the  elder 
branch  of  the  Levites — to  have  supplied  a  leader  in  con- 
junction with  the  sons  of  lieuben,  rather  than  the  fam- 
ily of  Izhar,  ^vho  was  Amram's  younger  brother.  The 
private  object  of  Korah  was  apparently  his  own  ag- 
grandizement, but  his  ostensible  object  was  the  general 
good  of  the  people :  and  it  is  perhaps  from  want  of  at- 
tention to  this  distinction  that  the  transaction  has  not 
been  well  understood.  The  design  seems  to  have  been 
made  acceptable  to  a  large  body  of  the  nation,  on  the 
ground  that  the  first-born  of  Israel  had  been  deprived 
of  their  sacerdotal  birthright  in  favor  of  the  Levites, 
while  the  Levites  themselves  announced  that  the  priest- 
hood had  been  conferred  by  ]\Ioses  (as  they  considered) 
on  his  own  brother's  family,  in  preference  to  those  who 
had  equal  claims;  and  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
Keubenites  may  have  considered  the  opportunity  a  fa- 
vorable one  for  the  recovery  of  their  birthright — the 
double  portion  and  civil  pre-eminence — which  had  been 
forl'eited  by  them  and  given  to  Joseph.  (See  Kitto's 
Daitg  Bible  Illiistrat.  ad  loc.)  These  are  the  explana- 
tions of  Aben-Ezra,  and  seem  as  reasonable  as  any  which 
have  been  offered.     (See  below.) 

The  leading  conspirators,  having  organized  their  jilans, 
repaired  in  a  body  to  Moses  and  Aaron,  boldly  charged 
them  with  public  usurpation,  and  required  them  to  lay 
down  their  arrogated  power.  Closes  no  sooner  heard 
this  than  he  fell  on  liis  face,  confounded  at  the  enormity 
of  so  outrageous  a  revolt  against  a  system  framed  so 
carefully  for  the  benefit  of  the  nation.  He  left  the  mat- 
ter in  the  Lord's  hands,  and  desired  them  to  come  on 
the  morrow,  provided  with  censers  for  incense,  that  the 


KORAH 


149 


KORAH 


Lord  himself,  by  some  manifest  token,  might  make 
known  his  will  in  this  great  matter.  As  this  order  was 
particularly  addressed  to  the  rebellious  Levites,  the  Reu- 
benites  left  the  place,  and  when  afterwards  called  back 
by  Moses,  returned  a  very  insolent  refusal,  charging  him 
with  having  brought  them  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt  un- 
der false  pretences,  "to  kill  them  in  the  wilderness" 
(Numb,  xvi,  1-17). 

The  next  day  Korah  and  his  company  ajipeared  be- 
fore the  tabernacle,  attended  by  a  multitude  of  people 
out  of  the  general  body  of  the  tribes.  Then  the  Sheki- 
nah,  or  symbol  of  the  divine  presence,  which  abode  be- 
tween the  cherubim,  advanced  to  the  entrance  of  the 
sacred  fabric,  and  a  voice  therefrom  commanded  Moses 
and  Aaron  to  stand  apart,  lest  they  should  share  in  the 
destruction  which  awaited  the  whole  congregation.  On 
hearing  these  awful  words  the  brothers  fell  on  their 
faces,  and,  by  strong  intercession,  moved  the  Lord  to 
confine  his  wTath  to  the  leaders  in  the  rebellion,  and 
spare  their  unhappy  dupes.  The  latter  were  then  or- 
dered to  separate  themselves  from  their  leaders  and  from 
the  tents  in  which  tliey  dwelt.  The  terrible  menace 
involved  in  this  direction  had  its  weight,  and  the  com- 
mand was  obeyed;  and  after  IMoses  had  appealed  to 
what  was  to  happen  as  a  proof  of  the  authoritj'  by  which 
lie  acted,  the  earth  opened,  and  received  and  closed  over 
the  tents  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram.  The  Reuben- 
ite  conspirators  were  in  their  tents,  and  perished  in 
them ;  and  at  the  same  instant  Korah  and  his  250,  who 
were  offering  incense  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  were 
destroyed  bj^  a  fire  which  "  came  out  from  tlie  Lord ;" 
that  is,  most  probably,  in  tliis  case,  from  out  of  the  cloud 
in  which  his  presence  dwelt  (Numb,  xvi,  18-35).  The 
censers  which  the}'  had  used  ^vere  afterwards  made  into 
plates,  to  form  an  outer  covering  to  tlie  altar,  and  tlius 
became  a  standing  monument  of  this  awful  transaction 
(Numb,  xvi,  30-40).  The  rebellious  spirit  excited  by 
these  ambitious  men  vented  itself  afresh  on  the  next 
day  ill  complaints  against  Moses  as  having  been  the 
cause  of  death  to  these  popular  leaders !  a  degree  of  ob- 
duracy and  presumption  that  called  forth  the  divine  in- 
dignation so  severely  as  not  to  be  allayed  till  a  sudden 
plague  had  cut  off  thousands  of  the  factious  multitude, 
and  threatened  still  further  ravages  had  it  not  been  ap- 
peased by  Aaron's  offering  of  incense  at  the  instance  of 
Moses  (Numb,  xvi,  41-50).  The  recurrence  of  a  similar 
jealousy  was  prevented  by  the  divine  choice  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Aaron,  attested  by  the  miraculous  vegetation  of 
his  rod  alone  out  of  all  the  tribes  (Numb.  xvii).  On,  al- 
though named  in  the  first  instance  along  ;\ith  Dathan 
and  Abiram  (ver.  1),  does  not  further  appear  either  in 
the  rebellion  or  its  punishment.  It  is  hence  supposed 
that  he  repented  in  time  ;  and  Abcndana  and  other  Rab- 
binical writers  allege  that  his  wife  prevailed  upon  him 
to  abandon  the  cause. 

It  might  be  supposed  from  the  Scripture  narrative 
that  the  entire  families  of  the  conspirators  perished  in 
the  destruction  of  their  tents.  Doubtless  all  who  were 
in  the  tents  perished;  but,  as  the  descendants  of  Korah 
afterwards  became  eminent  in  the  Levitical  service  [see 
Korahitk],  it  is  clear  that  his  sons  were  spared  (Exod. 
vi,  24).  They  were  probably  living  in  separate  tents, 
or  were  among  those  wlio  sundered  themselves  from  the 
conspirators  at  the  command  of  Moses.  There  is  no 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  sons  of  Korah  were  children 
when'their  father  perished.  Perhaps  the  fissure  of  the 
ground  which  swallowed  up  the  tents  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  did  not  extend  beyond  those  of  the  Keubenites. 
From  -Numb,  xvi,  27  it  seems  clear  tlial  Korah  himself 
was  not  with  Dathan  and  Abiram  at  the  moment.  His 
t«nt  may  have  been  one  pitched  for  himself,  in  con- 
tempt of  the  orders  of  Moses,  by  the  side  of  his  fellow- 
rebels,  while  liis  family  continued  to  reside  in  their 
proper  camp  nearer  the  tabernacle ;  but  it  must  have 
been  separated  by  a  considerable  space  from  tliose  of 
Datlian  and  Abiram.  Or,  even  if  Korah's  family  resided 
among  the  Keubenites,  they  may  have  fied,  at  Moses's 


warning,  to  take  refuge  in  the  Kohathite  camp,  instead 
of  remaining,  as  the  wives  and  children  of  Dathan  and 
Abiram  did  (verse  27).  Korah  himself  was  doubtless 
with  the  250  men  who  bare  censers  nearer  the  talieriia- 
cle  (ver.  19),  and  perished  with  them  by  the  "fire  from 
Jehovah"  which  accompanied  the  earthquake.  It  is 
nowhere  said  that  he  was  one  of  those  who  "  went  down 
quick  into  the  pit''  (compare  Psa.  cvi,  17,  18),  and  it  is 
natural  that  he  shoiUd  have  been  with  the  censer-bear- 
ers. That  he  was  so  is  indeed  clearly  implied  by  Numb. 
xvi,  16-19,  35,  40,  compared  with  xxvi,  9,  10. 

The  apostle  holds  up  Korah  as  a  warning  to  presum]> 
tuous  and  self-seeking  teachers,  and  couples  his  crime 
with  those  of  Cain  and  Balaam,  as  being  of  similar  enor- 
mity (Jude  11).  The  expression  there  used,  "gainsay- 
ing" (^dvTiXoyia,  coniradictioii),  alludes  to  his  speech  in 
Numb,  xvi,  3,  and  accompanying  rebelUon.  Compare 
the  use  of  the  same  word  in  Ileb.  xii,  3 ;  Psa.  cvi,  32, 
and  of  the  verb,  John  xix,  12,  and  Isa.  xxii,  22;  Ixv.  2 
(Sept.),  in  which  latter  passage,  as  quoted  Rom.  x,  21, 
the  A.  V.  has  the  same  expression  of  "  gainsaying"  as  in 
Jude.  The  Son  of  Sirach,  following  Psa.  cvi,  16,  *1X?^^ 
iT.^'OP,  etc.  (otherwise  rendered,  however,  by  the  Sept., 
Trapwpytcraj'),  describes  Korah  and  his  companions  as  en- 
vious or  jealous  of  Moses,  where  the  English  "  malign- 
ed" is  liardly  an  equivalent  for  iL,i)\wcrav  (Ecclus.  xlv, 
18). — Kitto ;  Smith.  A  late  ingenuous  writer  (Prof.  Rei- 
chel,  of  Dublin,  Sermons,  Cambr.  1855)  distinguishes  the 
crime  of  Korah  from  that  of  Dathan  and  Abiram  (q.  v.) 
as  being  an  ecclesiastical  insubordination,  whereas  the 
latter  was  apolitical  rebellion;  he  also  draws  a  parallel 
between  the  position  of  Aaron  as  representing  the  high- 
priesthood  of  Christ — the  one  underived,  perpetual,  and 
untransferable  pontificate  "after  the  order  of  Melchize- 
dek,"  and  the  Levitical  order  represented  b}'^  Korah  cor- 
responding to  the  Christian  ministry  ;  and  he  arrives  at 
the  following  conclusion :  "  The  crime  in  the  Christian 
Church  corresponding  to  that  which  Korah  and  his  fol- 
lowers committed  in  the  Jewish  Church  consists,  not, 
as  is  often  stated,  in  the  people  taking  to  themselves  the 
functions  of  the  ministry,  but  in  the  Christian  minis^iy 
impiously  usurping  the  functions  of  Christ  himself;  and, 
not  contented  with  their  Jlaster's  having  separated  thcTi 
from  the  congregation  of  his  people  to  bring  them  near 
unto  himself,  to  do  the  service  of  his  house,  and  to  stand 
before  the  congregation  to  minister  to  them,  in  their 
'seeking  the  jmesthood  also,^  Tliis  is  the  gainsaying 
of  Korah,  which  the  authority  of  inspiration  declares 
should  be  repeated  even  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  which  is  significantly  coupled  by  the 
apostle  Jude  with  the  way  of  Cain,  and  with  the  run- 
ning greedily  after  the  error  of  Balaam  for  reward."  In 
short,  it  was  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  such  as  were  al- 
ready invested  with  an  official  rank  in  the  Levitical 
cultus  to  supplant  those  occupying  the  higher  offices  in 
the  same  economy,  and  even  to  derogate  the  supreme 
and  exclusive  control  of  its  dispensation ;  and  all  this 
for  the  sake  merely  of  the  honors  and  emoluments  of 
the  promotion.  It  is  therefore  at  once  apparent  how 
little  this  narrative  supports  the  arrogant  claims  of  any 
class  of  so-called  priests  in  the  modern  Church,  and  that 
it  altogether  fails  to  warrant  their  exclusion  and  con- 
demnation of  others  who  have  as  clear  a  divine  call  as 
themselves  to  the  same  order  of  functions,  especially 
M'hen  the  latter  move  in  a  different  community,  are  ac- 
tuated by  the  most  unselfish  motives,  and  proceed  in 
accordance  with  the  most  imperative  demands  of  cir- 
cumstances. 

Korah  is  elsewhere  referred  to  in  Numb,  xxvi,  9-11 ; 
xxvii,  3;  1  Chron.  vi,  22,  87;  ix,  19.  See  Joum.  Sac. 
Lit.  App.  1852,  p.  195;  Forster,  Israel  in  the  Wilderness 
(Lond.  1865).  On  the  Korachida;.  see  Carpzov.  Ivtro- 
duct.  ii,  105 ;  Van  Iperen,  De  Jiliis  Korachi  psalmor. 
quorund.  auctorib.,  in  the  Bihl.  //af/an.ll,'i, 99  sq. ;  comp. 
Eichhorn,  Bibl.  d.  bihl.  Lit.  i,  911  sq. ;  Bauer.  Hebr.  My- 
tholog.  i,  302  ;  Krkldr.  d.  Mund.  d.  A .  Test,  i,  219  sq.  On 
the  Arabic  legends,  see  Fleischer,  Hist,  anteislam.  p.  321. 


KORAHITE 


150 


KORAN 


3.  The  first  named  of  the  fimr  sons  of  Hebron,  of  the 
family  of  Caleb,  of  the  tribe  of  Jiidah  (1  Chron.  ii,  43). 
B.C.  considerably  post  1012. 

Ko'rahite  (Hebrew  Korchi',  ^ty}^,  Exod.  vi,  24; 
Numb,  xxvi,  58;  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  xxvi,  19;  plur.  Kor- 
chini',  C^nip,  1  Chron. ix,  19 ;  xii, G ;  xxvi,  1 ;  2 Chron. 
XX,  19;  Septuag.  Kopt'r/jt,-,  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  Koplrai,  1 
Chron.  ix,  19 ;  xii,  (5 ;  elsewhere  paraphrases  viol,  nji-ioc, 
or  yeyiffHQ  Kope  ;  Auth.  Vers.  '•  Korahites,"  1  Chron.  ix, 
19;  "Korahite,"  1  Chron.  ix,  31 ;  "  Korathites,"  Numb. 
xxvi,  58;  "Kore,"  1  Chron.  xxvi,  19;  elsewhere  "  Kor- 
hites"),  the  patronymic  designation  of  that  portion  of 
the  Kohathites  who  were  descended  from  Korah,  and 
are  frequently  styled  by  the  synonymous  phrase  Sons 
of  Korah  (q.  v.).  Comp.  Asaph.  It  would  appear  at 
lirst  sight,  from  Exod.  vi,  24,  that  Korah  had  three  sons 
— Assir,  Elkanah,  and  Abiasaph— as  AViner,  Rosenmiil- 
ler,  etc.,  also  understand  it;  but  as  we  learn  from  1 
Chron.  vi,  22.  23,  37,  that  Assir,  Elkanah,  and  Abiasaph 
were  respectively  the  son,  grandson,  and  great  grand- 
son of  Korah,  it  seems  obvious  that  Exod.  vi,  24  gives 
us  the  chief  houses  sprung  from  Korah,  and  not  his  ac- 
tual sons,  and  therefore  that  Elkanah  and  Abiasaph  were 
not  the  sons,  but  later  descendants  of  Korah.  See  Sam- 
VKU  The  offices  tilled  by  the  sons  of  Korah,  as  far  as 
we  are  informed,  are  the  following : 

1.  They  were  an  important  branch  of  the  singers  in 
the  Kohathite  division,  Heman  himself  being  a  Korah- 
ite (1  Chron.  vi,  33),  and  the  Korahites  being  among 
those  who,  in  Jehoshaphat's  reign,  "  stood  up  to  praise 
the  Lord  God  of  Israel  with  a  loud  voice  on  high"  (2 
Chron.  xx,  19).  See  Hkman.  Hence  we  find  eleven 
psalms  (or  twelve,  if  Psa.  xliii  is  included  under  the 
same  title  as  Psa.  xlii)  dedicated  or  assigned  to  the  sons 
of  Korah,  viz.  Psa.  xlii,  xliv-xlix,  Ixxxiv,  Ixxxv,  Ixxxvii, 
Ixxxviii.  Winer  describes  them  as  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  the  collection,  from  their  liigh  lyric  tone. 
Origcn  says  it  was  a  remark  of  the  old  interpreters  that 
all  the  psalms  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  sons  of 
Korah  are  full  of  pleasant  and  chcerfid  subjects,  and  free 
from  anything  sad  or  harsh  {IJomil.  on  1  Kings,  i.  e.  1 
Sam.),  and  on  Matt,  xviii,  20  he  ascribes  the  authorship 
of  these  psalms  to  "  the  three  sons  of  Korah,"  who, "  be- 
cause they  agreed  together,  had  the  Word  of  God  in  the 
midst  of  them"  (Homil.  xiv).  St.  Augustine  has  a  still 
more  fanciful  conceit,  which  he  thinks  it  necessary  to 
repeat  in  almost  every  homily  on  the  eleven  psalms  in- 
scribed to  the  sons  of  Kore.  Adverting  to  the  interpre- 
tation of  Korah,  Calvities,  he  finds  in  it  a  great  mystery. 
Under  this  term  is  set  forth  Christ,  who  is  entitled  Cal- 
vus  because  he  was  crucified  on  Calvary,  and  was  mock- 
ed by  the  by-standers,  as  Elisha  had  been  by  the  chil- 
dren who  cried  after  him  ^' Calve,  cali:e!"  and  who, 
when  they  said  "  Go  up,  thou  bald  pate,"  had  prefigured 
the  crucifixion.  The  sons  of  Korah  are  therefore  the 
children  of  Christ  the  bridegroom  (JInmil.  on  Psalms). 
Of  moderns,  Kosenmuller  thinks  that  the  sons  of  Korali, 
especially  Heman,  were  the  authors  of  these  psalms, 
which,  he  says,  rise  to  greater  sublimity  and  breathe 
more  vehement  feelings  than  the  Psalms  of  David,  and 
quotes  Hensler  and  Eicliliorn  as  agreeing.  De  Wette 
also  considers  the  sons  of  Korah  as  the  authors  of  them 
{Einl.  p.  335-339),  and  so  does  Just.  Olshausen  on  the 
Psalms  {Exeg.  Ilandh.  Einl.  p.  22 ).  As,  however,  the  lan- 
guage of  several  of  these  psalms,  e.  g.  of  xlii,  Ixxxiv, 
etc.,  is  most  appropriate  to  the  circumstances  of  David, 
it  has  seemed  to  other  interpreters  much  simpler  to  ex- 
plain the  title  "for  the  sons  of  Korah"  to  mean  that 
they  were  given  to  them  to  sing  in  the  Temple  services. 
If  their  style  of  music,  vocal  and  instrumental,  was  of  a 
more  sublime  and  lyric  character  tlian  that  of  the  sons 
of  Merari  or  Gershon,  and  Htnian  had  mwre  fire  in  his 
execution  tlian  Asaph  and  Jeduthun,  it  is  perfectly  nat- 
ural that  David  should  have  given  his  more  poetic  and 
elevated  strains  to  Heman  anil  his  choir,  and  the  sim- 
pler and  quieter  psalms  to  the  other  choirs.     A  serious 


objection,  however,  to  this  view  is  that  the  same  titles 
contain  another  phrase  dedicating  the  psalms  in  ques- 
tion "  to  the  chief  musician,"  so  that  the  following  ex- 
pression must  be  rendered  bg  (5  "  auctoris")  the  Korah- 
ites. See  Psalms.  J.  van  Iperen  (ap.  RosenmiiUer)  as- 
signs these  psalms  to  the  times  of  Jehoshaphat;  others 
to  those  of  the  Maccabees;  Ewald  attributes  the  42d 
Psalm  to  Jeremiah.  The  piUT^ose  of  many  of  the  Ger- 
man critics  seems  to  be  to  reduce  the  antiquity  of  the 
Scriptures  as  low  as  possible. 

2.  Others,  again,  of  the  sons  of  Korah  were  "por- 
ters," i.  e.  doorkeepers,  in  the  Temple,  an  office  of  con- 
siderable dignity.  In  1  Chron.  ix,  17-19,  we  learn  that 
Shallum,  a  Korahite  of  the  line  of  Ebiasaph,  was  chief 
of  the  doorkeepers,  and  that  he  and  his  brethren  were 
over  the  works  of  the  service,  keepers  of  the  gates  of 
the  tabernacle  (compare  2  Kings  xxv,  18)  apparently 
about  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity.     See  also 

1  Chron.  ix,  22-29;  Jer.  xxxv,  4;  and  Ezra  ii,  42.  But 
in  1  Chron.  xxvi  we  find  that  this  official  station  of  the 
Korahites  dated  from  the  time  of  David,  and  that  their 
chief  was  then  Shelemiah  or  Meshelemiah,  the  son  of 
(Abi)asaph,  to  whose  custody  the  east  gate  fell  bj'  lot, 
being  the  principal  entrance.  Shelemiah  is  thought  to 
have  been  the  same  as  Shallum  in  1  Chron.  ix,  17,  and 
perhaps  MeshuUam,  2  Chron.  xxiv,  12;  Neh.  xii,  25, 
where,  as  in  so  many  other  places,  a  name  may  desig- 
nate, not  the  individuals,  but  the  house  or  family.     In 

2  Chron.  xxi,  14,  Kore,  the  son  of  Imnah  the  Levite,  the 
doorkeeper  towards  the  east,  who  was  over  the  free-will 
offerings  of  God  to  distribute  the  oblations  of  the  Lord 
and  the  most  holy  things,  was  probably  a  Korahite,  as 
we  find  the  name  Kore  in  the  family  of  Korah  in  1 
Chron.  ix,  19.  In  1  Chron.  ix,  31  we  find  that  jSIatti- 
thiah,  the  first-born  of  Shallum  the  Korahite,  had  the 
set  oflice  over  the  things  that  were  made  in  the  pans. — 
Smith.     See  Levite. 

Koraidhites  is  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
unfortunate  Jewish  tribe  of  Koraidha,  of  Northern  Ara- 
bia, which  Jlohammed  extirpated  upon  their  refusal  to 
accept  him  as  God's  "  prophet."  For  a  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  the  sufferings  of  the  Jews  of  Karaidha,  see  Grtitz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  1 25-127 ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  iii, 
99  sq. ;  jNIuir,  Life  of  Mohammed,  iii,  135  sq. ;  Sale's  Ko- 
ran, p.  345,  note  h.     See  Mohainimed. 

Koi'&n,  often  Anglicized  (when,  as  properly,  it  has 
the  article  prefixed)  Al-Coran,  but  more  iireciscly  Qu- 
raii.  The  emphasis  is  not  on  the  first  syllable,  as  many 
persons  plnce  it.  The  word  is  from  the  Arabic  root 
karaa,  and  means  literally  the  reading  —  that  which 
ought  to  be  read;  corresponding  nearly  to  the  Chaldee 
Keri  (q.  v.).  The  book  is  also  called  Furqun,  from  a 
root  signifying  to  divide  or  distinguish  ;  Sale  says  to  de- 
note a  section  or  p(n-tion  of  the  Scriptures;  but  Moham- 
medans say  because  it  distinguishes  between  good  and 
evil.  It  is  furthermore  spoken  of  as  A  l-Moshaf-^  The 
Volume,"  and  .1  l-Kitcib.  ••  The  Book,"  by  way  of  emi- 
nence; and  Al-Hhikr,  '"The  Admonition."  The  Koran 
is  the  Mohammedan  Book  of  Faith,  or,  as  wc  may  say, 
Bible. 

Divisions.— \l  consists  of  one  volume,  v.hicli  is  divided 
into  one  hundred  and  fourteen  larger  sections  or  portions 
called  Surus,  which  signifies  a  regular  scries.  These 
suras  or  sections  arc  not  numbered  in  the  original,  but 
bear  each  its  own  title,  which  is  generally  some  key- 
:\ord  in  the  chapter,  or  the  first  word  therein.  In  cases 
where  it  is  taken  from  near  the  close  of  the  chajiter,  it 
is  probal)le  that  that  ])ortion  was  originally  uttered  first. 
Some  sup]wse  these  titles  to  have  been  matter  of  revela- 
tion, as  also  the  initial  Bism-iUah.  ''  In  the  name  of 
( Jod."  etc.,  which  is  likewise  placed  as  a  prefatory  phrase 
in  all  iMoslem  books,  but  in  the  Koran  stands  at  the  head 
of  each  chai)tcr  or  sura.  There  are  twenty-nine  chap- 
ters which  begin  with  certain  letters,  and  these  the  Mo- 
hammedans believe  to  conceal  profound  mysteries,  that 
have  not  been  communicated  to  any  but  the  prophet  •, 


KORAN 


151 


KORAN 


notwithstanding  which,  various  explanations  of  them 
have  been  proffered.  For  these  curious  but  unimpor- 
tant theories,  see  Sale,  p.  43.  The  chapters  or  suras  do 
not  no^v  stand  in  tlie  order  in  which  they  were  original- 
ly uttered.  As  the  Mohammedan  theory  concerning  the 
reconciliation  of  inconsistencies  in  the  Koran  is  that  the 
later  revelation  abrogates  any  former  one  with  which 
it  conflicts,  and  as  some  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
of  the  passages  of  the  Koran  are  admitted  thus  to  have 
been  cancelled,  their  chronological  order  frequently  be- 
comes a  matter  of  considerable  importance.  The  real 
order  in  point  of  time,  and,  therefore,  authority,  as  now 
determined,  after  immense  painstaking,  is  the  following : 
Suras  numbered  103, 100,  99,  91, 106, 1, 101,  95, 102, 104, 
82, 92, 105,  89, 90,  93,  94, 108,  were  dehvered  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  here  set  down  in  the  first  stage  of 
Mohammed's  prophetic  career.  Suras  nimibered  90, 1 12, 
74,  111,  belong  to  the  second  period  of  his  career,  and 
extend  to  his  fortieth  year.  Those  numbered  87, 97, 88, 
80, 81,  84, 86, 110,  85, 83, 78,  77,  76,  75, 70, 109, 107, 55, 56, 
belong  to  the  third  period.  Numbers  67,  53, 32, 39,  73, 
79,  54, 34, 31, 09,  68,  41, 71,  52, 50, 45,  44, 37, 30, 26, 15,  51, 
cover  the  time  from  the  sixth  to  the  tenth  year  of  JIo- 
hammed's  mission.  Numbers  46,  72,  35,  36,  19,  18,  27, 
42, 40,  38,  23,  20, 43, 12, 11, 10, 14,  6,  64,  28,  23, 22, 21, 17, 
16, 13,  29,  7,  to  the  fifth  stage.  The  date  of  numbers 
113, 114  is  not  known.  Numbers  2,  47,  57,  8,  58,  65,  98, 
62,  59,  24,  63, 48,  61, 4,  3,  5,  33,  60,  06, 49,  9,  are  those  de- 
livered at  iledina.  Most  of  the  others  were  delivered 
at  Mecca,  though  some  were  delivered  partly  at  IMedina 
and  partly  at  Mecca.  The  Koran  is  further  subdivided 
by  the  e([uivalent  of  our  verses,  called  Ayat,  wliich 
means  si(jas  or  wonders,  as  the  secrets  of  God's  attri- 
butes, works,  judgments,  etc.  It  is  again  arranged  in 
sixty  equal  portions  called  Ileizb,  each  of  winch  is  di- 
vided into  four  equal  parts  (or  into  thirty  portions  twice 
the  length  of  the  former,  and  subdivided  into  four  parts), 
for  the  use  of  the  readers  in  the  royal  temples  or  in  the 
adjoining  chapels  where  the  emperors  and  great  men 
are  interred.  Thirty  of  these  readers  belong  to  each 
chapel,  and  each  reads  his  section  every  day,  so  that  the 
whole  Koran  is  read  through  once  a  day  (Sale,  p.  42). 

Contents. — The  matter  of  the  Koran  is  exceedingly 
incoherent  and  sententious,  the  book  evidently  being 
without  any  logical  order  of  thought  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  its  parts.  This  agrees  with  the  desultory  and  in- 
cidental manner  in  which  it  is  said  to  have  been  deliv- 
ered. The  following  table  of  the  suras  (condensed  from 
Sale)  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  its  miscellaneous 
range  of  topics.  IMany  of  the  headings,  however,  are,  as 
above  explained,  simply  catch-titles,  taken  from  some 
prominent  word  or  expression.  Most  of  the  contents 
are  preceptive  merely ;  some  are  a  travesty  of  Bible  his- 
tory; others  recount  in  a  vague  and  fragmentary  way 
incidents  in  the  prophet's  personal  or  public  career ;  and 
a  few  are  somewhat  speculative.  Generally  these  ele- 
ments are  indiscriminately  mixed  in  the  same  piece. 

■^■"•P-    Tit.1fiintl,„nM.,;n»l  ..^o.ofiChnp-    T;ti„;„.i,orv.;„!„„,     No.  of 


^_^, _      Title  in  the  Original.  ^°^-°l  i '^,'^^P-    Title  in  the  Original.   ^  _.^^^^ 

1.  Preface 7 !  23!  The  True  Believers .  118 

2.  The  Cow 2S6|  24.  Light 74 

3.  The  Family  of  Imraa  200,  25.  Al-Forkau  IT/ie  Ko- 

4.  Women lT5i  »•««] 77 

5.  The  Table 1-20    2G.  The  Poets 227 

C.  Cattle 165|  27.  The  Ant 93 

7.  Al-Araf 2061  28.  The  Story 87 

S.TheSpoils 70;  29.  The  Spider 09 

9.  The  Declaration  of  30.  The  Greeks 60 

Immunity  iConiw-     .      31.  Lokman 34 

■WJU] 1.59    32.  Adoration 29 

10.  Jonas 109    33.  The  Confederates  . .  73 

11.  Ilud 1231  34.  Saba 54 

12.  Joseph Ill:  35.  TheCreator  [.l»!/;e?.s-]  45 

13.  Thunder 43l  30.  Y.  S.  [I.  S.] 83 

14.  Abraham 52:  37.  Those  who  rank  them- 


15.  A\-ne]n\[.rheFti<jht] 
10.  The  Bee 12S 

17.  The  Night  Journey.  110 

18.  The  Cave Ill 

19.  Mary so 

20.  T.  H 134 

21.  The  Prophets 112 

22.  The  Pilgrimage  ....    7S 


selves  iu  Order  [The 

Classes-] 1S2 

3S.  S 86 

39.  The  Troops 75 

40.  The  True  Believers.    85 

41.  Are    distinctly   Ex- 

plained lExplana- 
tioit] 54 


<^,'"'P-   Title  in  the  Origin..!.  ^'^■"1  '^'"'P- 
ter.  °  V  erses. 

42.  Consultation 53 

43.  The   Ornaments    of 

God  [Uresiil 89 

44.  Smoke 67 

45.  The  Kneeling 36 

40.  Al-Ahkaf 35 

47.  Mohammed[T/ieBa«-  82, 

tie-] 38    83, 

4S.  The  Victory 29 

49.  The    Inner    Apart-  84, 

ments  VSanctuanil    IS   85. 

50.  K ■..     45    86. 

51.  The  Dispersing  [Z)Veaf/t     87, 

of  the  mnds] 60    88, 

52.  The  Mountain 48 

53.  The  Star 61    89, 

54.  The  Moon 55    90, 

55.  The  Merciful 78 

60.  ThelnevitableCJi/dfir-  91 

ment] 99    92, 

57.  Iron 29    9: 

58.  She    who   Disputed 

[The  Complaint] . .     22 

59.  TheEmigratiou  [The 

Assembly] 24    95, 

GO.  Shewhoistried[r/te  96, 

Proof] 13 

61.  Battle  Array 14 

C2.  The  Assembly  [Fri- 

dan] 11 

63.  The  Hypocrites  [Im-         08, 

-pioxis]   11    99, 

64.  Mutual  Deceit  [Knav-       100, 

ery] 18  101, 

65.  Divorce 12 

66.  Prohibition 12 

67.  The  Kingdom 30 

OS.  The  Pen 52 

69.  Thelnfallible  [Thcin-       103, 

evitable  Day] 52  104 

70.  The  Steps  [The  Class-       10.5 

es] 44  106, 

71.  Noah 28  107. 

72.  The  Genii 28 

73.  TheWrappedupETOc       108 

Prophet  in  his  Dress]  19  109, 

74.  TheCovered[rAe.Va«-      110, 

tie] 55  111, 

75.  The  Resurrection....  40  112, 

76.  Man SI 

77.  Those  who  are  sent       113, 

[TIieMesseufiers]...  50 
73.  The[Im])ortant]News40  114, 
79.  Those  who  tear  forth 

Manner  of  Preservation. — ^IVIohammed's  professed  rev- 
elations were  made  at  intervals  extending  over  a  period 
of  twenty-three  years,  when  the  canon  was  closed.  We 
have  no  certain  information  about  the  manner  of  their 
preservation  during  tlie  prophet's  life.  Manj^  persons 
wrote  them  on  palm-leaves  and  various  other  substances 
which  were  conveniently  at  hand.  A  writer  in..the  Cal- 
cutta Review  (xix,  8)  says :  '•  In  the  latter  part  of  his  ca- 
reer the  prophet  had  many  Arabic  amaiuienses ;  some  of 
them  occasional,  as  Ali  and  Othman,  others  official,  as 
Zeid  ibn-Thabit  (who  also  learned  Hebrew  expressly  in 
order  to  conduct  Mohammed's  business  at  Medina).  In 
WAckidy's  collection  of  dispatches  the  writers  are  men- 
tioned, and  they  amount  to  fourteen.  Some  say  there 
were  four-and-twenty  of  his  followers  whom  he  used 
more  or  less  as  scribes,  others  as  many  as  forty-two 
(Weil's  Mohammed,  p.  350).  In  his  early  life  at  Jlecca 
he  could  not  have  had  these  facilities,  but  even  then 
his  wife,  Khadija  (who  coidd  read  the  sacred  Scriptures), 
might  have  recorded  his  revelations;  or  Waraca,  j\li,  or 
Abu-Bekr.  At  Medina,  Obey  ibn-Kab  is  mentioned  as 
one  who  used  to  record  the  inspired  recitations  of  Mo- 
hammed (Wackid}',  p.  277i).  Abdallah  ibn-Sad,  anoth- 
er, was  excepted  from  the  Meccan  amnesty  because  he 
had  falsified  the  revelation  dictated  to  him  by  the  proph- 
et (Weil's  JfokatHmed).  It  is  also  evident  that  tlie  rev- 
elations were  recorded,  because  they  are  frequently  call- 
ed throughout  the  Koran  itself  Kitab, '  tlie  writing,'  i.  e. 
Scriptures."  Besides  this,  however,  there  were  many 
persons  who  recited  these  sayings  daily,  considering 
their  repetition  to  be  a  duty,  and  persons  generally  re- 
peated some  parts  of  them.  It  was  said  that  .some  could 
repeat  literally  every  word  of  the  Koran.  The  recital 
of  a  portion  of  it  was  essential  iu  everj'  celebration  of 


[  The   Ministers    of 

Vengeaiice] 46 

He  Frowned  [The 

Frown] 42 

TheFoldiug  upLIiarfc- 

vtt'.ss] 29 

The  Cleaving  asunder  19 
Those  who  give  short 

Measure  or  Weiglit  36 
The  Rending  asunder  23 
The  Celestial  Signs,.  22 
The  Nocturnal  Star..  17 

The  Most  High 19 

The     Overwhelming 

[The  Gloomy  Veil] .  26 

The  Daybreak 30 

The    Territory   [The 

City] 20 

The  Suu 15 

The  Night 21 

The  Brightness  [The 

Sun  in  Meridian] . .  11 
Have  we  not  opened? 

[The  Exposition]...     8 

TheJ?ig-[ti-ee] 8 

The  Congealed  Blood 

[The  Union  of  the 

Se.res] 19 

Al-Kadir  [The  Cele- 
brated Night] 5 

The  Evidence S 

The  Earthquake 8 

The  War  Hor.'^es 11 

The  Striking  [Day  of 

Calamities] 10 

The  Enmlous  Desire 

ofMultiplyiug[Lore 

of  Gain] S 

The  Afternoon 3 

The  Slanderer 9 

The  Elephant 5 

Koreish 4 

Necessaries  [The  Siic- 

coring  Hand] 7 

Al-Kaliiar 3 

The  Unbelievers 0 

Assistance 3 

Abu  Laheb 5 

The    Declaratio.i    of 

God's  Unit V 4 

The   Daybreak  [God 

of  Morning] 5 

Man 6 


KORAN 


152 


KORAN 


public  worship,  and  its  private  perusal  was  urged  as  a 
duty  and  considered  a  iirivilege.  No  order  was,  how- 
ever, observed  in  their  perusal,  in  public  the  imam  or 
preacher  selecting  according  to  his  own  pleasure. 

Colkded  hi/  Zeid. — ]\Iany  of  the  best  memorizers  of 
the  Koran  were  slain  in  battle  at  Yemana,  whereupon 
Omar  advised  caliph  Abu-Bckr,  "as  tlie  battle  might 
again  wax  hot  among  the  repeaters  of  the  Koran,"  that 
he  shoidd  appoint  Zeid  to_  collect  from  all  sources  the 
matter  of  the  Koran.  This  Zeid  did  from  date-leaves, 
tablets  of  white  stones,  breasts  of  men,  fragments  of 
parchment  and  paper,  and  pieces  of  leather,  and  the 
shoulder  and  rib  bones  of  camels  and  goats.  Sale  sup- 
poses that  Zeid  did  not  compile,  but  merely  reduced  to 
order  the  various  suras.  This,  however,  was  but  im- 
perfectly done.  Zeid's  copy  was  committed  to  the  care 
of  Ilafza,  the  daughter  of  Omar. 

Recension  in  Othmwis  Time. — A  variety  of  expres- 
sion either  originally  prevailed,  or  soon  crept  into  cop- 
ies made  from  Zeid's  edition.  The  Koran  was  "  one," 
but  if  there  were  several  varying  texts  where  would  be 
its  unity  ?  There  were  marked  differences  between  the 
Syrian  and  Iranian  readings.  The  caliph  Othman  or- 
dered Zeid  and  three  of  the  Koreish  (q.  v.)  to  reproduce 
an  authorized  version  from  the  copy  of  Hafza,  and  this 
was  subsequentl}'  sent  into  all  the  principal  cities,  all  pre- 
vious copies  being  directed  to  be  burned.  This  recen- 
sion being  objected  to  in  modern  times  on  the  ground 
that  the  Koran  is  incorruptible  and  eternal,  and  pre- 
sers'ed  from  all  error  and  variety  of  readings  by  the  mi- 
raculous interposition  of  God,  the  Mohammedans  now 
say  that  it  was  originally  revealed  in  seven  different 
dialects  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  that  the  men  in  ques- 
tion only  selected  from  these.  The  variations  in  the 
copies  of  Othman's  edition  are  marvellously  few.  There 
is  probably  no  other  work  which  has  remained  twelve 
ccuturies  with  so  pure  a  text. 

A  uthenticity. — It  would  appear  difficult,  notwithstand- 
ing the  care  taken  since  Othman's  day,  to  prove  that 
the  Koran  has  been  entirely  uncorrnpted.  The  Shiite 
Mussidmans  say  that  Othman  struck  out  ten  sections, 
or  one  fourth  part  of  the  whole;  and  the  Dahistdn, 
translated  by  Shea  and  Iroyer  (ii,  3G8),  contains  one  of 
the  sections  said  to  have  been  struck  out.  Again,  whlje 
the  Koran  was  in  the  care  of  Hafza,  one  of  Mohammed's 
wives,  we  cannot  say  that  it  was  not  in  any  way  tam- 
pered with.  The  balance  of  evidence,  however,  is  prob- 
ably against  the  views  of  the  Shiite  sect.  At  the  time 
of  the  recension  there  were  multitudes  who  had  tran- 
scripts, and  who  remembered  accurately  what  thcj'  had 
heard.  There  was  bitter  political  enmity  to  Othman, 
headed  by  Ali,  who  would  gladly  have  seized  on  any 
such  Haw  or  failure.  Abu-Bekr  was  a  sincere  follower 
of  Mohammed,  and  all  the  people  seem  to  have  been  ear- 
nest in  their  endeavor  to  reproduce  the  divine  message. 
The  compilation  was  made  within  two  years  of  the 
prophet's  death,  while  yet  there  were  official  reciters 
and  tutors  of  the  Koran  in  every  quarter.  The  very 
fragmentary  and  patchwork  character  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  book  bears  marks  of  honesty;  yet  passages 
revealed  at  various  periods  may,  after  all,  not  be  all  in- 
cluded. The  very  call  fur  the  recension  of  Othman's  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  urged  as  evidence  of  acknowledged 
corruiition. 

Tlip  Koran  as  a  Rerxdation. — The  Jlohammedan  the- 
ory is  tliat  the  Koran  is  eternal  and  uncreated,  and  was 
first  ^NTJtten  in  heaven  on  a  table  of  vast  size,  called 
"  the  Treserved  Table ;"  that  a  copy  of  this  volume  was 
made  on  paper,  and  brought  by  (Jaliriel  down  to  the 
lowest  heaven  in  the  month  of  Ilamadan,  from  which 
copy  the  work  was  at  various  times  communicated  to 
the  prophet.  The  whole  «-as  shown  to  Jlohammed 
once  a  year,  and  the  last  3-ear  of  his  life  he  sa^y  it  twice. 

The  evidence  relied  on  to  prove  its  inspiration,  so  far 
as  fonu<l  within  the  Koran  itself,  is  as  follows: 

1.  I'liat  Mohammed  was  furcrold  l)y  .Tesus  in  these 
words :  '■  Oh  children  of  Israel.  1  bring  glad  tidings  of 


an  apostle  who  shall  come  after  me,  whose  name  shall 
be  Ahmad"  (sura  0).  Ahmad  is  from  the  same  root, 
and  has  almost  the  samjc  meaning  as  Mohammed.  A 
passage  of  the  New  Test.  (John  xvi,  7),  in  which  Christ 
promises  to  send  the  Comforter,  is  wrested  for  the  same 
service,  as  also  are  Psa.  i,  2,  and  Deut.  xxxiii,  2. 

2.  Some  suppose  that  the  Koran  contains  (iccounts  of 
miracles  worked  by  Mohammed.  The  2-l:th  sura  cf)n- 
tains  what  some  ^Mohammedans  interpret  as  an  account 
of  Mohammed's  spliltin//  the  moon.  The  jMohammedan 
critics  are  not  agreed  themselves  as  to  whether  the 
prophet  there  speaks  in  the  future  or  past  tense.  Wheth- 
er he  does  not  merely  alhrm  that  the  moon  shall  be  split 
before  the  day  of  judgment  admits  of  question.  Mo- 
hammed elsewhere  in  the  Koran  distinctly  and  repeat- 
edly denies  that  he  could  or  would  work  miracles  (sura 
13-17,  etc.).  The  night  journey  of  Mohammed  from 
Mecca  to  Jerusalem  (sura  17),  and  the  conversion  of  the 
jinns  or  genii  who  heard  him  reading  the  Koran  (sura 
4G,  72),  are  also  referred  to  as  miracles  by  the  ]M(iham- 
medans,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  language  in  the  Koran 
was  intended  to  assert  what  it  has  since  been  made  to 
support.  Various  passages  are  referred  to  by  ]\Ioliam- 
medans  to  show  that  their  prophet  foretold  future  events 
— as  the  account  in  the  30th  sura  about  the  Greeks  be- 
ing overcome;  but  the  commentators  are  not  agreed  as 
to  the  reference  (sura  24,  27-48). 

3.  But  the  predictions  in  the  Koran  were  never  re- 
ferred to  as  evidence  of  Jlohammed's  inspiration.  The 
real  testimony  to  the  inspiration  of  the  Koran  appealed 
to  throughout  by  IMoharamedans  is  the  book  itself.  The 
author  of  it  everj-where  appeals  to  it  as  a  literary  mira- 
cle:  it  is  "uncreated"  and  ".eternal"  (Sale,  p.  4(5);  it 
could  not  have  been  composed  by  any  but  God  (Sale,  p. 
160) ;  Mohammed  challenges  men  and  genii  to  produce 
a  chapter  like  it  (Sale,  p.  109-235) ;  no  revelation  could 
be  more  self-evident  (Sale,  p.  130) ;  it  contains  all  things 
necessarj^  to  know  (Sale,  p.  221,  273);  it  was  so  won- 
derful that  it  was  traduced  by  its  enemies  as  a  piece  of 
sorcery  (Sale,  p.  100),  as  a  poetical  composition  (Sale,  p. 
304);  it  was  not  liable  to  corruption  (Sale,  p.  176),  and 
should  not  be  touched  by  the  ceremoniallv  unclean  (Sale, 
p.  437). 

The  Style  of  the  Koran. — It  is  difficult  to  make  a  pre- 
cise judgment  of  its  merits.  It  was  written  in  a  dialect 
of  Arabic  which  maj--  now  almost  be  called  a  dead  lan- 
guage. It  is  composed  in  a  kind  of  balanced  prose, 
with  frequent  rhyming  terminations;  a  sort  of  compo- 
sition once  greatly  admired  by  the  Syrian  Christians, 
but  in  Europe  neither  the  poetic  cadence  nor  the  jingling 
sound  is  deemed  suitable  to  prose  composition.  Some 
learned  Mussulmans  have  not  considered  it  remarkably 
beautiful  (Pocock's  Specimen  Hist.  Arabiim,  ed.  White, 
p.  224 ;  IMaracci,  Prodi-omiis,  iii,  75 ;  Lee's  J\Iarti/n's 
Tracts,  p.  124,  135).  (iibbon  is  probably  too  severe  in 
his  judgment  if  his  remarks  have  reference  to  its  man- 
ner and  not  to  its  matter,  when  he  calls  it  an  "incohe- 
rent rhapsody  of  fable,  and  precept,  and  declamation, 
which  sometimes  crawls  in  the  dust,  and  sometimes  is 
lost  in  the  clouds"  (I)ecl.  and  Fall  Roman  Empire,  i,  p. 
305,  Milman's  edition).  Some  affirm  that  Hamzah  ben- 
Ahmed  wrote  ^  book  against  the  Koran  with  at  least 
equal  elegance ;  and  !Maslema  another,  which  surjiassed 
it,  and  occasioned  a  defection  of  a  great  number  of  JIus- 
sulmans.  There  is  perhaps  little  reason  to  differ  from 
the  representations  of  Mr.  Sale  when  he  says,  "  The  Ko- 
ran is  usually  allowed  to  be  writtoi  with  the  utmost  el- 
egance and  purity  of  language  in  the  dialect  of  the  Ko- 
reish, the  most  noble  and  polite  of  all  the  Arabians,  but 
with  some  mixture,  though  very  rarely,  of  other  dia- 
lects. It  is  confessedly  the  standard  of  the  Arabic 
tongue,  and,  as  the  more  orthodox  believe,  and  are 
taught  by  the  book  itself,  inimitable  by  any  human  pen 
(though  some  sectaries  have  been  of  another  opinion), 
and  therefore  insisted  on  as  a  permanent  miracle,  great- 
er than  that  of  raising  the  dead,  and  alone  sufficient  to 
convince  the  world  of  its  divine  original"  ( A'o;-a??,  p. 43). 


KORAN 


153 


KORAN 


Relation  to  the  Bible. — The  Koran  maintains  that  rev- 
elation is  gradual,  and  that  God  has  given  written  rev- 
elations to  many  prophets  from  time  to  time,  nons  of 
which  are  extant  except  the  I'entateuch  of  Moses,  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  the  Gospel  of  Jesus ;  that  God 
revives,  and  republishes  or  reproduces  from  time  to  time 
his  revelations  through  his  prophets,  according  to  the 
necessit}-^  of  the  case.  The  three  revelations — Jewish, 
Christian,  and  that  of  the  Mussidman — are  equally  in- 
spired and  divine.  The  preceding  Scriptures  are,  how- 
ever, to  be  interpreted  according  to  the  latest  revelation, 
and  are  liable  to  have  their  ordinances  modified  in  con- 
formity therewith.  A  distinction  is  thus  made  between 
belie/  in  and  oUir/ntion  to  obey  these  precepts.  The 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  are  variously  spoken 
of  as  '•  the  Word  of  God,"  "  Book  of  God,"  Taiirdt,  etc. ; 
they  are  described  as  "  revelations  made  bj-  God  in  ages 
preceding  the  Koran."  Exhortations  are  given  "to 
judge"  in  accordance  therewith.  Mohammed  himself 
was  sent  "  to  attest  the  former  Scrijjtures,"  etc.  (Com- 
pare passages  in  the  following  suras :  2,  8,  4.  5,  G,  7,  P, 
10,  II,  12,  is,  16,  17,  19,  20,  21,  23,  25,  26,  28,  20,  32,  34, 
35,  37,  39,  40,  41,  42,  43, 45,  46,  47,  48,  53,  54,  61,  62,  6C, 
74,  80,  87,  98.) 

There  are  various  correspondences  with  these  Scrip- 
tures, as  in  the  accounts  of  the  fall  of  Ad.am  and  Eve, 
the  narratives  of  Noah  and  the  deluge,  of  Abraham, 
Sarah,  Lot,  Isaac,  Moses,  Joseph,  Zacharias,  John  the 
Baptist,  etc.  The  contradictions  are,  however,  innumer- 
able :  e.  g.  one  of  Noah's  sons  was  drowned  in  the  Del- 
uge (sura  11);  the  wife  of  Pharaoh  saved  Moses  (sura 
28)  ;  the  wind  was  subject  to  Solomon  (sura  21 )  ;  Solo- 
mon was  driven  from  his  kingdom  ;  devils  built  for  Sol- 
omon, other  devils  dived  for  him  (ibid.) ;  thousands  of 
dead  Israelites  were  raised  to  life  (sura  3) ;  Ezra  and 
his  ass  died  for  a  hundred  years,  and  were  then  raised 
to  life  (sura  2) ;  the  grossest  being  that  Jesus  teas  not 
crucified,  and  is  not  the  Son  of  God  (sura  4). 

Sources  of  Jeioish  and  Christian  Elements. — The  Jew- 
ish and  Christian  elements  in  the  Koran  are  readily  to 
be  accounted  for.  Jews  from  all  parts  of  Arabia  were  in 
yearly  attendance  at  the  great  fairs  of  Ocatz,  Mujanna, 
Dzul,  Majaz,  etc.,  and  great  mercantile  journeys  were 
made  from  iMecca  to  Syria,  Yemen,  and  Abyssinia  at 
least  once  a  year.  Christianity  was  established  in  these 
quarters.  Some  Arabs  even  reached  much  further. 
Othman  ibn-Huweirith,  a  citizen  of  Mecca,  went  to 
Constantinople,  and  subsequently  returned  a  baptized 
Christian.  Arabs  frequented  the  Christian  courts  of 
Hira  and  Ghassan,  which  adjoined  Arabia  on  the  north. 
Mohannned  himself  had  been  twice  to  Medina.  Blore 
than  a  hundred  of  his  followers  found  refuge  in  the 
Christian  court  of  Abyssinia,  both  before  and  after  the 
Hegira.  Embassies  were  sent  by  Mohammed  to  the 
Koman  and  Persian  courts,  to  Abyssinian  and  other 
Christian  chiefs.  "Mohammed  had  connection  with 
Jews  and  Christians  of  every  quarter  of  the  civilized 
world"  (Muir's  Teslimoni/,  p.  118, 119).  There  are,  more- 
over, many  prominent  individual  cases  :  Zeid  was  of 
Syria,  among  whom  Cliristianity  prevailed.  He  was 
captured  and  sold  into  slavery,  and  was  presented  to 
Khadija  shortly  after  her  marriage  to  Mohammed,  who 
loved  liim,  and  adopted  him  as  his  own  son.  He  learned 
Hebrew.  Waraca,  a  cousin  of  Khadija,  was  a  convert 
to  Christianity,  acquainted  with  the  religious  tenets  and 
sacred  Scriptures  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  cofiied  or 
translated  some  portion  of  the  Gospel  in  Arabic  or  He- 
brew, and  was  of  the  family  of  Mohammed.  The  slaves 
generally  of  Mecca  knew  something  of  Christianity  and 
Judaism  (Muir's  Mohammed). 

Mohammedans,  however,  do  not  admit  that  our  pres- 
ent Scriptures  are  trustworthy,  but  believe  them  to  liave 
been  interpolated  and  otherwise  coiTupted.  Tlicy  quote 
a  great  number  of  passages  of  the  Koran  to  establish 
this.  Mr.  Muir  {Testimonji,  p.  119  sq.)  nevertheless 
shows  that  there  is  no  charge  in  tlie  Koran  against  the 
Christians  on  this  account,  and  that  even  those  against 


the  Jews  are  of  "  hiding,  concealing"  the  whole,  and  uot 
of  corrupting. 

Doctrines  and  Hforxils. — The  contents  of  the  Koran 
as  the  basis  of  Mohammedanism  will  be  considered  un- 
der that  head,  while  for  questions  more  closely  connect- 
ed with  authorship  and  chronology  we  must  refer  to 
MoHAM.MED.  Brietiy  it  may  be  stated  here  that  "the 
chief  doctrine  laid  down  in  it  is  the  unity  of  God,  and 
the  existence  of  but  one  true  religion,  with  changeable 
ceremonies.  When  mankind  turned  from  it  at  different 
times,  God  sent  prophets  to  lead  them  back  to  truth ; 
Moses,  Christ,  and  l\Iohammed  being  the  most  distin- 
guished. Both  punishments  for  the  sinner  and  rewards 
for  the  pious  are  depicted  with  great  diffusencss,  and 
exemplified  chiefly  by  stories  taken  from  the  Bible,  the 
ai)Ocryphal  writings,  and  the  ISIidrash.  Special  laws  and 
directions,  admonitions  to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  more 
particularly  to  a  complete  and  unconditional  resignation 
to  God's  will,  legends,  principally  relating  to  the  patri- 
archs, and,  almost  without  exception,  borrowed  from  the 
Jewish  writings  (known  to  IMohammed  by  oral  commu- 
nication onlj-,  a  circumstance  which  accounts  for  their 
often  odd  confusion),  form  the  bulk  of  the  book,  which 
throughout  bears  the  most  palpable  traces  of  Jewish  in- 
fluence" (Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.). 

Outward  Reverence. — The  ]\Iohammedans  regard  the 
Koran  witli  great  esteem,  never  holding  it  below  the 
girdle  nor  touching  it  without  purification.  It  is  con- 
sulted on  all  matters  of  importance,  and  is  the  basis  of 
the  entire  civil  code  and  procedure  of  all  IMohammcdan 
countries.  Sentences  from  it  are  inscribed  on  tlicir  ban- 
ners :  they  are  written  on  tissue  paper,  and  are  suspend- 
ed in  gold  and  silver  lockets  from  their  necks.  The  ma- 
terials of  its  binding  are  often  costly,  being  emblazoned 
with  gold  and  precious  stones.  Mohammedans  much 
dislike  to  see  the  book  in  the  hands  of  "infidels,"  as 
they  call  all  but  Islamites.  The  bazaars  or  streets  in 
which  if  is  sold  in  Constantinople  have  become  almost 
as  sacred  as  mosques,  and  the  dealers  in  the  Koran  have 
come  to  be  as  much  reverenced  as  the  preacher.  Ke- 
mal  Bey  has  recently  had  photographed  a  famous  copy 
of  the  Koran,  written  nearly  tvio  hundred  vears  ago  (in 
1004  of  the  Ilegira)  by  Ilafiz  Osman,  from"  the  MSS.  of 
Al-Kari,  a  celebrated  doctor  {friend  of  India,  Nov.  2, 
1871 ;  also  A  thenaum).  Multitudes  of  Mussulmans  know 
the  entire  Koran  by  heart ;  these  are  called  Ilatiz,  and 
are  much  venerated  in  consequence. 

Ti-anslations,  Commentaries,  Editions,  etc.  —  Various 
versions  of  the  Koran  have  been  made.  IMohammedans 
do  not  object  to  this  (Sale,  p.  50).  Of  French  transla- 
tions we  have  those  of  Du  Koyer,  Savary  (with  notes, 
1783),  Garcia  do  Tassy  (1820),  and  Kassi  Mirski  (1840). 
In  Latin  there  is  an  early  one  (A.D.  1143)  by  Ketencn- 
sis,  an  Englishman  (Basle,  1543),  and  an  Italian  one  from 
it — both  condemned  by  Sale.  The  Latin  transL-ftion  of 
Maracci  (1698)  is  much  quoted  by  authors.  In  German 
we  have  those  of  Megerlin  (1772),Wahl  (1828),  and  UU- 
mann  (1840).  In  English  there  is  Kodwell's  (1862),  and 
the  excellent  one  with  notes  by  George  Sale  (first  edit. 
1734;  last,  Lond.  1861) ;  also  Lane's  /Selections  from,  the 
Koran  (Lond.  1843,  12mo).  Besides  these  there  are  a 
great  number  of  Persian,  Turkish,  Malay,  Hindustani, 
and  other  translations,  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  vari- 
ous Eastern  Moslems. 

Of  concordances  to  the  Koran  may  be  mentioned  tliat 
of  Flligel  (Leipz.  1842),  and  the  Niijiim  al-FCirkan  (Cal- 
cutta, 1811). 

The  Koran  has  been  commented  upon  so  often  that 
the  names  of  the  commentators  alone  would  fill  volumes. 
Thus,  the  library  of  Tripoli,  in  Syria,  is  reported  to  liave 
once  contained  no  less  than  20,000  commentaries.  The 
most  renowned  are  those  of  Samachshari  (died  539  He- 
gira), Beidhavi  (died  685  or  716  Hegira),  Malialli  (died 
870  Hegira),  and  Sovuti  (died  91 1  Hegira).  The  Amer- 
ican Oriental  Society  has  in  its  library  at  New  Haven  a 
superior  copy  of  the  Persian  Commentary  on  the  Koran, 
by  Kamiil  ed-Din  Husam  (2  vols,  hi  one,  foUo).    For  a 


KORATHITE 


154 


KOREISH 


full  list  of  tliese  and  tlie  Oriental  translations  and  edi- 
tions of  tilt'  Koran,  sec  Triil hut's  pr.niijhlct,  .1  Cataloijue 
of  A  ruble,  Persian,  and  TurkUh  Books  printed  in  the 
East  (Ei^j-pt,  Tunis,  Oiidh,  Bombay,  etc.).     See  Au.vbic 

L.VNGUAdE. 

The  principal  editions  are  those  of  Hinkelmann  (Ham- 
burg. 1094),  Maracoi  (Padua,  1G98),  Fliigel  (Leipzig,  3d 
cd.  1838,  a  splendid  one),  besides  many  editions  (of  small 
critical  value)  printed  in  St.  Petersburg,  Kasan,  Teheran, 
Calcutta,  Cawnpore,  Serampore,  and  the  many  newly- 
erected  Indian  jiresscs. 

Literature. — In  addition  to  the  above,  special  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  W.  3Iuir,  The  Testimony  borne  bij 
the  Koran  to  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures  (Alla- 
habad. India,  1860) ;  Prof.  Gerock,  Christoloyie  des  Koran 
(Hamburg,  1839) ;  Muir,  Life  of  Mahomet  (Lond.  18G0), 
A-ol.  iv  (the  first  volume  being  almost  entirely  occupied 
with  a  discussion  of  the  sources  available  for  such  a  bi- 
ograjjliy) ;  a  valuable  article  in  the  Calcutta  Review,  vol. 
xix;  the  Journal  Asiatique,  July,  1838,  p.  41  sq. ;  De 
Tassy,  Doctrines  et  devoirs  de  la  Religion  Musulniane 
tires  du  Coi-an;  White  {Bampton  Lectures'),  Comjnirison 
of  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity ;  Neal,  Islamism,  its 
Rise  and  Progress  (2  vols.  12mo — valueless) ;  LMters  to 
Indian  Youth,  hy  Dr.  Murray  Mitchell,  of  Bombay ;  Life 
and Reiiyion  of  Mohammed,in  accordance  with  the  Shiite 
Traditions  of  the  IJezat  al-Kulud  (translated  from  the 
Persian  by  Kev.  J.  L.  Merrick,  Boston,  1850) ;  Noldeke 
(Theodor),  Gesch.  d.  Quoran  (Getting.  1860) ;  \Veil,//w- 
torische  Einleit.  in  den  Koran  (Bielf.  1844) ;  Weil,  Mo- 
hammed der  Prophet  sein  Leben  u.  s.  I^ehre  (Stuttg.  1843, 
8vo);  Sprenger, /.eie/i  u.  I^ehre  von  Muhammed  (Berlin, 
18G1)  ;  Ivreraer,  Alfred  von,  Gesch.  d.  herrschenden  Ideen 
des  /slums  (Lpz.  1868) ;  Perceval  (Caus'fein  de),  Essai  sur 
Vhistoire  des  Arabes,  (ivant  I'lslamisme, pendant  I'ejwque 
de  Mahomet,  et  jusqu'a  la  reduction  de  iouies  les  tribus 
sous  la  lot  J/uA-su/marte  (Paris,  1847-8, 3  vols.  8vo);  and 
especially  Series  of  Essays  on  the  Life  of  Mohammed, 
and  Subjects  subsidiary  thereto,  by  Scyd  Ahmed  Khan 
Bahadcr  (London,  1870) ;  Amer.Presb.  Rev.  Oct.  1862,  p. 
754;  Revue  des  deux  Mondes,  Sept.  1, 1865.  On  the  Chris- 
tology  of  the  Koran,  see  the  Studien  u.  Krit.  1838-1847; 
\\.\ilo,  J oui-^tial  Sacred  lAter.  xxviii,  479;  Lond,  Quart. 
Review,  Oct.  1869,  p.  160  sq.      (J.  T.  G.) 

Ko'rathite  (Numb,  xxvi,  58).     See  Koraiiite. 

Koides,  Berenne,  a  Gemian  writer  on  exegetical 
theology,  was  born  at  Liibeck  Oct.  27, 1762,  and  studied 
at  the  universities  of  Kiel,  Leipzig,  and  Jena.  In  1793 
he  became  librarian  of  the  university  at  Kiel,  and  died 
there  Feb.  5, 1823.  His  exegetical  works  are,  Observa- 
tionum  in  Joucb  Oracula  Spccimina  (Jena,  1788): — Ruth 
ex  versions  Sejituayinta  inteipretuni  (Jena,  1788). — Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxviii,  84. 

Ko're  (Hebrew  Ko)-e',  X'lip,  but  H';{p  in  1  Chron. 
xxvi,  1,  a partridye,  as  in  1  Sam.  xxvi,  20;  Sept.  Koof, 
but  Kwpi)  V.  r.  Ko(j/;  in  2  Chron.  xxxi,  14),  tlie  name  of 
two  or  three  men.     Sec  also  Koraii. 

1.  A  Lcvitc  and  Temple-warden  of  the  Korahites,  of 
the  sons  of  Asaph,  and  father  of  Mcshelemiah  or  Shcle- 
miah  (1  (Jhron.  xxvi,  1).  B.C.  1014.  He  was  probably 
identical  with  the  son  of  Kbiasaph  and  father  of  Shal- 
lum,  Levites  of  the  family  of  Korah,  engaged  in  the 
same  service  (I  Chron.  ix,  19). 

2.  Son  of  Imnah,  a  Lcvitical  porter  of  the  east  gate, 
ajipointed  by  Hezckiah  to  take  cliargc  of  the  Temple 
olTcrings  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  14  ).     B.C.  726. 

3.  Hy  erriineous  translation  in  the  A.Y.  at  1  Chron. 
xxvi,  19  for  Koraiiite  (q.  v.). 

Koreish  is  the  name  of  a  celebrated  aboriginal  tnbe 
of  Arabia,  from  whose  ranks  came  Mohammed,  the  foun- 
der of  Islam.  Tlie  iiiHuence  which  the  Koreish  must 
have  exerted  in  the  early  days  -of  IMohamme^l  is  appar- 
ent from  the  fact  that  they  exercised  the  guardianship 
over  the  Kaaba  (q.  v.).  When  Jlohannncd  claimed  for 
himself  the  dignity  of  a  prophet,  and  inveighed  against 
the  i)rimeval  superstition  of  the  Koreish  (ov  Meccans, 


as  they  are  sometimes  called,  after  their  principal  place 
of  residence,  the  city  of  Mecca),  he  was  denounced  by 
all  the  Koreish  tribe.  Many  of  his  people  were  stiU 
devoted  to  Sabaism  (q.  v.),  a  somewhat  refined  worship 
of  the  planetary  bodies  (in  aU  probability  the  belief  of 
the  Koreish  in  the  century  preceding  the  establishment 
of  the  ]\Iohammedan  creed;  compare  Sprenger,  Life  of 
Mohammed,  i,  170 ;  Milman's  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roinan  Empire, \,  92  sq. ;  Milman,  iMtin  Christi- 
anity, ii,  127 ;  and  the  article  Arabia,  vol.  i,  p.  342,  in 
this  Cyclopaedia),  while  many  others,  although  disbe- 
lieving the  general  idolatry  of  their  countrymen,  and 
not  yet  believers  in  Judaism,  or  in  the  corrupt  Christi- 
anity with  which  alone  they  were  acquainted,  were 
looking  for  a  revival  of  what  they  called  the  '"religion 
of  Abraham."  Indeed,  the  greater  the  number  of  Mo- 
hammed's converts,  the  greater  the  opposition  of  his 
tribe ;  for  had  not  the  new  religionists  dared  to  question 
the  sacredness  of  the  holy  temple,  and  call  their  ancient 
gods  idols,  and  their  ancestors  fools?  \^'ith  all  tlie  an- 
imosity of  an  established  priesthood  trembling  for  their 
dignity,  their  power,  and  their  wealth,  the  Koreish  re- 
sisted the  inroads  of  the  new  prophet,  and  though  there 
were  of  their  number  those  who  had  actually  longed  for 
the  propagation  of  a  monotheistic  faith,  they  now  spurn- 
ed its  establishment,  as  it  was  likely  to  give  superiority 
to  the  faihily  of  Hashem,  only  a  side  branch  of  the  pow- 
erful tribe.  JIany  of  the  converts  suffered  all  manner 
of  annoyance ;  not  a  few  were  subjected  also  to  punish- 
ment. In  consequence  of  this  contest,  Moliamnied  felt 
constrained  to  advise  his  followers  to  seek  refuge  in 
Abyssinia.  He  himself  had  hitherto  escaped  only  by 
the  heroic  conduct  of  his  adopted  father,  Abu  Talib, 
who,  though  not  a  believer  in  the  new  religion,  consid- 
ered it  his  dutj'  to  afford  protection  to  Mohammed  and 
all  his  kindred.  But  the  rapid  spread  of  the  Islamitish 
doctrines  made  the  Koreish  violent,  and  they  now  de- 
manded that  Jlohammed  should  be  delivered  into  their 
hands.  Upon  Abu  Talib's  refusal  to  comjily  with  their 
demands  a  feud  resulted,  and  all  the  Hashemites  were 
excommunicated.  The  Prophet  himself,  however,  they 
sought  to  remove  by  secret  assassination ;  a  price  was 
set  upon  his  head — 100  camels  and  1000  ounces  of  sil- 
ver— and  he  escaped  their  vengeance  only  by  the  self- 
possession  with  which  one  of  his  converts,  Nueim,  met 
the  would-be  assassin  Omar.  "  Ere  thou  doest  the  deed," 
said  Nueim,  "look  to  thine  own  near  kindred."  Omar 
rushed  infatuated  to  the  bouse  of  his  sister  Fatima  to 
punish  her  apostasy,  but  tliere  the  Koran  was  present- 
ed to  him ;  he  read  a  few  sentences,  and  was  changed 
into  a  follower  of  the  Prophet.  Yet  did  not  the  Koreish- 
ites  abate  their  hostility;  and  it  is  said  that  for  three 
long  years  Jlohammed  was  under  the  depressing  influ- 
ence of  the  interdict,  and  constantly  obliged  even  to 
change  his  bed  in  order  to  ehide  the  midnight  assassin 
(comp.  Sale's  Koran,  ch.  xxxvi;  D'llcrbclot,  Biblioth. 
Orientcde,  p.  445).  A  fugitive  from  his  native  city,  and 
despairing  of  making  ^lecca,  the  metropolis  of  the  na- 
tional religion,  the  centre  of  his  new  spiritual  empire,  he 
turned  to  the  friendly  city  of  Medina,  whither  more 
than  a  hundred  of  his  faithful  flock  had  preceded  him. 
Here  he  found  a  kind  reception,  and  succeeded  in  win- 
ning for  his  cause  and  creed  six  of  the  most  distinguish- 
ed citizens.  From  this  flight,  or  rather  from  the  first 
month  of  the  next  Arabic  year,  the  Mohanmiedan  ajra 
{Heyira,  q.  v.)  is  dated.     See  Mohamjied. 

Once  successfully  established  at  INIedina,  Moham- 
med's first  object  was  to  secure  his  native  stronghold, 
and  for  this  purpose  ho  declared  himself  at  war  with  the 
Meccans,  and  o])ened  the  contest  even  during  the  sacred 
month  of  the  Kajab.  The  fair  option  of  friendship, 
submission,  or  battle  was  proposed  to  the  enemies  of 
Mohammed.  If  tliey  should  profess  the  creed  of  Islam, 
they  were  to  be  admitted  to  all  the  temporal  and  spirit- 
ual benefits  of  his  ])rimitive  disciples,  and  to  march  un- 
der the  same  banner  to  extend  the  religion  which  they 
had  embraced.     In  his  very  first  battle  he  routed  the 


KORHITE 


155        KORNTHAL,  SOCIETY  OF 


Koreishites,  and,  notwithstanding  a  severe  \oss  and  a 
personal  wound  in  tlie  battle  near  Ohod,  his  power  had 
increased  so  rapidly  that  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  He- 
gira  he  determined  upon  and  proclaimed  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca.  Although  the  Meccans  did  not  suffer  him  to 
carry  out  tliis  project,  he  secured  their  recognition  as  a 
belligerent  and  equal  power  with  themselves  by  a  formal 
treaty  of  jieace,  into  which  they  mutually  entered.  In 
the  year  following  he  was  allowed  to  spend  a  three-days' 
pilgrimage  undisturbed  at  Mecca.  The  unfortunate 
attitude  of  tlie  Xoreishites  towards  jMohammed  during 
his  wars  with  the  Christians  emboldened  him  to  seek 
immediate  revenge  for  their  treachery-,  and  at  the  liead 
of  an  army  of  l(),0(iO  men  he  marched  against  Mec- 
ca, before  its  inhabitants  had  time  to  prepare  for  the 
attack,  without  difficulty  became  master  of  the  place, 
and  readily  secured  acknowledgment  as  chief  and  proj)!!- 
et.  Among  the  first  to  fall  jjrostrate  at  his  feet  were 
the  chiefs  of  the  Koreish.  "  What  mercy  can  you  ex- 
pect from  the  man  whom  j'ou  have  wTonged  ?"  "  We 
confide  in  the  generosity  of  our  kinsman."  '"And  you 
shall  not  confide  in  vain ;  begone !  You  are  safe,  you 
are  free."  With  the  conquest  of  Mecca  the  victory  of 
the  new  religion  was  secured  in  all  Arabia,  and  for  the 
history  succeeding  this  event  we  must  refer  to  Moiiaji- 
MED  and  Mohammedanism.  For  the  detail  of  the  three 
Koreishite  wars,  see  references  in  jNlilman's  Gibbon,  ii, 
133.     See  also  Mecca  ;  Medina.     (J.  II.W.) 

Kor'hite  (Exod.  vi,  24;  xxvi,  1;  1  Chron.  xii,  G; 
2  Chron.  xx,  19).     See  Kokaii. 

Kormczai  ICniga,  the  Russian  "corpus  juris  ca- 
nonici,"  or  canonical  lair,  is  supposed  to  have  become 
the  possession  of  the  llussians  in  the  days  of  Vladimir 
the  Great.  The  oldest  Codex  of  the  Kormczai  Kniga 
dates  from  1280,  and  was  found  in  the  cathedral  at  Nov- 
gorod ;  its  style  of  language  has.  led  to  the  suppo- 
sition that  it  was  translated  by  a  southern  Russian. 
The  Greek  original  has  never  yet  been  found.  The  Co- 
dex was  first  printed  Nov.  7,  1C50,  at  Moscow;  in  a 
somewhat  modified  form,  it  was  printed  by  the  Ras-Kol- 
niki  (q.  v.),  a  Russian  sect  at  Warsaw,  in  1786.  Since 
that  date  several  editions  have  been  published. 

The  Codex,  in  its  treatment  of  ecclesiastical  law,  is 
divided  into  seventy  chapters,  of  which  forty-one,  mak- 
ing part  i,  contain  the  canons  of  the  apostles,  the  coun- 
cils, and  the  canonical  letters;  the  remaining  chapters, 
making  part  ii,  contain  the  laws  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
perors, and  different  treatises  on  ecclesiastical  law.  The 
work  also  contains  historical  contributions  on  the  Greek 
and  Russian  Church,  the  Nomocunon  of  Photius,  a  notice 
of  the  name  and  edition  of  the  work,  the  edict  and  gift 
of  Constantino  to  Sylvester  (q.  v.),  and  a  polemical  trea- 
tise against  the  Latins.  See  Schlosser,  Morgenl.  oriho- 
doxe  Kirche  Russlands  (Heidelb.  1845) ;  Strahl,  Beilrage 
z.  rvssischen  Kirclienr/esch.  (Halle,  lS-27),  \^.  14;  Asch- 
bach,  Kirchen-Lexicon,  iii,  918.  Comp.  Fjiotius  ;  Rus- 
sian CiiiRcii.     (.J.  H.W.) 

Korner,  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Weimar  Nov.  16, 1726,  entered  Leipzig  Uni- 
versity in  1743,  and  in  1749  became  catechct  at  St.  Pe- 
ter's Church  in  tliat  city.  In  17o2  he  was  made  sub- 
dean  at  Thomas  Church,  in  1756  at  St.  Nicholas  Church, 
and  in  1775  became  archdeacon.  Some  time  after  this 
he  was  appointed  regular  professor  of  theology  and  su- 
perintendent of  the  churches  of  Leipzig.  He  died  Jan- 
uary 4, 1785.  Kiirner  wrote  considerably,  but  his  contri- 
butions to  Church  History  are  of  especial  value.  His 
most  important  works  are,  Epitome  controversiarum  the- 
olofficurum  (Lipsi«,  1769,  8vo)  : — Vom  Colibat  der  Geist- 
lichen  (ibidem,  1784,  8vo") : — Erasmi  sentenUa  de  si/mholo 
aposfolico  ex  Riijlno  di'fensa  (ibid,  1749,  4to). — Dtiring, 
Gelfihrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  157  sq. 

Koinmann,  Rupert,  a  Roman  Catholic  priest,  was 
born  at  Ingolstadt  in  1759  ;  entered  the  cloister  of  Prif- 
ling  in  1776 ;  took  the  vow  in  1777,  and  was  made  priest 
in  1780.     lu  order  further  to  prosecute  his  theological 


studies  he  went  to  the  University  of  Salzburg,  holding 
at  the  same  time  the  chaplaincy  at  Nonnenberg.  In 
1790  he  was  made  abbot  of  the  cloister  of  Prifiing.  He 
retired  from  this  monastery  after  its  secularization,  and 
died  Sept,  23, 1817.  Among  his  many  writings  we  have 
Die  Sibylle  der  Zeit, aits  der  Vorzeit,oder politische  Grund- 
sdtze  durch  die  Geschichte  hewdhrt,  nehst  einer  Ahhand- 
lumiiih. die  politische  Divination  (Frankf.  and  Leipz.  1810, 
2  vols.  8vo) : — Sihjlle  der  Rdigion  aits  der  Welt-  und  Men- 
schen-r/eschickte,  nebst  einer  Abhctndlinig  iiber  die  tjoldenen 
Zeitalter  (Munich,  1813, 8vo) : — Nachtriifje  zu  den  beiden 
Sibyllen  (with  a  biography  of  the  author,  Eegensburg, 
1818, 8vo). — WetzerundWelte,A'iVc/«e7i-Zea:jl-on,vol.vi, 
e.  V. 

Korntlial,  Society  of,  a  German  religious  com- 
munity, which  bears  its  name  from  the  place  where  it 
originated,  Kornthal,  in  Wiirtemberg.  Rationalistic  in- 
fluences in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church  had  T)ccasioned 
changes  in  the  liturgy  (1809)  obnoxious  to  many  who 
adhered  more  strictly  to  the  old  Lutheranism.  The 
millenarian  influence  of  .Tung  Stilling  and  Michael  Hahn 
incited  among  this  class  an  inclination  to  migrate,  espe- 
cially to  Russia,  where,  near  Tifiis,  in  1816-17,  several 
Wiirtemberg  settlements  were  formed,  while  many  hun- 
dred families  were  making  ready  to  follow.  The  king 
sought  means  to  restrain  this  movement,  and  in  1819 
accepted  the  suggestions  of  Gottlieb  Wilhclm  Hoffmann, 
burgomaster  of  Leonburg.  The  latter,  in  consequence 
of  deep  religious  impressions  received  in  his  youth,  was 
in  sympathy  with  the  Pietists,  and  now  proposed  to  re- 
tain for  the  state  a  valuable  class  of  citizens  by  securing 
for  them  the  establishment  of  a  community  similar  to 
that  authorized  at  Konigsbcrg  under  king  Frederick, 
simply  independent  in  its  religious  matters  of  the  Lu- 
theran Consistor\-.  The  motive  was  Pietistic.  and  not 
schismatic.  Hoffmann's  scheme  sought  to  reaUze  the 
spirit  of  the  apostolic  age;  required  as  condition  of  mem- 
bership "a  regenerate  state  of  lieart,  manifested  in  a 
true  life  which  springs  from  a  sense  of  pardoned  sin ;" 
and  demanded  careful  education  of  children  botli  men- 
tal and  industrial,  as  wtU  as  charitable  and  missionary 
work.  The  community,  as  established,  arose  from  the 
combination  of  three  distinct  elements,  viz.,  the  Old- 
Church  Pietism  represented  by  Hoffmann,  the  ^Moravian 
ideas  appearing  in  the  constitution  and  Church  service, 
and  the  partially  miUenarian  views  of  Hahn  to  which 
the  majority  adhered. 

Micliael  Hahn,  known  among  the  people  as  "Michel," 
was  at  this  time  sixty-two  years  old.  His  spirit  was 
that  of  .Jacob  Biihme.  Converted  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
he  passed  at  that  period,  and  subsequently,  through  an 
experience  of  religious  ecstasy.  Persecuted  by  his  fam- 
ily and  neighbors,  he  lived  ascetically,  was  much  in 
prayer,  addressed  religious  assemblies,  and  soon  won 
thousands  of  adherents,  who  sought  him  in  Sindlingen, 
where  he  settled  in  1794.  His  writings  were  dissemi- 
nated in  manuscript,  and  in  1817  his  followers  numbered 
18,000.  Hahn's  teaching,  with  its  acknowledged  de- 
fects, brought  a  spirit  of  practical  activity  to  the  aid  of 
a  too  subjective  Pietism.  The  Kornthal  society  was 
founded  Jan.  12,1819,  and  Hahn  was  chosen  its  presi- 
dent, but  he  died  on  the  20th  of  the  same  month.  See 
Hahn,  JIichael. 

The  Constitution  of  the  community  seeks  to  realize 
rather  the  union  of  the  religious  and  civil  orders  than 
their  separation.  Truly  patriarchal  imder  the  presi- 
dency of"  Father"  Hoffmann,  who  died  in  1846,  it  is  real- 
ly based  on  the  idea  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  Chris- 
tians. Not  the  clerg}-,  but  the  community,  is  the  final 
authority.  The  latter  ('-die  Giiterkaufsgesellschaft") 
is  the  original  possessor  of  the  land,  from  wliose  author- 
ity it  cannot  be  alienated.  The  lordship  of  Kornthal, 
1000  acres,  all  its  buildings,  gardens,  vineyards,  woods, 
was  purchased  for  113,000  gulden,  and  given  out  by  lot 
to  each  member.  jMoney  can  be  borrowed  only  from 
the  ciimmon  chest,  and  no  debts  can  be  contracted  by 
members  outside  the  communitv.     A  common  council 


KORTIIOLT 


156 


KOSTER 


and  council  of  ciders  is  periodically  elected.  The  pres- 
ident, pastor,  and  schoolmaster  are  chosen  by  the  com- 
munity, with  recognition  of  the  government  and  Church. 
The  pastor  shares  the  functions  of  the  Sunday  service 
with  the  president,  councilmen,  and  schoolmaster,  each 
of  whom  has  authority  to  conduct  a  week-day  service. 
The  community  admits  its  members  by  vote,  and  the 
children  of  the  members  are  received  only  upon  their 
own  recognition.  The  criminal  administration  is  under 
the  general  state  authority,  the  property  census  and  taK 
assessment  being  controlled  by  the  president. 

The  usual  Church  festivals  are  observed.  Baptism  is 
a  public  and  solemn  ceremony,  the  import  of  which  the 
people  are  not  allowed  to  forget.  The  Lord's  Supper  is 
administered  once  a  month  on  Saturday  evening,  pre- 
ceded by  a  week  of  preparatory  meetings. 

The  Christian  activity  of  the  community  is  displayed 
in  coinicction  with  foreign  and  domestic  missions  and  in 
education.  It  has  few  of  its  own  members  in  the  foreign 
mission  iiekl,  though  many  missionaries,  male  and  female, 
■were  educated  at  its  schools.  It  is  a  supporter  especially 
of  the  Basle  Mission  House,  and  its  yearly  missionary  fes- 
tival is  an  occasion  of  great  interest.  The  destitute  of 
the  neighborhood  are  systematically  visited,  and  its  in- 
stitution for  abandoned  children  is  chief  among  those  of 
its  class  at  Wiirtemberg.  In  its  separate  educational  in- 
stitutions for  the  two  sexes  about  10,000  persons  from 
various  lands  have  received  their  training. 

Konithal  has  in  all  a  population  of  about  1300.  It 
has  ever  exerted  a  salutary  influence  for  the  prevention 
of  schism  in  the  Wiirtemberg  Church,  has  furnished  for 
the  sentiment  of  Pietism  a  corrective  model  of  practical 
life,  and  has  in  general  shown  a  successful  example  of 
religious  and  moral  principle  directly  applied  to  social 
laws.  Here  are  uniformly  neat  dwellings,  clean  streets, 
a  well-clad  people;  intemperance  and  brawls  are  im- 
known ;  not  a  beggar  is  seen  except  such  as  may  come 
in  from  abroad ;  there  has  been  no  case  of  bankruptcy 
from  the  foundation  of  the  community,  but  two  illegiti- 
mate births,  and  not  a  case  of  civil  or  criminal  process 
of  law  has  been  required,  while  remarkable  fidelity  to 
the  government  in  times  of  trial  has  characterized  its 
pef>iile. — Kapflf,  Die  WUrtembei-yischen  BrikJerqemeinclen 
Konithal  it.  W ilhelmsdorf  (Kornih.  1839) ;  Barth,  Ueher 
die  Pieiisten  (Tiibing.  181!))  •,  Zeitschr.f.  hist,  theol.  18-11 ; 
Haag,  Studien  d.  Wiirttemb.  Geistl.  ix,  1  sq. ;  Ilerzog,  Real- 
Enri/ldnp.  vol.  xix,  s.  v.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Kortliolt,  Christian  (1).  See  Cortiiolt, 
Koitholt,  Christian  ("2),  an  eminent  Danish  Prot- 
estant tliculdgian,  and  a  ne]ihe\v'  of  Christian  Korthult 
(1),  was  born  at  Kiel  in  1709.  lie  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  and  afterwards  visited  Hol- 
land and  England.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was 
ajipointed  rector  of  the  College  of  Leipzig,  and  adjunct 
jirofcssor  of  philosophy  in  the  university  of  that  city. 
A  few  years  after  he  became  professor  of  theology  in  the 
University  of  Gottingen,  and  finally  ecclesiastical  super- 
intendent. He  died  Sept.  21, 1751.  Besides  a  number  of 
articles  publislied  in  the  Acta  Erudilornm  Lipsiensium, 
and  a  collection  of  sermons  in  (Jerman,  he  wrote  De  sac- 
ruram  Christianorum  in  Cimbria  jmmoi-diis  (Kiel,  1728, 
•Ito) : — Conimentutio  historico-ecclesiastica  de  ecclesiis  sub- 
nrhicariis,  qua  in  dioccvsin  qxtani  episcopiis  Romamis  mtate 
coHcilii  yicieni  habuit,  inqvi/'iiur  (Leipz.  1732, 4to) : — De 
Si)cict(itv  A  iitiqnnria  TjmiUnciisi  ad  Kmippium  (Lpz.  1735, 
4to):— y-''  Mallh.  Tindalin  (Ljiz.  1734,4to)  :— /^e  Knthu- 
siasmi)  M'lhiunmedis  (Gotting.  1745,  8vo): — De  Simone 
I'ftro  primo  AposfoL  et  idtimo  ((Jotting.  1748,  8vo);  etc. 
He  published  also  Leibnitii  episiola;  ad  diversos  (Leipzig, 
1733-42,  4  vols.).  See  Joach.  Lindcmann,  Christ.  Kor- 
iholti  Oratio  J'unebris  (in  iSacer  decadum  scptenariiis,  me- 
mtriam  thcolof/nrum  nostra  (state,  etc.,Lpzg.  1705,  8vo); 
NiciTon,  Memoires,  vol.  xxxi ;  Hoefer,  Nour.  Dioij.  Gi'ii. 
xxvii,  93  ;  Pierer,  Univ.  Lexikon,  ix,  734.  (J.  N.  P.) 
Kos.  See  Owi,. 
Kosa.     See  Koreish. 


Kosegarten,  Bernhard  Christian,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Parchim,  in  Mecklenburg,  May 
7,  1722;  entered  Kostock  University  in  1739;  went  to 
Halle  in  1745,  and  became  adjunct  professor  in  1750. 
He  died  June  17,  1803.  Kosegarten  made  for  himself 
quite  a  name  by  his  Versuch  das  Kirchliche  Dogma  vom 
Stande  dtr  Ei'niedrigung  Christi  einer  Priifung  zu  unter- 
werj'en  (New  Brandenburg,  1748, 4to). — Doring,  Gekhrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  174. 

Kosegarten,  Hans  Gottfried  Ludv/^ig,  a  Ger- 
man C)rientalist  and  historian,  was  born  at  Altenkirchen, 
Isle  of  Kiigen,  Sept.  10, 1792 ;  studied  theology  and  phi- 
lology at  the  University  of  Greifswald,  and  in  1811 
went  to  Paris  to  continue  the  study  of  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages. He  became  adjunct  professor  at  Greifswald  in 
1815,  and  in  1817  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages  at 
Jena,  and  of  the  same  chair  at  Greifswald  in  1824.  He 
died  in  18G0.  Kosegarten  wrote  De  Mohammede  Ebn 
Batitta  ejusque  itineribus  (Jena,  1818),  and  published 
editions  of  Amru  ben-Kelthum's  Moallaha  (Jena,  1820)  : 
— Libri  Corona;  legis,  id  est  Coimnentarii  in  Peiitateuchum 
Karaitici  ab  Aharone  ben-Elihu  conscripti  aliquot  par- 
^icate  (Jena,  1824);  etc.  Sec  Piever, Univeisal  Lexikon, 
ix,  738. 

Kosegarten,  Lud-wig  Theobald,  a  German  di- 
vine and  ])oet,  was  born  at  Grevismiihlen,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, Feb.  1, 1758:  became  rector  at  Wolgast  in  1785; 
pastor  at  Altenkirchen  in  1792,  and  in  1808  professor  of 
history  at  the  university  in  (Jreifswald ;  later  also  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  and  pastor  at  St.  James's  Church  in 
that  place,  and  died  Oct.  2G,  1818.  He  was  at  one  time 
honored  with  the  rectorate  of  the  university.  His  writ- 
ings belong  to  the  domain  of  beUes-lettres.  See  Kober- 
stein,  Geschichte  d.  deutschen  Nationalliiteraiur,  iii,  2G23 
sq. 

Kossoff,  Sylve^tre,  a  Russian  divine,  who  flour- 
ished near  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  metro- 
politan of  Kief  in  1647,  and  died  April  13, 1667.  Kos- 
soff wrote  a  work  on  the  Seven  Sacraments  (Koutimsk, 
1653,  4to),  which  an  ecclesiastical  council  at  Moscow  in 
1690  declared  heretical. 

Koster,  Johann  Friedrich  Burchardt,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  liorn  at  Loccum  in  1791.  He  be- 
came professor  of  theology  in  Kiel  in  1839,  and  died 
about  1850.  His  works  are,  Meletemata  critica  et  exegeti- 
ca  in  Zachariam  Prophetam,  cap.  9-14  (Gotting.  1818)  : 
— Das  Christenthum  (Kiel,  1825) : — Lehrb.  der  Pastoral 
Wissenschaft  (ibid,  1827)  : — translations  of  the  Psalms 
(1837)  and"the  Prophets  (Leipzig,  1838). 

Koster,  Martin  Gottfried,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  tiuntersblum  Nov.  11,1734;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Liniversity  of  Jena,  which  he  entered  in 
1752,  and  in  1755  became  pastor  at  'Wallershcim.  In 
1761  he  was  called  to  Weilburg  as  pastor  and  prorector 
of  the  gymnasium  in  that  place.  In  1773  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  at  Giessen,  and  died  there  Dec.  6, 1802. 
Koster  was  decidedly  ortliodox  in  belief,  and  labored 
both  by  his  tongue  and  his  pen  to  stay  the  incoming 
tide  of  Rationalism.  His  most  important  work  in  this 
direction  is  his  Neueste  Religiombegehenheiten  (Giessen, 
1778-1796),  in  which  several  eminent  German  theolo- 
gians assisted  him.  He  wrote  also  Vorurtheile  fitr  nnd 
wider  die  christi.  Religion  mbst  einer  A  bhandlung  von  Zu- 
lassung  des  Busen  (Frankfort-on-the-l\Iain,  1774, 8vo)  : — 
Erorterung  der  wichtigsten  Schwicrigkciten  in  der  L(hre 
vom  Teufk  (ibid,  1776, 8vo ;  another  work  on  Saf*iu.(  '•  ics- 
sen,  1776, 8vo) ;  etc.  See  Doring,6't/e/i?-i'e  Theol.  Dcutsch- 
lamh,  ii,  159  si]. 

Koster,  Wilhelm,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
in  1765,  and  early  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  theol- 
ogy. He  became  pastor  first  at  Oppenheim,  later  at  Ep- 
pingen,  and  died  May  8,  1802.  He  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  the  study  of  practical  theology,  especialh'  to  lit- 
urgy, and  wrote  Liturgie  bei  Beerdifpmgen  (^larch,  1797, 
8vo)  ■.—Allgan.Altarlifurgie  (ibid,  1799,  8vo). — Doring, 
Gekhrte  Theol,  Deutschlands,  ii,  162. 


KOSTHA  IBN-LUKA 


157 


KRAFT 


Kostha  Ibn-Luka  (or  Liica),  an  Arabian  phi- 
losopher, tile  originator  of  Heliopolis  in  Syria,  flourished 
towards  the  close  of  the  9th  century.  He  died,  accord- 
ing to  Abulfarag,  about  890.  He  translated  many  works 
of  Greek  philosophers  into  Arabic,  and  wrote  himself 
many  original  treatises,  among  which  are,  De  Animce 
et  Spirit  us  JJiscrimine : — Be  Morte  inopinata:  —  De- 
scriptio  Spherce  Calcslis: — Liber  apoloffeticus  adve7-sus 
lihruiii  asiroloffi  Aba  Isce  de  Mohameti  Aposiolatu  et 
Prophetia.  See  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gi'ceca,  ii,  801 ; 
D'Hcrbelot,  Biblioth.  Orientate,  p.  975. 

Kots.     See  Thorx. 

Kotter,  Cheistoph,  a  German  religions  fanatic, 
was  born  at  Sprottau,  Silesia,  in  1585.  He  claimed  to 
have  visions  (which  were  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1657).  The  first  of  these  was  in  June,  IGKJ.  He  fancied 
he  saw  an  angel,  under  the  form  of  a  man,  who  command- 
ed him  to  go  and  declare  to  the  magistrates  that,  unless 
the  pcf)ple  repented,  the  wrath  of  God  would  make  dread- 
ful havoc.  His  pastor  and  friends  kept  him  in  for  some 
time,  nor  did  he  execute  his  commission,  even  though 
the  angel  had  appeared  six  times;  but  in  1G19,  when 
threatened  with  eternal  damnation  by  the  same  spirit,  he 
would  suffer  lumself  to  be  restrained  no  longer.  Kotter 
was  laughed  at ;  nevertheless,  his  visions  continued,  and 
were  followed  by  ecstasies  and  prophetic  dreams.  He 
waited  on  the  elector  palatine,  whom  the  Protestants 
had  declared  king  of  Bohemia,  at  Breslau,  in  1G20,  and 
informed  him  of  his  commission.  He  became  acquaint- 
ed, in  1625,  with  Comenius,  whom  he  converted  to  be 
a  believer  in  his  prophecies,  which  at  this  time  were 
rather  of  a  political  cast,  presaging  happiness  to  the 
elector  palatine,  and  the  reverse  to  the  emperor,  so  he 
became  at  length  obnoxious,  and  in  1627  was  closely 
imprisoned  as  a  seditious  impostor.  He  was  finally  lib- 
erated again  and  banished  from  the  empire ;  v.'ent  to 
Lusatia,  then  subject  to  Saxonj',  and  died  there  in  1647. 
Kotter's  visions  were  related  by  Comenius  in  a  work 
entitled  Lux  in  tenebris  (Amst.  1657  ;  an  epitome  of  this 
work  appeared  in  1660:  see,  for  an  account  of  it,  under 
Dkaisicius) .   See  Bayle, Hist.  Bid.  iii,  679  sq.    (J. H. W.) 

Kotzebiir,  Johann,  a  German  divine,  was  born  in 
Magdeburg  about  1654.  He  was  rector  at  Quedlinburg. 
He  died  September  3, 1692.  Kotzebur  wrote  Suscitabu- 
lum  Catholico-Lutherumnn  : — Confutatio  tractatus  Be- 
cani  de  eccksia,  etc. — Allfjem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii,  Gl. 

Kouyunjik.     See  Nineveh, 

Koz  (Hcb.  Kots,  yip,  a  thorn,  as  often :  1  Chron.  iv, 
8;  Sept.  Kwi,Vulg.  Co.^,  Auth.  Vers.  "  Coz  ;"  elsewhere 
with  the  art.  Viptl,  hah-Kots,  1  Chron.  xxiv,  10,  Sept. 
'Akkwq,  v.  r.  Kwp,  Yulg.  Accos,  Auth.  Vers.  "Hakkoz  ;" 
Ezra  ii,  61,  Sept. 'Ak/coi'c,  Yulg.  Accos ;  Neh.  iii,  4,  21, 
Sept.  'Akkwc,  Ynlg.  Accus,  Haccus ;  Neh.  vii.  Go,  Sept. 
'Akkioc,  v.  r.  'A(C(iJ^,  Yulg.  Accos),  the  name  of  two  or 
more  men. 

1.  A  descendant  of  Judah,  concerning  whose  genealo- 
gy  we  have  only  the  confused  statement  that  he  "  begat 
Anul)  and  Zolx'bah,  and  the  families  of  Aharhel,  the  son 
of  Ilarum"  (1  Chron.  iv,  8).     B.C.  prob.  cir.  1612. 

2.  The  head  of  the  seventh  division  of  priests  as  ar- 
ranged by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  10).  B.C.  1014.  He 
is  probably  the  same  whose  descendants  are  mentioned 
as  returning  with  Zerubbabel  from  Baliylon,  but  as  be- 
ing excluded  by  Nehemiah  from  tlie  priesthood  on  ac- 
count of  their  defective  pedigree  (Ezra  ii,  Gl ;  Neh.  vii, 
63).  To  this  family  appears  to  have  belonged  Urijah, 
whose  son  INIeremoth  is  named  as  having  repaired  two 
portions  of  the  wall  of  Jerusalem  (Neh.  iii,  4,  21). 

Krafft,  Adam,  a  celebrated  German  sculptor  and 
architect,  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1430,  and  supposed  to 
have  died  about  1507,  deserves  our  notice  for  his  promi- 
nent connection  with  ecclesiology.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable performances  of  his  still  extant  is  the  tabernacle 
in  stone,  fixed  against  one  of  the  columns  oi'the  choir  of 
the  church  of  St. Lawrence  (Lorenzkirche),  Nuremberg. 


It  is  in  the  form  of  a  square  open  Gothic  spire,  and  is  64 
feet  high ;  the  pinnacle  being  turned  downwards  like 
the  crook  of  the  crosier  or  an  episcopal  staif,  to  avfiid  the 
arch  of  the  church.  The  ciborium  is  placed  immedi- 
ately upon  a  low  platform,  Avhich  is  supported  partly  by 
the  kneeling  figures  of  Adam  Krafft  and  his  two  assist- 
ants; the  rail  or  baluster  of  the  platform  is  richly  car\-ed, 
and  is  ornamented  with  the  figures  of  eight  saints.  The 
whole  taljernacle  is  also  profusely  ornamented  with  small 
figures  in  the  round  and  bassi-relievi :  immediately  above 
the  ciborium,  on  three  sides,  are  representations  in  basso- 
relievo  of  "Christ  taking  leave  of  his  Mother,"  the  "Last 
Supper,"  and  "Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives;"  high 
above  these  are  "  Christ  before  Caiaphas,"  the  "  Crown- 
ing with  Thorns,"  and  the  "  Scourging;"  above  these  is 
the  "Crncifixi(ni;"  and  lastly,  above  that,  is  the  "Ees- 
urrection,"  all  in  the  round.  This  elaborate  work  was 
executed  by  Krafft  for  a  citizen  of  the  name  of  Hans 
Imhof,  and  for  the  small  sum  of  770  florins.  There  is  a 
print  of  this  tabernacle  in  Doppelmayr's  Historische  Xack- 
richt  von  den  N Umber fiischen  Kiinstlern.  Recent  writers 
have  indulged  in  various  conjectures  regarding  the  time 
and  works  of  Krafft,  but  the  circumstances  of  both  are 
still  involved  in  their  former  uncertainty.  See  Flissli, 
A  Uriemeines  Kiinstler-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Nf.gler,  Allrjemeines 
Kiinstler-Lexikon,  s.  v. — English  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Krafft,  Johann  Christian  Gottlob  Lud- 
■wig,  the  modern  reformer  of  the  Protestant  Church  in 
Bavaria,  was  born  at  Duisburg  Dec.  12, 1784.  He  stud- 
ied first  at  Duisburg,  where  he  fell  temporarily  under 
the  influence  of  infidelity.  He  then  spent  five  years  as 
private  tutor  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  this  period 
was  of  great  spiritual  regeneration  to  him,  though  he 
did  not  succeed  in  allaj'ing  all  his  doubts.  In  October, 
1808,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Eeformed  congregation  at 
Weeze,  near  Cleve.  He  still  felt  dissatisfied,  however, 
and  continued  to  search  the  Scriptures.  In  1817  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  German  Reformed  congregation  at 
Erlangen,  and  professor  in  the  university  in  1818.  By 
this  time  his  convictions  had  become  settled,  and  he  a 
firm  Biblical  supernaturalist.  The  last  period  of  his 
spiritual  development,  his  conversion,  took  place,  ac 
cording  to  his  own  account,  in  the  spring  of  1821.  He 
died  May  15,  1845.  Without  being  gifted  with  very- 
brilliant  talents  or  especial  eloquence,  Krafft,  by  his  ear- 
nest practical  faith,  and  his  luicommon  energy,  can  be 
said  to  have  awakened  the  Protestant  Church  of  Bava- 
ria from  the  lethargic  sleep  into  which  it  had  fallen  un- 
der the  influence  of  ultra  rationalism.  He  took  great 
part  in  the  progress  of  home  missions,  and  was  the 
founder  of  an  institution  for  the  daughters  of  the  poor. 
He  wrote  Be  servo  et  libero  arbitrio  (Nuremb.  1818) : — 
Seven  Sermons  on  Isaiah  liii,  and  four  on  1  Cor.  i,  30 ; 
Jahrganfj:  Predifjten  ii.freie  Texte  (Erlang.  1828, 1832, 
1845).  After  his  death  Dr.  Burger  published  his  Chro- 
nologie  ii.  Harmonie  d.  rier  Evangelien  (Erlangen,  1848). 
— Herzog,  Real-Encgklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Kraft,  Friedrich  Willielm,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Krautheim,  in  the  duchy  of  Weimar, 
Aug.  9,  1712,  and  was  educated  at  Jena  and  Leipzig 
from  1729  to  1732.  In  1739  he  became  pastor  at  Frank- 
endorf,  and  in  1747  imiversity  preacher  at  Gottingcn, 
holding  also  after  this  an  adjunct  professorship  of  the- 
ology in  this  high-school.  In  1750  he  removed  to  Dant- 
zic  as  senior  preacher  to  Mary's  Church,  and  died  there 
November  19,  1758.  His  most  important  works  are, 
Schriftmdssiger  Bev'eis  v.d.Ankunft  d.Messias  (Leipz. 
1734, 8vo) : — Ejil^/nhi  de  honoir  Bei  per  honores  ndids- 
troruni  ecclesiw  pnniKiri  tiilo  (Erf.  1739,  4to) : — Commen- 
tatio  de  pietale  obstdricum  ^Egi/ptiacarum  (ibid,  1744, 
4to).  He  also  published  many  of  his  sermons,  some  of 
them  under  the  title  Geistliche  Keden  (Jena,  1746,  8vo), 
and  Neue  theologische  BibUothek  (Lpz.  1746-1758;  con- 
tinued by  Ernesti,  and  later  by  Diiderlein),  which  last 
named  work  evinces  Kraft's  extended  researches  in  the- 
ological literature.  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Beutsck- 
lunds,  ii,  176  sq. 


KRAFT 


158 


KRANTZ 


Kraft,  Johanii  Georg,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  IJaiersdorf,  in  the  ducliy  of  liaireutli,  June  8, 
1740,  and  was  educated  at  the  university  in  Krlangen. 
He  entered  the  ministry  at  tirst,liut  in  17(i4  obtained  the 
privilege  of  lecturing  at  the  university,  and  iu  ITfJG  be- 
came extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy,  and  in  17G8 
ordinary  professor  of  theology  and  university  preacher. 
He  died  July  2, 1772.  He  furnished  many  articles  to 
theological  periodicals,  and  published,  besides  a  host  of 
dissertations  and  several  sermons,  an  edition  of  Huth's 
Gesammelte Sonn-  v. lusl/in/s/in^dir/ten (Sch vvabach,  17(58- 
1771, 3  vols.  4to). — Diiring,  Gdehrte  Theol.  Deulschlunds, 
ii,  179  sij. 

Kraft,  Johann  Melchior,  a  German  theologian, 
■was  born  at  Wetzlar  June  11, 1673.  He  pursued  his  the- 
ological studies  at  Wittenberg  University,  where  he  ob- 
tained the  master's  degree  in  1G93.  In  lG9o  he  began 
lectures  at  the  University  of  Kiel,  and  in  1098  he  be- 
came pastor  at  SUderstapel ;  in  1705  pastor  at  Sandes- 
neben ;  in  1709  archdeacon  at  Husum.  and  shortly  after 
counsellor  of  the  Danish  Consistorj'.  He  died  July  22, 
1751.  His  most  important  works  are  Emendanda  et  Cor- 
rif/eiida  quccdam  in  historia  versivnis  Germnnicm  Bihlio- 
rum  (Dr.  J.  F.  Mayero  edita,  Schleswig,  1705, 4to) : — Po- 
droma  historice  versinnis  Bihliorum  Germanicm  (ibid, 
1714, 4to): — Aiisfuhrliche  Ilistorievom Exorcismo  (\\a.\n- 
burg,  1750,  8vo). — Doring,  Ge/e/wte  Theol.  Deutschlands, 
ii,  18-2  sq. 

Kraft,  Johann  "Wilhelm,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  AUendorf  ]\larch  1 1, 1G9().  He  went  to  Mar- 
burg University  in  1712,  and  in  1723  became  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Church  at  Marburg;  later  (in  1738)  he  re- 
moved to  Hanau,  but  returned  to  Marburg  in  1747,  to 
assume  the  duties  of  a  professorship  in  theology  at  his 
alma  mater.  He  died  Nov.  25, 17G7.  His  most  impor- 
tant works  are  Fasciculi  observationum  sacrariiin  ir, 
quibits  varia  Scripturce  loca  atqiie  aiyumenta  theologica 
illiisfrantnr  (Marb.  1758-1766, 8vo) : — Sdagraphia  theo- 
logicB  moralis  ex  resipiscentia  et  fide  tanquam  ex  (jenui- 
no  geniinoqiie  omnium  virtutum  Christianarum  fonte  li- 
quido  derivatcs  (Rintel  and  Hersf.  1760, 8vo). — Doring 
Gelfhrie  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  185. 

Kraft,  Justus  Christoph,  a  German  divine,  son 
of  the  jireceding,  was  born  at  Marburg  Jan.  2, 1732,  and 
was  educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  place  and 
at  Giittingen.  In  1757  he  became  pastor  at  Weimar, 
and  in  1762  at  Cassel,  whence  he  moved  to  Frankfort- 
on-the-]\Iain  in  1769.  He  died  there  Jan.  22, 1795.  For 
a  list  of  his  sermons  as  published,  see  During,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  187. 

Kragh,  Petek,  a  Danish  missionary,  born  at  Grim- 
ming.  near  Jtanders,  Nov.  20, 1794,  was  sent  as  mission- 
ary to  (irceiiland  about  1820,  and  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  18-J8.  The  date  of  his  deatli  is  not  known 
to  us.  Kragh  wrote  extensively,  and  translated  into 
the  vernacular  of  the  people  among  whom  he  preached 
the  Gosjiel  of  Christ,  parts  of  the  O.  T.,  sermons,  works 
on  practical  religion,  etc.  lie  also  pubUshed  in  Danish 
and  (irecnlandish,  y/«?w  Eqedcs  Aftensnmtaler  med  sine 

disciides  (Cojienhagen,  1837,  8vo) Vapercau,  Diet,  des 

Cvntempdrainx,  s.  v. 

Krakewitz,  Ai.iskut  Joachim  vox.  a  Gcnnan  Lu- 
theran divine,  was  Ixirn  at  (ievezin.  near  Stargard,  in 
^leckltMiliurg,  May  28,  1G74,  and  was  educated  for  the 
ministry  at  the  universities  of  Kostock,  Copenhagen, 
Leipzig,  and  other  (Jernian  high-schools  of  note.  He 
l)ccame  jirofessor  of  Hebrew  at  Rostock  in  1G98 ;  in  1708 
also  jirofessor  extraordinary  of  theology,  and  in  1713 
was  promoted  to  the  full  ]irofcssorsliip.  In  1721  he  re- 
m  )ved  to  the  university  at  Grcifswald,  and  tlierc  held  a 
prominent  position  as  a  theologian.  His  works,  mainly 
of  a  controversial  nature,  arc  limited  to  i)amphlet  form. 
See  Alh/emeines  JJist.  Lexikon,  Addenda,  s.  v. 

Kraliz,  15iblk  oi'",  the  most  celebrated  Bohemian 
version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  issued,  in  tlic  IGth  cen- 
turv.  bv  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren.     It  was 


translated,  in  fifteen  years,  by  a  committee  of  their  bish- 
ops and  ministers,  among  whom  the  most  prominent 
were  John  ^Eneas,  Jolin  Nemczansky,  Zacharias  Aris- 
ton.  and  Isaiah  CepoUa,  aided  by  two  Hebrew  scholars 
of  Jewish  extraction.  The  work  of  translating  and 
printing  was  carried  on  in  the  castle  of  Kraliz — hence 
the  name  of  this  Bible — near  WiUimowitz,  in  the  west 
of  Moravia,  at  the  expense  of  Baron  von  Zierotin, 
the  i)roprietor  of  the  domain,  and  a  member  of  the 
Brethren's  Church.  He  set  up  for  this  purpose  a  spe- 
cial and  costly  printing-press,  which  was  superintended 
by  Zacharias  Solin,  an  ordained  minister  of  the  Breth- 
ren. The  first  edition  appeared  in  six  folio  volumes,  as 
follows:  Part  i,  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  in  1579  ;  Part 
ii,  Joshua  to  Esther,  in  1580:  Part  iii,  the  Poetical  Books, 
in  1582;  Part  iv,  the  Prophetical  Books,  in  1587;  Part 
v,  the  A]iocrypha,  and  Part  vi,  the  New  Testament,  in 
1593.  The  sixth  part  was  a  reprint  of  the  Bohemian 
N.  T.  translated  from  the  Greek  b}'  John  Blahoslaw,  a 
very  learned  bishop  of  the  Church,  who  was  no  longer 
living.  In  IGOl  a  second  edition  appeared,  and  in  1G13 
a  third.  The  last  was  in  one  volume  quarto.  The 
Kraliz  Bible  was  the  first  Bohemian  version  made  from 
the  original,  six  other  translations  having  preceded  it, 
all  based  on  the  Vulgate.  It  was,  moreover,  the  first  di- 
vided into  chapters  and  verses,  and  the  first  which  sep- 
arated the  apocryphal  from  the  canonical  books.  To 
each  single  verse,  throughout  the  entire  work,  was  ap- 
pended a  very  brief  commentary.  The  correctness  of 
the  translation  is  generally  conceded,  and  the  purity  of 
the  style  universally  admired.  This  Bible  is  still  the 
classic  standard  for  the  Bohemian  tongue.  At  the  pres- 
ent day,  however,  it  exists  as  an  antiquarian  work  only, 
a  copy  costing  about  300  florins.  This  is  owing  to 
the  destruction  to  which  it  was  doomed  in  the  Bohe- 
mian anti-Reformation,  when  it  was  everywhere  con- 
fiscated and  committed  to  the  flames  by  the  Jesuits  and 
soldiers  who  passed  through  the  country  in  search  of 
Protestant  books.  A  compendium  of  it  was  republish- 
ed at  Prague,  by  J.  L.  Koher,  in  1861  to  1865.  It  con- 
stitutes, moreover,  the  text,  word  for  word,  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Bible  issued  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety. Gindely,  Geschichte  d.  Buhmischen  Bruder,  ii,309, 
310;  Czerwenka,  GescAtV/i'^e  d. Evanfi.  Kirche  inBuhmen, 
ii,  500,  etc. ;  Croger,  Gesch.  d.  alien  Briiderkirche,  ii,  157, 
etc.     (E,  UE  S.) 

Krama  or  Krasis,  the  practice  of  mixing  water 
with  the  sacramental  wine  (the  mixture  bearing  the 
name  Koafia,  and  the  act  ofmixinq  icpuaii;),  was  adopt- 
ed very  early  in  the  Church,  on  the  assumption  that  the 
wine  used  at  the  Passover  was  mixed  with  water;  but 
Lightfoot  shows  that  this  was  not  necessarily  the  case. 
In  the  Western  Church,  the  mixture  of  cold  water  with 
the  wine  takes  place  only  once  before  the  consecration ; 
wine  being  first  poured  into  the  cup,  and  the  water  add- 
ed. In  the  Oriental  Church  a  twofold  mixing  takes 
place.  There  is  the  first  mixture  of  cold  water  with  the 
wine  in  the  cup  before  consecration,  and  then  a  second 
mixture  with  warm  water  after  consecration,  and  imme- 
diately before  distribution.  This  is  sai<l  to  have  been 
designed  to  represent  at  once  the  water  which  flowed 
from  our  Saviour's  side  and  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
— Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Krain,  Andreas,  archbishop  of.  See  AxdPvKas  of 
Craix. 

Krantz,  Albert,  a  (ierman  theologian  and  eminent 
historian,  was  bora  at  Hamburg  towards  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  He  studied  at  Hamburg,  Cologne, 
etc.,  and  became  doctor  in  theology  and  canon  law.  Af- 
ter traveling  through  most  of  Europe,  he  was,  on  his  re- 
turn, appointed  ]irofcssor  at  Rostock,  and  rector  of  that 
university  in  1482.  In  1492  he  settled  at  Hamlnirg, 
alter  having  been  employed  in  important  diplomatic 
missions.  In  1499  he  was  sent  as  envoy  to  England  and 
I'rance,  and  was  often  chosen  to  decide  difficulties :  thus 
he  acted  !is  arbiter  between  king  John  of  Denmark  and 


KRANTZ 


159 


KRAUSE 


duke  Frederick  of  Holsteiu  in  1500,  etc.  In  1508  he  was 
appointed  dean  of  Hamburg,  and  died  there  December 
7, 1517.  Though  not  an  ultramontane,  he  did  not  show 
himself  practically  much  in  favor  of  reformation  in  the 
Church,  yet  as  a  historian  he  exhibits  great  impartial- 
ity and  much  sound  criticism.  Krantz  wrote  Vandulia 
(151!);  Fraidvf.  1575,  1588,  IGOl ;  German  by  St.  Macro- 
pus,  Liib.  1000)  ■.—Saxonia  (1520 ;  Frankfort,  1575, 1580, 
lt)21;  Cologne,  1674,  1595;  German  by  Faber,  Leipzig, 
1593  and  15S2;  continued  by  Chytr;ius,Wittenb.  1585): 
— Chronicoii  rer/norum  aquilonarium,  Daime,  Suecim  et 
Norwiufia  (1545;  Lat.  154G;  Frankf.  1574,  1595;  Ger- 
man by  Eppcndorf,  Strasb.  1545) : — Metropolis  s.  Hist,  ec- 
cles.  in  Saxonia  (1548 ;  Basel,  1568 ;  Cologne,  1574, 159G ; 
Wittenb.  157G:  Frankf.  1576, 1590, 1627)  •.—Institutiones 
lofficcB  (Lpz.  1517)  : — Defensorium  eccL;  Spirantissimum 
opusculum  in  officium  misse  (1506,  etc.).  Under  Clement 
YIII  the  writings  of  Krantz  were,  on  account  of  some 
damaging  confessions  for  Romanism  therein  contained, 
put  in  the  Index.  See  Pierer,  Unipersal  Lexikon,  vol. 
viii,  s.  V. ;  Ilerzog,  Real-Encyklop.  vol.  ix,  s.  v. 

Krantz  (or  Cranz),  David,  a  Moravian  historian, 
was  born  at  Neugarten,  Pomerania,  in  1723.  In  his  youth 
he  was  master  of  a  school  at  Herrnhut;  he  became  secre- 
tary to  count  Zinzendorf  in  1747,  was  afterwards  sent  on 
a  literar}^  mission  to  Greenland,  where  he  was  eminently 
successful  in  collecting  historical  information.  He  return- 
ed in  1762,  and  became  pastor  of  the  church  at  Rixdorf. 
near  Berlin,  in  17()6.  He  died  at  Gnadenburg,  in  Silesia, 
in  1777.  His  principal  works  are  The  History  of  Green- 
land, and  of  the  mission  of  the  United  Brethren  (transl. 
Lond.  1820, 2  vols.  8vo) : — The  ancient  and  modern  History 
oj'tke  Bi-e/hi-en  (Lond.l780,8\'o). — DarYmg,Cycl.Bibl,s.v. 

Krasicki,  Ignaz,  a  Ptoman  Catholic  prelate,  was 
born  at  Dubiecko,  Poland,  Feb.  3,  1734,  and  early  en- 
tered the  priestly  office.  His  remarkable  talents  secured 
for  him,  when  only  twenty-nine  years  old,  the  honorable 
appointment  as  prince-bishop.  He  died  March  14, 1801, 
as  prince-bishop  of  Gnesen,  where  he  had  lived  since 
1795.     See  Kathol.  Reul-Encyldop.  vi,  396. 

Krasinski,  count  Valerian,  the  Protestant  Church 
historian  of  Poland,  was  a  native  of  the  ancient  Polish 
province  of  AVhite  Russia,  and  was  descended  from  a 
noble  family,  which  embraced  at  an  early  period  the 
Protestant  faith.  He  was  born  about  1780,  and  received 
a  superior  classical  education ;  while  yet  a  young  man 
he  was  appointedchief  of  that  department  of  the  minis- 
trj'  of  public  instruction  in  the  kingdom  of  Poland  which 
was  charged  with  the  superintendence  of  the  various 
classes  of  dissenters.  He  was  zealous  in  his  endeavors 
to  promote  instruction  among  them,  and  especially  ex- 
erted himself  in  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  War- 
saw for  the  education  of  Jewish  rabbis.  In  order  to 
lessen  the  expense  of  valuable  works,  especially  those 
on  scientific  subjects,  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  stere- 
otype printing  into  Poland,  and  this  was  not  accom- 
plished without  a  considerable  diminution  of  his  own 
income.  ^Vhcn  the  Polish  Revolution  of  1830  had  pro- 
claimed the  throne  of  I'oland  vacant,  and  organized  a 
national  government,  with  prince  Adam  Czartoryski  as 
president,  a  diplomatic  mission  was  sent  to  England,  of 
which  count  Valerian  Krasinski  was  a  member.  When 
the  Russian  armies  in  1831  had  overpowered  the  revo- 
lutionary movement  of  his  countrymen,  he  was  still  in 
England,  where  he  then  became,  with  many  others  of 
his  countrymen,  a  penniless  exile.  After  having  ac- 
quired the  English  language,  he  devoted  himself  to  lit- 
erature as  a  means  of  support,  and  became  the  author 
of  several  valuable  works.  He  resided  in  London  dur- 
ing the  first  twenty  years  of  his  exile,  and  during  the 
last  five  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  died  Dec.  22,  1855. 
Count  Krasinski  was  a  man  of  varied  learning,  and  pos- 
sessed extensive  information,  especially  on  all  matters 
connected  with  the  Slavonic  races.  His  moat  impor- 
tant works  are  the  following :  The  Rise,  Prorjress,  and 
Decline  of  the  Reformation  in  Polatui  (Lond.  1838-40,  2 


vols.  8vo) : — Lectures  on  the  Religious  History  of  the  P,la~ 
vonic  Nations  (London,  1849, 8vo) : — Sketch  of  the  Rdiy- 
ious  History  of  the  Slavonian  Nations  (Edinb.  1851, 8vo) : 
— Treatise  on  Relics,  by  J.  Calvin,  newly  translated  from 
the  French  original,  with  an  Introductory  Dissertation 
on  tlie  Miraculous  Images  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and 
Russo-Greek  Churches  (1854,  8vo).  He  published  also 
some  works  and  pamphlets  on  secular  and  recent  politi- 
cal subjects,  especially  on  those  connected  with  the  res- 
toration of  Poland.  See  English  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  British 
and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  1845,  p.  502  ;  Jenkins,  Life  of  Cardi- 
nal Julian  (Preface). 

Kraus,  Christian  Jacob,  a  German  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Osterode  July  28,  1753,  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Kijnigsberg  in  1771,  studied  first  theology 
and  later  mainly  metaphysics;  in  1779  went  to  Gottin- 
gen ;  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Uni- 
versity in  Konigsberg  in  1781,  and  died  there  Aug.  25, 
1807.  His  writings  were  published  under  the  title  Ve7-- 
mischte  Schriften  (Kiinigsb.  1808-12,  7  vols.  8vo) ;  etc. 
— Kutholische  Real-Encyklopddie,  vi,  397. 

Kraus,  Johann  Baptist,  a  German  Roman  Cath- 
olic theologian,  was  Ijorn  at  Regensburg  Jan.  12,  1700, 
entered  the  Benedictine  order  in  1715,  and  in  1721  was 
sent  by  his  superior  to  Paris  to  study  in  the  convent  St. 
Germain  under  Montfaucon  and  Guarin ;  returned  to 
Germany  in  1724,  and  was  ordained  priest.  In  1725  he 
was  appointed  to  St.  Emmtran  Convent,  and  remained 
there  untU  his  death,  June  14, 1762.  Kraus  was  a  de- 
cided Roman  Catholic,  rather  ultramontane  in  his  views, 
and  hardly  suited  for  the  liberal  German  associations 
which  surrounded  him.  He  battled  earnestly  in  behalf 
of  his  sect,  and  opposed  vigorously  the  liberal  tendency 
of  the  Benedictine  Rothfischer,  who  had  frankly  confess- 
ed the  failings  of  some  of  the  institutions  of  the  Romish 
Church.  For  a  list  of  the  works  of  Kraus,  see  Dtiring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  189  sq. 

Krause,  Friedrich  August  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man doctor  in  philosophy,  was  born  at  Uobrihigk  in 
1 767,  and  nourished  at  Vienna,  where  he  died  March  24, 
1827.  He  published  Pauli  ad  Co7-inthios  epistolce  Or., 
perpetua  annotatione  illustrafce,  vol.  i  (Franc,  ad  ]\Ioen. 
1792) ;  intended  as  a  continuation  of  Koppe's  New  Tes- 
tament, but  never  carried  further.  He  had  previously 
published  Bie  Briefe  an  die  Philipp.  itnd  Thessal.  iiher- 
setzt  und  mit  Anmerk.  begleitit  (Frankfort,  1790).— Kitto, 
Biblical  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Krause,  Johann  Christian  Heinrich,  a  Ger- 
man divine,  was  born  at  Quedlinburg  Aiiril  29, 1757,  and 
entered  the  University  of  Jena  in  1775.  Four  j^ears 
later  he  began  lectures  at  the  University  of  Giittingen, 
but  in  1783,  on  account  of  straitened  circumstances,  went 
to  Jever  as  rector,  and  in  1792  was  called  to  a  like  posi- 
tion at  Hanover.  He  died  Jan.  12,  1828.  For  a  list  of 
his  works,  see  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands.  ii, 
193  sq. 

Krause,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Reichenbach  Oct.  26,  1770,  and  was 
educated  at  Wittenberg  University,  where,  after  secur- 
ing the  master's  degree,  he  lectured  a  short  time.  In 
1793  he  was  called  to  his  native  place  as  diaconus,  and 
in  1802  the  city  of  Naumburg  called  him  as  preacher  to 
the  cathedral.  In  1810  he  went  to  the  Universit}'  of 
Konigsberg  to  fill  a  professorship  in  theology,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until  1819,  when  he  accepted  a  call  as 
preacher  to  Weimar,  and  there  he  died.  May  31,  1820. 
Krause's  writings  consist  of  several  academical  pro- 
grammes, two  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  one  on 
the  first  E]3istle  of  Peter,  and  four  on  the  second  Ejiistle 
to  the  Corinthians,  and  of  some  discussions  pertaining 
to  philosojihy  and  theology.  They  were  collected  by 
him,  and  issued  together  under  the  title  Opusciila  Theo- 
logic.a,  sparsim  edita  collegit,  ineditisque  (Dixit,  etc.  (Re- 
giom.  1818).  His  sermons  he  published  under  the  title 
Predigten  iiher  die  geicohnlichen  Sonn-  u.  Eesttagserange- 
lien  des  ganzen  Jahres  (Lpzg,  1803,  2  vols.  8vo ;  vol.  iii, 


KRAUSE 


160 


KREBS 


ibid,  1805,  8vo).     See  Doring,  Geh-hrte  Theol.  Deutsch- 
lands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Krause,  Karl  Christian  Friedrich,  a  (ierman 
l)liilosn]iluT,  born  in  Eisfiiberi;  INIay  (i,  17.^1,  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Jena,  where  he  attended  the 
lectures  of  Keinhold,  Fichte,  and  Schelling,  and  then  lect- 
ured as  "privat  docent"  from  1802  to  1804.  In  order 
to  devote  himself  to  the  wide  range  of  studies  which  he 
deemed  necessary  to  give  completeness  to  his  philosoph- 
ical system,  more  especially  to  studies  in  art,  he  quitted 
Jena,  and  resided  successively  in  Eudolfstadt,  Dresden, 
and  Berlin.  He  made  several  journeys  through  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Italy,  and  lectured  at  CJiittingen  from 
1824  to  1831,  when  he  retired  to  Munich.  ''The  aim 
of  his  speculations  was  to  represent  the  collective  life  of 
man  as  an  organic  and  harmonious  unity ;  and  he  con- 
ceived the  scheme  of  a  public  and  formal  union  of  man- 
kind, which,  embracing  the  Church,  State,  and  all  other 
partial  unions,  should  occupy  itself  only  Avitli  the  inter- 
ests of  abstract  humanity,  and  shoulrl  labor  for  a  uniform 
and  \iniversal  development  and  cidture.  The  germ  of 
such  a  union  he  thought  he  found  in  freemasonry,  to 
which  he  rendered  great  service  by  his  works."  He 
died  in  Munich  Sept.  27,  1832,  Among  his  works  are 
Vorlesunijen  iiber  das  Si/stem  der  Philosophie  (Gottingen, 
1828,  8vo): — Abriss  der  Religionsphilosophie  (1828)  : — 
and  Vorlesiinr/en  iiber  die  Grundwahrheiten  der  Wissen- 
schafl  (Gottingen,  1829).  See  Krug,  Philosophisches 
Lexikon,  ii,  642 ;  Kathol.  Real-EiicijMopddie,  vi,  398, 399 ; 
Appleton's  Xeio  A  mer.  Ci/clopmdia,  x,  217.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Krauth,  Charles  Philip,  D.D.,  an  eminent  divine 
in  tlie  Lutheran  Chiu-ch,  born  in  jNIontgomery  Co.,  Pa., 
jNIay  7, 1797.  Originally  designed  for  the  medical  pro- 
fession, he  commenced  its  study  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Selden,  of  Norfolk,Ya.,  and  subsequently  attended  a 
course  of  lectures  in  the  University  of  Maryland.  By  a 
Providential  interposition,  as  he  always  regarded  it,  his 
attention  was  directed  to  the  ministry  as  a  field  of  use- 
fulness. Brought  under  the  infiuence  of  saving  truth, 
and  liaving  consecrated  himself  unreservedly  to  the  blas- 
ter, he  felt  that "  woe  would  be  unto  him  if  he  preached 
not  the  Gospel."  He  very  soon  commenced  his  theo- 
logical studies  with  Rev.  Dr.  Schajffer,  of  Frederick,  ]Md., 
and  concluded  them  with  Kev.  A.  Keck,  of  Winchester, 
Ya.,  whom  he  also  aided  in  the  pastoral  work.  He  was 
licensed  to  preach  the  Gospel  bythe  Synod  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1819.  His  first  pastoral  charge  was  the  united 
churches  of  INIartinsburg  and  Shepardstown,  Va.,  where 
he  labored  for  several  years  most  efficiently  and  success- 
fully. He  removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1827 ;  advanced 
rapidly  as  a  scholar,  a  theologian,  and  preacher,  and  in 
l.s;5;>  was  unanimously  elected  professor  of  Biblical  and 
Oriental  literature  in  the  theological  seminary  at  Gettys- 
Ijurg,  Pa.,  with  the  understanding  that  a  portion  of  his 
time  shoidd  be  devoted  to  instruction  in  Pennsylvania 
College,  in  the  same  place.  In  1834  he  was  chosen  pres- 
ident of  the  college,  which  office  he  filled  with  distin- 
guished success  for  seventeen  years,  a  model  of  Chris- 
tian propriety,  purity,  and  honor.  The  history  of  the 
college  during  his  connection  with  it  furnishes  an  mi- 
crring  proof  of  his  abilities  and  faithfiduess.  During 
his  administration  the  institution  enjoyed  several  pre- 
cious seasons  of  revival,  when  large  numbers  of  the 
young  men  joined  themselves  to  the  people  of  God.  In 
1850  Dr.  Krauth  resigned  the  jircsidency  of  the  college, 
to  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  quiet  and  congenial  du- 
ties of  theological  instruction,  and  continued  these  labors 
until  the  close  of  life,  delivering  his  last  lecture  to  the 
senior  class  within  ten  days  of  his  death.  He  died  May 
30, 18t)7.  Dr.  Ivrauth  was  a  man  of  rare  endowments  of 
intellect.  His  mind  was  distinguished  for  the  harmoni- 
ous blendings  of  all  its  powers.  -  His  attainments  in  ev- 
ery department  of  literature  and  science  were  verj'  ex- 
tensive. In  the  pulpit  he  was  pre-eminent.  His  ser- 
mons were  always  impressive,  often  thrilling,  and  some- 
times accompanied  with  the  most  powerful  results.   The 


following  is  a  list  'of  his  publications :  Oration  on  ike 
Stud  J  (if  the  Herman  Languarje  (1832) : — Address  deliv- 
ered at  /lis  Immyuration  us  President  of  Penns;jlcania 
College  (1834): — Sermon  on  Missions  (1837): — Address 
on  the  Anniversary  of  Washington's  Birthday  (1846): — 
Discourse  at  the  Opening  of  the  General  Synod  (1850) : — 
Baccalaureate  Discourse  (1850) : — Discourse  on  the  Life 
and  Character  of  Henry  Clay'  (18b2).  He  edited  the 
General  Synod's  Hymn-book ;  Lutheran  Sunday-school 
Hymn-book ;  Lutheran  Intelligencer  (of  1826)  ;  Evangel- 
ical Quarterly  lieview  (from  1850-61).     (M.  L.  S.) 

Krautwald,  Valentin'.     See  Schwexkfeld. 

Krebs,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Baireuth  ilarcli  5,  1651 ;  studied  at 
Jena ;  became  rector  of  the  gymnasium  at  Heilsbrunn 
in  1675,  where  he  afterwards  tilled  the  posts  of  professor 
of  theology  and  Hebrew,  and  inspector;  and  died  Aug. 
16, 1721.  Krebs  was  a  copious  writer,  the  list  of  his 
works  filling  five  closely-printed  columns  in  Adelung. 
They  embrace  natural  and  moral  philosophy,  historical 
and  political  science,  and  theology,  mostly  in  the  form 
of  dissertations.  Among  the  most  valuable  is  a  work 
on  the  first  five  chapters  of  Genesis,  illustrated  from  the 
Syriac,  Chaldee,  Persic,  iEthiopic,  and  other  Oriental 
languages.  See  Adelung,  Gelehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Krebs,  Johann  Tobias,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Buttelstadt  (Thuringia)  in  1718,  and  was 
educated  at  Leipzig  University,  where,  after  attaining 
to. the  master's  degree,  he  lectured  on  N.  T.  exegesis. 
Later  he  was  conrector  at  Chemnitz,  and  finally  rector  - 
at  the  gymnasium  in  Grimma,  where  he  died  in  1782. 
Krebs  edited  Schottgen's  I^exicon  in  Nov.  Testament 
(Lips.  1765),  and  wrote  himself  two  works  of  consider- 
able value  for  the  illustration  of  the  facts  and  language 
of  the  N.  T.,  De  usu  et  prcestantia  Romcime  Historice  in 
N.  T.  interpretatione  (Lips.  1745)  : — Observationes  in  N. 
T.  e  Flavio  Joseph.  (Lips.  1755).  "  The  latter  contains 
a  rich  collection  of  examples  of  the  peculiarities  of  N.-T. 
phraseologv." — Pierer,  Univ.  Lexikon,  vol.  ix,  s.  v. ;  Kitto, 
Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Krebs,  John  Michael,  D.D.,  a  noted  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  in  Hagerstown,  JNId.,  ]May  6, 
1804,  and  was  converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen.  He 
entered  Dickinson  College  in  1825,  and  after  graduation 
in  1827  with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class,  studied 
theology,  and  was  licensed  by  Carlisle  (Pa.)  Presbyterj' 
in  1829.  Shortly  after  he  became  the  pastor  of  Rutgers 
Street  Church,  New  York  City,  which  he  served  until 
his  death,  Sept.  30, 1867.  Though  one  of  the  ablest  and 
most  prominent  ministers  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
Dr.  Krebs  published  only  a  few  occasional  sermons,  be- 
sides several  contributions  to  the  periodicals  of  his 
Church  (for  which  see  Allibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  Amer. 
A  itlhors,  ii,  1016),  and  to  Sprague's  .4  nnals  of  the  A  mer- 
ican  Pulpit.  '•  He  was  a  man  of  rare  gifts,  and  of  still 
more  rare  and  varied  acquirements,  being  learned  not 
only  in  theology,  but  in  the  whole  range  of  the  sciences; 
and  his  learning  was  all  made  to  bear  upon  the  work 
to  which  he  had  devoted  his  life,  that  of  the  (;osi)el 
ministry.  He  was  eminent  as  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel, 
and  still  more  eminent  in  the  councils  of  the  Church, 
having  no  equal  in  the  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  law, 
and  in  his  acquaintance  with  the  ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  denomination  to  which  he  belonged."  He  was 
honored  with  the  ai)pointment  of  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  the  Reunion  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
had  previously  held  other  offices  of  distinction  in  the 
councils  of  his  denomination.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  His- 
torical Almanac.  XSy-.^,  p.  100  sq. 

Krebs,  Winiam,  a  IMethodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  lialtiniore,  Md.,  Sept.  2,  1819;  joined  the 
Church  in  bsl  1 ,  and  wa,s  iumiediately  licensed  to  exhort ; 
and  the  year  following  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference 
as  pastor  of  Wesley  Chapel,  Baltimore.     He  died  Sept. 


KRECHLING 


161 


KRISHNA 


26, 1870.  "Brother  Krebs  was  a  perspicuous  preacher,  j 
logical  ill  method,  earnest  in  manner,  although  not  ve- 
hement, and  eminently  diligent  in  preparation.  He  was 
also  a  notably  faithful  pastor.  Five  years  of  his  minis- 
try were  spent  in  Washington,  five  in  Baltimore,  and 
one  in  Chicago,  and  everywhere  the  Lord  owned  his  la- 
bors."— Cotrfl'rence  Minutes,  1871,  p.  19. 

Krechling.     See  Anabaptists. 

Krell.     See  Cuiiix. 

Krey,  Joiiaxn  Beunhard,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Kostoclv  Dec.  6, 1771,  and  was  educated  at 
the  university  in  that  city  and  at  Jena.  In  1806  lie 
was  appointed  assistant  pastor  at  St.  Peter's  Church  in 
liostock,  and  in  1814  became  the  principal  pastor.  He 
died  Oct.  6, 1826.  He  published  Beiti-age  zur  Mecklen- 
biirfjisc/icn  Kirchen-  u.  (jdehrteii  Geschickte  (Rost.  1818- 
1823, 3  vols,  royal  8vo).  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Do- 
ring,  Gdc'hrte  Theol.  Deulschlunds,  ii,  207  sq. 

KIrider,  Barnabas  Scott,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  in  1825,  in  Rowan  County,  North  Carolina ;  re- 
ceived his  education  in  Davidson  College,  N.  C,  where 
he  gra^luated  in  1850;  and  completed  his  theological 
studies  in  Columbia,  S.  C,  and  Princeton,  N.  J.,  semina- 
ries in  1855.  In  1856  lie  was  ordained  and  installed  as 
pastor  of  Bethany  and  Tabor  churches,  and  in  1858  took 
charge  of  Unity  and  Franklin  churches,  N.  C.  The  year 
succeeding  he  became  pastor  at  Thyatira,  where  he  died 
Oct.  19, 1865.  Krider  "  was  popular  in  address,  j  udicious 
and  practical,  and  won  the  affection  of  his  people." — 
Wilson,  Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  18GG. 

Krinon.     See  Lily. 

Kripner,  Samuel,  a  German  divine  of  some  note, 
was  born  at  Schwabelwald,  in  the  duchy  of  Baireuth, 
March  31,  1695;  entered  Jena  University  in  1710,  and 
in  1727  was  appointed  professor  of  Greeiv  and  the  Ori- 
ental languages  at  the  gymnasium  in  Baireuth.  He 
died  Oct.  15,  1742.  For  a  list  of  his  writings,  mainly 
dissertations,  see  During,  Gekhrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii, 
210  sq. 

Krishna  was  the  eighth  and  most  celebrated  of  the 
ten  chief  incarnations  of  the  god  Vishnu,  who,  together 
witli  I5rahnia  and  Siva,  constituted  the  divine  triad  of 
the  Hindu  mythology.  See  TnniURTi.  The  term 
Krishna  is  a  Sanscrit  word  signifying  black,  and  was 
given  to  the  incarnation  either  because  the  body  as- 
sumed was  of  a  black  complexion,  or,  more  properly,  be- 
cause of  the  relation  of  the  avatar  to  a  deity  whose  dis- 
tinguishing color  was  black,  as  that  of  Brahma  was  red, 
and  Siva  was  white ;  or  for  a  reason  implied  in  the  ci- 
tation from  Porphyry  (Eusebius,  Be  Prnpar.  Evaiif/.'), 
that  the  ancients  represented  the  Deity  by  a  black  stone 
because  his  nature  is  obscure  and  impenetrable  by  man. 
See  further,  Maurice,  Indian  A  ntiquities,  ii,  364-368 ; 
Prichard's  Egypt.  Mythol.  p.  285;  Maurice,  Histoi-y  of 
Ilimlostan,  ii,  351. 

Krishna  is  the  most  renowned  demigod  of  the  Indian 
mythology,  and  most  famous  hero  of  Indian  history.  It 
is  probable  that  when  the  story  of  his  life  is  stripped  of 
its  mythological  accidents  it  will  be  found  that  he  was 
a  historical  personage  belonging  to  the  Aryan  race  when 
they  were  making  their  gradual  inroads  south  and  east 
in  the  peninsula  of  India.  It  is  presumable  that  the 
enemies  whom  he  attacked  and  subdued  were  the  Tura- 
nian races  who  constituted  the  aborigines  of  the  coun- 
try [see  KiiONns],  and  who,  fighting  fiercely  and  mer- 
cilessly in  their  primeval  forests,  were  soon  magnified 
into  gods  and  demigods.     See  Mythology. 

I.  Theory  of  the  Incarnation. — -Krishnaism,  with  all 
its  impsrfections,  may  be  accounted  as  a  necessary  and 
the  extreme  revolt  of  the  human  heart  against  the  un- 
satisfying vagaries  of  tlie  godless  philosophy  into  which 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  had  alike  degenerated.  The 
speculations  of  the  six  schools  of  philosophy,  as  enumer- 
ated by  native  writers,  served  only  to  bewilder  the  mind 
until  the  word  inaya,  "illusion,"  was  evolved  as  the  ex- 
ponent of  all  that  belongs  to  the  present  life,  while  the 
^Y.— L 


awfid  nn-steriousness  of  Nirvana  overshadowed  the  life 
to  come.  ]\Ian's  nature  asks  for  light  upon  the  per- 
plexed questions  of  mortal  existence,  but  at  the  same 
time  demands  that  which  is  of  more  moment,  an  an- 
chorage for  the  soul  in  the  near  and  tangible.  The 
ages  had  been  preparing  the  Hindu  mind  for  the  dogma 
of  Krishna — an  upheaving  of  something  more  subsi  an- 
tial  from  the  great  deep  of  human  hope  and  fear  than 
the  unstable  elements  of  a  life  transitory  and  void.  Con- 
sult Max  MUller's  Chijjs,  i,  242 ;  Biblioth.  Sac?-a,  xviii, 
543-568. 

The  avatars  preceding  that  of  Krishna  were  mere 
emanations  of  the  god  Vishnu,  but  this  embodied  the 
deity  in  the  entirety  of  his  nature.  In  tliose  he  brought 
only  an  ansa,  or  portion  of  his  divinity,  "a  part  of  a 
part;"  in  this  he  descended  in  all  the  fidness  of  the 
godhead,  so  much  so  that  Vishnu  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  Brahma,  the  latter  becoming  incarnate  in 
Krishna  as  "  the  very  supreme  Brahma."  See  Hard- 
wick,  Christ  and  other  Maste?-s,  i,  280,  291,  note ;  also  Sir 
Wm.  Jones,  in  Maurice's  Hindostan,  ii,  256.  In  the 
Bhagavat  (iita,  that  wonderful  episode  of  the  ISIaha- 
bharata,  Arjuna  asks  of  Krishna  that  he  may  be  favored 
with  the  view  of  the  divine  countenance.  As,  in  re- 
sponse, the  deity  bestows  upon  him  a  heavenly  eye  that 
he  may  contemplate  the  divine  glory,  he  indulges  in  a 
rhapsody  which  describes  the  incarnate  god  as  compris- 
ing the  entire  godhead  in  all  its  functions.  Again, 
Krishna  says  of  himself,  "  I  am  the  cause  of  the  produc- 
tion and  dissolution  of  the  whole  universe,"  etc.  (Thom- 
son's edition,  p.  51). 

One  object  of  this  incarnation  was  "  the  destruction 
of  Kansa,  an  oppressive  monarch,  and,  in  fact,  an  incar- 
nate Daitya  or  Titan,  the  natural  enemy  of  the  gods" 
(H.  H.Wilson,  Eeliyion  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  G6).  A  more 
satisfactory  object  is  disclosed  by  Krishna  in  the  Bha- 
ghavat  Gita :  "  Even  though  I  am  unborn,  of  change- 
less essence,  and  the  lord  of  all  which  exist,  yet  in  pre- 
siding over  nature  (jn-ah-iti),  which  is  mine,  I  am  born 
by  my  own  mystic  power  (maya\  For,  whenever  there 
is  a  relaxation  of  duty,  O  son  of  Bharata !  and  an  in- 
crease of  impiety,  I  then  reproduce  myself  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  good  and  the  destruction  of  evil-doers.  I 
am  produced  in  every  age  for  the  purpose  of  establish- 
ing duty"  (Thomson's  cd.  p.  30).  The  incarnations  of 
Vishnu,  which  were  multiplied  to  infinitude,  assuming 
diversified  forms  of  man,  fish,  and  beast,  because  physi- 
cal life  has  in  it  nothing  real,  nothing  individual,  noth- 
ing of  lasting  worth,  we  may  believe  contemplated  even 
yet  a  more  ennobling  end,  an  antidote  to  the  essential 
evil  of  nature  as  declared  in  one  of  the  Puranas:  "The 
uncreated  being  abandons  the  body  that  he  used  in  or- 
der to  disencumber  the  earth  of  the  burden  that  over- 
whelmed it,  as  we  use  one  thorn  to  draw  out  another" 
(Burnouf,  quoted  by  Pressense.  Religions  he/ore  Christ, 
p.  63).  "  The  thorn  is  material  life,  which  Vishnu  ap- 
parently takes  on  himself  that  he  may  the  more  effec- 
tually destroy  it"  (Pressense,  ibidem').  "  Crude  matter 
and  the  five  elements  are  also  made  to  issue  from  Krish- 
na, and  then  all  the  divine  beings.  Narayana  or  Vishnu 
proceeds  from  his  right  side,  !Mahadeva  from  his  left, 
Brahma  from  his  hand,  Dharma  from  his  breath,  Saras- 
wati  from  his  mouth,  Lakshmi  from  his  mind,  Durga 
from  his  understanding,  Radha  from  his  left  side.  Three 
hundred  millions  of  gopis,  or  female  companions  of  Ra- 
dha, exude  from  the  pores  of  her  skin,  and  a  like  num- 
ber of  gopas,  or  companions  of  Krishna,  from  the  pores 
of  his  skin ;  the  very  cows  and  their  calves,  properly  the 
tenants  of  Goloka,  but  destined  to  inhabit  the  groves  of 
Brindavan,  arc  jiroduced  from  the  same  exalted  source" 
(H.  H.  Wilson.  Religion  of  the  Hindus,  i,  123). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Puranas  disclose  with  regard 
to  Krislma  a  human  life,  when  considered  from  the  most 
favorable  stand-point,  discreditable  to  the  name  and  na- 
ture of  man.  It  is  a  tissue  of  puerilities  and  licentious- 
ness. The  miraculous  deeds  of  Krishna  were  rarely  for 
an  object  commensurate  with  the  idea  of  a  divine  inter- 


KRISHNA 


162 


KRISHNA 


position.  His  associations  as  a  cowherd  (gopala)  with 
the  gopis — in  which  capacity  he  is  most  popular  as  an 
object  of  adoration — are  no  better  than  the  amours  of 
classic  mytliology.  The  splendid  creation  of  the  Gita, 
not  unUke  the  human  liead  in  the  Ars  Poetica,  finds  in 
tlie  Puranas  an  unsightly  complement.  In  his  infancy 
he  is  represented  as  destroying  in  a  wonderfid  manner 
the  false  nurse  Putana ;  playing  his  tricks  upon  the  cow- 
herds— spiUing  their  milk,  stealing  tlieir  cream,  and  al- 
ways making  cmming  escapes ;  and  rooting  up  trees  the 
fall  of  which  made  tlie  tliree  worlds  to  resound.  In  his 
clilldhood  swallowed  by  an  alligator,  he  burns  his  way 
out  from  the  entrails  of  the  monster,  and  on  another  oc- 
casion contends  with  and  overcomes  the  dragon,  one  of 
whose  jaws  touched  the  ground  while  the  other  stretch- 
ed up  to  the  clouds;  checkmates  Brahma,  whose  mind 
had  been  led  by  evU.  suggestions  to  steal  away  the  cat- 
tle and  the  attendant  boys,  by  creating  others  which 
were  jierfect  fac-similes  of  those  that  had  been  stolen. 
Still  a  child,  he  dances  in  triumph  on  the  great  black 
serpent  KaU-naja,  and  then,  in  compassion,  assigns  him 
to  the  abyss;  hides  and  restores  the  clothes  of  the  gopis 
while  bathing;  lifts  the  mountain  Govarddhana  on  his 
little  finger  with  as  much  ease  as  if  it  had  been  a  lotus, 
that  its  inhabitants  might  be  protected  from  the  storm  ; 
and  plays  blind-man's  butf,  assuming  the  form  of  a  wolf, 
that  he  might  find  and  restore  the  boys  who  had  been 
abducted  by  anotlicr  wolf.  In  his  more  mature  man- 
hood we  behold  him  promoting  his  love  intrigues  by 
miraculously  corrupting  the  hearts  of  the  gopis,  or  ac- 
complishing that  most  astounding  miracle  with  respect 
to  his  16,000  wives,  "  quas  omnes  una  nocte  invisebat 
et  replebat"  (Paulinus,  Systema  Brahmanicum,  p.  150), 
in  order  that  Nared  might  be  convinced  of  his  divine 
nature.  Now  he  careers  in  triumph  over  battle-fields, 
with  a  blade  of  grass  or  with  a  single  arrow  shot  from 
the  all-conquering  bow  discomfiting  entire  armies:  and 
now  he  yields  himself  to  scenes  of  sumptuous  revelry  in 
the  gardens  of  golden  earth,  through  which  flowed  "  the 
river  whose  banks  were  all  gold  and  jewels,  the  water 
of  which,  from  the  reflection  of  rubies,  appeared  red, 
though  perfectly  white" — in  all  the  license  of  joy  sport- 
ing with  his  10,000  wives,  by  whom  he  was  siu-rounded 
"  as  lifjhtniiuj  with  a  cloud'' — they  and  he  pelting  each 
other  witli  tlowers,  thousands  of  lotuses  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  river — whose  water  was  the  water  of  Ufe 
— among  which  innumerable  bees  were  humming  and 
seeking  their  food  (Bhagavat  Piirana,  in  Jlaurice,  Hist, 
of  Jliiidostan,  ii,  327-458).  Sir  Wm.  Jones,  however, 
with  enlarged  charity,  takes  a  modified  and  more  pleas- 
ing view  of  the  darker  phases  of  a  life  the  worst  scenes 
of  which  are  not  fit  to  be  told, "  that  he  was  pure  and 
chaste  in  reality,  but  exhibited  an  appearance  of  exces- 
sive libertinism,  and  had  wives  or  mistresses  too  numer- 
ous to  be  counted ;  he  was  benevolent  and  tender,  yet 
fomented  and  conducted  a  terrible  war."  See  farther 
ilauricc,  Ilindostan,  ii,  258. 

II.  Life  of  Krishna.  —  "The  king  of  the  Daityas  or 
aljorigines,  Ahuka,  had  two  sons,  Devaka  and  Ugrasena. 
The  former  had  a  daughter  named  Devaki,  the  latter  a 
son  called  Kansa.  Devaki  (the  divine)  was  married  to 
a  nobleman  of  the  ^Vryan  race  named  Vasudeva,  the  son 
of  Sura,  a  descendant  of  Yadu,  and  by  him  had  eight 
sons,  ^'asudeva  had  also  another  wife  named  Eohini. 
Kansa,  the  cousin  of  Devaki,  was  informed  by  the  saint 
and  prophet  Xarada  that  his  cousin  would  bear  a  son 
who  Would  kill  him  and  overtlirow  his  kingdom.  Kan- 
sa was  king  of  Matluira,  and  he  captured  Vasudeva  and 
his  wife  Devaki,  imjirisoned  them  in  his  own  palace,  set 
guards  over  them,  and  slew  the  six  children  whom  De- 
vaki had  already  borne.  She  was  about  to  give  birth 
to  the  seventh,  who  was  Balarama,  the  playfellow  of 
Krishna,  and,  like  him,  supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of 
Vishnu ;  but.  by  divine  agency,  the  child  was  tVansferred 
before  l)irth  to  the  womb  of  Vasudeva's  other  wife,  Eo- 
hini, who  was  stiU  at  liberty,  and  was  thus  saved"  (Thom- 
son's summarj'  in  Bhagavad  Gita,  p.  ISi).     Her  eighth 


child  was  Krishna,  who  was  produced  from  one  of  the 
hairs  of  Vishnu  (jMuir's  Sanscrit  Texts,  ch.  ii,  sec.  5),  and 
was  born  at  midnight  in  Mathura, "  the  celestial  phe- 
nomenon." The  moment  Vasudeva  saw  the  infant  he 
recognised  it  to  be  the  Almighty,  and  at  once  presented 
his  adoration.  The  room  Avas  briUiantly  illuminated, 
and  the  faces  of  both  parents  emitted  rays  of  glory. 
The  child  was  of  the  hue  of  a  cloud  with  four  arms, 
dressed  in  a  yellow  garb,  and  bearing  the  weapons,  the 
jewels,  and  the  diadem  of  Vishnu  (H.  II.  "Wilson,  ut  sup. 
i,  122).  The  clouds  breathed  forth  pleasing  somids,  and 
poured  down  a  rain  of  flowers ;  the  strong  winds  were 
hushed,  the  rivers  glided  tranquilly,  and  the  virtuous 
experienced  new  delight.  The  infant,  however,  soon 
encountered  the  most  formidable  dangers,  for  Kansa  left 
no  means  unemploj'ed  to  compass  the  child's  destruc- 
tion. The  gods  interposed  for  his  deliverance ;  lidled 
the  guards  of  the  palace  to  a  supernatural  slumber;  its 
seven  doors  opened  of  their  own  accord,  and  the  father 
escaped  with  his  child.  As  they  came  to  the  Yamuna, 
the  child  gave  command  to  the  river,  and  a  way  was 
opened  that  they  might  pass  over,  a  serpent  meanwhile 
holding  her  head  over  the  child  in  place  of  an  umbrella. 
The  child  was  surreptitiously  exchanged  for  another,  of 
which  the  wife  of  an  Aryan  cowherd,  Nanda  by  name, 
had  been  delivered.  Krishna  was  left  with  the  cow- 
herd, while  Vasudeva  returned  with  the  other  to  the 
palace.  Not  long  after,  Kansa  discovered  the  impos- 
ture, and  in  anger  gave  command  for  the  incUscriminate 
slaughter  of  all  male  children.  To  escape  the  impend- 
ing danger,  Krishna  was  removed  by  Nanda  to  the  vil- 
lage Gokula.  Here  his  youth  was  passed  in  the  care 
of  the  flocks  and  herds.  The  young  gopas  and  gopis, 
cowherds  and  milkmaids,  flocked  to  his  side  from  the 
surroimding  countrj',  won  by  his  matchless  beauty  and 
the  display  of  his  miraculous  powers.  He  selected  from 
the  fascinated  gopis  a  bevy  of  beauties,  of  Avhom  he 
married  several,  Radha  enjoying  the  honor  of  being  his 
favorite  mistress,  and  subsequently  of  bcuig  associated 
with  him  as  a  joint  object  of  worship.  He  beguiled 
the  hours  with  them  in  the  gay  revelries  of  dance  and 
song.  A  second  Apollo,  he  wielded  the  power  of  music, 
and  at  the  sweet  sounds  of  flute  or  vhia  the  waters  stood 
StiU  to  listen,  and  the  birds  lost  the  power  of  flight.  The 
Puranas  dwell  upon  his  repeated  exploits  with  serpents, 
demons,  and  other  monsters,  each  one  of  whom  was 
eventually  crushed  or  conquered,  for  the  unequal  con- 
test was  waged  with  one  who  embodied  "  the  strength 
of  the  world."  An  impostor  arose,  pretending  to  be  the 
true  son  of  Vasudeva  or  Krishna  himself,  but  he  also 
was  defeated  and  slain  (.Johnson's  Selections  from  the 
Mahabharata,  third  section,  note).  Krishna  particijia- 
ted  in  the  family  feud  between  the  Kurus,  or  hundred 
sons  of  Dhritarasthra,  and  their  cousins,  the  five  sons 
of  Pandu.  One  of  the  battles  is  fabled  to  have  lasted 
eighteen  days,  and  to  have  been  attended  with  incredi- 
ble slaughter.  The  varied  fortunes  of  this  protracted 
strife,  interspersed  with  a  vast  number  of  legends  and 
traditions,  constitute  the  subject  of  the  great  epic  tlie 
Mahabharata.  For  the  protection  of  tlio  jieople  of  Yadu 
against  the  invasion  of  a  foreign  king,  Krishna  built 
and  fortified  the  town  of  Dvaraka,  in  Guzerat,  all  tlie 
Avails  of  which  were  so  studded  with  jewels  that  there 
was  no  need  of  lamps  by  night.  To  Eukmini  is  accord- 
ed the  pre-eminence  as  his  wife,  though  his  harem  num- 
bered 16,000  others,  each  one  of  whom  bore  him  ten  sons 
(comp.  The  Dahistan,  ii,  31,  1.S3,  and  Bhagavat  Purana, 
ibid,  ii,  408).  Many  Avere  his  notable  deeds,  some  of 
them  embracing  the  regions  of  the  dead,  and  others  In- 
(Ua's  heaven,  from  which  he  stole  the  famous  Parijata- 
trec,  produced  at  the  churning  of  the  ocean,  and  at  that 
time  thriving  in  the  gardens  of  Indra.  The  mighty 
tyrant  Kansa.  and  the  mightier  dremons  Chanura  and 
Mushtika,  fell  beneath  his  prowess,  and  even  his  own 
tribe,  the  Yadavas,  Avas  exterminated  through  his  agen- 
cy (11.  H.  AVilson,  Vishnu  Purana,  v,  passim).  His  death 
at  last  took  place  in  a  Avouderful  manner,  and  is  sup- 


KRISHNA 


163 


KRISHNA 


posed  by  some  to  illustrate  the  prophecy  of  the  Garden, 
Divrvasa  had  once  warned  him,  "  Oh,  Krishna,  take  care 
of  the  sole  oft/ii//oot ;  for  if  any  evil  come  upon  thee  it 
will  happen  in  tliat  place"  (as  is  related  in  the  Jlaha- 
bharata  in  Maurice,  ibid,  ii,  472).  As  he  sat  one  day  in 
the  forest  meditating  upon  the  fearfid  destruction  of 
Kuru  and  Yadava  alike,  he  inadvertently  exposed  his 
foot.  A  hunter,  Jara  (old  age),  mistook  him  for  a  beast, 
and  with  his  arrow  pierced  the  sole  of  his  foot.  In  his 
death  so  great  a  light  proceeded  from  Krishna  that  it 
enveloped  the  whole  compass  of  the  earth,  and  illumi- 
nated the  entire  expanse  of  heaven.  He  abandoned  his 
mortal  body  and  "  the  condition  of  the  threefold  quali- 
ties." According  to  the  Purana, "  he  united  himself  with 
his  own  pure,  spiritual,  inexhaustible,  inconceivable,  un- 
born, undecaying,  imperishable,  and  universal  spirit." 
He  returned  to  his  own  heaven,  denominated  Goloka — 
the  sphere  or  heaven  of  cows — a  region  far  above  the 
three  worlds,  and  indestructible,  while  all  else  is  subject 
to  annihilation.  "There,  in  the  centre  of  it,  abides 
Krishna,  of  the  color  of  a  dark  cloud,  in  the  bloom  of 
j'outh,  clad  in  yellow  raiment,  splendidly  adorned  with 
celestial  gems,  and  holding  a  Hute"  (Wilson,  Relirjion  of 
the  Hindus,  i,  123). 

In  this  entire  Ufa  we  find  no  high  moral  purpose  to 
elicit  our  admiration  or  command  our  faith.  Now  and 
then  there  appear  in  the  Puranas  suggestions  of  relief 
from  individual  burdens  of  oppression  and  woe,  but  they 
are  as  void  and  dissevered  as  flashes  of  Ughtning,  which 
serve  but  to  intensify  the  gloom.  Like  Buddha,  our  di- 
vinity bewails  the  evils  of  existence.  Whatever  may 
be  the  recognition  of  human  need,  the  idea  of  succor  is 
most  limited,  and  only  proves  that  the  religion  feels  it- 
self inadequate  to  the  emergency  of  man's  mortal  estate 
(comp.  the  opening  of  the  Bhagavat  Purana).  Its  sub- 
limest  thought  is  a  method  of  escape  from  the  necessity 
of  repeated  births,  but  even  this  it  fails  to  elaborate. 
With  our  eye  upon  the  balance  in  which  Krishnaism 
is  weighed,  the  confession  of  Porphyry  still  presses  pain- 
fidh'  upon  us  that ''  there  was  wanting  some  universal 
method  of  delivering  men's  souls  which  no  sect  of  phi- 
losophy had  ever  yet  found  out"  (Augustine,  De  Civitaie 
Dei,  lib.  x,  ch.  xxxii).    See  Incarnation,  vol.  iv,  p.  630. 

III.  The  Worship  of  Krishna. — The  worship  of  this 
divinity  is  so  blended  with  that  of  Vishnu  and  Eama, 
another  of  the  incarnations  of  Vishnu,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  treat  of  the  one  without  trenching  on  that  of  the 
others.  These  are  all  generally  considered  under  the 
denomination  Vaishnavas,  or  worshippers  of  Vishnu, 
who  are  usually  distinguished  into  four  Sampraddyas, 
or  sects,  designated  in  the  Padma  Purana  as  Sri,  Madh- 
wi,  Rudra,  and  Sanaka  (comp.  Wilson,  Relig.  of  Hindus, 
i,  34).  The  worshippers  of  Krishna  have  been  subdi- 
vided into,  1.  those  who  worship  him  alone;  2.  those 
who  worship  his  mistress  Radha  alone;  and,  3.  those 
who  worship  both  conjointly  (see  Vollmer,  Wui-terh.  d. 
Mythol.  p.  1093).  According  to  H.  H.Wilson,  through- 
out India  the  opulent  and  liuxurious  among  the  men, 
and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  women,  attach 
themselves  to  the  worship  of  Krishna  and  Radha  either 
singly  or  together.  In  Bengal  the  worshippers  of 
Krishna  constitute  from  one  fifth  to  one  third  of  the 
entire  population  (Ward,  On  the  Hindus,  ii,  175,  448). 
The  temples  and  estabUshments  devoted  to  this  divinity 
are  numerous  all  over  India,  particularly  at  JMathura 
and  Brindavan,  the  latter  of  which  is  said  to  contam 
many  hundreds,  among  them  three  of  great  opulence 
(Wilson,  ^it  supra,  i,  135).  For  the  controversy  on  the 
extent  of  Krishna  worship,  see  Wdsou's  Vishnu  Parana, 
vol.  V,  Appendix. 

We  shall  have  to  content  ourselves  with  glancing  at 
some  of  the  more  notable  sects  or  Sampradayas.  The 
Rudra  Sampradayis  or  Vallabhacharis  adore  Krishna  as 
an  infant.  This  form  of  M'orship  is  widely  diffused 
among  all  ranks  of  Hindu  societj'.  In  their  temples  and 
houses  are  images,  not  unfrequently  of  gold,  in  the  form 
of  a  chubby  boy  of  a  dark  hue,  and  with  a  mischievous 


face,  in  some  cases  holding  butter  in  both  hands,  by 
which  is  perpetuated  one  of  his  boyish  pranks  (Paulli- 
nus,  Systema  Brahmainciim,  p.  146,  and  plate  15).  This 
image  eight  times  a  day  receives  the  homage  of  its  vo- 
taries with  most  punctilious  ceremony.  At  the  first 
ceremony,  being  washed  and  dressed,  it  is  taken  from  its 
couch,  where  it  has  slept  for  the  night,  and  placed  upon 
a  seat,  about  half  an  hour  after  sunrise.  Lamps  are 
kept  burning,  while  refreshments  are  presented,  with 
betel  and  Pan  (see  Wilson,  Rdirj.  of  Hindus,  i,  126-128). 
The  Sanakadi,  who  are  scattered  throughout  the  whole 
of  Upper  India,  the  Sakhi  Bhavas,  the  Raddha  Valla- 
bhis,  and  the  Charan  Dasis  differ  in  minor  particidars 
of  creed  and  rituahsm,  but  all  worship  Radha  in  union 
with  Krishna.  The  Chaitanyas  are  schismatics.  They 
believe  in  the  incarnation  of  Krishna  in  Chaitanya  their 
teacher,  who  on  this  account  is  elevated  to  joint  adora- 
tion. With  them  the  momentary  repetition  of  the 
name  of  their  divinity  is  a  guarantee  of  salvation. 

Festivals  in  commemoration  of  Krishna  are  annually 
observed  throughout  India,  and  still  maintain  a  most 
powerful  hold  of  the  popidar  heart.  The  third  day  of 
the  Uttarayana,  a  festival  held  about  the  middle  of 
Januarj',  is  sacred  to  Krishna  as  gopala  or  cowherd. 
In  the  afternoon  the  cows  and  bidls  are  washed  and  fed 
with  sacred  food,  then  decorated  with  chaplets  of  flow- 
ers. Thereupon  the  Hindus,  with  joined  hands,  walk 
around  the  herds  as  well  as  around  the  Brahmans,  and 
prostrate  themselves  before  them  (Wilson,  ihid,  ii,  171). 
The  Holi  festival  is  observed  about  the  middle  of 
March.  It  may  be  not  improperly  described  as  an  older 
and  more  crazy  sister  of  our  April  Fools'  Day,  and  is 
mostly  devoted  to  Krishna.  His  image  enjoys  a  swmg 
several  times  diu-ing  the  day,  is  besmeared  with  red 
powder,  and  dashed  with  water  colored  red.  In  the 
mean  time  unbounded  license  reigns  through  the  streets. 
"  It  woidd  be  impossible  to  describe  the  depths  of  wick- 
edness resorted  to  in  celebration  of  the  licentious  in- 
trigues of  this  popular  god"  (Trevor's  India,  p.  97).  The 
festival  of  Jaggernaut  ("  Lord  of  the  world"),  in  whose 
magnificent  temple  a  bone  of  Krishna  is  most  sacredly 
preserved,  commemorates  the  departure  of  Krishna  from 
his  native  land.  See  Jaggernaut.  This  also  takes- 
place  in  the  month  of  March.  Those  who  are  so  highly 
favored  as  to  assist  in  the  drawing  of  his  car  are  sure  of 
going  to  the  heaven  of  Krishna  when  they  die  (see 
Gangooly,  in  Clark's  Ten  Great  Religions,  p.  134 ;  Du- 
bois, Manners  ami  Customs  of  India,  p.  418).  The  na- 
tivity of  Krishna  is  celebrated  on  the  eighth  day  of  Au- 
gust. This  is  the  most  popular  of  all  the  festivals  at 
Benares.  The  Rasa  Yatra  falls  on  the  fidl  moon  m  Oc- 
tober, and  perpetuates  the  dance  of  the  frolicsome  deity 
with  the  16,000  gopis.  Though  it  is  universally  ob- 
served in  Hindostan,  the  details  are  such  that  it  wiU 
not  be  seemly  to  treat  either  of  the  occasion  or  the  ob- 
servance of  this  festival  (see  HolweU's  Indian  Festivals, 
pt.  ii,  p.  132;  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  \,  159). 

The  Hindu  sects  are  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  various  fantastical  streaks,  in  different  colors,  upon 
their  faces,  breasts,  and  arms.  The  followers  of  Krishna 
bear  upon  their  forehead  two  white  marks  perpendicular 
to  the  e3-ebrows,  between  which  a  red  spot  is  percepti- 
ble, in  token,  says  Vollmer,  that  Krishna  bore  a  sun 
upon  his  brow  {Wurterh.  d.  Mythol.  p.  1093;  also  Wil- 
son's Rei.  of  Himl.  i,  41 ;  Dubois,  Manners  of  India,  ch. 
viii,  and  p.  214;  Trevor's  India,  p.  101). 

Unquestionably  the  influence  of  the  worship  of  this 
divinity  upon  the  morals  of  the  people  is  evih  On  the 
one  hand,  it  embraces  the  hideous  barbarity  of  Jagger- 
naut; and,  on  the  other,  excepting  a  festival  of  Siva,  it 
is  responsible  for  the  most  licentious  of  all  the  annual 
feasts  (comp.  Dahistan,  i,  183),  Entire  dependence  upon 
Krishna,  or  any  other  form  of  this  heathen  deity,  says 
H.  H.Wilson,  not  only  obviates  the  necessitj^  of  virtue, 
but  sanctifies  vice.  Conduct  is  wholly  immaterial.  It 
matters  not  how  atrocious  a  sinner  a  man  may  be  if  he 
paints  his  face,  his  breast,  his  arms  with  certain  secta- 


KRISHNA 


164 


KRISHNA 


rial  marks ;  or,  what  is  better,  if  ho  brands  them  per- 
manently upon  liis  skin  witli  a  hot  iron  stamp ;  if  he  is 
constantly  chanting  hymns  in  honor  of  Vishnu;  or, 
what  is  equally  ctiicacious,  if  he  spends  hours  in  the 
simple  reiteration  of  his  name  or  names;  if  he  die  with 
the  word  Hari,  Kama,  or  Krishna  on  his  lips,  and  one 
thouifht  of  him  in  his  mind,  he  may  have  lived  a  mon- 
ster of  ini(iiiity,  but  he  is  certain  of  heaven  (Wilson, 
Ri'U<j.  of  IJiiuliis,  ii,  75 ;  see  also  i,  IGl).  On  the  subject 
of  the  sects  and  worship  of  Krishna,  considt  A  siutic  Re- 
seai'ches,  xvi,  1,  and  xvii,  169 ;  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  /SociV/y,  ix,  GO-110;  H.  H.  Wilson, /S'e/eci  Works, 
vol.  i,  ii,  passim ;  Penny  Cyclop,  xxvi,  389. 

I\'.  Rcsc'inblances  between  Ki-ishnaivn  and  Revealed 
Reliyion.  —  Efforts  have  been  made  in  the  interest  of 
scepticism  to  establish  a  philological  similarity  between 
the  words  Krishna  and  Christ.  Such  specidations  be- 
long to  a  past  rather  than  to  the  present  age,  as  it  is 
no\v  conceded  by  philologists  that  the  two  words  have 
nothing  in  common.  The  curious  are  referred  to  Hick- 
son's  Time  and  Faith,  ii,  377 ;  Yolney's  Ruins,  p.  1G5 
(Am.  ed.  1828 ) ;  and  for  refutation  to  Maurice,  Ilindos- 
tan,  ii,  268-271.  The  readiness  with  which  the  scep- 
tical mind  of  our  own  age  seizes  upon  and  magnities 
even  fancied  resemblances  is  evinced  by  Inman,  who  in 
his  first  volume  (^Ancient  Faith,  p.  402)  gives  an  engrav- 
ing of  Krishna  strikingly  like  those  attributed  to  Christ, 
but  Avhich  in  the  second  volume,  on  farther  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject,  he  admits  to  be  "  of  European 
and  not  of  Indian  origin,  and  consequently  that  it  is 
worthless  as  illustrating  the  life  of  Krishna"  (p.  xxxii). 

There  are  corresjwndences,  however,  some  of  which 
have  already  appeared  in  the  summary  of  the  life  of 
Krishna,  that  deserve  more  than  a  passing  notice.  It  is 
sufficient  to  adduce  the  more  striking  ones,  without  their 
correlatives  in  the  Bible,  as  these  will  readily  occur  to  the 
reader.  These  are  as  follows :  that  he  was  miraculous- 
ly born  at  midnight  of  a  human  mother,  and  saluted  by 
a  chorus  of  Devatas ;  that  he  was  cradled  among  cow- 
herds, during  which  period  of  life  he  was  persecuted  by 
the  giant  Kansa,  and  saved  by  his  mother's  flight;  the 
miracles  with  which  his  life  abounds,  among  which  were 
the  raising  of  the  dead  and  the  cleansing  of  the  leprous, 
perhaps  the  only  ones  which  particularly  resembled 
those  of  Christ,  for  the  rest  were  either  puerile  or  mon- 
strous; his  contests  with  serpents,  which  he  crushed 
with  his  foot ;  his  descent  to  the  regions  of  the  dead, 
and  his  final  ascent  to  the  paradise  Goloka  (comp.  Kleu- 
ker,  Ahhandluny  d.  Kalk.  Gesellsch.  i,  235;  Stirm,  Ajm- 
lotjie  des  Christenthums,  p.  181,  2d  ed.) 

1.  The  consideration  of  the  interesting  questions  in- 
volved in  these  correspondences  will  be  facilitated  by 
bearing  in  mind  that  India,  from  the  earliest  recorded 
period,  had  sustained  intimate  mercantile  relations  with 
Shemitic  races.  "  Before  merchants  sailed  from  India 
to  Egypt,  and  from  Egypt  to  India"  (that  is,  as  the  con- 
text shows,  before  the  period  of  the  I'tolemies),  '-Arabia 
Fehx  was  the  staple  (mart)  both  for  Egyptian  and  In- 
dian goods,  much  as  Alexandria  is  now  for  the  commod- 
ities of  Egyjit  and  foreign  merchandise"  (Arrian,  Peripl. 
Mar.  Frythr.  in  Ileeren's  African  Researches,  p.  228). 
"  If,"  says  Ilceren,  "  the  explicit  testimony  here  brought 
forward  ])roves  a  commercial  intercourse  between  India 
and  Arabia,  it  proves  at  the  same  time  its  high  antiqui- 
ty, and  that  it  must  have  been  in  active  operation  for 
many  centuries"  (ibid,  p.  229).  A  caravan  trade  also 
extended  from  India  to  Meroe,  in  Ethiopia,  which  was 
its  grand  emporium  {ibid,  p.  211).  Taking  its  rise  be- 
yond the  horizon  of  history,  it  was  j'et  in  its  zenith 
durhig  the  times  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel  (see 
also  Vincent's  Periplus,  p.  57,  etc.).  It  could  not  be 
othervvise  than  that  there  should  have  been  an  inter- 
change of  religious  knowledge  as  well  as  an  exchange 
of  waxes;  for  commerce  was  promoted  by  religion,  and, 
to  a  great  extent,  controlled  by  the  jirlesthood ;  even  its 
temples  were  stations  and  marts  for  caravans  (see  fur- 
ther, lleeren,  ibid,  p.  219,  225,  232).     The  striking  re- 


semblance existing  between  the  Egyptian  and  Hindu 
mythologies,  which  has  been  unfolded  by  many  writers, 
illustrates  the  fact  of  an  interchange  of  religious  light; 
and  that  these  extremes  of  the  known  world  should  thus 
have  met  remarkably  confirms  the  views  of  lleeren  just 
adduced  (see  further,  I'richard,  Fyyptian  MythAoyy,  p. 
227-301 ;  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  iii,  56-124;  Bun- 
sen,  God  in  History,  bk.  iii,  ch.  ii).     The  annexed  figures 


Krishna  trampling  upon  the  Serpent. 
were  copied  by  Sonnerat  from  scul|)tnres  in  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  Hindu  pagodas.  No  Vishnuite  of  distinc- 
tion, Sonnerat  tcUs  us,  is  without  these  images  in  his 
house,  either  of  gold,  silver,  or  copper  (see  also  Prichard's 
F'lypt.  Myth.  p.  261).  For  a  glowing  description  of  Krish- 
na's person,  see  the  Piu-dna  in  Maurice,  Hindost.  ii,363. 

2.  On  the  supposition  of  the  oneness  of  oiu-  race  there 
is  no  reason  to  exclude  the  Hindu  from  an  original  par- 
ticipation in  the  patriarchal  knowledge  of  the  promised 
Redeemer,  as  transmitted  by  Noah  and  his  family.  Sue- 
tonius (Vespas.  iv)  and  Tacitus  (/list.x,  4, 13)  unite  in 
the  thought  of"  an  ancient  and  permanent  belief  having 
spread  itself  over  the  whole  East"  to  this  effect.  (See 
farther  Gray's  Connection,  i,  chap,  xxv ;  Hengstenberg, 
C/;m^o?o5ry,iv,  Appendix  ii;  Tholuck,  Le^re  r.d.Siinde, 
p.  220-229 ;  Stolberg's  Religions  Geschichte  i,  Beilage  iv ; 
Fabcr's  P>-oph.Piss.  i,  57-114;  Faber's  Horm  Mosaicce, 
i,  ch.  iii.)  All  Hindu  traditions  connected  with  the  or- 
igin of  their  religion  and  their  people  point  but  one 
way,  and  that  to  the  recognised  birthplace  of  our  race — 
the  lofty  watershed  from  which  in  every  direction  hu- 
man faiths  and  mythologies  have  flowed  forth.  (See 
Jlax  Midler  on  the  relations  of  the  Veda  and  Zend-Aves- 
ta, Chips,  1, 81-86.)  Though  these  traditions  in  them- 
selves may  be  as  inconsequential  as  falling  stars,  still 
they  reflect  a  light  kindred  with  that  which  shines  forth 
from  fixed  stars  in  the  firmament  of  true  faith.  Krish- 
na, as  seen  in  the  monuments  of  the  Hindu,  stands  a 
striking  exponent  of  primeval  traditions,  that,  having 
sprung  from  the  promise  of  the  Garden,  have  more  or 
less  modified  most  distant  and  varied  mythologies.  He 
is  a  crude  though  riot  inartistic  painting  of  a  hope  pre- 
served to  us  in  the  Word  of  God,  but  otherwise  hope- 
lessly lost.  He  is  one  of  a  brotherhood  that  embraces 
an  Apollo  triumphant  over  the  python  ;  a  Hercides, 
burj'ing  the  immortal  and  burning  out  the  mortal  heads 


KRISHNA 


165 


KRISHNA 


of  the  hydra;  a  Sigurd,  a  descendant  of  Odin,  slaying 
tlic  serpent  Fafnir,  and  rescuing  priceless  treasure;  a 
Thor,  styled  "  the  eldest  of  the  sous  of  God,"  who,  in  his 
contest  with  the  serpent,  thougli  brought  upon  his  knee, 
yet  bruised  his  enemy's  head  witli  the  mace  and  finally 
slew  him ;  an  Oshanderbegha,  predicted  by  Zoroaster, 
who  contends  twenty  long  years  with  a  malignant  dx- 
mon,  whom  he  eventually  conquers ;  and  even  the  less  re- 
nowned Algonquin  conqueror  Blichabo,  destroying  with 
his  dart  the  shining  prince  of  serpents  who  tiooded  tlie 
earth  with  the  waters  of  a  lake.  For  other  instances, 
considt  the  authorities  referred  to-  immediately  above, 
and  Brinton's  j\fijtlis  of  tite  New  Work/,  p.  IIG,  with  his 


Serpent  bituig  Krishna's  heel. 

interpretations.  On  the  other  hand,  IMajor  Bloor  states 
that  among  a  numerous  collection  of  pictures  and  images 
of  Krishna  he  had  not  one  original  in  which  the  ser- 
pent is  represented  as  biting  Krishna's  foot  (^Ilindii  Pan- 
theon),   For  an  account  of  this,  see  above. 

3.  It  is  not  to  be  questioned  that  India  was  a  field  of 
evangelical  effort  not  long  after  the  death  of  Christ, 
whicli,  taken  in  connection  with  the  generally  accepted 
view  that  Krishnaism  is  of  comparatively  recent  origin, 
suggests  that  its  more  palpable  features  of  resemblance 
have  been  more  or  less  directly  derived  from  the  Scrip- 
tures themselves.  If  doubt  be  cast  upon  the  extent  of 
country  comprehended  under  the  temi  India  in  this  con- 
nection, it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  those  parts  of  the 
world  which  arc  supposed  by  some  to  be  confounded 
with  India  proper  maintained  by  trade  thus  early  a  live- 
ly intercourse  with  India,  and  could  thus  furnish  a  chan- 
nel for  the  propagation  of  Christianity  throughout  the 
field  where  Krishnaism  subsequently  prevailed. 

According  to  Eusebius, "  Pantaenus  was  constituted  a 
herald  of  the  (iospcl  of  Christ  to  the  nations  of  the  East, 
and  advanced  even  as  far  as  India."  He  found  himself 
anticipated  by  some  who  were  acquainted  with  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew,  to  whom  Bartholomew,  one  of  the  apos- 
tles, had  preached,  leaving  with  them  the  same  Gosjiel 
in  Hebrew  which  was  preserved  until  his  time  {Eccles. 
JJlst.  bk.  V,  eh.  x ;  see  Jerome,  Cutal.  Script,  cap.  xxxvi ; 
and  for  comparison  of  their  views  consult  Mosheim, 


Commentaries,  cent,  ii,  sec.  ii,  note  1 ;  see  also  Neander, 
CJi.  Hist.,  Clark's  ed.,  i,  112).  Tradition  tells  us  that  St. 
Thomas  preached  to  the  Indians,  which  is  confirmed  by 
Gregory  of  Nazianzum.  Jerome,  however,  makes  the 
field  of  labor  to  have  been  Ethiopia.  There  seems  to 
bo  little  doubt  that  copies  both  of  the  apocryphal  and 
of  the  genuine  Gospels  circulated  early  through  portions 
of  Southern  India.  Silly  miracles,  resembling  those  of 
the  former  almost  to  the  letter,  have  been  incorporated 
into  the  sacred  writings  of  Krishnaism.  Theophilus, 
surnamed  Indicus,  visited  India  as  a  missionary  in  the 
time  of  Constantino,  and  found  Christianity  already 
planted  and  flourishing,  tliough  isolated  from  Christian- 
ity at  large.  Both  Bardesanes  and  Maui,  horesiarchs  of 
the  early  Church,  in  tlieir  travels  came  into  close  and 
prolonged  contact  with  Buddhism, from  which  they  drew 
much  of  the  virus  that  they  strove  to  infuse  into  Chris- 
tian belief.  The  former  of  them  certainly  visited  India 
as  early  as  the  latter  part  of  the  '2d  century  (see  Kurtz, 
Hist.  ofCh.  p.  109,  sec.  50;  Neander,  ii,  198).'  Weber  and 
Lassen  agree  in  this  respect  in  their  interpretation  of  a 
passage  of  the  Mahabharata,  that  at  an  early  period  in 
the  historj^  of  the  Church  three  Erahmans  visited  some 
community  of  Christians  either  in  Alexandria,  Asia  Mi- 
nor, or  I'arthia,  and  that  on  their  return  they  ''were  en- 
abled to  introduce  improvements  into  the  hereditary 
creed,  and  more  especially  to  make  the  worship  of  Krish- 
na the  most  prominent  feature  of  their  system."  See 
farther  llaxAv>-ick,Christ, i, 24t)-258, 284-293 ;  Carwithen, 
Brahminical  Reliyion,  p.  98-104,  320-322 ;  Faber's  Pro- 
phetical Dissertation,'\,(i\\  Origin  of  Pagan  /rfo/.  bk.  vi, 
chap,  vi ;  Treatise  on  three  lJi.<iii'US(iti(ius,  Ijk.  i,  chaji.  vi ; 
Wuttke,  Geschichte  des  Heidenthums,  ii,  339 ;  also  author- 
ities referred  to  by  Hardwick,  /.  c.    See  India,  Modern, 

4.  It  was  the  fashion  earlj'  in  the  present  century  to 
search  out  astronomical  allusions  in  Krishna,  and  resem- 
blances to  Apollo,  the  mythological  counterpart  to  the 
sun,  but  these  have  given  place  to  sounder  criticism. 
Recent  researches  favor  the  view  that  no  great  antiq- 
uity is  to  be  attributed  to  Krishna  as  an  olrject  of  relig- 
ious regard.  That  some  one  bearing  that  name  may 
have  figured  as  a  local  hero  in  the  early  histor}'  of  In- 
dia, and  even  as  far  back  as  the  period  preceding  the 
war  of  the  Mahabharata,  is  not  improbable  (conip.  Wil- 
son, Reliyion  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  G5,  G6).  The  allusions  on 
classical  pages  ser\'e  to  justify  such  a  conclusion. 

5.  But  it  is  important  to  remember  that  Krishnaism 
nowhere  appears  in  the  Yedas,  the  most  ancient  scrip- 
tures of  the  Hindu.  "  Krishna  worship  is  the  most 
modern  of  all  the  philosophical  and  religious  systems 
which  have  divided  India  into  rival  sects.  Founded 
upon  the  theory  of  successive  incarnations  which  neither 
the  Yedas  nor  the  legislators  of  the  first  Brahmanical 
epoch  admitted,  Krishnaism  differs  in  so  many  points 
from  the  fiiiths  peculiar  to  India  that  avo  are  tempted  to 
regard  it  as  borrowed  from  foreign  philosophies  and  re- 
ligions" (M.  Pavio,  Bhagavat  Bason  Askand,  Prof.  p. xi ; 
in  like  manner  Lassen,  Tndische  Alterthitmsk.  i,  488;  ii, 
1107 ;  Pri chard,  Pfinjit.  Mythology,  p.  259,  with  citations 
from  Colebrooke ;  Max  !M  tiller,  Chips,  ii,  75,  Amer.  edit. ; 
A  siatic  Researches,  viii,  494).  "  It  is  believed,"  says  H, 
H.  Wilson  cautiously,  that  llama  and  Krishna  "  are  un- 
noticed in  authentic  passages  of  the  Sanhita  or  collected 
prayers,  and  there  is  no  mention  of  the  latter  as  Go- 
vinda  or  Gopala,  the  infant  co^vhord,  or  as  the  uncouth 
and  anomalous  Jaggernaut.  They  are  mentioned  in 
some  of  the  Upanishads,  supplementary  treatises  of  the 
Vedas,  but  these  compositions  arc  evidently,  from  their 
style,  of  later  date  than  the  Yedas,  and  some  of  them, 
especially  those  referring  to  Kama  and  Krishna,  are  of 
very  questionable  authenticity"  {ibid,  ii,  G5).  Compare 
Wilson's  Trunsl.  of  the  Rig  Veda  Sanhita,  i,  260, 313, 315 ; 
ii,  35,  note  b ;  iii,  148,  note  7. 

At  the  time  of  its  first  translation  into  English  by 
Wilkins,  an  immense  antiquity  was  claimed  for  the  Bha- 
gavat Gita  (see  above,  sec.  i ),  but  this  is  now  generally 
admitted  to  be  an  interpolation  in  the  Mahabharata,  and 


KRISHNA 


166 


KRISHNA 


to  have  been  produced  subsequently  to  the  rise  not  only 
of  Christianity,  but  of  Krishnaism  itself.  Lassen  accords 
it  a  place  in  the  later  history  of  Hindu  reUgions,  when 
"  the  Yishnuitcs  broke  up  into  sects  and  sought  to  bring 
their  religious  dogmas  into  harmony  with  the  theories 
of  phildsiipliy"  (^Imliiiche  Alt.  ii,  494  ;  Hardwick,  i,  241). 

As  to  the  I'urdnas,  which  are  almost  the  sole  author- 
ities for  those  events  in  the  Ufe  of  Krishna  (exclusive 
of  his  victorious  contest  with  the  serpent)  that  most  re- 
semble tlie  life  of  Christ,  they  are,  in  their  present  form, 
unquestionably  of  modern  origin.  They  abound  in  le- 
gends tliat  may  properly  be  regarded  as  piirana  (an- 
cient), but  bear  upon  their  face  sectarian  marks,  which 
betray  both  their  animus  and  their  age.  They  are  eigh- 
teen in  number,  and  some  of  them  are  voluminous.  The 
Puranas  themselves  in  many  cases  ascribe  their  author- 
ship to  others  than  Vyasa,  "  and  they  offer  many  inter- 
nal proofs  that  they  are  the  work  of  various  hands  and 
of  different  dates,  none  of  which  are  of  very  high  antiq- 
uity. I  believe  the  oldest  of  them  not  to  be  anterior  to 
the  8th  or  9th  century,  and  the  most  recent  to  be  not 
above  three  or  four  centuries  old.  .  .  .  The  determina- 
tion of  their  modern  and  unauthenticated  composition 
deprives  them  of  the  sacred  character  which  they  have 
usurped,  dcstroj's  their  credit,  impairs  their  influence, 
and  strikes  away  the  main  prop  on  which  at  present 
the  great  mass  of  Hindu  idolatry  and  superstition  relies" 
(H.  H.  Wilson,  JRelir/.  of  the  Hindus,  ii,  68).  There  is 
but  little  doubt  that  the  Brahmans  are  right  in  referring 
the  authorship  of  the  Bhagavata,  the  most  popular  of 
the  Puranas  (from  which  we  have  quoted  so  freely  in 
the  summary  of  Krishna's  Ufe),  to  Vopadeva,  who  flour- 
ished in  the  l'2th  century  (ibid,  p.  69 ;  sec  also  preface 
to  Wilson's  Vishnu  Purand).  Bentley  {Vieio  of  Ancient 
Asfronomt/,  i,  bk.  ii,  chap,  ii)  informs  us  that  he  obtained 
access  to  the  Janampatra,  or  horoscope  of  Krishna,  and 
was  enabled  to  discover  from  it  that  he  is  reputed  to 
have  been  born  on  the  2od  of  the  moon  of  Sravana,  in 
the  lunar  mansion  Rohini,  at  midnight,  the  positions  of 
the  sun,  and  moon,  and  five  planets  being  at  the  same 
time  assigned ;  from  which  he  deduced  the  date  of  the 
pretended  nativitj'  to  be  Aug.  7,  A.D.  GOO.  In  Mr.  Bent- 
ley's  opinion,  perhaps  a  fanciful  one,  Krishna  himself 
was  one  of  the  Hindu  personifications  of  time,  which 
view  he  supports  by  Krishna's  own  declaration,  '•  I  am 
time,  the  destroyer  of  mankind  matured,  come  hither  to 
seize  at  once  on  all  these  who  stand  before  us."  See 
farther,  on  the  astronomical  view,  Greswell's  Fasti  Ca- 
tholici,  iv,  88 ;  Cardinal  Wiseman's  Led,  ii,  1-28 ;  Tom- 
kins's  llidsean  Prize  Lectures,  p.  35^1;  \V.  A.  Butler's 
Ancient  I'hilos.  i,  247. 

From  considerations  like  these,  not  to  speak  of  others 
that  might  be  urged,  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  Krish- 
naism proper  was  post-Christian,  an  outcropping  of  hu- 
man and  possibly  of  diabolic  nature,  that  was  illustra- 
ted at  tlie  foot  of  Sinai,  but  which  no  more  resembled 
its  divine  original  than  the  lifeless  golden  calf  resembled 
the  living  Apis  of  Egypt.  As  in  the  pitiable  blur  of  a 
palimijsest,  Krishnaism  has  replaced  or  obscured  that 
which  was  more  precious — the  rehgion  of  Christ,  found- 
ed no  less  in  impregnable  truth  than  in  the  undying 
necessities  of  men.  For  at  the  rise  of  this  false  religion 
it  is  iilain  to  us  that  the  light  of  Christianity  was  re- 
flected already  on  the  sky  of  India — light  that  was  sadly 
jierverted  to  set  forth  a  feeble  caricature  of  the  incarna- 
tion and  life  of  Christ. 

6.  As  the  tenor  of  our  argument  has  indicated,  the 
criticism  of  the  present  age  is  tlisposed  to  assign  a  re- 
cent origin  to  Krishnaism,  though,  at  the  same  time,  it 
does  not  ignore  the  existenco  of  a  hero  bearing  the 
name  of  Krishna  conspicuous  in  the  early  and  fabulous 
history  of  India.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  the  reader  to 
have  presented  somewhat  mor6  in  detail  tlx;  views  of 
some  of  the  scholars  of  the  present  centurj',  conflicting 
and  confused  thougli  tiiey  be,  upon  the  general  subject 
of  the  relations  of  Krishnaism  to  Christiiinity  as  well 
as   profane   rehgions.     Arclideacon   Hardwick   thinks 


that  the  resemblances  are  no  greater  than  the  outward 
and  fortuitous  resemblances  between  other  heathen 
deities,  or  between  some  of  them  and  Christ.  He 
illustrates  by  the  incident  of  the  persecution  of  Her- 
cules in  his  infancy  by  Juno;  the  dancing  of  the  milk- 
maids and  satyrs  of  Bacchus,  which  compares  -with 
that  of  Krishna  ;  the  concealing  of  lipoUo  in  the  house- 
hold of  Admetus.  He  says  further,  "  If  Krishna  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  purely  human  and  historical  hero, 
doomed  to  death  m  childhood  from  forebodings  that 
his  life  ^vould  prove  the  ruin  of  another,  we  can  find 
his  parallel  in  the  elder  Cyrus,  who  had  also  been  in- 
trusted to  the  care  of  herdsmen  to  preserve  him  from 
the  vengeance  of  his  royal  grandfather,  whose  death  it 
was  foretold  he  shoidd  ultimately  accomplish"  (i,  285, 
286).  Colonel  Wilford  supposes  Krislma  to  have  lived 
about  B.C.  1300.  Sir  William  Jones  says  the  story  of 
his  birth  is  long  anterior  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  and 
traces  it  probably  to  the  time  of  Homer.  He  thinks  it 
likely  that  the  spurious  gospels  of  the  early  age  of 
Christianity  were  brought  to  India,  and  the  wildest 
parts  of  them  repeated  to  the  Hindus,  who  ingrafted 
them  on  the  old  fable  of  Kesava,  the  Apollo  of  India 
(Asiatic  Pesearches,  i,  274).  Mr.  Bentley  (Hindu  As- 
tronomy), in  contradiction  to  Mr.  II.  Colebrooke,  Sir 
AVilUam  Jones,  major  Moor,  and  others,  boldly  charges 
the  whole  history  of  the  incarnation  of  Krishna  as 
a  "modern  invention"  and  "fabrication"  of  the  Brah- 
mans, who,  alarmed  at  the  progress  of  Christianity,  in- 
vented a  story  not  unlike  that  of  Christ,  and  affixed  a 
name  somewhat  similar  to  the  hero  of  it ;  all  of  which 
they  threw  back  to  a  very  remote  age,  that  it  might  be 
impossible  successful!}'  to  contradict  it,  and  then  repre- 
sented that  Christ  and  Krishna  were  the  same  person, 
of  whose  history  the  Christians  had  an  incorrect  ver- 
sion. Blr.  J.  C.  Thompson  thinks  that  Ivrishna  ante- 
dates the  Brahmanical  triad — Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva 
— and  that  his  great  exploits  occasioned  him  later  in 
Aryan  history  to  be  identified  wdth  Vishnu  (p.  134). 
Lassen,  an  eminent  Oriental  scholar,  refers  the  origin 
of  the  system  of  avatars,  as  disclosed  in  Vishnu,  to  a 
period  of  time  at  least  three  centuries  before  Christ ; 
while  Weber,  equally  distinguished  as  a  critic,  contro- 
verts his  views,  and  argues  that  Krishna,  the  hero  or 
demigod,  was  no  mcarnation,  and  differed  vastly  from 
the  Krishna  of  later  times.  (See  farther  Haidwick, 
ibid,  i,  288,  note.) 

V.  Literature. — The  "Mahahharata,"  translated  into 
French  by  Fauche  (Paris,  1803),  book  x,  which  is  appro- 
priated to  the  life  of  Krishna;  the  "Bhagavad  Gita," 
episode  of  the  preceding  (Wilkins's,  1785,  and  Thomson's, 
1855,  transl.  into  English,  and  Wm.  Schlegel's  transla- 
tion into  Latin,  1823) ;  the  "Vishnu  Purdna"  (translated 
by  H.  H.Wilson,  1842  and  1866,  6  vols.);  the  '' Maga- 
vata  Purdna"  (translated  into  French  by  Burnouf,  Paris, 
1840) ;  the  "  Ilari  Vansa"  (transl.  into  French  by  Lan- 
glois,  Paris,  1842) ;  "Analysis  of  the  Agni  Purana,"  in 
the  Journ.  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,  i,  81 ;  "Analysis  of  the 
Brahma  Vaivartha  Purana,"  ibid, -p.  217;  also  Asiatic 
Researches,  passim,  especially  vol.  xv  and  xvi;  Hard- 
wick, Christ  and  other  Masters,  i,  246-258,  277-293— a 
valuable  and  easily  accessible  resume  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject; H.  II.  Wilson,  Peligion  of  the  Hindus,  vol.  ii,  pas- 
sim ;  Hoefer,  Biographie  Cenerale,  art.  Crichnie ;  J.  I>. 
Guigniaut,  7?e%«o«A'  de  VAntiquite,  vol.  i,  bk.  i,  ch.  iii; 
P.  F.  Stuhr,  Religions  systeme  der  heidnischen  Volker  des 
Orients  (Berlin,  1836-38,  2  vols.  8vo);  M.  Pavie,  Z/Z/w^a- 
vat  Dasam  Askand  (Paris,  1852);  W.  von  Humboldt, 
Ueber  die  unter  dem  Namen  Bhagavad  Gita  lekannte 
Episode  des  Mahabharata  (Berlin,  1826) ;  A.  Rcmusat, 
Melanges  Asiatiques  (Paris,  1825-1829.  4  vols.);  P.  von 
Bohlen,  Das  A  Ite  Indien  (2  vols.,  1830-31);  Christ.  Las- 
sen,//ifkse/ic  Alterthumskunde  (4  vols.,  1844r-46,  chiefly 
vol.  ii);  A.  F.  Weber, /«f/isc/ic?^  Studien  (10  vols.,  1849- 
67,  especially  the  two  first  vols.) ;  Indische  Hkitzzen 
(Berlin,  1857),  particularly  the  essay  Die  Verbindungen 
Indiens  mit  den  Ldndern  im,  Westen;  Coleman,  Mgthol- 


KROCtlMAL 


167 


KRUDENER 


o(]y  of  the  Hindus  (1832),  art.  Krishna;  Edward  Moor, 
iliiviu  Pantheon  (1«10) ;  H.  T.  Colebrooke,  Religion  of 
the  Hindus  (London,  1858);  WmAYarA,  Account  of  the 
Writings,  Religion,  etc.,  of  the  Hindus  (4  vols.,  1817-20)  ; 
G.  Haslam,  The  Cross  and  the  Serpent  (London,  1849)  ; 
G.W.  F.  Hegel,  in  the  Jahrbiicher  fur  wissenschaftliche 
Kritik  (Berlin,  1827) ;  J.  A.  Dorner,  Lehre  von  d.  Person 
Christi  (Stuttgardt,  1845),  i,  7  sq. ;  Theo.  Benfey,  Indien, 
in  Ersch  und  Gruber's  EnctjUop.,  sec.  ii,  vol.  17  (Leip- 
sic,  1840);  Biographie  Universelle  {Partie  Mythologique, 
supplement,  ii,  545-550) ;  K.  F.  Stiiudlin,  Magazin,  iii, 
2, 9'J  sq. ;  Muir,  Original  Sanscrit  Extracts  (5  vols.,  1858 
-1870),  vols,  i  and  iv.     See  Vishnu.     (J.  K.  B.) 

Krochmal,  Nachjian  ben-Shalmon,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  Jewish  scholars  of  modern  date,  was 
horn  in  Brody  Feb.  18, 1780.  An  erudite  critic  and  em- 
inent Hebraist,  he  was  the  first  among  the  Jews  who, 
ivitli  a  rare  sagacity  and  independence  of  mind,  inves- 
tigated the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  order  to  ascertain  the 
origin,  unity,  and  date  of  each  book,  as  well  as  to  char- 
acterize its  peculiarity  of  style  and  language,  irrespec- 
tive of  the  fixed  traditional  opinions  held  alike  by  the 
synagogue  and  the  Chiu:ch  about  the  authors  and  ages 
of  tlie  respective  canonical  volumes  (comp.  Jost,  Gesch. 
des  Judenthums  und  seiner  Sekten,  iii,  343).  Krochmal, 
however,  on  account  of  feeble  health  and  other  infirmi- 
ties of  the  flesh,  published  but  little  in  his  lifetime.  In 
many  respects  he  may  be  likened  to  the  great  Jewish 
philosopher  of  the  19th  century  (ilendelsohn),  for,  like 
him,  he  suffered  from  impaired  health,  and,  like  him,  he 
struggled  for  an  education  after  he  had  entered  the  mer- 
cantile profession.  He  also  gave  much  of  liis  time  and 
attention  to  philosophy,  and,  as  the  fruits  of  his  inves- 
tigations, left  in  MS.  a  work  entitled  More  Nehoche 
Ha-Seman,  a  treasury  of  criticisms  on  Jewish  philoso- 
phy. Biblical  literature,  and  sacred  antiquities,  which 
the  learned  Dr.  Leopold  Zunz  edited  and  published  at 
Lemburg  in  1851.  Comi)are  also  Zunz  on  Krochmal,  in 
Jahrb.fur  Isixielilen  (1845).  Krochmal  was  an  inti- 
mate associate  of  the  late  Jewish  savant  Eapoport  (q. 
v.),  and  is  said  to  have  exerted  considerable  influence 
over  the  latter.  He  died  at  Tarnopol  July  31,  1840. 
His  works,  which  appeared  in  the  Hebrew  annual  called 
Kerem  Chemed  (vol.  v,  Piag.  1841,  p.  51  sq.),  are,  on  The 
Sacred  Antiquities  ami  their  Import  ("ilJ^p  HI^SI'S'lp 
"rsnni) :  1.  On  the  age  of  the  comforting  promises  in 
the  second  part  of  Isaiah,  chap,  xl-xlvi,  iii  which  he 
tries  to  demonstrate  the  late  date  of  this  part  of  the 
volume,  and  to  show  that  Aben-Ezra  was  of  the  same 
opinion,  only  that  he  veiled  it  in  enigmatical  language. 
See  Auex-Ezra.  2.  On  the  date  and  composition  of 
Ezra  and  Chronicles,  with  an  investigation  of  the  an- 
cient statement  on  this  subject  contained  in  the  Talmud, 
Baba  Batkra,  14,  b,  which  is  very  important.  He  tries 
to  trace  and  analyze  tlie  dift'erent  parts  of  which  these 
books  are  composed,  and  to  show  that  they  extend  to 
the  destruction  of  the  Persian  empire.  3.  On  the  date 
and  composition  of  Ezekiel,  the  Minor  Prophets,  Daniel, 
and  Esther,  witli  an  examination  of  the  ancient  state- 
ment on  this  subject  contained  in  the  same  passage  of 
the  Talmud,  which  is  stiU  more  important,  inasmuch  as 
Krochmal  shows  here  what  is  meant  by  the  Gi-eat  Syn- 
agogue, and  tries  to  demonstrate  that  some  portions  of 
the  IMinor  I'rophets  belong  to  the  period  of  the  Greek 
empire.  4.  On  the  origin  and  date  of  Ecclesiastes,  in 
which  he  insists  that  it  is  the  latest  composition  in  the 
canon.  See,  besides  the  authorities  already  referred  to, 
Ginsburg,  in  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  ii,  s.  v. 

Kromayer,  Jerome,  a  German  Protestant  di- 
vine, nephew  of  the  succeeding,  was  born  at  Zeitz  in 
1610,  and  was  educated  at  Leipzic,  Wittenberg,  and  Je- 
na. He  was  appointed  professor  at  Leipzig  in  1643,  and 
in  1657  regular  or  ordinary  professsor  of  divinity.  In 
1660  he  became  minister  at  Zeitz,  and  in  1661  at  Meis- 
sen. He  died  in  1670.  He  wrote  largely;  the  most 
important  of  his  works  are :  Commentaria  in  Epist.  ad 


Galatas: — Comment,  in  Apocalypsin : — Historice  Eccles. 
Centuriae  XVI:  —  Theologia  Positivo-Polemica : — Loci 
A ntisyncretistici : — Polymathia  Theologica : — some  con- 
troversial tracts,  dissertations,  etc. — Hook,  Eccles.  Diet, 
vi,  501. 

Kromayer,  John,  a  German  theologian,  was  bom 
at  Dobelen,  in  ^Misuia,  in  1576,  and  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Leipzic.  In  1600  he  was  made  deacon, 
and  some  time  after  was  appointed  pastor  at  Eisleben, 
and  later  pastor  at  Weimar.  He  died  in  1643,  after 
having  a  short  time  previously  been  honored  witli  the 
general  superintendency  of  the  churches  of  the  duchy 
of  Weimar.  John  Kromayer  wrote  Ilarmonia  Evange- 
listarum : — Historiae  Ecclesiasticm  Compendium : — Speci- 
men fontium  Scripiturw  Sacrce  apertorum,  etc.:  —  Exa- 
men  Libri  Christiance  Concordim : — a  Paraphrase  on  the 
Prophecy  and  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  :  this  is  held  in 
high  estimation,  and  is  in  the  Bible  of  Weimar : — Expo- 
sition of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  throughout  the  Year 
(4to) ;  and  Sermons. — Hook,  Eccles.  Diet,  vi,  502. 

KrotOS  (/cporof),  a  word  used  to  signify  approba- 
tion of  a  public  speaker.  It  means  literally  a  beating, 
striking,  knocking,  as  of  the  hands,  together ;  and  lience 
it  was  used  to  signify  consent  and  approbation,  either 
by  words  or  actions.  PubUc  applauses  and  acclamations 
appear  to  have  been  common  in  the  early  Church. — Far- 
rar,  Eccl.  Diet.     Sec  Acclamations. 

Kriidener,  Barbara  Juliana  ^•ON,  a  religious  vis- 
ionary and  enthusiast,  was  a  granddaughter  of  the  Rus- 
sian field-marshal  Von  Munich,  and  daughter  of  the 
states  councillor  baron  Von  Wletinghoff,  and  was  born 
at  Riga  in  1764  according  to  some  authorities,  or  in 
1766  according  to  others.  In  1782  she  married  baron 
Von  Kriidener,  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Venice,  and 
a  great  admirer  of  the  French  philosopher  Rousseau, 
But,  unfortunately,  the  baron,  who  had  been  twice  mar- 
ried before,  succeeded  much  better  in  making  his  wife 
an  ardent  disciple  of  the  phUosopliical  principles  which 
he  himself  espoused  than  in  winning  her  affections  for 
himself,  and  after  the  birth  of  a  son  and  a  daughter  tlie 
husband  and  wife  separated,  the  latter  to  take  up  her 
residence  at  Paris.  Here,  in  the  vortex  of  dissipation, 
her  better  feelings  would  sometimes  assert  themselves, 
but  tliey  were  smothered  by  the  adulations  of  all  the 
brilliant  personages  who  surroimded  her,  among  wliom 
figured  conspicuously  Chateaubriancl  and  Jladame  de 
Stael.  In  imitation  of  the  latter  she  gave  the  world 
her  biography,  in  the  shape  of  a  sickly  sentimental 
novel  entitled  Valerie,  describing  an  immoral  relation 
concealed  beneath  the  fragrant  veil  of  romance,  and  red- 
olent with  a  religious  Romish  and  fanatical  sentimental- 
ism.  Tlie  work  is  said  to  have  been  written  ^vlth  the 
assistance  of  St.  Martin,  and  created  quite  a  sensation, 
meeting  with  great  success,  especially  in  the  liigher  cir- 
cles of  society.  After  many  adventures,  IMadame  von 
Kriidener  came  to  reside  at  Berlin,  where  she  enjoyed 
the  close  intimacy  of  that  noble  woman  queen  Louisa, 
of  whose  projects  she  was  the  confidante  and  sharer  in 
the  stormy  period  of  Prussia's  warfare  with  France.  In 
1808  she  became  acquainted  with  Jung  Stilling  and 
Oberlin,  and  thereafter  we  find  her  devoted  to  reHgious 
mysticism  in  its  most  aggravated  forms.  She  l)Ought 
a  place  for  the  mystics  at  Bormingheim,  in  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  did  all  in  licr  power  to  promote  their  inter- 
ests. Unfortunately,  however,  the  disorders  occasioned 
by  the  seeress  Kumrin,  and  by  pastor  Fantaine,  \\-hom 
she  protected,  were  visited  upon  her  head,  and  she  was 
exiled  by  king  Frederick.  She  now  retired  to  Baden, 
and  then  went  to  Strasburg,  and  finally  to  Switzerland. 
Wherever  she  went  she  attracted  attention,  both  by  her 
political  predictions  and  by  the  preaching  of  her  pecid- 
iar  doctrines,  heralding  a  new  religious  a^ra,  tliat  of  unity 
in  the  Church — "the  period  when  there  should  be  one 
flock  and  one  shepherd."  At  Geneva  especially  she  cre- 
ated quite  a  stir  in  religious  circles,  and  among  the  cler- 
gy of  distinction  whom  she  won  to  her  views  may  be 


KRUDENER 


168 


KRUG 


mentioned  pastor  Empaytaz,  the  eventual  head  of  the 
jMomicrg  (t\.  v.).  AVitli  the  assistance  of  men  of  talent 
and  L'ducatiou  of  Empaytaz's  stamp  she  formed  "  prayer 
unions,"  and  urged  the  community  to  a  more  vital  Chris- 
tian li\ing,  and  the  liberal  use  of  jjroperty  for  the  good 
of  t  lie  poor.  The  fidtilment  of  her  predictions  of  the 
fall  of  Napoleon,  his  return  from  Elba,  and  the  final  cri- 
sis at  Waterloo,  aided  her  cause,  and  emboldened  her  to 
the  assertion  that  she  enjoyed  the  favor  of  God  in  a  spe- 
cial degree.  Among  her  most  ardent  followers  at  this 
time  she  counted  no  less  a  personage  than  the  Russian 
emperor  iVlexander,  who,  with  the  Bible  in  his  hand,  was 
her  frequent  guest ;  and  it  is  known  that  her  influence 
over  Alexander  brought  about  the  Holy  jUliance.  Her 
love  of  humanity,  however,  and  her  gigantic  schemes 
for  its  moral  and  social  elevation,  often  led  her  to  over- 
step the  bounds  of  prudence  and  propriety,  and  made 
her  appear  a  dangerous  character  in  the  eyes  of  persons 
of  authority,  so  that  she  gradually  lost  the  favor  of  men 
of  political  prominence.  She  was  obliged  to  quit  France 
and  other  countries  successively,  and  even  lost  the  friend- 
ship of  the  emperor  Alexander,  as  is  evinced  by  the 
treatment  she  received  in  Russia  when  she  was  called 
thither  in  consequence  of  the  sickness  of  her  daughter. 
She  was  not  only  refused  admittance  to  the  emperor, 
but  when  aftervvards  she  advocated  tlie  cause  of  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece,  and  pointed  to  the  Russian  em- 
peror as  the  instrument  selected  by  God  for  the  accom- 
jilishment  of  this  great  work,  she  was  requested  to  re- 
frain and  to  leave  St.  Petersbiu-g.  Under  the  influence 
of  the  Moravians  her  life  and  habits  had  been  changed 
after  she  quitted  Paris,  and  she  had  often  dreamed  of 
founding  a  great  correctional  establishment  for  the  ref- 
ormation of  criminals  and  persons  of  evil  life.  Now 
driven  from  St.  Petersburg,  and  the  attack  of  a  cutane- 
ous disease  necessitating  her  residence  in  the  south,  she 
started  in  182-i  with  the  design  of  founding  such  an  in- 
stitution, and  of  establishing  a  German  and  Swiss  colony 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Volga.  On  the  way,  however, 
death  overtook  her  at  Kara-su-bazar,  Dec.  13, 1824.  The 
life  thus  suddenly  brought  to  a  close  lias  been  variously 
commented  upon.  In  her  day  "  passion  oscillated  in  the 
public  judgment  beween  favor  and  hostility  to  her,"  but 
now,  when  nearly  half  a  century  has  passed,  and  it  is 
easy  in  deliberation  to  pass  judgment  upon  her  life  and 
acts,  she  is  generally  spoken  of  favorably,  and  her  en- 
deavors to  inspire  the  people  with  religious  zeal,  and  a 
feeling  of  love  for  each  other  as  a  common  brotherhood, 
are  recognised.  Says  Ilagenbach  (Ch.  Hist.  18/h  and 
Idth  Centuries  [transl.  by  i3r.  J.  F.  Hurst],  ii,  413  sq.), 
'•It  is  a  remarkable  phenomenon, that  a  woman  trained 
in  the  dwellings  of  vanity,  and  humbled  by  her  sins  and 
errors,  had  such  a  spirit  of  self-denial  as  to  minister  on 
a  wooden  Ijench  to  the  poor  and  suffering,  to  seek  out 
criminals  in  prison,  and  to  present  to  them  the  consola- 
tions of  the  Cross;  to  open  the  eyes  of  the  wise  men  of 
this  world  to  the  deepest  m3-steries  of  divine  love,  and 
to  say  to  the  kings  of  the  world  that  everything  avails 
nothing  without  the  King  of  kings,  who,  as  the  Cruci- 
fied, was  a  stumbling-block  to  the  Jews  and  foolishness 
to  the  (irceks.  She  was  derided,  defamed,  persecuted, 
driven  from  one  country  to  another,  and  yet  never  grew 
weary  of  preaching  repentance  in  the  deserts  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  of  iiroclaiming  the  salvation  of  believers  and 
the  niiserv  of  unbelievers.  .  .  .  "Wherever  she  set  her 
foot,  great  multitudes  of  pco|)le  physically  and  spiritu- 
ally hungn,',  of  suflerers  of  every  class,  and  jiersons  witli- 
out  regard  to  confession,  surrounded  her,  and  received 
from  luT  food — yea,  Mouderful  food.  The  woes  which 
she  jironouuced  on  the  impenitent  awakened  in  many 
an  oppressed  and  troubled  spirit,  a  feeling  of  joy  at  mis- 
fortune, while  many  a  genial  word  of  love  fell  iuto-good 
ground."  Besides  the  novel  already  mentioned,  slie 
wrote  Le  Camp  des  Vertus  (Paris,  181.^).  jSIany  curious 
details  of  her  conversations  and  opinions  are  preserved 
in  Krug's  Convergationen  mit  Fran  r.  Kriideuer  (Leipz. 
1818).    See  also  C.  Maurcr,  Bikkr  uus  d.  Leben  eines  Pre- 


differs  (Schaffhausen,1843);  Berl.  Zeitschrift  fur  chrktl, 
Wissetisdiaft  v.christl.Lehen  (1857,  No.  0)  ;  Zeit;/enossen 
(Leipz.  1838),  iii ;  Adele  du  Thou,  Notice  sur  Mine.  Ju- 
lienne de  Kriidener  (Geneva,  1827,  8vo) ;  Mahul,  .4  miM- 
uire  Neerulor/ique,  anno  1825 ;  Eynard,  Vie  de  Jhne.  de 
Kriidener  (Paris,  1849,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Ziethe,  Jid.  r.  KrU- 
dener  (18G4) ;  Hauck,  Theol.  Jahresbericht  (1869),  iv,  537 ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Por/raits  de  Femmes ;  Derniers  Portraits 
Litteruires,  etc. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyUoj).  viii,  1 1 2 ;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biofj.  Genirale,  xxvii,  234.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Krug,  John  Andre\Ar,  one  of  the  earlier  Luther- 
an ministers  who  immigrated  to  this  countrj',  was  born 
March  19,  1732.  He  was  higldy  educated,  and  was  for 
a  time  preceptor  in  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle.  He 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1703,  commissioned  by 
Dr.  Francke,  who  considered  him  well  fitted  for  mis- 
sionary work.  He  labored  first  at  Reading,  Penn.,  and 
among  the  people  of  the  surrounding  countrj-,  wholly 
devoted  to  his  duties,  and  greatly  beloved  by  the  com- 
munity. In  1771,  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his 
brethren,  he  relinquished  this  field  of  labor,  and  assumed 
the  pastoral  care  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Frederick, 
Md.  Here  he  continued  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
March  30, 1790.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Krug.Wilhelni  Traugott,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man philosopher  and  writer,  was  born  at  Radis,  near 
Griifenhainchen,  Prussia,  June  22, 1770.  He  studied  at 
the  school  of  Pforta  and  the  L^niversity  of  Wittenberg, 
where  he  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  in  1794.  In 
the  j'Car  following  he  published  Ueber  die  Perfeciibili- 
tdt  der  ffeoJI'ciibarten  Reli(jion  (Jena  and  Lpz.  1795,  8vo), 
a  work  which  was  so  rationalistic  in  character  that  it 
barred  his  way  for  further  promotion.  In  1801  he  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  in  the  University  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Oder,  and  here  he  wrote  his  principal  work, 
Fundamentalphilosoplde  (Zullichau  and  Freistadt,  1803; 
3d  ed.  Lpz.  1827),  which  became  very  popular  through- 
out Germany.  Guided  by  Kant's  criticism,  Krug  pro- 
fessed a  system  which,  under  the  name  of  "transcen- 
dental synthetism,"  aimed  to  reconcile  idealism  and  real- 
ism. ''According  to  Krug,  the  act  of  phDosophizing  is 
thought  entering  into  itself,  to  know  and  imderstand  it- 
self, and  by  this  means  to  be  at  peace  with  itself.  The 
following  are  his  principal  points:  1.  In  relation  with 
the  starting-point,  or  first  principle  of  knowledge :  the 
Ego  is  the  real  principle,  inasmuch  as  it  takes  itself  as 
the  object  of  its  knowledge  (the  philosophizing  subject). 
It  is  from  it  that  proceed,  as  from  an  active  principle, 
the  ideal pi-inciples,  which  are  essentially  different  from 
the  real  principles,  or,  in  other  words,  the  material  and 
formal  principles  of  philosophical  knowledge.  The  ma- 
terial principles  are  the  facts  of  consciousness  grasped  in 
conceptions,  which  are  all  comprehended  in  the  propo- 
sition, /  am  an  agent.  The  formal  princijiles  (deter- 
mining the  form  of  knowledge)  are  the  laws  of  my  ac- 
tivity; they  are  as  multifarious  as  activity  itself:  the 
first  of  these  laws  is,  Seel-  for  harmony  in  thy  activity. 
2.  How  far  ought  these  researches  to  be  carried  (the  ab- 
solute limit  of  philosophy)  ?  The  consciousness  is  a 
synthesis  of  being,  or  Esse,  and  knowing,  or  Science  {das 
Seyii  tind  das  Wissen),  in  the  Ego.  Every  consciousness 
is  thus  circumstanced,  which  implies  that  being  and 
knowing  are  united  in  us  a  pi-iori.  This  transcendental 
synthesis  is  therefore  the  original  and  inajipreciable  fact 
which  forms  the  absolute  limit  of  philosophizing.  Since 
being  and  knowing  {Seyn  nnd  Wissen'),  united  together 
in  the  consciousness,  cannot  be  deduced  the  one  from 
the  other,  tlieir  union  is  comjilctcly  jirimitivc.  .'!.  What 
are  the  different  forms  of  activity?  The  primitive  ac- 
tivity of  the  Ego  in  either  immanent  (s)ieculative)  or 
transitory  (i)ractical).  Sensibility,  intelligence,  and  rea- 
son are  its  different  latencies.  Philosophy,  regarded  as 
the  science  of  the  ]jrimitive  legislation  of  the  human 
mind  in  all  its  activity,  is  therefore  divided  into  a  spec- 
ulative ]iart  and  a  practical  yiart.  The  first  part  is 
subdivided  into  formal  doctrine  (logic)  and  material 


KRUGER 


169 


KRUMMACHER 


doctrine  (metaphysics  and  aesthetics),  inasmuch  as  the 
one  regards  the  matter  of  thought  j)€r  se,  and  the  oth- 
er (esthetics)  considers  it  in  relation  with  sentiment. 
The  latter  part  is  likewise  subdivided  into  formal  doc- 
trine (the  science  of  right  and  law)  and  material  doctrme 
(morals  and  religion).  Each  of  these  considers  the  leg- 
islation of  the  luiman  mind  under  a  different  aspect" 
('renncman,  Manual  of  Philus.  §  421).  After  the  death 
of  Kant,  Krug  was  called  to  Konigsberg  to  succeed  his 
great  master  as  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics.  He 
subseriuently  tilled  also  Kraus's  place  as  professor  of 
practical  philosophy.  In  ISO^he  became  professor  of 
idiilnsophy  at  Leipzic,  a  position  which  he  retained  un- 
til 1831,  when  he  was  pensioned.  He  died  at  Leipzic 
Jan.  13,  1842,  Krug's  other  W(jrks  are  Versuch  eiiicr 
systematischen  EncijUopddie  d.  Wissemchaften  (Wittenb. 
179G-97,  2  vols.;  3d  vol.  Lpz.  1804)  :— J/e6er  d.  Verhalt- 
niss  d.  kriliscken  Philosophie  z.  moralischen,  politischen, 
u.  rdifjiosen  Cultur  d.  Menschcn  (Jena,  1798)  : — Versuch 
einer  s>/stematischen  Enojklopddie  d.  schunen  Kiinste 
(Lpzc.  i802)  ■.—Philosophie  d.  Ehe  (Lpzc.  1800)  :—Briefe 
iiber  d.  neusten  Idealismus  (Lpzc.  1801):  —  Entwurfeines 
neuen  Organon  d.  Philosophie  (Meiss,  aiid  Llibben,  1801) : 
— System  d.  theoretischen  Philosophie  (Konigsb.  180G-10 ; 
four  eds.  since):  —  Gesch,  d.  Philosophie  alter  Zeit  (Lpz. 
1815,  1826):  —  Si/stem  d.  praktischen  Philosophie  (Ko- 
nigsb. 1817-19,  2  vols.;  2d  ed.  1830-38)  :—IIandbuch  d. 
Philosophie  u.  j)hilosophischen  Literatur  (Lpzc.  1820-21, 
2  vols.;  3d  ed.  1829): — Versuch  einer  neuen  Theorie  d. 
Gefiihle  u.  d.  sorjenannten  GeJ'iihlsver/nof/ens  (Konigsberg, 
1823) : — Pisteolor/ie  oder  Glaube,  Aherfjlauhe  u.  Um/lauhe 
(Lpzc.  1825)  :  —  Das  Kirchenrecht  nach  Grundsdtzen  d. 
Vernunft,  etc.  (Lpzc.  182G)  :  —  AUg.  HaivJwOrterhuch  d. 
philosophischen  Wissenschaften  (Lpzc.  1827-28,4  vols.; 
2d  ed.  1832-34,  5  vols.  8vo) :  —  Universalphilosophische 
Vorlesungen  (Neustadt,  1831);  etc.  His  works  have 
been  collected  and  published  under  the  title  Gesammelte 
Schriften  (Braunschweig,  1830-34,  G  vols.  8vo).  See 
Krug,  Meine  Lebensreise  in  sechs  Staiionen  (Lpzc.  182G 
and  1842) ;  same,  Leipziger  Freuden  u.  Leiden,  etc.  (Lpz. 
1831) ;  !Morell,  Ilist.  Mod.  Philosophg  ;  Saintes,  Hist,  of 
Puitionalism,  p.  138 ;  Tenneraann's  Manual  of  Philosiphy 
(by  iMorell),  p.  4G5  sq. ;  ls.Tag,  Philosophisches  Worter- 
luch,  V  (1),  p.  G17  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Giner.  xxvii, 
240.     (J.ILW.) 

Kriiger,  Oswald,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  l)orn  in  1598 
in  Prussia,  and  made  for  himself  a  name  by  his  thorough 
study  of  Hebrew,  which  he  taught  in  the  schools  of  the 
Jesuits;  later  he  devoted  himself  to  mathematics,  and 
became  professor  at  the  L^niversity  in  Wihia.  He  died 
May  IG,  1GG5. — Allgem.  Hist.  Lex.  iii,  65. 

Krumniacher,  Friedrich  Adolf,  a  German 
theologian  and  poet,  was  born  at  Tecklenburg,  in  West- 
phalia, July  13,  1767,  and  was  educated  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Lingen  and  Halle.  At  the  latter  school  he  en- 
joyed the  instruction  of  "  the  elder  Knapp,"  the  so  just- 
ly celebrated  "  pious"  professor  of  the  university  at  that 
time.  In  1800,  after  having  filled  various  positions  of 
trust,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Duisburg,  where  he  remained  until  1806.  He 
then  became  successively  pastor  of  Krefeld,  Kettwich, 
Bcrnburg,  and  Bremen.  His  talents  as  preacher  and 
administrator  caused  him  to  be  appointed  court  preacher 
and  Church  superintendent.  He  died  at  Bremen  April 
14,  1845.  Friedrich  Adolph  Krummacher  deserves  spe- 
cial commendation  in  this  work  for  liis  piety  and  the 
noble  Christian  example  he  furnished  to  his  sons,  and 
which  became  manifest  in  their  lives  (comp.  Krumma- 
ciiEn,  FniEDKicit  Wilhelm).  He  is  especially  known 
for  his  parables  in  verse,  which  have  become  classic  in 
Germany,  and,  though  he  has  had  many  imitators  in 
this  line,  he  has  never  been  surpassed.  His  works  are. 
Lie  Liebe,  a  hymn  (Wesel,  1801 ;  2d  ed.  1809):— Pora- 
behi  (Duisburg,  1805;  8th  ed.  Essen,  1850;  French,  Par. 
1821 ;  English,  Lond.  1844,  8vo,  and  often)  ■.—Apologien 
und  Paramythien  (Duisburg,  1810)  :  —  Festbiichlein,  eine 


Schri  ft  fur's  Volk  (Duisb.  1810,  2  vols. ;  od  edit.  Duisb. 
1819-21,  3  vols.)  -.—Die  Kinderwelt  (Duisb.  1806, 1813),  a 
series  of  sacred  poems  for  children : — Johannes,  a  drama 
(Lpz.  1815)  : — tfeber  d.  Geist  u.  d.  Form  d.  evangelischen 
Gesch.  in  histor.  u.  cesthetisch.  Hinsicht  (Lpz.  1805),  by  far 
his  most  important  theological  work  : — Bibelkattchismus 
(Essen,  1844, 12th  edit.)  : — Katechismus  d.  chrisil.  Lehre 
(Essen,  1821;  6th  ed.  1841)  : — Die  christl.  Volksschule  ini 
Bunde  m.  d.  Kirche  (Essen,  1823 ;  2d  edit.  1825) :  —  St. 
Ansgar,  d.  alte  mid  d.  neue  Zeit  (Bremen,  1828) :  —  Der 
Haujitmann  Cornelius  (Bremen,  1829 ;  English,  London, 
1838, 12mo ;  1839, 12mo,  with  notes  by  Fergusson ;  1840, 
12mo) : — Das  Ltben  des  heiligen  Johannes  (Essen,  1833 ; 
Engl.,  Lond.  1849,  8vo):  — i>((s  Tdubchen  (Essen,  1840, 
3d  ed.).  See  JNIoUer,  F.  A.  Krummacher  n.  s.  Freunde 
(Brem.  1849,  2  vols.);  Herzog,  Real-Eiwyklop.  viii,  118 
sq. ;  Brit,  and  For.  Evangel.  Rev.  Ixix,  627.  (J.  H.  W.) 
Krummacher,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  one  of 
Germany's  most  el()C[uent  preachers  in  tliLs  century,  and 
the  most  distinguished  of  a  distinguished  famdy,  was 
the  son  of  Friedrich  Adolph  Krummacher  (q.  v.),  and 
was  born  at  IMors,  on  the  Khine,  -January  28, 1796.  After 
preparation  partly  at  the  Gymnasium  and  partly  under 
his  own  father,  he  entered  Halle  University  in  the  win- 
ter semester  of  1815-lG,  and  there  enjoyed  the  instruc- 
tions of  Niemeyer,  Wegscheider,  Geseuius,  jNIarx,  De 
Wette,  and  '•  the  elder  Knapp,"  for  whom  young  Krum- 
macher early  cherished  great  affection.  Two  3-ears  later 
he  removed  to  Jena,  drawn  thither  by  the  celebrated 
philosopher  Fries,  and  the  theologian  Schott,  the  well- 
known  editor  of  a  revised  edition  of  the  text  of  the 
New  Testament.  To  an  American  student  of  theology 
this  period  of  F.  W.  Krummacher's  life  presents  many 
points  of  special  interest.  He  had  left  Ilalle  for  Jena 
determined  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Schott  and  other  cele- 
brated theologians,  but  so  disappointed  was  he  that  he  is 
led  to  exclaim  (in  his  Autobiography,  p.  77),  "Nothing 
remained  for  me  but  to  seek  refuge  from  this  spiritual 
famine  in  reading,"  and,  instead  of  attending  faithfully 
the  lectures  of  his  professors,  he  found  it  more  to  his 
soul's  interest  to  devote  his  time  to  the  reading  of  Her- 
der's Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  his  father's  Spirit  and 
Form  of  the  Gospels,  Kleuker's  apologetical  writings, 
and  other  books  of  this  class.  His  first  appointment  as 
preacher  he  found,  in  the  beginning  of  1819,  at  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main,  as  assistant  to  a  German  lieformed 
congregation.  In  1823  he  removed  to  the  village  of 
Ruhrort,  on  the  Rhine,  near  Dusseldorf,  and  two  years 
later  to  Gemarke,  a  parish  in  the  town  of  Barmen ;  and 
in  1834  he  accepted  a  repeated  call  to  the  city  of  Elber- 
feldt.  During  his  residence  there  a  call  came  to  him 
from  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  of  the  Reformed  German 
Church  to  come  to  the  United  States  and  fill  a  profess- 
or's chair  in  their  theological  school  at  Mercersburg, 
Penn.,  a  position  which  he  declined  in  favor  of  the  cele- 
brated Church  historian  Philip  SchafF,  D.D.,  now  pro- 
fessor in  the  L'nion  Theological  Seminary  at  New  York 
city.  In  1847  he  was  promoted  by  the  king  of  Prussia, 
Frederick  William  IV.to  the  pastorate  of  Trinity  Church, 
Berlin,  as  successor  of  the  renowned  pulpit  orator  ]\Iar- 
heinecke,  who  had  died  in  1846,  and  he  promptly  ac- 
cepted the  place.  About  two  years  later  he  became 
court  preacher  at  Potsdam,  the  usual  summer  residence 
of  the  Prussian  kings,  and  he  died  there  Dec.  19,  1868. 
Krummacher  was  honored  with  the  doctorate  of  divin- 
ity by  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  was  an  active  -work- 
er in  behalf  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  attended 
all  its  meetings  as  long  as  he  lived.  Dr.  Krummacher 
acquired  a  world-wide  celebrity  by  his  devotional  writ- 
ings, of  which  the  most  important  are  Flias  der  This- 
hiter  (Elberf.  1828;  5th  edit.  1860;  transl.  into  English 
and  extensively  circulated  both  in  England  and  in  tliis 
country)  : — Salomo  mid  Sulamith  (ibid.  3d  ed.  1830 ;  7th 
ed.  1855) : — Die  Sabbath  Glocke,  a  series  of  sermons  (Berl. 
1848  sq.,  12  vols.  8vo)  -.—Der  leidende  Christus  (Bielef. 
1854,  and  often ;  transl.  into  Engl,  in  Clark's  Librarj-) : 
—and  last,  but  hardly  least,  David,  der  KOnig  von  Israel 


KRUMMACHER 


170 


KUFIC  WRITING 


(Berl.  1866,  8vo;  traiisl.  into  English  and  published  by- 
Clark  of  Edinb.  and  Harpers  of  N.  Y.  1S70,  ll'mo). 

Like  his  father  and  uncle,  Dr.  Kriunmacher  was 
one  of  the  few  liold  and  uncompromising  witnesses  of 
evangelical  truth  of  which  (Jcrmany  can  boast.  Dr. 
Schatt'.  who  of  all  men  this  side  the  Atlantic  is  perhaps 
best  entitled  to  a  comment  on  the  life  and  labors  of  this 
celebrated  German  preacher,  speaks  of  him  as  follows : 
"  Krummacher  was  endowed  with  every  gift  that  con- 
stitutes an  orator,  a  most  fertile  and  brilliant  imagina- 
tion, a  vigorous  and  original  mind,  a  glowing  heart,  an 
extraorduiary  facility  and  felicity  of  diction,  perfect  fa- 
miliarity with  the  Scriptures,  an  athletic  and  command- 
ing presence,  and  a  powerful  and  melodious  voice,  which, 
however,  in  latter  years  underwent  a  great  change,  and 
sounded  like  the  rolling  of  the  distant  thunder  or  like 
the  trumpet  of  the  last  judgment.  This  splendid  outfit 
of  nature,  which  attracted  even  theatrical  actors  and 
mere  worshippers  of  genius  to  his  sermons,  was  sancti- 
fied by  divine  grace,  and  always  uncompromisingly  de- 
voted to  the  defence  of  scriptural  truth.  He  was  full 
of  the  fire  of  faith  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  In  the  pulpit 
he  was  as  bold  aiid  fearless  as  a  lion,  at  home  as  gentle 
and  amiable  as  a  lamb.  Like  all  truly  great  men,  he 
had  a  childlike  disposition.  ...  He  was  a  millionaire 
in  images  and  illustrations.  There  is  an  emharras  de 
richesse  in  hie  sermons,  even  more  than  those  m  Jeremy 
Taylor.  The  imaginative  is  too  predominant  for  simple 
and  severe  taste ;  but  with  all  their  defects  they  will 
live  as  long  as  sermons  are  read  for  private  devotion 
and  as  models  for  cultivating  a  higher  style  of  pidpit 
eloquence.  The  name  of  their  author  will  always  shine 
as  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  galaxy  of  those  great 
and  good  men  who,  in  the  present  century,  have  fought 
the  good  fight  of  the  evangelical  faith  against  prevail- 
ing Rationalism  and  infidelity,  and  have  entitled  them- 
selves to  the  gratitude  of  the  present  and  future  gener- 
ations" (The  Observer,  N.  Y.  Feb.  4, 18G9).  His  Atifobi- 
ographij,  left  in  MS.  form,  was  published  after  his  death 
by  his  familv,  and  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
the  Itev.  M.  G.  Easton  (Edinb.  and  N.  Y.  1869, 8 vo).  See 
a  very  pleasant  short  sketch  by  professor  C.  W.  Bennett, 
in  the  N.  Y.  Christian  A  di-ocnte,  Feb.  11, 1869 ;  and  Meth. 
Qiiar.  Review,  1869,  p.  142, 441 ;  1870,  p.  161  sq.;  Uritisk 
and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  Ixix,  628 ;  A  mcr.  Fresh.  Rev.  1869,  p. 
776 ;  Evcmr/.  Qucir.  Rev.  1870,  p.  149 ;  Frincefon  Rev.  1870, 
p.  156.     ( J.  H.  W.) 

Krummacher,  Gottfried  Daniel,  a  German 
theologian,  younger  brother  of  F.  A.  Krummacher  (q. 
v.),  was  born  at  Tecklenburg  April  1, 1774.  He  studied 
at  Duisinirg,  and  became  successively  pastor  of  Biirth 
and  Wdlfratli,  and  finally  of  Elberfeld,  where  he  died 
Jan.  r)0, 1S37.  He  was  thoroughly  Calvinistic,  not  only 
in  his  tone  of  mind,  but  even  in  his  outward  aspect,  and 
as  the  head  of  the  Pietists  in  his  district  he  carried 
their  principles  to  their  full  length,  even  showing  much 
unfriendliness  to  those  who  did  not  coincide  with  him. 
He  \vrote  Die  Wandeninr/  Israels  durch  d.  Witstc  (3d  ed. 
Elberfeld,  1850-51, 2  vols.;  Engl.,  Lond.  1837-38,  2  vols. 
12mo)  ■.—Ihinspostille  (jMenns,  1835) : — TcirjUches  Manna 
(Elberfeld,  1838;  4thed.l851;  Engl., Loud.  1839, 12mo): 
—Jakob\i Kampfu.Sief/ (1829;  Engl.,Lond.  1838, 12mo); 
etc.  See  A.  W.  MciUer,  F.  .U'Krunmutcher's  Leben  (Bre- 
men, 1849),  i,  169;  ii,84;  Y.\.Kr\i3;,Krif.Gesch.d.pro- 
test.-reliff.  Schwdnnerei,  etc.,  im  lIi-r::o<ith  inn  Berg  (Elber- 
feld, 1851) ;  Krummacher  (Emil  W'ilhclm),  Leben  v.  Gott- 
fried Daniel  Krummacher  (Elberf.  1S3S,  8vo);  Autobi- 
ography of  F.  W.  Krummacher  (translated  by  Easton), 
p.  155;  Herzog,  Real-FncyLlop.  viii,  118  sq. 

Kmmmendyk,  Ai.heut,  a  learned  German  theo- 
logian, tiourishcd  about  the  middle  of  the  loth -century 
as  bishop  of  Holstein  and  Lubeck,  and  died  in  1489.  He 
left  in  AIS.  form  Chronicon  Kpiscoporum  Oldenburgien- 
sium  et  Lnbecensium  (printed  in  Meiboraius's  Scriptores 
Rerum  Germanicurum,  torn,  ii ). 

Krusius,  L.  A.     See  Millennium. 


Kryptae  {Kr>inTTai,cnjpts).  For  the  purpose  of  con- 
cealment from  their  ])ersecutors,  the  earlv  Christians 
occasionaEy  prepared  for  themselves  churches  and  ora- 
tories under  ground,  which  served  both  as  places  of  de- 
votion and  as  sepulchres  for  their  dead.  These  were 
called  cnjptce,  from  Kpinrrw,  to  conceal. — Farrar,  Fecks. 
Diet.     See  Crypt. 

Kryptics,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  those  theo- 
logians who  hold  to  the  K-pinpic,  or  concealment  theory  of 
our  Lord's  divine  attributes  during  his  earthly^  career. 
See  Kenosis. 

Ktistolatrae  (icorshiiipers  of  a  a-cafed  thing),  a 
branch  of  the  Jlonophysites,  who  maintained  tliat  the 
body  of  Christ  before  his  resurrection  was  corruptible, 
in  contradistinction  from  the  A  ctistetce,  who  held  that  it 
was  not  created. 

Kiibel,  Matiiaus,  a  German  theologian,  was  born 
at  Herbstein,  in  tlie  duchy  of  Fulda,  Nov.  14,  1742,  and 
Avhen  twenty-two  years  old  entered  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits,  mider  whom  he  received  his  subsequent  educa- 
tion. In  1783  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Heidelberg  University,  and  in  1785  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  canon  law.  He  died  Jan.  3,  1809.  Kiibel 
was  ([uite  liberal  in  tendency,  and  had  many  warm 
friends  among  Protestant  theologians.  He  wrote  Ratio 
Jidei  reddita  (Heidelb.  1776,  4to)  : — Exercitiuni  canoni- 
cnm  de  mairimonio  (1786,  4to). — Doring,  Gelehrfe  Theo- 
log.  Deutschlunds  des  18'"'  und  19"»  Jahrh.  ii,  212. 

Kiichlein,  Johann,  a  German  Protestant  theolo- 
gian, was  bom  at  Wetterau,  in  Hesse,  in  1546.  He 
studied  at  Heidelberg,  entered  the  Church,  and  became 
pastor  at  Tackenheim.  When,  in  1576,  elector  Louis 
expelled  the  Calvinistic  preachers,  Kiichlein  went  to 
Holland,  and  for  eighteen  years  held  a  professorship  in 
theology  at  Amsterdam.  In  1595  he  became  director 
of  the  College  of  Leyden,  and  died  July  2,  160G.  Guy 
Patin  calls  him  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time. 
His  collected  works  were  published  at  Geneva  (1613, 
4to).  See  li.Wittc,  BiariumBiogi-aphicum;  Meursius, 
A  then.  Batar.;  IMoreri,  iJict.  Hist.;  Jcicher,  Gekhrten 
Lexilvn;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxvii,  256.  (J. 
N.P.) 

Kuen,  IMiciiAEi,,  a  German  savant,  was  born  at 
Weissenborn,  Austria,  Feb.  9,  1709,  entered  in  1728  the 
Augustine  order,  and  was  elected  in  1754  abbot  of  their 
monastery  at  Ulm.  He  died  Jan.  10,  1765.  His  prin- 
cipal works  of  interest  to  us  are  CoUectio  scriptoruni  re- 
rum historico-7nonastico-ecclesiasticarum  varioi'um  rcli- 
giosorum  ordinum  (Ulm,  1756-66,  6  vols,  fol.) : — Joannes 
de  Canabaco  ex  comitihus  de  Canabac,  qui  vvlgo  venditur 
pro  autore  quatuor  librorum  de  Imitatione  Christi,  re- 
center  delectus  a  quodam  canonico-regulari  (ibid,  17C0, 
8vo),  written  against  those  attributing  the  authorship 
of  Z^e  Imitatione  to  Gersen  instead  of  Kempis. — Iloefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  258. 

Kufic  "Writing,  an  ancient  form  of  Arabic  char- 
acters, which  came  into  use  shortly  before  INIohammed, 
and  was  chiefly  current  among  the  inhabitants  of  North- 
ern Arabia,  while  those  of  the  south-western  parts  cm- 
ployed  the  Ilimyaritic  or  Mosnad  {clipped)  character. 
The  Kulic  is  taken  from  the  old  Syriac  character  {Fs- 
tr(tngelo'),  and  is  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  by 
IMoramer  or  IMorar  ben-Morra  of  Anbar.  The  first  cop- 
ies of  the  Koran  were  written  in  it,  and  Kufa,  a  city  in 
Irak-Arabi  (pashalic  of  Bagdad),  being  the  one  which 
contained  the  most  expert  and  numerous  copyists,  the 
writing  itself  was  called  after  it.  The  alphabet  was  ar- 
ranged like  the  IleVirew  and  Syriac  (\vhencc  its  desig- 
nation, ABGal)  /feres'),  and  this  order,  although  now 
superseded  l)y  an(rther,  is  still  used  for  numerical  pur- 
poses. The  kufic  character,  of  a  somewhat  clumsy  and 
ungainly  shape,  began  to  fall  into  disuse  after  about  A. 
D.  1000;  Ebn-:\Iorla  of  Bagdad  (died  A.D.  938)  having 
invented  the  current  or  so-called  Neshki  QiashaJc,  to 
copy)  character,  which  was  stUl  further  improved  by 


KUHLMANN 


m 


KUMARASAMBHAVA 


Ebn-Bawab  (died  1031),  and  which  now  —  deservedly, 
as  one  of  the  prettiest  and  easiest — reigns  supreme  in 
East  and  West.  It  is  only  in  JLSS.  of  tlie  Koran,  and 
in  title-pages,  that  the  Kutic  is  still  employed.  A  pe- 
culiar kuid  of  the  Kufic  is  the  so-called  Karmatian— of 
a  somewhat  more  slender  shape — in  whicli  several  in- 
scriptions have  been  met  with  both  in  Arabia,  and  in 
Dauphiny,  Sicily,  etc.,  and  which  is  also  found  on  a  cor- 
onation mantle  preserved  in  Nuremberg.  The  Kufic  is 
written  with  a  style,  whUe  for  the  Neshki  slit  reeds  are 
employed.  Different  kinds  of  the  latter  character  (in 
which  the  alphabet  is  arranged  according  to  the  out- 
ward similarity  of  the  letters)  are  the  Moresque  or  Ma- 
ghreb (Western),  the  Divdni  (IJoyal— only  employed 
for  decrees,  etc.),  the  Talik  (chiefly  used  in  Persian), 
the  Thsoletki  (threefold,  or  very  large  character),  Jaku- 
thi,  Riliani,  etc. — Chambers,  Cyclojpcedia,  s.  v.  See  Al- 
piiahei'. 

Kuhlmann,  Quirinus,  a  German  visionary  and  re- 
ligious enthusiast,  was  born  at  Breslau  Feb.  25,  1651. 
He  began  to  attract  public  attention  at  the  age  of  eigh- 
teen, when,  rising  from  a  sick-bed,  he  claimed  to  have 
been,  during  his  illness,  in  direct  communication  both 
with  God  and  the  devil,  and  asserted  that  the  duty  had 
fallen  upon  him  of  revealing  to  all  nations  the  inspira- 
tions which  he  had  received  from  the  Holy  Ghost.  He 
quitted  the  University  of  Breslau,  where  he  had  been 
studying  jurisprudence,  and  went  at  once  to  Holland,  in 
1673,  to  become  a  follower  of  the  mystic  Jacob  Biihme 
(q.  v.),  as  is  shown  by  his  Neubeirjestet-ter  Bdhme  (Ley- 
den,  1674, 8vol.  He  found  a  congenial  spirit  in  Johann 
Rothe,  of  Amsterdam,  who  claimed  to  be  John  the  Bap- 
tist because  his  father's  name  had  been  Zacharias,  and 
to  this  fanatic  Kuhlmann  dedicated  his  Prodromus  quiiv- 
quennii  mirahilis  (Leyden,  167-1,  8vo).  He  also  sought 
to  enter  into  relations  with  Antoinette  Bourignon,  but 
does  not  appear  to  have  succeeded.  A  letter  of  his,  en- 
titled De  sapientia  iiifusa  Adamea  Salonioneaqua,  dated 
Lubeck,  Feb.  1675,  shows  that  he  was  at  that  time  a  res- 
ident of  that  citj'.  Another,  addressed  to  sultan  Mo- 
hammed IV,  proves  that  he  was  in  Constantinople  in 
1678.  On  Nov.  1, 1681,  he  published  at  Paris  his  Ar- 
canum microcosmicum,  curious  and  scarce,  like  all  his 
works.  After  wandering  through  Switzerland,  England, 
and  Germany,  he  went,  about  1689,  to  Russia,  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  there  the  "  real  kingdom  of  God." 
At  tirst  he  succeeded  in  gaining  a  large  number  of  par- 
tisans, and  he  may  perhaps  be  considered  as  the  founder 
of  the  yet  existing  sect  of  Duchobortzi  (q.  v.),  or  spirit- 
ual wrestlers.  But  the  momentary  religious  freedom 
enjoyed  by  Russia  under  Basil  Galitzin  soon  came  to 
an  end  on  the  downfall  of  Sophia  and  the  accession  of 
Peter  I  to  the  throne.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  latter 
was  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits,  and  his  sentence  of 
death  on  Kuhlmann  and  his  disciple,  Conrad  Nordcr- 
mann,  supposed  to  have  been  occasioned  mainly  by  the 
eiforts  of  the  Lutheran  pastor  MeineclvC.  They  were 
both  burned  alive  at  Moscow,  Oct.  4, 1689.  Besides  the 
above-named  works,  Adelung  {Hist,  de  lafoUe  humaine, 
V,  9)  considers  Kuhlmann  as  the  author  of  forty-two 
other  works,  the  principal  of  which  are  Epistidce  theo- 
sophicce  Leidenses  (Leyden,  1674,  Svo):  —  Epistnlarum 
Londinensiam  Catholica  ad  Wickiefio-Waldenses,  IIiiss- 
itas,  Zwinr/lianos,  Lutheranos,  Calvinianos  (Rotterd.  1674, 
12mo) : — four  pamplilets  concerning  his  correspondence 
with  Athanase  Kircher  were  published  under  the  style 
Kirckeriana  de  arte  mar/na  sciendi,  etc.  (London,  1681, 
8vo).  See  B.  G.  Wernsdorf, /A-  Fanaticis  Silesiorum  et 
spectatim  de  Quir.  Kuhlmamw  (Wlttembcrg,  16itK,  1718) ; 
Museum  Bremense,  vol.  ii ;  Moreri,  Diet.  Hist. ;  Kncijclop. 
Catholique  de  Fribourg ;  J.  Gagarin,  f/ft  Document  inedit 
sur  Vexpuhion  des  Jesuites  de  Moscou  en  1689,  p.  27 ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxviii,  263 ;  Rotmund,^/'?- 
lehrten  Lexikon,  vol.  iii,  s.  v.;  Bayle,  Ifist.  Diet,  iii,  688 
sq. ;  llagenhach,Vorlesungen  iiber  Gesch.d.  evangel. Pro- 
testd/itismus,  p.  316  sq. 

Kuhn,  Jean  Gaspard,  a  French  Protestant  preach- 


er, was  born  at  Saarbruck  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th 
century,  and  flourished  as  professor  of  history  and  elo- 
quence at  the  University  of  Strasburg,  and  as  canon  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Thomas,  in  that  city.  He  died  in 
1720.  He  wrote  De  Sociabilitate  secundum  Stoicorum 
disciplinam. — Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  s.  v. 

Kiuiuoel,  Christiasus  Theophilus  (Christian 
Gottlieb  Kiihnul  in  German),  a  German  Protestant  the- 
ologian and  philologist,  was  born  at  Leipzic  Jan.  2, 1768. 
He  studied  the  classics  at  the  school  of  St.  Thomas,  and 
theology  in  the  miiversity  of  his  native  city.  In  1788 
he  began,  by  the  advice  of  tlie  celebrated  German  sa- 
vant Wolf,  a  course  of  lectures  at  his  alma  mater  on  the 
classics  and  on  the  books  of  the  O.  and  N.  T.  In  1790 
he  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of  philosophy, 
and  in  1796  preacher  of  the  university.  In  1799  he  de- 
clined an  invitation  to  a  professor's  chair  at  Copenha- 
gen, but  in  1801  went  to  Giessen,  as  professor  of  belles- 
lettres.  Subsequently,  however,  he  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  exegesis  of  the  N.  T.,  and  in  1809  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  chair  of  theology  as  ordinary  professor.  He 
died  there  Oct.  15, 1841.  He  -wrote  Messianische  Weissa- 
gungen  d.  alt.  Testaments  ubersetst  u.  erldutert  (Lpz.  1792, 
8vo,  Anon.)  : — Ilosecs  Oracula  Ilebr.  et  Lat.pierpetua  an- 
notatione  illustrata  (Lpz.  1792,  8vo).  He  had  published 
in  1789  a  German  translation  of  the  same  book,  with 
notes : — Observationes  ad  Novum  Testamentum,  ex  libris 
apocnjphis  Veteris  Testamenti  (Lpz.  1794,  8vo)  : — Peri- 
cojxe  evangelicm  (Lpz.  1796,  2  vols.  8vo)  : — Die  Psahnen 
metrisch  Ubersetst,  mit  Anmerkungen  (Lpz.  1799,  8 vo) : — 
Spicilegium  observationum  in  Epistolani  Jacobi  (Lipsite, 
1807,  8 vo)  : — Commentarius  in  libros  Kovi  Testamenti 
historicos  (Lpz.  1807-18, 4  vols.  8vo  ;  4th  ed.  Lpz.  1837 ; 
reprinted,  ^vit  h  the  Gr.  text  added,  Lond.  1835, 3  vols.  8vo) 
— a  very  able  and  successfid  work ;  one  of  the  best  of  the 
modern  exegetical  works  on  the  N.  T.  ever  issued  from 
the  German  ]iress,  but  unfortunately  wanting  in  spirit- 
ual insight.  It  belongs  to  the  range  of  higher  criticism, 
while  Rosenm  idler  is  occupied  with  the  lower.  Kuinoel 
is  undecided  Ijetween  orthodoxy  and  neology,  but  seems 
to  have  so  strong  an  under-current  of  conviction  in  fa- 
vor of  the  truth  as  to  lead  him  to  admit,  with  a  good 
share  of  favor,  evangelical  interpretations  mto  his  pages. 
As  to  theological  sentiments,  he  distinctly  avows  him- 
self a  high  Arian,  and  is  e\ndently  sceptical  concerning 
the  miracles  of  Christ.  His  commentary  is  of  the  his- 
torico-critical  kind  : — Commentarius  in  Epistolam  ad  He- 
braos  (Lpzc.  1831,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxviii,  268  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xix,  758 ;  Kitto, 
Cgcloptrdia,  ii,  763.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kulkzynski,  Ignatius,  a  Russian  monastic,  was 
born  at  Wladimir  in  1707;  early  entered  the  order  of 
St.  Basil ,  resided  several  years  at  Rome  as  general  of 
his  order;  and  died  as  abbot  of  Grodno  in  1747.  He 
is  noted  as  the  author  of  Specimen  Ecclesim  Rutlienicoe 
(Rome,  1733, 8vo),  a  work  which  was  dedicated  to  pope 
Clement  XII,  and  is  now  hardly  accessible.  He  WTOte 
also  Ildiaspro  prodigioso  di  tre  colori,orvero  narrazione 
istorica  di  tre  immagini  miracolose  della  Beata  Vergine 
Maria  (Rome,  1732, 12mo)  : — De  Vitis  Sanctorum  divi 
Basilii  inagni  (2  vols,  folio,  left  in  MS.  form). — Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  270. 

Kulon,  the  name  of  a  city  found  only  in  the  Sept. 
version  (Kov\ov)  of  Josh,  xv,  59,  as  lying  in  the  tract 
around  Bethlehem  (see  Kiel's  Comment,  ad  loc.) ;  prob- 
ably corresponding  to  the  modern  village  of  Kvkmiek, 
an  hour  and  a  half  west  of  Jerusalem  (Robinson's  Be- 
searc/ies,  ii,  146),  with  many  old  walls  built  of  hewn 
stones  (Scholz,  Ihise,  p.  161).     See  Juijah,  Tribe  op. 

Kumarasambhava  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  poems  of  the  Hindus,  and  its  author  is 
believed  to  have  been  Kalidasa  (q.  v.).  Its  sulijcct  is 
the  legendarj-  history  connected  with  the  birth  of  Ku- 
mara,  or  Kartikega  (q.  v.),  the  Hindu  god  of  -war.  It 
consists  of  twenty-two  cantos,  but  only  eight  have  hith- 
erto been  published  in  the  origmal  Sanscrit.     The  first 


KUNADUS 


172 


KURDISTAN 


seven  have  been  elegantly  rendered  into  English  verse 
by  Mr.  II.  T.  H.  Gritttth.  at  present  principal  of  the  Be- 
nares (Jovernraent  College. — Chambers,  Cj/doj).  s.  v. 

Kunadus,  Andreas,  a  Lutheran  divine,  born  at 
Deiblon,  in  .Misnia,  in  1G02,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
the  University  of  Wittenberg,  and  died  in  ItitJi.  He 
■\vrot*  a  Coiiuiientary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Gulutians. — 
lloefer.  Xoiir.  Biocj.  Generale,  xxviii,  27G. 

Kiiiiibert,  a  bishop  of  Cologne,  who  flourished  in 
the  7th  century  (supposed  to  have  held  the  see  from 
G13-t)Gl),  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential prelates  of  the  Prankish  reahn  in  the  7th  centurj'. 
Not  only  in  ecclesiastical,  but  also  in  the  civil  history 
of  that  period,  Kunibert  tills  a  not  unimportant  place. 
He  was  a  favorite  adviser  of  king  Dagobcrt  I,  and  was 
the  educator  of  Sigbert  HI.  He  died  Nov.  1"2,  GGl  or 
CG3.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  commemorates  the 
day  of  his  decease.  See  Aschbach,  Kirchen-Lexil-on,  p. 
942  sq. ;  llcttberg,  Kirchengesch.  Deutschlands,  i,  536. 

Kunigimde,  St.     See  Cuxigunda. 

Kihinetll,  Johaxx  Theodor,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Creusen,  in  Bajieuth,  Sept.  22, 1735; 
in  1753  he  went  to  the  University  of  Erlangen,  and  in 
1759  became  assistant  preacher  in  his  native  place.  He 
died  Aug.  28, 1800,  as  superintendent  of  BajTCuth.  Run- 
neth was  a  very  popular  preacher,  and  published  several 
of  his  sermons ;  he  also  wrote  largely  for  the  theological 
journals  of  Germany.  A  list  of  his  writings  is  given  by 
Doring,  Gdchrte  Theolofjen  Deutschlaiids,  ii,  214  sq. 

Kiinwald,  jMathias  von,  a  bishop  of  the  Bohe- 
mian Brethren,  flourished  in  the  15th  century.  He  was 
especi;dly  prominent  at  the  Synod  of  Eeichenau  in  1491:. 

Ktinze,  John  Christopher,  D.D.,  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  this  country,  was 
born  in  Saxony  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  centuni'.  He 
was  educated  in  the  Gjonnasia  of  Rossleben  and  ^Rlerse- 
burg  and  the  University  of  Leipzic,  ami  for  several  years 
was  engaged  in  the  work  of  teaching  in  his  native 
land.  When  application  from  the  corporation  of  St. 
Michael's  and  Zion's  Church  was  made  to  the  theologi- 
cal facultv  at  Halle  for  a  minister,  their  attention  was 
immediately  turned  to  young  Kunze.  He  reached  the 
United  States  in  1770,  and  at  once  commenced  his  du- 
ties as  associate  pastor  of  the  German  churches  in  Phil- 
adelphia. This  field  of  labor  he  occupied  for  fourteen 
years,  universally  beloved,  and  exercising  a  wide  influ- 
ence for  good.  For  several  years  he  was  professor  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  from  w4ich  institution 
he  received  the  doctorate  in  1783.  He  accepted  a  call 
to  the  city  of  New  York  in  1781,  where  he  labored  for 
twenty-tiiree  years,  till  his  death,  July  24,  1807.  He 
was  devoted  to  his  work,  and  indefatigable  in  his  efforts 
to  do  good.  For  a  long  time  he  filled  with  signal  abil- 
ity the  professorship  of  Oriental  literature  in  Columbia 
College.  So  high  a  reputation  did  he  enjoj'  as  a  He- 
brew scholar  that  young  men  who  were  pursuing  their 
studies  with  ministers  of  other  denominations  frequently 
resorted  to  him  for  instruction.  The  rabbins  connected 
with  the  Jewish  synagogues  also  consulted  him  in  their 
interpretations  of  the  Hebrew.  "The  various  acfjuire- 
ments  of  this  gentleman,  and  particidarly  his  Oriental 
learning,  long  rendered  him  an  ornament  of  the  Ameri- 
can rei)ublic  of  letters.  He  probably  did  more  Jhan  any 
individual  of  his  day  to  promote  a  taste  for  Hebrew 
literature  among  those  intended  for  the  clerical  profes- 
sion in  the  I'nited  States"  (Dr.  Miller's  J?etrosp(ct  of  the 
Eii/htKuth  C('!itin\i/).  Dr.  Kunze  published  a  number 
of  works:  I/i.-ifon/  of  the  Lutheran  Church: — Somethin(] 
for  the  l'ii(hr^tini(Uii(j  ami  the  Heart  (1781, 8 vo): — A>«- 
Method  fur  Calculating/  the  r/reat  Ecli])se  of  June  10, 180G : 
— Hymn-book  for  the  Use  of  ihe^Church  (179p)  : — Cate- 
chism and  Lituri/y.  See  Hazeliu.s,  Hist.  Am.  Luth. 
Church,  1G85-1842.      CSl.  L.  S.) 

Kurdistan  or  Koordistan,  an  extensive  tract  of 
laud  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Asiatic  Turkey  and  in 


Western  Persia.  It  is  chiefly  occupied  by  the  Kurds, 
after  whom  it  is  called,  but  its  boimdary-liue  is  not  defi- 
nitely estabhshed,  and  the  estimates  of  its  area  and  pop- 
ulation greatly  thffer.  The  population,  according  to 
Kussegger  {Reisen  in  Europa,  Asien,  nnd  Afrika,  1835- 
41),  amounted  to  about  3,000,000 ;  according  to  Carl  Bit- 
ter, to  only  800,000 ;  according  to  Chambers,  100,000 ; 
according  to  Appleton,  40,000.  The  extent  of  Turkish 
Kurdisan  is  estimated  at  about  13,000  square  miles.  It 
was  formerlj'  divided  into  three  governments :  namelj', 
1.  Kurdistan,  consisting  of  the  Livas  ]\Iardin,  Sard,  and 
Diarbekir,  and  containing  2G5,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
198,000  were  Mohammedans,  51,000  Annenians,  72  Jac- 
obites, 4  Yezides,  and  1100  Gipsies;  2,  Harput,  consist- 
ing of  the  Livas  Meadin,  Harput,  Behsni,  and  Den- 
sem ;  3.  Wan,  consisting  of  the  Livas  Hakkiyari.  Later 
it  was  divided  into  the  pachaUcs  Wan,  Mosul,  Diarbe- 
kir, and  Urfa  (Bakka);  the  beylics  Halikiyari,  Bahdi- 
nan,  Butan  (Bogdcn),  and  Ssindshar;  and  the  district 
of  Mardin.  The  most  important  towns  are  Diarbekir, 
BitUs,  Wan,  and  Mardin.  Persian  Kurdistan  comprises 
the  south  -  western  portion  of  the  province  of  Aserbei- 
jan  and  the  western  portion  of  ^\rdilan,  as  far  as  the 
Kercha  river.  The  most  important  town  is  Kirman- 
shan,  with  about  40,000  inhabitants.  The  Kurds  are 
an  agricultural  people,  who,  durmg  the  summer  months, 
pitch  their  black  tents  upon  the  Alpine  pastures.  Asia 
Blinor  and  Syria,  and  even  Constantinople,  are  receiving 
from  them  large  supplies  of  cattle.  The  country  is 
made  up  of  isolated  villages,  without  a  national  bond  of 
union,  and  their  intercourse  with  each  other  consists 
chiefly  in  plundering  expeditions.  Old  castles  on  in- 
accessible peaks  serve  the  bej-s  as  places  of  refuge  in 
cases  of  emergency.  These  beys  often  rule  over  several 
villages.  The  Kurds  were  kno-mi  to  Greek  writers  as 
Carduchians  (Js.ap£ov\oi,  Carduchi,  see  Smith's  Lict.  of 
Class.  Gear/,  s.  v.)  or  Kyrtians.  In  the  highlands  of  Kur- 
distan they  are  divided  into  two  different  tribes,  the  As- 
sireta  and  the  Guranians.  The  Assiretas  are  the  caste 
of  warriors,  and  rarely  or  never  agriculturists,  but  are 
devoted  to  cattle-breeding.  The  Guranians  can  never 
become  ivarriors,  are  agricultirrists,  and  kejit  in  subjec- 
tion by  the  Assireta.  As  the  language  of  the  two  tribes 
likewise  differs,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  Guranians 
are  the  descendants  of  the  primitive  inhabitants,  who 
subsequently  were  subdued  by  a  more  warlike  tribe.  In 
Southern  Kurdistan  the  Assireta  call  themselves  Sipah 
(warriors)  and  the  peasants  Eayah  (subjects).  The  lan- 
guage of  the  Kurds  is  nearly  kindred  to  the  New  Per- 
sian, but  is  to  a  large  extent  mixed  with  Arabic,  Syrian, 
Greek,  and  Russian  words,  and  is  divided  into  numerous 
dialects.  They  have  no  written  alphabet,  and  there- 
fore no  literature,  but  a  number  of  their  pojndar  poems 
and  songs  have  been  written  down  in  Arabic. 

The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  fanatical  Sunnite 
IMohammedans,  who  hate  the  Shiites  even  more  than 
they  do  the  Christians.  But  the  number  of  Armenian, 
Jacobite,  and  Nestorian  Christians  is  also  considerable. 
The  Armenians  chiefly  live  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country.  One  section  of  the  Jacobites  has  its  centre 
near  Mardin,  under  a  patriarch,  who  resides  in  the  con- 
vent of  Safarani.  AVcstern  Kurdistan  is  the  seat  of  the 
Nestorians.  See  Nestorians.  The  Kurds  show  Uttle 
disposition  to  embrace  Christianity.  Among  the  Arme- 
nians and  Nestorians  the  missionaries  of  the  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  IMissions  have  met 
with  a  great  success.  The  mission  at  Harput  for  the 
Armenians  commenced  in  1853.  In  1859  a  theological 
seminary  was  established  for  the  training  of  men  for  the 
pastoral  oflice,  and  in  18G1  a  female  seminary  for  the 
training  of  their  wives.  In  1870  seventy  out-stations 
were  connected  with  the  Church  of  Harput,  ten  with 
that  of  Bitlis,  and  twelve  with  that  of  Mardin.  The 
number  of  members  connected  with  Bitlis  and  the  out- 
stations  was  84 ;  of  Harput  and  out-stations,  602 ;  of 
Mardin  and  its  out-stations,  245;  and  the  total  number 
of  registered  Protestants  in  these  stations  and  out-sta- 


KURIA 


1V3 


lOJRTZ 


tions  Tvas  upwards  of  GOOO.  At  Mardin  the  buildings 
for  a  theological  school  and  other  purposes  are  completed. 
The  flourishing  ijiissions  among  the  Nestorians,  embra- 
cing more  than  sixty  congregations,  are  chiefly  in  Per- 
sia, and  are  now  under  the  charge  of  the  Mission  Board 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States.  Of 
the  Jacobites  and  Nestorians  a  considerable  portion  have 
recognised  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  The  former  are 
called  the  United  Syrians,  the  latter  the  Chakteans. 
The  United  SjTians  have  a  patriarch  in  Diarbekir,  and 
the  Chaldeans  a  jiatriarch  at  El-Kush,  near  Mosul,  in 
the  convent  of  St.  Ilormisdas.  The  sect  of  the  Yezides, 
or  Shemsieh,  who  are  dcscentled  from  the  Parsees,  though 
they  follow  at  the  same  time  some  jMohammedan  and 
Christian  practices  adopted  from  their  neighbors,  are 
fire-worshippers,  live  south  of  Mardin.  See  Shiel,  Notes 
on.  a  Journeii  from  Tahris  to  KoorcUstan  (1836),  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  (London,  vol. 
viii) ;  Rich,  Nan-ative  of  a  Journey  through  Koordistan 
(London,  1836,  2  vols.) ;  Wagner,  Reise  nach  Persien  mid 
dem  Lande  d.  Kurden  (Lpz.  1852,  2  vols.) ;  Somdreczkh, 
Reise  nach  Persien  und  durch  Kurdistan  nach  Urumiah 
(Stuttgard,  1857, 4  vols.) ;  Layard,  Nineveh,  etc.,  with  an 
Account  of  a  Visit  to  the  Chaldean  Christians  of  Koor- 
distan, etc.  (London,  1850) ;  Grundemann,  Missionsatlas, 
Asien,  p.  39  ;  Badger,  The  Nestorians  and  their  Ritucds, 
with  Narrative  of  a  Mission  to  Mesopotamia  and  Coor- 
distan  (London,  185J:,  2  vols.  8vo).     (A.  J,  S.) 

Kuria  or  Kyria.     See  Electa. 

Ktirma  (called  also  Kurmaratdra,  i.  e.  the  "avatar 
of  the  tortoise"')  is  the  name  by  which  the  second  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu  is  designated.  It  is  related  in  Hindu 
mythology  that  Kurma  took  the  form  of  a  tortoise  so  as 
to  furnish  a  support  to  Mount  Jlandara  while  the  gods 
and  Asiirs  chiu-ned  the  ocean.  The  mountain  being  the 
chum-stick,  the  great  serpent  Scsha  was  made  use  of 
for  the  string.  It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  in  lit 
dia  churning  is  usually  performed  by  causing  a  body 
termed  the  churn-stick  to  revolve  rapidly  in  the  cream 
or  milk  by  means  of  a  string,  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
driU  is  made  to  revolve.  In  some  of  the  Hindu  pic- 
tures of  the  churning  of  the  ocean  the  gods  are  repre- 
sented as  standing  on  one  side  of  jNIount  ^Jlandara  and 
the  Asurs  on  the  other,  both  grasping  in  their  hands 
the  serpent  Sesha,  which  is  wound  round  the  mountain. 
This  rests  upon  the  back  of  the  tortoise  (Vishnu).  At 
the  same  time,  the  preserving  deity,  in  consequence  of 
his  ubiquitous  character,  is  seen  standing  among  the 
gods  and  grasping  Seslia,  and  also  as  dancing  on  the  top 
of  ilandara  (see  Plate  49  in  Moor's  Hindu  Pantheon^. 
Tlie  churning  of  the  ocean  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  popidar  fables  related  in  the  mythology  of  the  Hin- 
dus. It  resulted  in  the  production  of  the  fourteen  gems, 
as  they  are  called,  namely,  1.  Chandra  (the  moon) ,  2. 
Lakshini,  the  incomparable  consort  of  Vishnu;  3.  Sura- 
devi,or  the  goddess  of  wine;  4.  Uchisrava,  a  wonder- 
ful eight-headed  horse;  5.  Kustubha,  a  jewel  of  inesti- 
mable value;  6.  Parijiita,  a  tree  that  yielded  whatever 
one  might  desire ;  7.  Surabhi  or  Kamadhenu,  a  cow  sim- 
ilarly bountiful ;  8.  Dhanwantara,  a  wondrous  physician ; 
9.  Iravata  or  Ira  vat,  the  elephant  of  India;  10.  Shank,  a 
shell  which  conferred  victory  on  whosoever  sounded  it ; 
11.  Dauusha,  an  unerring  bow;  12.  Vish,  a  remarkable 
drug  or  poison ;  13.  Kembha  (or  Rambha),  an  Apsara 
possessed  of  surpassing  charms;  14.  Amrita,  or  Amrit, 
the  beverage  of  immortality.  See  j\Ioor,  Hindu  Pan- 
theon ;  Chambers,  Cyclopwdia,  ix,  814. 

Kurschner,  Conrad.     See  Pellican. 

Kurtz,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D,  a  prominent  min- 
ister of  the  Lutheran  Church,  was  born  at  Harrisburg, 
Penn.,  Feb.  28, 1795.  He  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  one 
of  tlie  Halle  patriarchs,  the  grandson  of  Rev.  John  Nich- 
olas Kurtz,  who  came  to  this  country  in  1745  as  an  as- 
sociate of  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg.  When  quite 
young  Benjamin  exhibited  remarkable  fitness  for  study, 
and  great  quickness  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 


At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  was  employed  as  an  assistant  in 
the  Harrisburg  Academy,  and  subsequently  gave  private 
instruction  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  German.  Early  train- 
ed to  industry  and  self-reliance,  he  formed  those  habits 
of  mental  discipline  which  gave  so  much  strength  to  his 
future  character.  He  studied  theology  under  the  di- 
rection of  Rev.  Dr.  Geo.  Lochman,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  in  1815  by  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania.  He  im- 
mediately received  a  call  to  Baltimore  as  assistant  min- 
ister to  his  uncle.  Rev.  Dr.  J.  D.  Kurtz.  He  remained 
in  this  position  for  a  brief  period,  and  then  accepted  the 
invitation  to  become  pastor  of  the  Ilagerstown  charge. 
During  this  period  of  his  ministry  his  labors  were  crown- 
ed with  the  most  abundant  success.  On  a  single  occa- 
sion he  added  to  the  Church  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
members.  Very  reluctantly  he  resigned  the  position, 
and  in  1831  took  charge  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
Cliarabersburg.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness,  with 
the  brightest  jjrospects  of  success,  his  labors  here  were 
abruptly  terminated  by  the  failure  of  his  health.  He 
removed  to  Baltimore  Aug.  24, 1833,  and  commenced  his 
career  as  editor  of  the  Lutheran  Observe?:  The  paper 
became  an  engine  of  great  influence  in  the  Church,  and, 
although  physically  disciualified  to  perform  regular  pul- 
pit labor,  in  his  editorial  capacity  he  was  permitted  ev- 
ery week  to  preach  the  Gospel  and  to  advance  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Church.  He  died  Dec.  29, 1865.  Dr.  Kurtz 
possessed  an  intellect  of  no  common  order,  a  resolute 
will,  and  remarkable  personal  power.  He  was  an  active, 
vigorous  thinker.  He  had  acquired  habits  of  close  ap- 
plication, of  careful  and  keen  observation,  a  fondness  for 
analytical  research,  and  the  investigation  of  intricate 
questions.  His  mind  was  clear  and  logical,  and  in  con- 
troversy he  had  scarcely  a  superior.  He  readily  com- 
prehended a  subject,  and  knew  how  to  grapple  with  any 
truth  that  claimed  his  attention.  Had  he  entered  the 
legal  profession,  for  which  he  was  originally  intended, 
or  political  life,  to  which  he  was  so  well  adapted,  he 
would,  no  doubt,  have  risen  to  the  highest  position,  to  a 
rank  C(iual  to  his  most  distinguished  contemporaries. 
As  a  preacher  he  was  very  much  gifted.  In  his  earlier 
years,  and  in  the  maturity  of  his  strength,  he  was  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  most  eloquent  speaker  in  the 
State  of  ^Maryland.  He  was  plain,  tlioughtful,  argu- 
mentative, and  forcible.  He  gave  utterance  to  the  great 
truths  of  the  Gospel  with  an  energy  and  an  unction  that 
carried  conviction  home  to  the  hearer.  He  was  a  clear, 
prolific  writer,  skilfid  in  repartee,  pungent  in  rebuke ;  a 
man  of  independent  spirit,  fond  of  excitement,  and  ;vork- 
ed  best  ;vhen  under  its  influence.  He  was,  in  the  full 
sense  of  the  term,  a  public  man,  and  few  men  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church  of  this  country  have  wielded  a  greater 
power  tlian  he.  His  name  was  a  tower  of  strength  in 
connection  with  any  enterprise  that  engaged  his  atten- 
tion. His  public  career,  extending  over  half  a  century, 
was  identified  with  the  most  important  events  in  the 
history  of  the  Lutheran  Church  during  that  period.  The 
recognised  leader  of  a  central  school  in  the  Church,  the 
public  representative  of  a  party  whose  views  he  adopt- 
ed, his  sentiments  on  all  subjects  were  regarded  with  fa- 
vor. His  words  were  received  as  oracular.  His  life 
was  one  of  ceaseless  activity.  Laborious,  self-sacrificing, 
a  man  of  great  industry  and  unwearied  perseverance,  he 
never  yielded  to  any  obstacle  that  was  not  absolutely 
insuperable.  Notwithstanding  his  daily  routine  of  duty, 
and  the  multiplicity  of  his  engagements,  he  found  some 
time  for  authorship.  His  books  were  generally  well  re- 
ceived by  the  public ;  some  of  them  passed  through  sev- 
eral editions.  The  following  embraces  a  list  of  his  publi- 
cations :  First  Principles  of  Religion  for  Children  (1821)  : 
— Sermons  on  Sabbath-schools  (1822)  : — Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity  (1823)  : — Address  on  Temperance  (1824) : — Pas- 
toral Address  during  his  absence  in  Europe  (1827): — 
Ministerial  Appeal,  Valedictory  Sermon,  Ilagerstown 
(1831)  : — A  Door  opened  of  the  Lord,  Introductory  Ser- 
mon, Chambersburg  (1831)  : — Lnfant  I>apiism  ami  Af- 
fusion, tcith  Essaijs  on  Related  Subjects  (Baltimore,  1840) : 


KURTZ 


174 


KUVERA 


— Theological  Sketch-bool-,  or  Skeletons  of  Sermom,  care- 
fully arranged  in  systematic  order,  so  as  to  constitute  a 
eoraplftc  Body  of  Divinity,  partly  original,  partly  select- 
ed (1844,  2  vols.)  : — Why  are  you  a  Lutheran?  (1847) : 
— Prayer  in  all  its  Forms,  and  Training  of  Children 
(18yG)  : — Lutheran  Prayer-hook,  for  the  use  of  FamOies 
and  Individuals  (1856) : — The  Serial  Catechism,  or  Pro- 
gressive Instruction  for  Children  (1848) : — Design,  Ne- 
cessity, aiul  Adaptation  of  the  Missionary  Institute  at  Se- 
linsgrove.  Pa.  (Inaugural  Address)  (1859): — The  Choice 
of  a  Wife — Lecture  to  the  Graduating  Class  of  Theo- 
logical Students  iu  the  Missionary  Institute  (18G3) : — 
The  Condemned  Sermon — Experimental,  not  Ritual  Relig- 
ion, the  one  thing  needful;  preached  before  the  West 
Penns^-lvania  Sj-nod  (18C3) : — Believers  belong  to  Christ: 
Sacramental  Discourse  delivered  before  the  IMarj-laiid 
Synod  (1865).  He  was  also  co-editor  of  the  Yeai'-hook 
of  the  Reformation  (1844).  See  Evang.  Rev.  1866,  p.  25 
sq. ;  Lutheran  Obsei'ver,  Jan.  5  and  12, 1866.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kurtz,  John  Daniel,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  minis- 
ter of  tlie  Lutheran  Church,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  N. 
Kurtz,  was  born  at  Germantown,  Penn.,  in  1763.  Verj^ 
early  in  life  he  had  a  strong  desire  to  prepare  for  the 
ministry  of  reconciliation.  After  leaving  school  he  pur- 
sued his  studies  under  the  direction  of  his  father,  and 
subsequently  with  Rev.  Dr.  H.  E.  Miihlenberg,  of  Lan- 
caster. In  1784  he  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the  Synod 
of  Pennsylvania.  He  commenced  his  ministerial  labors 
by  assisting  his  father  in  preaching,  catechising,  and  vis- 
iting the  sick.  Afterwards  he  took  charge  of  congrega- 
tions in  the  vicinity  of  York.  He  removed  in  1786  to 
Baltimore,  where  he  labored  with  great  diligence  and 
fidelity  for  nearly  half  a  centurj'.  In  1832,  in  conse- 
quence of  advancing  physical  infirmities,  he  resigned 
his  position,  although  he  occasionally  preached,  and  en- 
deavored to  make  himself  useful  whenever  an  opportu- 
nity offered.  He  died  June  30, 1856,  in  the  98d  year' of 
his  age,  loved  and  honored  by  all  who  knew  him.  Dur- 
ing his  ministry  he  baptized  5156  persons,  buried  2521, 
and  solemnized  2386  marriages.  Being  once  told  that 
the  Methodists  were  gathering  in  German  Lutheran 
emigrants  and  organizing  chiu"ches  among  them,  his  re- 
ply was,  "  And  is  it  not  better  that  they  should  go  to 
heaven  as  Methodists  than  be  neglected  and  overlooked 
as  Lutherans  ?"  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  a  director  of  the 
Theological  Seminar}',  and  closely  identified  with  aU  the 
benevolent  institutions  of  the  Church.  He  aided  in  the 
formation  of  the  Maryland  Bible  Society,  and  for  many 
j-ears  was  president  of  the  trustees  of  the  Female  Or- 
phan Asylum.     (jM.  L.  S.) 

Kurtz,  John  Nicholas,  one  of  the  earlier  Luther- 
an ministers  in  this  country,  was  bom  at  Lutzelinden,  in 
the  principality  of  Nassau  -Weilburg,  and  came  to  this 
country  in  1745.  He  pursued  his  studies  at  Giessen  and 
Hallo,  and  was  regarded  by  Dr.  Francke  as  peculiarly 
fitted  for  missionary  labor  among  his  countrj-men  in 
America.  He  was  the  first  Lutheran  minister  ordained 
in  this  countrj'.  He  labored  successively  at  New  Hano- 
ver, Tulpehocken,  Germantown,  and  York,  Pa.,  although 
he  frequently  spent  whole  months  in  visiting  the  desti- 
tute places  of  the  Church,  preaching,  catechising,  and 
administering  the  sacraments.  During  his  residence  at 
Tidpehocken  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  were  often 
conducted  at  imminent  risk  of  life,  as  the  ruthless  In- 
dian lay  in  wait  for  victims,  and  whole  families  were 
sometimes  massacred.  The  officers  of  the  church  stood 
at  the  doors  armed  with  defensive  weapons,  to  prevent 
a  surjirisc  and  to  protect  minister  and  people.  In  trav- 
elling to  liis  preaching  stations  and  visiting  among  his 
members  he  was  often  exposed  to  danger  from  the  at- 
tack of  the  tomahawk  and  scalping -knife.  He  was 
pastor  at  York  when  Congress,  during  the  Revolution, 
held  its  session  there,  and  bishop  White,  the  chaplain, 
was  his  guest.  As  an  evidence  of  his  interest  in  the 
American  struggle,  it  is  mentioned  that,  after  preaching 


on  the  Lord's  day,  he  invited  his  hearers  to  collect  all 
the  articles  of  apparel  they  could  spare,  and  send  them 
to  his  residence  tor  distribution  among  the  suflering, 
destitute  soldiers.  When  he  reached  his  threescore 
years  and  ten  he  felt  that  it  was  his  duty  to  retire  from 
the  active  duties  of  the  ministry.  He  removed  to  Bal- 
timore, where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  the 
famUj'  of  his  son,  John  Daniel  Kurtz  (q.  v.),  until  1794, 
when  he  peacefully  passed  away  to  his  rest.  He  was 
held  in  high  estimation  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  man 
of  great  learning  and  earnest  piety.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Kushai'ah  (Heb.  only  with  1  paragogic,  A'!/s/;rt^a'- 
hu,  in^'j'lp,  boiv  of  Jehovah,  i.  e.  rainbow ;  Sept.  Kicrai- 
ac),  a  Levite  of  the  family  of  Merari,  and  father  of 
Ethan,  which  latter  was  appointed  chief  assistant  of  He- 
man  in  the  Temple  music  imder  David  (I  Chron.  xv, 
17) ;  elsewhere  (1  Chron.  vi,  44)  called  Kishi.    B.C.  1014. 

Kussemeth.     See  Rye. 

Kiister,  Karl  Daniel,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Bernburg  May  6, 1727.  In  1745  he  entered  the 
University  of  Halle,  and  studied  theology  until  1749, 
when  he  became  teacher  in  the  German-French  orphan 
asylum  in  Magdeburg.  In  1754  he  entered  the  army  as 
chaplain,  and  in  this  capacity  served  the  Prussians  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War.  On  his  return  he  became 
preacher  at  Magdeburg,  and  was  made  the  first  pastor 
of  the  city  in  1768.  He  died  Sept.  21, 1804.  Kiister 
was  a  truly  pious  man,  and  greatlj'  served  the  cause  of 
Christianity,  especially  among  the  soldiers  of  Frederick 
the  Great.  For  his  works,  see  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theol, 
Deutschlands,  ii,  218  sq. 

Kiister,  Ludolf,  a  learned  German  Greek  scholar, 
who  was  born  at  Blomberg,  Westphalia,  in  Fcl>.  1670, 
held  first  a  professorship  at  the  Joacbimsthal  Gymnasi- 
um in  Berlin,  and  latei^ enjoyed  the  favor  of  Lotus  XIV, 
and  a  pension  with  membership  in  the  French  Acad- 
emy, and  who  died  Oct.  12, 1716,  deserves  a  place  here 
for  his  edition  of  MiU's  Greek  Testament,  published  at 
Rotterdam  in  1710,  and  entitled  Collectio  Milliana,  etc. 
Kiister's  additions  consist  of  the  various  readings  of 
twelve  ]MSS.,  of  which  the  most  important  is  the  Codex 
Boe7-nerianus,  afterwards  admirably  edited  by  JIatthaei. 
The  edition  also  contains  a  preface  by  Ktlster,  and  a 
letter  of  Le  Clerc's  discussing  a  number  of  various  read- 
ings, of  some  historical  interest.  According  to  Trcgelles, 
it  is  usually  considered  inferior  in  accuracy  to  Jlill's  orig- 
inal edition. — Kit  to,  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical  Literature, 
ii,  764. 

Kutassy,  Johannes,  a  very  prominent  Hungarian 
prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  flourished  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  16th  century  as  archbishop  of 
Grau.  He  was  in  great  favor  at  the  court  of  the  emperor 
Rudolph  II,  and  was  employed  on  several  important 
diplomatic  missions.  He  died  about  1601. — Allgemeines 
Hist.  I^exikon,  iii,  69. 

Kuvera,  the  Hindu  Plutus,  or  god  of  wealth.  He 
owes  his  name  —  which  literally  means  "  havmg  a 
wretched  {hi)  body  (vei-a)"- — to  the  deformities  with 
which  he  is  invested  by  Hindu  mythology.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  having  three  heads,  three  legs,  and  but  eight 
teeth ;  his  eyes  are  green,  and  in  the  place  of  one  he  has 
a  yellow  mark ;  he  wears  an  earring,  but  only  in  one 
ear;  and,  though  he  is  properly  of  a  black  color,  his  belly 
is  whitened  by  a  leprous  taint.  He  is  seated  in  a  car 
(pushjKika'),  which  is  drawn  by  hobgoblins.  His  resi- 
dence, AJaka,  is  situated  in  the  mines  of  Mount  KaUa- 
sa,  and  he  is  attended  by  the  Yakshas,  Mayus,  Kinnaras, 
and  other  imps,  anxiously  guarding  the  entrance  to  his 
garden,  Chaitraratha,  the  abode  of  all  riches.  Nine 
treasures — apparently  precious  gems — are  especially  in- 
trusted to  his  care.  Ilis  vdfe  is  a  hobgobUn,  Yakshl,  or 
Yakshini,  and  their  children  are  two  sons  and  a  daugh- 
ter. As  one  of  the  divinities  that  preside  over  the  re- 
gions, he  is  considered  also  to  be  the  protector  of  the 
north. — Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 


KUYPERS 


175 


LABADIE 


Kuypers,  Gerardus  Arextse,  D.D.,  an  emment 
minister  of  the  Keformed  (Dutch)  Church,  was  born  of 
Hollandish  parentage  in  the  island  of  Cura^oajW.  I.,  Dec. 
16, 1766.  His  father,  Rev.  Warmoldus  Kuypers,  was  a 
clergyman,  educated  at  the  University  of  Groningen,  and 
removed  to  this  country,  where  he  settled  as  pastor  of 
the  churches  at  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  and  Hackensack,  N.  J. 
He  died  in  1799.  His  son  Gerardus  was  educated  by  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Peter  Wilson,  who  was  then  the  most 
popular  and  able  classical  teacher  in  New  Jersey.  His 
theological  course  was  pursued  under  the  care  of  his  fa- 
ther and  Drs.  Hermanus  Mayer  and  Dirck  Komeyn.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1787,  ordained  in  1788  as  co- 
pastor  at  Paramus,  N.  J.,  and  in  1789  became  one  of  the 
ministers  of  the  Collegiate  Keformed  Dutch  Church  in 
Ne\v  York,  where  he  remained  until  his  decease  in  1833. 
Dr.  Kuypers  was  a  Christian  gentleman,  and  a  theolo- 
gian of  the  old  school,  remarkably  conversant  with  the 
Bible,  and  possessed  of  high  pastoral  qualifications.  He 
is  described  as  an  evangelical,  practical,  lucid,  and  su- 
perior preacher,  a  man  of  peace  and  prudence,  and  a  liv- 
ing chronicle  of  past  events,  whose  decisions  on  matters 
of  usage  and  precedent  were  for  many  years  received  as 
final.  His  death  was  triumphant.  He  left  unfinished 
a  volume  of  Discourses  on  the  Heidelberg  Catechism. — 
Dr.  Knox's  Memorial  Discourse  (1833) ;  Sprague's  ^1??- 
nuls ;  Corwin's  Manual  Ref.  Ch.  p.  130 ;  Life  of  Dr.  J. 
II.  Linnffston.     (W.  J.  K.  T.) 

Kvasir  is  the  name  of  a  mythic  personage  mention- 
ed in  the  Norse  legends.  "  He  was  so  wise  and  know- 
ing that  no  one  could  ask  him  a  question  which  he  could 
not  answer.  He  was,  however,  entrapped  and  slain  by 
two  dwarfs  who  had  invited  him  to  a  feast.  With  his 
blood  they  mingled  honey,  and  thus  composed  a  mead 
which  makes  every  one  who  drinks  of  it  a  skald,  or  wise 
man."     See  Thorpe,  Northern  Mythology,  vol.  i. 

Kyderniinster  (or  Kidderjiinster),  Eichard, 
an  English  monk,  greatly  celebrated  both  as  a  preacher 
and  scliolar,  born  in  Worcestershire,  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  16th  century.  He  was  abbot  of  the 
Benedictine  monastery  at  Winchcombe,  Gloucestershire, 
and  died  in  1531.  He  wrote  Tructatus  contra  Doctri- 
num  Lutheri  (1521);  also  a  history  of  his  monastery. 
See  Wood,  A  then.  Oxon. ;  Allibone,  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish and  A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  1046. 

Kypke,  George  David,  a  distinguished  German 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Neukirk,  Pomerania,  Oct.  23, 
1724.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Konigsberg  and 
Halle,  took  his  degree  in  the  department  of  philosophy 
in  1744,  in  1746  was  appointed  professor  extraordinary  of 
Oriental  languages  at  Konigsberg,  and  was  promoted  to 
the  full  professorship  in  1775.  He  died  Maj'  28,  1779. 
Kypke  wrote  Observationes  sacrce  in  Novi  Fmderis  libros, 
ex  auctoribus  Greeds  et  antiquitatibiis  (Breslau,  1755,  2 
vols.  8vo) ;  a  successful  attempt  to  illustrate  many  pas- 


sages of  the  New  Testament  by  examples  drawn  from 
Greek  classic  authors.  '•  Of  all  the  expositions  of  the 
New  Testament  conducted  on  principles  like  these,  I 
know  of  none  that  are  superior,  or,  indeed,  equal  to 
that  of  Kypke"  (JNIichaelis).  See  Kotermund,  Suppl. 
zu  Jocher ;  Hoefer,  jVowi'.  Biog.  Generide,  xxviii,  312. 

Kyrie  (Kupis),  "  O  Lord"  (in  Church  music),  the 
vocative  of  the  Greek  word  signifying  Lord,  with  which 
word  all  the  musical  masses  in  the  Church  of  Home 
commence.  Hence  it  has  come  to  be  used  substantive- 
ly for  the  whole  piece,  as  one  may  say,  a  beautiful  Ky- 
rie,  a  Kyrie  well  executed,  etc. 

Ktrie  Eleeison  (KvpiE  iXerjaov,  Lord  have  mercy 
[_U2)on  w«]),  the  well-known  form  of  earnest  and  pathetic 
penitential  appeal  of  the  Scriptures,  of  frequent  occur- 
rence in  the  services  of  the  early  Church,  and  in  the 
liturgical  formukc  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  church- 
es, and  since  the  Reformation  retained  even  in  many 
Protestant  churches. 

Eastern  Church. — INIost  frequently  it  was  used  in  the 
opening  portions  of  the  ancient  liturgies.  In  that  of  St. 
jNIark  we  find  three  long  prayers,  each  preceded  by  the 
threefold  repetition  of  the  Kyrie.  In  St.  Chrysostom's 
the  deacon  offers  ten  petitions,  and  each  is  followed  by 
the  answering  Kyrie  of  the  choir.  In  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions (lib.  viii,  can.  6),  when  the  catechumens  are 
about  to  pray,  all  the  faithfid  add  for  them  this  suppli- 
cation (comp.  Neale,  Primitice  Lit.  p.  88). 

Western  Church. — In  the  AVest  the  KjTie  Eleeison  and 
Christe  Eleeison,  termed  by  St.  Benedict  " lesser"  or  " mi- 
nor Utany,"  it  is  generally  supposed  were  introduced  by 
pope  Sylvester  I  (314-335),  and  formed  a  part  of  the  Pre- 
ces  Feriales  of  the  "  Salisbury  Portiforium,"  as  they  do 
now  of  the  daily  offices  of  prayer  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
England,  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  the 
Lutheran  and  many  other  evangelical  liturgies  the  KjTie 
Eleeison  is  retained.  SeePalmer,(?rw7.  LjV.i,  122;  Siegcl, 
Christlich-Kirchliche  Alterthii>ner,iu,2S7 ;  Riddle,  Chris- 
tian Antiquities,  p.  381 ;  Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchxeol.  s.  v. ; 
Proctor,  Common  Prayer  (see  Index) ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Doct. 
and  Hist.  Theol.  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Kyrie,  JoiiN,  an  English  philanthropist,  whom  Pope 
has  immortalized  inider  the  name  of  "  The  Man  of  Ross," 
was  born  at  Dymock  (County  of  Gloucester)  in  1037. 
With  a  small  income  of  £500  he  managed  to  do  much 
good  to  the  population  of  Hereford  Count}'.  He  en- 
couraged agriculture,  opened  ways  of  communication 
between  the  different  places,  and  founded  asylums  for 
orphans  and  disabled  persons.  The  passage  in  which 
Pope  commemorates  him  is  too  well  known  and  too  long 
to  be  quoted  here.  We  will  only  say  that  it  is  sulistan- 
tiaUy  based  on  facts.  Kjnrle  died  in  1754.  See  Warton, 
Essay  on  the  Writings  and  Genius  ofPojJe;  Fopc,  Epistle 
II;  Fidler,  Worthies  of  England,  i,  582. — Hoofer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxviii,  312.     (J.  N.  P.) 


L. 


La'adah  {llch.Ladnh',  iTn"b,  order;  Sept.  AaaSd 
V.  r.  Maoa.&),  the  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  She- 
lah  (son  of  Judah),  and  founder  ("  father")  of  IMareshah, 
in  the  lowlands  of  Judah  (1  Chron.  iv,  21).  B.C.  cir. 
1873. 

La'adan  (Heb.  Ladan',  )'^Vb,  ar-i-anger^tlie  name 
of  two  men. 

1.  (In  1  Chron.  xxiii,  7-9,  Sept.  Aenoav  v.  r.  'Eodv, 
Vulg.  Leedan;  in  1  Chron.  xxvi,  21,  Aei^ch'  v.  r.  AaSc'iv, 
AaaSdv,  Ledan.)  The  first  named  of  the  two  sons  of 
Gershom,  the  son  of  Levi ;  elsewhere  called  Lmxi  (1 
Chron.  vi,  17). 

2.  (Sept.  raXaaodg  v.  r.  Aadoav,  Aao(n',Yulg.  La- 
addu.)  Apparently  the  son  of  Tahan  and  father  of 
Ammihud,  of  the  posterity  of  Ephraim  (1  Chron.  vii, 
26).     B.C.  considerably  post  1612. 


Laanah.     See  Wormwood. 

Labadie,  Jean  de,  a  French  enthusiast,  and  the 
founder  of  the  religious  sect  known  as  Labadi-its.  was 
born  at  Bourg,  in  Guienne,  Feb.  13, 1610.  Educated  in 
the  Jesuits'  school  at  Bordeaux,  he  entered  their  order, 
began  the  study  of  theology  m  1026,  and  soon  distin- 
giushed  himself  as  a  preacher.  Struck  with  tlic  abuses 
existing  in  the  Romish  Church,  he  clamored  for  reform, 
but,  meeting  with  no  encouragement  in  his  order,  he 
left  it  to  join  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  in  1039,  and 
very  shortly  afterwards  the  Jansenists.  In  1640  he 
was  appointed  canon  of  Amiens,  and  at  once  inaugura- 
ted various  reforms.  He  held  conventicles  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  Bible  reading,  and  administered  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per in  both  kinds  to  the  peofjle.  To  prevent  liis  prog- 
ress, he  was  removed  in  1646,  and  sent  as  preacher 
and  inspector  to  the  convents  of  the  third  order  of  St. 


LABADISTS 


176 


LABAN 


Francis  in  Guienne.  Still  persecuted  by  the  Jesuits,  I 
he  joined  the  Kefornied  Church  at  IMontauban  in  IGuO,  I 
and  entered  the  I'rutestant  ministry'  under  very  au- 
spicious circumstances.  In  1G57  he  became  pastor  in 
Orange,  and  in  1659  in  Geneva.  In  both  situations 
he  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  for  the  restoration  of 
apostolic  religion  on  Tietistic  principles,  and  gained 
many  partisans,  especially  in  Geneva.  In  lOGG  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Walloon  church  in  Middelburg,  but, 
by  the  machinations  of  his  enemies,  was  obliged  to  leave 
it,  and  in  1GG9  went  to  Amsterdam,  where  his  followers 
soon  formed  a  distinct  religious  sect,  known  as  Laba- 
DiSTS.  Peter  Yvon  was  one  of  their  preachers.  Hav- 
ing been  expelled  from  the  country  as  a  separatist,  Laba- 
die  went  in  1G70  to  Hereford,  where,  through  the  intlu- 
ence  of  his  disciple,  the  learned  Anna  ^Marie  von  Schur- 
mann  (who  appears  to  have  become  his  wife  afterwards), 
he  was  protected  by  the  princess  Elizabeth.  But,  again 
driven  a\vay  (in  1674)  by  the  authorities  as  an  Anabai> 
tist,  he  went  successively  to  Bremen  and  Altona.  Here 
he  managed,  with  the  assistance  of  Peter  Yvon  and  De 
Lignon,  to  hold  private  meetings  and  to  disseminate  his 
doctruies.  He  died  at  Altona  Feb.  13,  1674.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are,  Le  herault  du  grand  roi  Jesus  (Amst. 
1667, 12mo): — Le  veritable  exorcisme,  ou  Vuniqtie  moyen 
de  chasser  le  Diuble  du  inomle  Chretien  (Amsterd.  1667, 
12mo) : — Le  chant  royal  du  roi  Jesus-Ckrist  (Amsterd. 
1670, 12mo) : — Les  saintes  Decades  (Amst.  1671, 8vo) : — 
Uempire  du  St.  Esprit  (Amst.  1671,  12mo) : — La  refor- 
mation de  Veglise ;  La  jeune  religieuse  ;  Uarrivee  aj)OS- 
iolique;  Ahrerje  du  Christianisme  (transl.  into  German, 
Frankf.  1742) ;  etc. 

According  to  their  confession  of  faith  {Declaration  d. 
reinen  Lehre  i(.  d.  rjesunden  Glaubens  d.  Jolt,  de  L.,  etc., 
Heref.  1671),  the  Labadists  did  not  entirely  differ  from 
the  lieformed  Church,  whose  symbolic  books  they  ac- 
cepted. ■  They  supported  themselves  by  manual  labor, 
and,  after  the  example  of  the  primitive  Church,  pos- 
sessed everything  in  common;  they  insisted  that  great 
Stress  is  to  be  laid  on  the  internal  light,  and  that  it  alone 
can  make  the  outer  revelation  intelligible.  Thej'',  ho:v- 
ever,  declared  against  infant  baptism ;  also  against  the 
second  baptism  of  the  Anabaptists;  and  rejected  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  on  the  plea  that  for  them  life 
was  a  perpetual  Sabbath,  etc.  The  reproach  of  immo- 
rality which  some  Roman  Catholic  writers  have  prefer- 
red against  them  is  unfounded ;  they  recognised  and 
.  honored  the  institution  of  matrimony.  After  Labadie's 
death  his  followers  removed  to  Wiewert,  in  the  duchy 
of  Clevcs,  but  gained  few  adherents,  and  the  sect  grad- 
*  ually  disappeared  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century. 
At  the  opening  of  the  18th  century  they  attempted 
to  establish  themselves  in  the  United  States  of  Amer- 
ica; a  few  of  their  number  settled  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson  liivcr  as  missionaries,  but  they  do  not  seem  to 
have  taken  a  special  hold.  See  A.  I'auli  and  J.  Hund, 
Antilabadie  (Hamm,  lG71,4to) ;  L.  G.  EngelschaU,  Rich- 
ti(/e  Vorurtheile  d.  hcutiyen  Welt  (1716),  p.  652-682;  Dr. 
Schotel,  A .  M.  v.  Schurmann  (Hertogenb.  1853) ;  Arnold, 
Kirchen  u.  Ketzeryesch,  ii,  680 ;  Hagenbacli,  Gesch.  der 
Iteformation,  iv,  307  scj. ;  Giibel,  Gesch.  d.  chjistl.  Lehens 
in  d.  Rheinisch-Westphalischen  evangel.  Kirche  (Coblenz, 
1852 ),  vol.  ii ;  Ziitschr.  d.  histor.  theol.  1853, 1854, 
Labadists.     See  Lakadie. 

Labagh,  Pf.ter,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minister, 
was  born  in  1773  in  New  York  city,  of  French  and  Hol- 
landish  descent.  After  receiving  his  classical  education 
from  Dr.  Peter  Wilson,  of  Ilackensack,  N.J..  liis  theolog- 
ical studies  were  pursued  under  Drs.  Froeliglj  and  Liv- 
ingston, professors  of  theology  in  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church.  He  was  licensed  in  179G,  and  immediately 
went  to  AVcsteni  New  York  on  a  tour  of  missi(mary  ex- 
ploration, and  afterwards  proceeded  on  horsqback  to  Ken- 
tucky, where  he  organized  a  Church  in  INIercer  County. 
Returning  to  New  York,  lie  settled  as  a  ])astor  in  Green- 
bush,  Rensselaer  County,  where  lie  remained  until  1809, 
and  then  removed  to  the  united  churches  of  Shannock 


and  Ilarlingcn.  He  retained  the  pastorate  of  the  latter 
Church  until  1844.  He  died  among  his  own  people  in 
1851S,  revered  and  beloved  by  all.  Dr.  Labagh  possessed 
an  active,  acute,  and  powerful  mind,  rapid  in  its  move- 
ments, sound  in  its  conclusions,  and  distinguished  by 
great  accuracy  of  judgment.  In  ecclesiastical  assem- 
blies he  was  always  a  leading  debater  and  comisellor. 
In  the  endowment  of  the  Theological  Seminary  at  New 
Brunswick,  and  in  all  the  great  movements  of  his  de- 
nomination, he  was  a  vigorous  and  successful  worker. 
He  was  a  clear,  strong,  and  experimental  preacher. 
During  the  great  revival  of  1831  his  Church  experi- 
enced a  work  of  grace  which  "  shook  the  whole  commu- 
nity for  miles  around."'  This  was  the  crowning  glory 
of  his  long  ministry.  His  latter  years  wore  spent  in 
patriarchal  retirement.  He  was  cheerful,  happy,  over- 
flowing with  good-humor,  mother-wit,  and  strong  com- 
mon sense,  and,  above  all,  with  a  deep  piety  which  illu- 
mined his  ministry  and  consecrates  his  memory.  A 
Memoir  of  him  was  published  in  1860  by  Rev.  John  A. 
Todd,  D.D.  (12mo).     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

La'ban  (Hebrew  Lahan',  '33,  vMte,  as  frequently ; 
corap.  Simonis,  Onom.  V.  T.  p.  100 ;  Septuag.  Aa jiav,  but 
Aoliuv  in  Deut.  i,  1 ;  Josephus  Ac'ijiavoQ,Ant.  i,  16,  2), 
the  name  of  a  man  and  also  of  a  place. 

1.  An  Aramican  herd-owner  in  IMcsopotamia,  son  of 
Bethuel  (Gen.  xxviii,5),  and  kinsman  of  Abraham  (Gen. 
xxlv,  15,  19),  being  a  grandson  ('a,  not  simply  "son," 
as  usual;  see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.-p.'i\&)  of  Nahor  (Gen. 
xxix,  5).  During  the  lifetime  of  his  father,  and  by  his 
own  consent,  his  sister  Rebekah  was  married  to  Isaac  in 
Palestine  (Gen.  xxiv,  50  sq.).  B.C.  2024.  See  Rebek- 
ah. Jacob,  one  of  the  sons  by  this  marriage,  on  leaving 
home  through  fear  of  Esau,  complied  with  his  parents' 
wishes  b}'  contracting  a  still  closer  affinity  with  the  fam- 
ily of  his  uncle  Laban,  and  Avhile  seeking  the  hand  of 
his  daughter  Rachel  at  the  price  of  seven  years'  toil,  was 
eventuallv  compelled  bv  Laban's  artifice  to  marrv  first 
his  oldest  daughter,  Leah  (Gen.  xxix).  B.C.  1927ll920. 
See  Jacob.  When  Jacob,  having  fulfilled  the  addi- 
tional seven  years'  service  thus  imposed  upon  him,  and 
six  years  more  under  a  contract  to  take  care  of  his  cat- 
tle (in  which  time  he  managed  to  repay  his  overreach- 
ing uncle  by  a  less  culpable  stratagem),  was  returning 
b}^  stealth  across  the  Euphrates,  Laban  pursued  him  with 
intentions  that  were  only  diverted  by  a  preternatural 
dream,  and,  overtaking  him  at  Mt.GUead,  charged  him 
with  the  abduction  of  his  daughters  and  the  theft  of  his 
household  gods,  which  Rachel  had  clandestinely  carried 
off,  and  now  concealed  by  a  trick  characteristic  of  her 
family,  but  was  at  length  pacified,  and  formed  a  solemn 
treaty  of  amity  with  Jacob  that  should  ruitually  bind 
their  posterity  ((!en.  xxx,  xxxi).  B.C.  1907.  Nie- 
meyer  {Charukt.  ii,246)  has  represented  Laban  in  a  very 
odious  light,  but  his  conduct  appears  to  have  been  in 
keeping  with  the  customs  of  the  times,  and,  indeed,  of 
nomades  in  all  ages,  and  compares  not  unfavorably  with 
that  of  Jacob  himself.  (See  Kitto, /^«i7//  Illustra.  vol. 
i;  Abulfeda,  Anteislatn,  cd.  Fleischer,  p.  25;  Hitzig,  Ge- 
schichte  Israel  [Lpz.  1869],  p. 40, 49  sq.;  E\va\d,IJistori/ 
of  Israel  [transl.  London,  1869],  i,  346  sq.)— Winer,  ii,  1 
sq.  "  The  mere  possession  of  teraphim,  which  the  Jews 
at  no  time  consistently  condemned  (comp.  Judg.  xvii, 
xviii ;  1  Sam.  xix,  13 ;  IIos.  iii,  4),  does  not  prove  Laban 
to  have  been  an  idolater;  but  that  he  must  have  been 
so  appears  with  some  probability  from  xxxi.  53  ('the 
gods  of  Nahor'),  and  from  the  expression  iriwnS,  in 
xxx,  27 ;  A.  Y.,  ^ I  have  learnt  lig  experience,'  but  proper- 
ly '  I  have  divined'  or '  learnt  by  an  augurj''  (comp.  xliv, 
15 ;  1  Kings  xx,  33),  showing  that  he  was  addicted  to 
pagan  superstitious"  (Kitto). 

2.  A  city  in  the  Arabian  desert,  on  the  route  of  the 
Israelites  (Deut.  i,  1) ;  probably  identical  with  their  twen- 
ty-first station,  LiBNAit  (Numb,  xxxiii,  20).  Knobel's 
objections  {Erkldr.  ad  Inc.)  to  this  identification,  that  no 
discoiurses  of  Moses  at  Libnah  are  recorded,  and  that  the 


LABANA 


177 


LABIS 


The  Laharum. 


Israelites  did  not  return  to  that  place  after  reaching 
Kadesh,  are  neither  of  them  relevant.  He  prefers  the 
Hauara  of  ancient  notice  {A'otit.Dif/nit.  i,  78  sq. ;  //««- 
arra  of  the  Peutinger  Table,  ix,  e ;  Avapa  of  Ptolemy, 
V,  17,5),  between  I'etra  and  yEla,  as  having  the  signiti- 
eation  white  in  Arabic  (Steph.  Byz.  s.  v.). 

Lab'ana  {Aajiava),  one  of  the  chief  Temple-ser- 
vants whose  "  sons"  returned  from  the  captivity  (1  Esdr, 
v,28j  ;  evidently  the  Lebana  (q.v.)  of  the  Hebrew  list 
(Xeh.  vii,  48). 

Labaruni  is  the  name  given  to  the  old  standard 
or  dag  of  Christian  nations.  Its  derivation  is  uncer- 
tain, but  it  has  variously  been  consider- 
ed as  coming  from  \aj5t1v,  \ai<pii,  \d- 
(pvpov,  hiboro,  etc.  Some,  with  Pruden- 
tius,  pronounced  both  a's  short-,  others 
(Althelm,  De  laud.  Vir//.)  considered  the 
first  as  long.  Sozomen  has  it  \ajiujpoi' ; 
Chrysostom,  Xo/3o!'(io)'.  (Comp.,  on  the 
etymology,  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib,  iii.) 
We  find  this  name  already  applied  to  the 
Iioman  standard  in  coins  of  the  republic 
and  of  the  first  emperors,  espocially  on 
those  connected  with  the  wars  against 
the  Germans,  Sarmatians,  and  Armeni- 
ans. The  labarum  obtained  its  Christian 
signification  under  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  who,  after  his  conver- 
sion, placed  the  image  of  the  cross  on  his 
standards,  and  caused  it  to  be  received 
at  Eome  as  the  (juiTqQiov  rpoiralov. 
Henceforth  it  was  considered  as  crj;juf tov 

TToXllUKiv    TWV    iiWuJV    TljiVOJTfpOV    it 

was  carried  in  advance  of  the  other  stand- 
artls,  looked  upon  as  an  object  of  adora- 
tion by  the  Cliristian  soldiery,  and  was  surrounded 
by  a  guard  of  fifty  picked  men.  Eusebius,  who  de- 
scribes it  with  great  particularity  (in  Vita  Coiistantin. 
li,  cap.  30,  31 ;  I5aronius,  Annales  Ecclesiasf.  A.D.  312, 
No.  2ij),  relates  that  Constantine  was  induced  to  place 
the  Christian  symbol  on  the  Roman  standard  by  having 
in  vision  seen  a  shining  cross  in  the  heavens.  (This 
vision  may  be  denied  or  variously  explained  from  sub- 
jective causes ;  compare  the  article  Constantine,  and 
Schaflf,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  §  2.)  The  Roman  labarum  consist- 
ed of  a  long  gilt  spear,  crossed  at  the  upper  end,  and  a 
crown  towards  the  top,  made  either  of  gold  or  of  pre- 
cious stones,  and  bearmg  the  monogram  of  Christ  (thus 

P        P  \ 

X  or    I   1 ,  which  the  emperor  afterwards  -wore  also  on 

his  helmet.  From  the  spear  was  suspended  a  square 
piece  of  silken  veil,  on  which  the  likeness  of  Constantine 

and  of  his  sons  was  embroidered  with  gold. 

Accordmg  to  Pnidentius  (in  Symmachus,  i, 
■n  48G),  the  image  of  Christ  was  embroidered  on 

it.    During  the  reign  of  Julian  the  labarum 

JMonoijram  was  made  in  its  original  shape,  and  bore  the 

"Iit^'^t''^^  °"  iiiage  of  the  emperor,  along  with  those  of  Ju- 

rum,  ^'    P^ter,  Mars,  and  Mercurj-,  but  the  standard 

of  Constantine  was  restored  under  Valentine 
and  Gratian.  The  labarum  remained  the  standard  of 
Rome  until  the  downfall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire, 
under  the  names  oi  labarum,  crux,  and  vexillum  ecclesi- 
asticum.  The  standards  at  present  in  use  in  some  cere- 
monies of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  still  consist  of  a 
spear,  with  a  cross-piece,  to  which  is  attached  a  cloth 
coverc<l  with  embroidery  or  painting.  The  most  re- 
nowned masterpiece  of  Christian  art,  Raphael's  Madon- 
na del  Sisfo,  was  originally  made  and  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. See  Ilerzog,  Re(d-Eucijklop.  vol.  viii,  s.  v. ;  Gibbon, 
Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roiiian  Ewpire,  ii,  2G1  sq. ;  Mar- 
tigny,  Diet,  des  Antiquites,  s.  v.;  Walcott,  Saci-ed  Ar- 
chaolorju,  s.  v.;  Voisin,  Diss.  crit.  sur  la  Vision  de  Con- 
stanlin  (Paris,  1774).     (J.  H,  W.) 

Labat,  Jean  Baptists,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
mLssionarj-,  was  born  at  Paris  in  16G3.  He  joined  the 
Dominicans  in  April,  1G«5,  went  as  professor  of  philoso- 

V.— :m 


phy  to  Nancy  in  1G87,  and  afterwards  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  preaching.  He  landed  at  La  Martinique 
Jan.  29, 1G94,  and  was  immediately  put  in  charge  of  tlie 
mission  at  jNIacouba.  While  attending  to  his  ecclesi- 
astical duties,  he  made  himself  very  usefid  in  the  colo- 
ny as  engineer,  agrittdtinist,  and  even  as  diplomatic 
agent,  and  rendered  great  service  against  the  English 
when  they  attempted  taking  the  island  in  1703.  Most 
of  his  colleagues  having  died  of  yellow  fever  and  other 
diseases  brought  on  by  the  climate,  he  returned  to  Fai- 
rope  to  seek  for  others,  and  arrived  at  Cadiz  Oct.  9, 1705. 
He  intended  returning  soon  to  the  West  Indies,  but  was 
sent  to  Rome  by  his  superiors,  and  was  retained  there 
until  1709;  he  afterwards  remained  at  Civita  Yecchia 
until  171G,  and  finally  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  C,  1738.  He  wrote  Noui-eau  Voyar/e  aux  lies  de 
rAmerique  (Paris,  1722,  G  vols.  12mo;  La  Haye,  1724,  6 
vols.  12mo;  1738,  2  vols.  4to:  2d  ed.  Paris,  17"42,  8  vols. 
12mo ;  transl.  into  Dutch,  Amsterd.  1725.  4  vols.  12mo ; 
German,  Nuremb.  1783-87,  6  vols.  8vo),  and  some  other 
historical  and  miscellaneous  works.  See  Joui-nal  des 
Savants,  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec.  1730 ;  Echard,  Script,  ord. 
S.  Domin.  ii,  800-,  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxviii, 
333. 

Labbe,  Philippe,  a  celebrated  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Bourges  July  10, 1607,  He  joined  the  order  in 
1G23,  and  became  professor  of  ethics,  philosophy,  and 
moral  theology,  first  at  the  CoUege  of  Bourges,  where  he 
had  been  educated,  and  aftenvards  at  Paris,  where  he 
settled  in  1G43  or  1G44.  After  teaching  theology  for 
two  years  in  that  city,  he  turned  himself  exclusively  to 
literary  labors.  He  died  at  Paris  Mar.  25, 1CG7.  Labbe 
was  a  man  of  extensive  learning,  uncommon  memory, 
and  great  activity.  Sotwel,  Niceron,  and  Moreri  con- 
sider him  as  the  author  of  seventy-five  dift'ercnt  works, 
some  of  them  quite  insignificant,  however.  His  chief 
claim  to  renown  rests  on  his  Manual  of  Councils,  which 
was  completed  by  Gabriel  Cossart,  and  published  at  Par- 
is in  1G71  (16  vols,  in  17,  folio;  to  some  copies  an  18th 
vol.  is  added,  containing  Jacobatius  de  Conciliis).  The 
most  complete  edition  was  published  under  the  title  aS'.iS'. 
Concilia,  ad  rec/iani  editioneni  exacta,  qum  olini  qiiarta 
parte  jn-odiit  auctior.  Studio  Philip.  Lahhei,  et  Gubr. 
Cossartii.  Nunc  verb  integre,  insertis  Stej)hani  Baluzii 
etJoannis  Harduini  additamentis,  jylurimis  praterea  un- 
dicunque  conquisitis  monumentvi,  notis  insuper  ac  observa- 
tionibus,  jirviiori  fundamento  conciliorum  epochas  ptrce- 
cipue  fulcientibus,  long'e  locupletior  et  emendatior  exhibe- 
tur.  Curante  Nicolao  Coleti  (Venet.  1728,  23  vols.  fol.). 
Et  supplement)im  J.  D.  3fansi  (Lucie,  1748-52, 6  vols. ;  in 
all,  29  vols.  fol.).  This  is  the  most  complete  collection 
extant  of  the  Councils  of  the  Church.  It  was  reprinted, 
^vith  the  supplement  incorporated,  and  edited  by  INIansi, 
at  Florence  (1757-98,31  vols,  folio) — a  much  esteemed 
and  accurate  edition ;  but  it  only  reaches  to  the  year 
1509,  while  the  edition  by  Coletus  brings  the  councils 
down  to  1727.  Among  his  other  works  the  most  impor- 
tant are,  SS.  Patrum  theologorum  scriptorumqite  ecclesi- 
asticomm  utriusque  Testanienti  Bibliothpca  chronnlngica. 
Cum  pinacotheca  scriptorum  Soc.  Jesu  (Par.  1659, 16mo) : 
— Uetj/mologie  de plusieurs  mots  Francois,  conire  les  abus 
de  la  secte  des  Hellenistes  du  Port-Royal  (Paris,  1661, 
12mo)  : — Bibliotheca  bibliothecarum  (3d  edit.  Roth.  1678, 
8vo)  : — De  Byzantincn  historic  scriptoribus  (Byzantine 
Histories,  i): — Nova  BibKotheca  31  SS.  Librorum  (1657, 
2  vols,  fol.)  : — De  Scriptoribus  Eccles.  Dissertatio  (2  vols. 
8vo) ;  etc.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxviii, 338 ; 
DarUng,  Cyclopasdia  Bibliographica, ii,  1751 ;  Pierer, Uni- 
versal Lexikon,  ix,  944.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Labben.     See  MuTii-LiVBBEN. 

Labis  (Xo/3('c,  or  \aftidiov,  a  spoon),  an  implement 
used  in  the  (ireek  Church  for  the  purpose  of  administer- 
ing the  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper.  Difticulties  in 
the  administration  of  the  wine  were  fancied  to  arise  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  in  order  to  meet  whicli  the  Jistulm  eu- 
chai'isticce  were  introduced ;  and  subsequently  the  prac- 


LABOR 


178 


LABRADOR 


tice  of  (lipping  the  bread  in  the  wine,  so  that  both  might 
be  administered  together.  The  Latin  Church  at  length 
withdrew  the  wine  altogether;  anil  the  Greek  Church, 
mingling  both  elements,  administered  them  at  once  with 
a  \a]5ic,  or  iipooii. — B'arrar,  JiJccl.  Diet.     See  Fistul.e. 

Labor  (properly  ^'2V,(ihad',  to  zvorl; Gr.  lpyu'Coi.iai ; 
also  ">"",  amal',  to  ioil,GT.  Koiridiu  ;  and  other  terms). 
From  Gen.  ii,  15  (where  the  same  word  ^3^  is  used,  A. 
V.  "till"),  we  learn  that  man,  even  in  a  state  of  inno- 
cence, and  surrounded  by  all  the  external  sources  of 
happiness,  was  not  to  pass  his  time  in  indolent  repose. 
Ey  the  very  constitution  of  his  animal  frame,  exercise 
of  some  kind  was  absolutely  essential  to  liim  (comp.  Ec- 
cles.  V,  12).  In  Gen.  iii,  19,  labor,  in  its  more  rigorous 
and  exhausting  forms,  is  set  forth  as  a  part  of  the  pri- 
meval curse,  "  In  the  sweat  of  thy  face  thou  shalt  eat 
bread ;"  and  doubtless  there  is  a  view  of  labor  which  ex- 
hibits it  in  reality  as  a  heavy,  sometimes  a  crushing 
burden  (compare  Gen.  xxxv,  io).  But  labor  is  by  no 
means  exclusively  an  evil,  nor  is  its  prosecution  a  dis- 
honor (comp.  Psa.  ciii,  23,  24).  It  is  the  prostration  of 
strength,  wherewith  is  also  connected  the  temporary  in- 
capacity of  sharing  in  the  enjoyments  of  life,  and  not 
labor  itself,  which  constitutes  the  curse  pronounced  on 
the  fallen  man.  Hence  we  find  that,  in  primitive  times, 
manual  labor  was  neither  regarded  as  degrading  nor 
confined  to  a  certain  class  of  society,  but  was  more  or 
less  prosecuted  by  all.  By  the  institution  of  the  Sab- 
bath, moreover,  one  seventh  of  man's  brief  life  was  res- 
cued from  labor,  and  appro])riatcd  to  rest  of  body  and  to 
that  improvement  of  the  mind  which  tends  to  strength- 
en, invigorate,  and  sustain  the  entire  man.  See  Sab- 
bath. 

Labor  was  enjoined  on  all  Israelites  as  a  sacred  duty 
in  the  fourth  commandment  (Exod.  xx,  9;  Deut.  v,  13 ) ; 
and  the  Bible  entertains  so  high  a  respect  for  the  dili- 
gent and  skilful  laborer,  that  Me  are  tohl  in  Prov.  xxii, 
29, "  Seest  thou  a  man  skilled  in  his  work,  he  shall  stand 
before  kings"  (comp.  also  ibid,  x,4;  xii,  24,27).  Among 
the  beautiful  features  which  grace  an  excellent  house- 
wife, it  is  prominently  set  forth  that  "  she  worketh  will- 
ingly with  her  own  hands"  (Prov.  xxxi,  13).  With  such 
an  honorable  regard  for  labor,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at  that  Avhen  Nebuchadnezzar  carried  the  Jews  away 
into  captivity,  he  found  among  tliem  a  thousand  crafts- 
men and  smiths  (2  Kings  xxiv,  14-lG;  Jer.  xxix,  2). 
The  ancient  rabbins,  too,  regarded  manual  labor  as  most 
honorable,  and  urged  it  upon  every  one  as  a  dutj',  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  following  sayings  in  the  Talmud : 
"  He  who  does  not  teach  his  son  a  craft  is,  as  it  were, 
briiii;ing  him  np  to  robbery"  (Cholin,  105);  "Labor  is 
greatly  to  be  prized,  for  it  elevates  the  laborer,  and 
maintains  him"  {Chagi(/a,b;  Nedarim,^'d,\i\  Baba  Ba- 
ihra,  110,  a).     See  Handicraft. 

The  Hebrews,  like  other  primitive  nations,  appear  to 
have  been  herdsmen  before  they  were  agriculturists 
(Gen.  iv,  2, 12, 17, 22) ;  and  the  practice  of  keeping  flocks 
and  herds  continued  in  high  esteem  and  constant  ob- 
servance as  a  regular  employment  and  a  social  condition 
(Judg.  i.  16;  iv,  11 ;  Amos  vii,  14  ;  Luke  ii,  8).  The  cul- 
ture of  the  soil  came  in  course  of  time,  introducing  the 
discovery  and  exercise  of  the  practical  arts  of  life,  which 
eventually  led  to  those  refinements,  both  as  to  processes 
and  to  applications,  which  precede,  if  the}'  do  not  create, 
the  fine  arts  (Gen.  iv;  xxvi,  12;  xxxiii,  19).  Agricul- 
ture, indeed,  became  the  chief  employment  of  the  He- 
brew race  after  their  settlement  in  Canaan  ;  it  lay  at  the 
very  basis  of  the  constitution,  linth  civil  and  religious, 
which  Jloses  gave  them,  was  licld  in  great  honor,  and 
was  carried  on  by  the  high  as  well  as  the  humble  in  po- 
sition (•Tudg.  vi,  1 1  ;  1  Sam.  xi,  5;  1  Kings  xix,  19).  No 
small  care  was  bestowed  on  tjie  culture  of  the  vine, 
which  grew  luxuriously  on  the  hills  of  Palestine  (Isa.  v, 
2,5;  ^fatt.  xxi.  33:  Numb.  xiii.  24).  Tlie  vintage  was 
a  season  of  jubilee  (JudLT.  ix.  27  ;  .ler.  xxv,  30 ;  Ima.  xvi, 
10).    The  hills  of  Palestine  were  also  adorned  with  well- 


cidtured  olive-gardens,  which  produced  fruit  useful  for 
food,  for  anointing,  and  for  medicine  (Isa.  xvii,  6;  xxiv, 
13;  Deut.  xxiv,  20;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17;  1  Kings  iv,  25; 
Hos.  xiv,  C,  7).  Attention  was  also  given  to  the  culture 
of  the  fig-tree  (2  Kings  xxi,  7;  1  Chron.  xxvii,  28),  as 
well  as  of  the  date-palm  (Lev.  xxiii,  40 ;  J.udg.  i,  IC ;  iv, 
5;  XX,  33;  Deut,  xxxiv,  3),  and  also  of  balsam  ((ien. 
xliii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  17  ;  xxxvii,  25  ;  Jer.  viii,  22). — 
Kitto.     Sec  Aguicultuke. 

Laborautes  (labore/s),  a  name  sometimes  given 
to  the  copiuUe  ox  fossavii,  on  the  assumption  that  the. 
Greek  word  KOTciciTai  is  taken  from  kottoc,  labor. — Far- 
rar,  Eccl.  Did.  s.  v.     See  Copiat^  ;  Fossarii. 

Laborde,  Yidieu,  a  French  priest,  born  at  Tou- 
louse in  1G80,  flourislied  at  Paris  under  the  patronage 
of  cardinal  De  Noailles.  He  died  in  1748.  His  works 
are,  A  Treatise  on  the  Essence: — Distinction  and  Limits 
of  the  Spiritual  and  TemjJoral  Powers : — Familiar  Con- 
ferences ;  and  other  religious  works  of  value. 

Labouderie,  Jean,  a  celebrated  French  theologi- 
cal writer,  was  born  at  Chalinargues,  Auvergne,  Feb.  13, 
1776.  He  became  vicar  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  in  1815, 
and  early  distinguished  himself  more  as  a  MTiter  than 
a  preacher.  He  was  particularly  conversant  with  the 
Hebrew  language.  He  died  as  honorary  grand  vicar 
of  Avignon  at  Paris,  May  2,  1849.  Among  his  works 
are  Pensees  iheolor/iques  (Clermont,  1801,  8vo) :  —  Con- 
siderations addressees  aux  aspirants  au  ministh-e  de 
Veylise  de  Geneve,  faisant  suite  a  celles  de  M.  Empey- 
taz  sur  la  divinite  de  Jesus-Christ,  avec  ime  7-eponse  a 
quelques  questions  de  M.Delloc,  etc.  (Paris,  1817, 8vo)  : — 
Precis  historique  du  Methodisme  (1818, 8vo)  : — Le  Chris- 
tianisme  de  Moritniyne  (1819,  8vo): — Vies  des  Saints 
(1820, 3  vols.  24mo) :— iff  ReW/ion  Chretienne  (1826, 8 vo) : 
— Notice  historique  sur  Ztchiyle  (1828,  8vo)  ;  etc.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Genercde,  xxviii,  395. 

Laboureur,  Le  Jean,  a  French  priest,  born  at 
Montmorency  in  1623,  became  one  of  the  almoners  of 
the  king,  and  died  in  1G75.  He  wrote  several  valuable 
works  on  the  history  of  France. 

Labrador,  a  ])eninsula  of  north-eastern  America,  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south 
by  the  LKiminion  of  Canada  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law- 
rence, on  the  west  by  the  Hudson  Bay  and  James  Bay, 
on  the  north  by  the  Hudson  Strait.  Area  about  500,000 
sq.  miles.  The  peninsula  formerly  was  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory belonging  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  and  with 
the  remainder  of  this  territory  was  in  1869  sold  to  the 
government  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The  interior 
of  the  country  is  almost  entirely  unknown.  The  popu- 
lation, comjirising  Indians,  Esquitnaux,  and  a  few  Euro- 
peans, amounts  to  about  4000.  It  is  believed  that  Lab- 
rador is  identical  with  the  IhUuland  (stone-land)  which 
about  the  year  1000  was  discovered  by  Leif,  the  son  of 
Eric  the  Bed.  On  June  24, 1497,  it  was  again  discov- 
ered by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot.  It  was  visited  in 
1500  bj'  the  Portuguese  G.Cortereal,  who  called  it  Tierra 
del  Labrador  (land  for  labor),  and  in  1576  by  the  Eng- 
lishman M.  Frobishcr.  In  1618  Hudson  explored  a  part 
of  the  coast.  The  countrj',  which  has  a  rugged  coast, 
and  is  surrounded  with  many  small  islands,  does  not  al- 
low an  extensive  cultivation  ;  for,  although  the  vegeta- 
tion is  only  in  the  northern  part  so  limited  as  it  is 
throughout"  Greenland,  the  winters  are  even  more  se- 
vere, and  during  the  short  summers  the  musquitdcs  are 
even  more  troublesome  than  in  Greenland.  Tlie  ]i(ipu- 
lation  of  the  interior,  which  consists  of  Bed  Indians,  is 
verj' small;  the  Esquimaux,  who  inhabit  the  north-east- 
ern' and  tiie  western  coast,  are  a  little  more  numerous, 
and  support  themselves  by  fishing  seals,  etc.  If  these 
animals  fail  them  a  famine  is  brought  on,  or  they  are 
forced  to  penetrate  farther  into  the  interior,  where  they 
are  apt  to  encounter  the  Bed  Indians,  their  irreconcila- 
ble enemies  for  centuries. 

The  first  attempt  to  establish  a  mission  on  the  coast 
of  Labrador  was  made  by  the  Moravians  in  1752,  when 


LABROUSSE 


179 


LA  CHAISE 


J,  C.  Erhardt  was  killed  by  the  Esquimaux.  In  1771 
the  Moravians  succeeded  in  establishing  the  station  of 
Nain,  to  which  in  the  course  of  the  following  ten  years 
the  stations  of  Okak  and  Iloffenthal  (Hopedale)  were 
added.  The  mission  met  here  with  the  same  difficulties 
as  in  Greenland.  Thirty-four  years  after  the  establish- 
ment of  the  first  mission  an  extensive  revival  took  place, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  Esciuimaiix  connected  with 
these  stations  were  gained  to  Christianity.  For  the 
Esquimaux  living  more  to  the  north,  Hebron  was  found- 
ed in  1830.  In  18G-1  tlie  station  of  Zoar  was  establish- 
ed for  the  tract  of  land  lying  between  Nain  and  Iloffen- 
thal. All  the  Esquimaux  in  this  part  of  Labrador  are 
ivnv  Christians.  Only  north  of  Hebron  a  few  pagans 
are  still  living,  for  the  conversion  of  whom  in  1871  the 
station  of  Kama,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Nullatorusek  (a 
little  north  of  lat.  59=  N.)  was  founded.  Famine  and 
epidemics  have  greatly  reduced  the  number  of  the  Es- 
quimaux in  Labrador.  In  1870  the  station  of  Nain 
numbered  239,  Okak  339.  Iloffenthal  250,  Hebron  219, 
and  Zoar  109  souls,  while  the  number  of  missionaries  and 
attendants  was  45.  The  acquaintance  of  the  natives  with 
European  necessities  forced  the  missionaries  to  charge 
themselves  with  the  importation  of  some  of  these  arti- 
cles. Subsequently  this  trade  was  transferred  to  special 
agents.  In  the  mean  while,  commercial  interests  have 
caused  a  number  of  Europeans  to  settle  on  the  coast  of 
Lalirador,  and  a  number  of  trading-posts  to  be  estab- 
lished. Besides  the  ^Moravians,  the  Society  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel  has  begun  missionary  efforts  on 
the  southern  coast,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  has 
endeavored  to  gain  an  influence  upon  the  Red  Indians 
of  the  interior.  See  'New'comh.Ci/ctopcedia  of  Missions  ; 
Grundeman,  Missionsittlas  ;  Roraer,  Gescliichte  der  Lab- 
rador-Mission  (Gnadau,  1871).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Labrousse,  Clotilde  Suzan  Courcelles  de,  a 
French  religious  enthusiast,  was  born  at  Vauxain,  Peri- 
gord.  May  8,  17-17.  While  quite  young  she  adopted 
exaggerated  mystical  notions,  thought  herself  called  to 
become  a  saint,  and  was  so  anxious  to  leave  this  world 
for  a  better  one  that  she  made  an  attempt  at  suicide 
when  but  nine  years  old.  Her  ascetic  practices  were 
very  severe,  and  became  still  more  so  as  she  grew  up, 
yet  did  not  seem  to  ha\'e  any  injurious  effect  on  her 
health.  At  the  age  of  nineteen  she  became  a  mm  of 
tlic  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  and  soon  after  declared 
that  she  had  received  a  mission  to  travel  through  the 
world  to  convert  sinners,  but  was  detained  in  the  con- 
vent by  her  superior.  Siie  then  wrote  a  history  of  lier 
life,  which  she  addressed  to  JI.  de  Flamarens,  bishop  of 
Perigueux,  without  effect.  The  MS.,  however,  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Dom  Gerle,  prior  of  the  Chartreuse 
of  Vauclaire,  who  entered  into  correspondence  with  the 
authoress  in  17G9,  and  she  afterwards  declared,  ^vhen  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  that 
she  had  predicted  it  to  him.  When  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  Isl.  Pontard,  constitutional  bishop  of  Dor- 
ilogne,  attracted  her  to  Paris,  where  she  prophesied 
against  the  court  of  Rome,  and  in  favor  of  the  civil  con- 
stitution of  the  clergy.  She  subsequently  returned  to 
Perigord,  and  left  tlicre  to  go  to  Rome,  thinking  to  con- 
vert the  pope,  cardinals,  etc.,  to  her  views,  and  to  induce 
them  to  renounce  temporal  power.  On  her  way  she  ad- 
dressed the  people  wherever  an  opportunity  offered.  In 
August,  1792,  she  arrived  at  Bologna,  whence  she  was 
driven  by  the  legate.  At  Yiterbo  she  was  arrested  and 
taken  to  the  castle  of  San  Angelo.  In  179t)  the  French 
Directory  interfered  to  obtain  lier  liberation,  but  she 
preferred  remaining,  as  she  had  been  very  kindly  treat- 
ed; but  when  the  French  took  Rome  in  1798  she  left  the 
prison  and  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  died  in  1821. 
She  persisted  to  the  last  in  believing  herself  inspired, 
and  actually  succeeded  in  gathering  a  small  circle  of  ad- 
licronts.  Labrousse  wrote  Propheties  concernant  la  Re- 
roliition  Fran^nise,  su.iries  dhuie  Prediction  qui  onnonce 
la  Jin  du  monde  (for  1899)  (Paris,  1790,  8vo)  -.—Lettre  de 
Mile,  de  Labrousse  (Paris,  1790,  8vo).     Pontard  pub- 


lished a  Pecueil  des  Ouvrages  de  la  celebre  Mlle.T^abroiis- 
se  (Bordeaux,  1797,  8vo).  See  IMahul,  Annuaire  necro- 
lo(j.  1822;  j\j-nault,  Jay,  Jouy  et  Norvins,  Biog.  noui: 
des  Contemp. ;  Querard,  La  France  Litteraire. — Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biocj.  Generale,  xxviii,  418. 

La  Brune,  Francois  de.    See  La  Bkune,  Jean 

DE. 

La  Brune,  Jean  de,  a  French  Protestant  minis- 
ter, flourished  in  the  second  hah'  of  the  17th  and  tlie 
earljr  part  of  the  18th  century.  After  the  revocation 
of  the  edict  of  Nantes  he  went  as  pastor  to  Basle ;  later 
he  became  minister  at  Schoonoven,  in  Holland.  He  is 
particularly  celebrated  as  a  writer,  but  many  of  the 
works  -(vhich  have  generally  been  attributed  to  him  are 
now  believed  to  be  the  production  of  Francois  de  la  Brune, 
also  a  Protestant  French  pastor,  who  flourished  about 
the  same  time ;  went  to  Amsterdam  in  1G85,  and,  on  ac- 
count of  heterodox  opinions,  was  suspended  from  the 
ministry  in  1G91.  We  have  under  the  name  of  La 
Brune,  among  other  works.  Morale  de  Confucius  (Amst. 
1688,  8vo): — Calvin's  Truite  de  la  Justification  (ibid, 
lG9o,  8vo;  1705, 12mo)  : — Hist,  du  Viiux  et  du  Nouveait 
Test,  en  vers  (173 1,  8vo). — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioej.  Generale, 
xxviii,  423. 

Lacarry,  Giles,  a  French  Jesuit,  who  was  born  at 
Castres  in  1G05,  and  died  in  1G84,  is  noted  as  the  author 
of  several  works  on  the  liistory  of  his  coimtrj'.  See 
General  Biographical  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Lace  (^"^r^B,  pathiV,  from  being  twisted),  the  blue 
cord  with  which  the  high-priest's  breastplate  was  at- 
tached to  the  ephod  (Exod.  xxviii,  28,  37;  xxxix,  21, 
31;  rendered  "riband"  Numb,  xv,  38);  spoken  of  gold 
"  w-iVe"  (Exod.  xxxix,  3),  the  chain  for  attaching  a  cover 
to  its  vessel  ("  bound,"  Numb,  xix,  15) ;  a  strong  "thread'' 
of  tow  (Judg.  xvi,  9),  or  measuring-"  line"  of  flax  (Ezek. 
xl,  3) ;  also  of  the  string  by  which  the  signet-ring  was 
suspended  in  the  bosom  (•'  bracelet,"  Gen.  xxxviii,  18, 
35) ;  finally  (K\w(7j.ia,  a  spun  thread,  like  pathil  above, 
for  which  it  stands  in  Nimib.  xv,  3G),  a  cord  (Ecclus.  vi, 
30). 

Lacedsemo'nian  (AaKioatpuvioc,  2  Jlacc.  v,  9; 
elsewhere  'SlTrapridrrjc),  an  inhabitant  of  Lacediemon  or 
Sparta,  in  Greece,  with  whom  the  Jews  at  one  time 
claimed  kindred  (1  Mace,  xii,  2,  5,  G,  20,  21 ;  xiv,  20,  23 ; 
XV,  23).     See  SpAiiXA. 

Lacey,  William  B.,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church,  was  born  about  1781.  He  en- 
tered the  ministry  in  1813  as  missionary  of  Chenango 
County,  N.  Y. ;  in  1818  he  became  rector  of  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Albany.  He  lab.orcd  there  upwards  of  twenty 
years,  his  ministration  being  crowned  with  great  suc- 
cess. Subsequently  he  became  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  I'ennsylvania,  and  president  of  a  college  at 
Laceyville,  Pa.  He  died  October  31, 186G.  Dr.  Lacey 
wrote  a  number  of  text-books  for  schools  and  coUeges 
which  were  deservedly  popular  in  their  day,  particularly 
his  Rhetoric  and  Morid  Philosophy.  During  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  life  he  employed  his  leisure  hours  in  re- 
vising a  History  of  the  Fnglish  Church  pi-ior  to  the  Time 
of  the  Monk  A  ugustin,  and  some  of  his  choicest  sermons 
and  other  MSS.     See  Am.  Ch.  Rev.  18G7,  p.  G47. 

La  Chaise  or  La  Chaize  d'Ais,  Francois  de, 
Pere,  a  celebrated  French  Jesuit  and  noted  confessor  of 
Louis  XIY,  was  born  of  a  noble  family  at  the  castle  of 
Aix  Aug.  25,  1624.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
Roanne,  became  a  Jesuit,  and  afterwards  went  to  com- 
plete his  studies  at  Lyons,  where  he  subsequently  taught 
philosophy  with  great  success.  Having  been  appointed 
professor  of  theologj',  he  was  soon  called  away  from  Ly- 
ons to  direct  the  establishment  of  his  order  at  Grenoble, 
but  almost  immediately  returned  with  the  office  of  pro- 
vincial. Finally,  on  tlie  death  of  father  Ferrier,  he  suc- 
ceeded him  as  confessor  of  the  king  in  1G75.  iMadame 
de  ]Montespan  was  then  at  the  height  of  her  favor,  and 
all  the  efforts  of  father  Ferrier,  Bourdaloue,  Bossuet,  and 


LA  CHAPELLE 


180 


LACHISH 


Mascaron  had  proved  ineffective  against  her.    La  Chaise 
proceeded  more  oautioii^ly  than  his  predecessors,  and 
])roved  more  successt'id.     Never  directly  contradicting 
his  royal  penitent,  he  knew  how  to  gain  him  to  his 
views  hv  slow  but  steady  advances.    Whenever  he  saw 
the  king  disposed  to  throw  oflF  his  easy  yoke,  he  would 
feign  sickness  and  send  some  priest  of  strict  and  uncom- 
jjromising  ijrinciples  to  the  king,  who,  being  positively 
refused  absolution  once  by  fatlier  Deschamps,  woidd, 
after  such  experiments,  submit  the  more  readily  to  the 
wilv  Jesuit.     The  latter,  moreover,  was  an  agreeable 
companion  as  well  as  an  easy  confessor.     Madame  de 
Jlontespan,  weary  of  the  contest  with  La  Chaise  and 
Madame  de  Maintenon,  retired  linallj^  into  a  convent. 
The  queen  dying  a  few  years  afterwards.  La  Chaise  is 
said  to  have  given  the  king  the  idea  of  a  morganatic 
marriage,  and  even  to  have  performed  the  ceremony. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  all  he  had  done  for  her,  INIadame  de  INIain- 
tenon  (q.  v.)  does  not  appear  to  have  ever  been  verj- 
friendly  towards  the  Jesuit;    perhaps  because  he  pre- 
vented a  public  recognition  of  her  marriage ;  perhaps 
also  because  she  knew  that  in  helping  her  he  had  work- 
ed onl}^  for  himself.     When  Madame  de  Maintenon 
founded  the  institution  of  St.  Cyr,  La  Chaise,  Eacine, 
end  Boileau  were  commissioned  to  revise  its  rules.    The 
former  opposed  the  rule  that  teachers  should  be  required 
to  take  anything  more  than  the  simple  vows,  and  car- 
ried his  point,  though  subsequently  this  was  changed, 
and  they  became  subject  to  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
After  the  death  of  the  (pieen  and  of  Colbert,  the  actions 
of  the  king  were  entirely  governed  by  La  Chaise  and 
]\L<idame  de  IMaintenon.     Both  agreed  against  the  Prot- 
estants, and  their  joint  efforts  brought  on  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.    The  Jesuit,  mdeed,  tried  to  con- 
ciliate the  king  and  the  pope  when  the  difficulties  arose 
about  the  declaration  of  the  clergy  in  1682,  and  the  fa- 
mous four  propositions,  and  CA'cn  appeared  more  inclined 
to  side  with  the  temporal  than  with  the  spiritual  mon- 
arch ;  but  he  again  balanced  the  account  by  advocating 
the  dragonnades  as  a  sure  means  of  reclaiming  erring 
consciences.     He  died  Jan.  20,  1709.     In  the  famous 
quarrel  between  Fenelon  and  Bossuet,  La  Chaise  sided 
with  the  former,  as  far,  at  least,  as  he  dared  without  of- 
fending the  king.     He  even  affected  great  regard  for 
Quesnel,  though,  when  it  is  remembered  that  he  caused 
the  works  of  that  writer  to  be  condemned,  the  sincerity 
of  his  regard  may  be  doubted ;  but  it  was  his  principle 
to  attack  individuals,  not  parties,  and  he  therefore  found 
it  convenient,  as  a  true  Jesuit,  to  praise  men  whom,  on 
account  of  their  very  principles,  he  secretly  sought  to 
destroy.    See  Jansenisji  ;  Jesuits.    He  was  a  shrewd, 
persevering  politician,  and  did  much  good  to  his  order, 
but  pere  La  Chaise  cannot  be  lauded  either  as  a  great 
man  or  as  a  good  priest.     Tlie  kindest  comment  ever 
made  on  his  character  is  that  by  "\"t)ltaire,  who  speaks 
of  liim  as  '•  a  mild  person,  with  whom  the  ways  of  con- 
ciliation were  always  open."     He  obtained  the  king's 
]irotection  for  the  College  of  Clermont,  since  called  Col- 
lege Louis-le-Grand,  and  received  for  his  order  a  fine 
estate  to  which  his  name  was  given,  and  which  is  now 
the  cemetery  of  "  Ph-e  la  Chdisb"  at  Paris.    He  wrote 
Perijmtctica;  qiutd ntplicis philosophia: Placita  raiionalis, 
etc.  (Lyons,  KiOl,  2  vols,  fol.)  : — Humanm  sapientim  Pro- 
positioiies  propufjncitce  Ijir/duni  in  colkf/io  Soc.  Jesu  (Ly- 
ons, 1662,  fol.)  : — Reponse  a  qiielqiies  difficultes  proposees 
a  un  Ihidlofjien,  etc.  (Lyons,  1666,  4to);  etc.     See  Saint- 
Simon,  MinKHn.t ;  ^ladame  de  JIaintenon,  Con-espond- 
(inrf ;  Voltaire,  jSV«cZe  de  Loiris  XFV;  Bcnoist,  IJisf.  de 
riCdit  de  Xinites;  Jurieu,  PoUtigite  du  Clei-ge  de  France  ; 
Sismondi,  Hist,  des  Fran^ah,  vol.  xxv,  xxvi,  and  xxvii ; 
Kegis  de  Chant elauze,  Le  Pere  de  la  Chaise  (Lyons,  1859, 
8vo);  Hoefcr,  Noui:  Bioffi:  Generale,  xxviii,  483.-    See 
Louis  XIV. 

La  Chapelle,  Armand  Boisbei.eau  he,  a  French 
Protestant  ■\vriter,  was  born  at  Ozillac  (Saintongc)  in 
1676.  He  was  a  student  at  the  college  of  Bordeaux 
when  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  obliged  him 


to  retire  to  England,  where  he  was  received  by  his 
grandfather,  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  at  London. 
In  169-1  he  was  ordained,  and  soon  afterwards  sent  to 
Ireland.  Subsequently  he  became  successivelj'  pastor  of 
Wandsworth,  in  the  neighborhood  of  London,  in  1696; 
of  the  chapel  of  the  French  artillery  in  that  town  in 
1711 ;  and  linally  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  of  the 
Hague  in  1725.  He  died  August  6. 1746.  La  Chapelle 
wrote  lie  flexions  an  siijet  d^un  sysi'eme  pretendu  nouveau 
sur  le  mijst'ere  de  la  Trinite  (Amst.  1729, 8vo)  : — Examen 
de  la  maniere  de  j^recher  des  Protestants  Franfuis,  etc. 
(Amsterd.  1730,  8vo)  : — Reponse  a  Mr.  Mainard,  ancien 
chanoine  de  St.  Sernin  de  Toulouse,  au  sujet  d'u7ie  con/h-- 
ence  sur  la  religion,  etc.  (La  Haye,  1730, 4to) : — Entretien 
au  sujet  de  la  Lettre  d'uji  Theologien  sur  le  mystere  de  la 
Trinite  (La  Haye,  1730,  8vo)  : — Lettre  d'un  thiologien 
Reforme  a  un  f/entilhomme  Lutherien  (Amst.  1736,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  it  is  also  known  under  the  title  Lettres  sur  I'on- 
vracje  de  corAroverse  du  P.  Schaffmacher : — Memoires  de 
Pologne,  etc.  (Lond.  1739, 12mo)  : — Bescription  des  cere- 
monies observees  a  Rome  depuis  la  mort  de  Clement  XII 
jusqii'au  couronnement  de  Benoit  XIV,  son  successeur, 
etc.  (Paris,  1741, 12mo): — De  la  Nicessite  du  adte  pub- 
lic parmi  les  Chretiens  (La  Haye,  1746,  8vo ;  Frankfort, 
1747,2  vols.  12mo;  transl.  into  Dutch,  Amst.  1748,  8vo; 
into  German,  Breslau,  1749, 8vo;  Lpz.  1769,  8vo).  It  is 
a  defence  of  the  course  of  the  French  Protestants  in 
holding  their  assemblies  du  desert  in  spite  of  the  edicts  of 
the  king: — Vie  de Beausobre  (in  Beausobre's  Remai-ques 
sur  le  N^ouveau  Testament,\o\. ii).  He  wrote  also  in  La 
Bibliotheque  Anglaise,  ou  liistoire  litteraire  de  la  Grande- 
Bretagne  (Amst.  1717-27, 15  vols.  12mo)  : — Bibliotheque 
raisonnee  des  Ouvrages  des  Savants  de  rEurope  (Amst. 
1728-53,  52  vols.  12mo)  : — N'ouvelle  Bibliotheque,  ou  his- 
toire  litteraire  des  jirincipaux  ecriis  qui  se  publient  (La 
Haye,  1738  sq.,  19  vols.  12mo).  He  also  translated  into 
French  some  works  of  Dition,  Steele,  Bentley,  and  Bur- 
net. See  Querard,  La  France  Litteraire ;  Haag,  La 
France  Protest  ante ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener.  xxviii, 
507.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'chisli  (Heb.  Lalish',  TIJ"^^?,  prob.  impregnable, 
otherwise  smitten ;  Sept.  in  Josh,  and  Kings  Aaxi  c ;  in 
Chron.,  Neh.,  and  Jer.  Xaxi'tQ  v.  r.  A«x(c ;  in  Isa.  Aaxi'iQ 
V.  r.  Aa^'C  or  Aaxi'lQ ;  in  Mic.  Aaxiig ;  Joscphus  AaxiQ, 
Ant.  viii,  10, 1 ;  also  A«xfiff«,  Ant.  ix,  9,  3),  a  Caanan- 
itish  royal  city  (Josh,  xii,  11)  in  the  southern  part  of 
Palestine,  whose  king  Japhia  joined  the  Amoritish  con- 
federacy against  Joshua  (Josh,  x,  3, 5) ;  but  he  was  taken 
(Josh.  XV,  25),  and  his  city  destroyed  by  the  victorious " 
Israelites,  in  spite  of  the  re-enforcement  of  the  king  of 
Gezer  (Josh,  xv,  31-35,  where  its  great  strength  is  de- 
noted by  the  two  days'  assault).  See  Joshua.  From 
these  last  passages  it  appears  to  have  been  situated  be- 
tween Libnah  and  ICglon ;  but  it  is  mentioned  between 
Joktheel  and  Bozkath,  among  the  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tine valley  or  plain  of  Judah  (^Josh.  xv,  39).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  Adoraim  and  Azekah  as  hav- 
ing been  rebuilt,  or  rather  fortified,  by  Kehoboam  against 
the  Philistines  (2  Chron.  xi,  9),  and  seems  after  that 
time  to  have  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  strongest  for- 
tresses of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (for  hither  Amaziah 
was  pursued  and  slain,  2  Kings  xiv,  19;  2  Chron.  xxv, 
27),  having  for  a  time  braved  the  assaults  of  the  Assyr- 
ian army  under  Sennacherib  on  his  way  to  Egypt  (2 
Kings  xviii,  14, 17;  xix,8;  2  Chron.xxxii,9;  Isa. xxxvi, 
2;  xxxvii,  8);  but  was  at  length  taken  b\'  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, at  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  (Jer. 
xxxiv,  7).  It  was  rcoccupied  after  the  exile  (Neh:  xi, 
30).  The  affright  occasioned  by  these  sudden  attacks 
was  predicted  by  the  prophet  Micah  (i,  13),  where  this 
city,  lying  not  very  far  from  the  frontiers  of  tlie  king- 
dom of  Israel,  apjjcars  to  have  been  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  idolatry  of  that  commonwealth  into  Judaism. 
A  detailed  representation  of  the  siege  of  some  large  Jew- 
ish city  by  Sennacherib  has  been  discovered  on  the  re- 
cently disinterred  monuments  of  Assyria,  which  is  there 
called  Lakhisha,  and  presumed  to  be  Lachish  (Layard's 


LACIilSII 


181 


LACHISH 


Nineveh  and  Bahjlon,  p.  152),  although  it  does  not.  ap- 
pear from  the  Biblical  account  that  this  city  yielded  to 
ills  arms;  indeed,  some  exjiressions  would  almost  seem 
to  imply  the  reverse  (see  "thought  to  win  them,"  2 
Chron.  xxxii,  1 ;  "  departed  from  Lachish,"  2  Kings  xix, 
8 ;  and  especially  Jer.  xxxiv,  7).  Col.  Kawlinson  even 
reads  the  name  of  the  city  in  question  on  the  monu- 
ments as  Luhaiia,  i.  e.  Libnah  (Layard,  nt  siiji.  p.  153, 
note).  Eawlinson  also  thinks  that  on  the  first  attack  at 
least  Sennacherib  did  not  sack  the  city  {Herodotus,  i, 
481,  note  Gj.  At  all  events,  it  woidd  seem  that,  after  the 
submission  of  Hezekiah,  Sennacherib  in  some  way  re- 
duced Lachish,  and  marched  in  force  against  the  Egyp- 
tians (Joseph.  Ant.  x,  1,1;  comp.  Isa.  xx,  1-4).  Ilaw- 
linson  maintains  (Herodotus,  i,477)  that  Sennacherib  at- 
tacked Lachish  a  second  time,  but  whether  on  his  re- 


turn from  his  Egyptian  campaign,  or  after  he  had  paid 
a  visit  to  Nineveh,  cannot  now  be  determined.  See 
Hezekiah.  It  is  specially  mentioned  that  he  laid  siege 
to  it  "with  all  his  power"  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  9),  and  here 
"the  great  king"  himself  remained,  while  his  officers 
only  were  dispatched  to  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xxxii,  9 ; 
2  Kings  xviii,  17).  See  Sennacherib.  This  siege  is 
considered  by  Layard  and  Hincks  to  be  depicted  on  the 
slabs  found  by  the  former  in  one  of  the  chambers  of  the 
palace  at  Kouyunjik, which  bear  the  inscription  "Sen- 
nacherib, the  mighty  king,  king  of  the  country  of  As- 
syria, sitting  on  the  throne  of  judgment  before  (or  at 
the  entrance  of)  the  city  of  Lachish  (Lakhisha).  I  give 
permission  for  its  slaughter"  (Layard,  Xin.  and  Bab.  p. 
149-52,  and  153,  note).  These  slabs  contain  a  view  of 
a  city  which,  if  the  inscription  is  correctly  interpreted, 


Attack  of  Lachish  by  the  Assyrians.    From  the  Monuments, 


must  be  Lachish  itself.  The  bas-reliefs  depict  the  cap- 
ture of  an  extensive  city  defended  bj'  double  walls, 
with  battlements  and  towers,  and  by  fortified  outworks. 


The  country  around  is  represented  as  hilly  and  wooded, 
producing  the  fig  and  the  vme.  Immense  preparations 
had  evidently  been  made  for  the  siege,  and  in  no  othei 


Ground-plan  of  Lachish  as  taken  by  the  Assyrians.    From  the  Monumeuts. 


sculptures  were  so  many  armed  warriors  drawn  up  in 
array  against  a  besieged  city,  which  Avas  defended  with 
ecjual  determination.  Tlie  process  of  the  assault  and 
sack  are  given  in  the  most  minute  and  lively  man- 
ner. The  spoil  and  captives  are  exhibited  in  fidl,  the 
latter  distinguished  by  their  Jewish  physiognomy,  ajid 
by  the  pillaged  condition  of  their  garments.  On  a 
throne  iir  front  of  the  -city  is  represented  the  Assyr- 


ian king  giving  orders  for  the  disposal  of  the  prison- 
ers, several  of  whom  are  depicted  as  already  in  the 
hands  of  the  executioners,  some  being  stretcJied  naked 
on  the  ground  in  order  to  be  flayed  alive,  while  others 
>vere  slain  by  the  sword.  (See  Layard's  Jfomnnents  of 
Nineveh,  2d  series,  plates  20-24.)      See  Captive. 

Eusebius  and  Jerome  {Onomnst.  s.  v.)  state  that  in 
their  time  Lachish  was  a  village  seven  miles  south 


LACHMANN 


182 


LACOMBE 


Jewisli  Captives  from  Lachish.    From  the  Assj-riau  Sculptures  at  Kouyuujik. 


(••  to-svards  Darom")  of  Eleutheropolis.  The  only  place 
that  has  been  found  by  travellers  at  all  answering  to 
the  scriptural  notices  is  Um-Lakis,  on  the  left  of  the 
road  between  Gaza  and  Hebron,  situated  "  upon  a  low 
round  knoU,  now  covered  confusedly  with  heaps  of  small 
round  stones,  with  intervals  between,  among  which  are 
seen  two  or  three  fragments  of  marble  columns,  wholly 
overgrown  with  thistles ;  a  well  to  the  south-east,  below 
the  hill,  now  almost  filled  up,  having  also  several  col- 
innns  around  it"  (Robinson,  JJibUcal  Researches,  ii,  388). 
This  locality,  notwithstanding  it  is  somewhat  more  dis- 
tant from  iieit-Jibrin  (Eleutheropolis)  than  the  Ono- 
masticon  calls  for,  and  likewise  to  the  south-?i-e.s/,  and 
notwithstanding  the  imperfect  agreement  in  name  (sev- 
eral of  the  letters  being  different  in  the  Hcb.  and  Ara- 
bic, in  addition  to  the  prefix  Um  [wliich,  however,  may 
only  denote  its  importance  as  a  ?«o?/;f;--city]),  Kaumer 
and 'Grosse  (in  the  Studien  n.Krit.  1845,1,243  sq.)  in- 
cline to  identify  with  that  of  Lachish,  on  the  ground  of 
its  proximity  (see  Josh,  x,  31-3G)  to  Eglon  (liaumer, 
Beitrar/e  zur  biblischen  Geor/raphie,  1843,  p.  "23).  With 
this  conclusion  Schwarz  concurs  {Palestine,  p. 85),  as  also 
Van  de  Velde  {Memoir,  p.  329),  and  Thomson  {Land  and 
Book,  ii,  35G) ;  but  Ritter  is  imdecided  {Erdkumle,  xvi, 
131);  By  "  Daroma,"  also,  Eusebius  may  have  intend- 
ed, not  the  southern  district,  but  a  place  of  that  name, 
which  is  mentioned  in  the  Talmud,  and  is  placed  by  the 
accurate  old  traveller  hap-Parchi  as  two  hours  south  of 
Gaza  (Zmiz  in  Benj.  ofTudela,  by  Asher,  ii,  442).  With 
regard  to  the  weakness  of  Um-Lakis,  Mr.  Porter  has  a 
good  comparison  between  it  and  Ashdod  {Handbook,  p. 
261). 

Lachniann,  Karl,  a  distinguished  German  philol- 
ogist, was  born  at  Brunswick  March  4,  1793.  lie  stud- 
ied at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  aud  Giittingen,  and  in 
1811  founded,  together  with  Biuisen,  Dissen,  and  Em. 
8chulze,  the  IPhilological  Society.  In  1813  he  entered 
the  army  as  a  volunteer,  but,  having  left  it  at  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  war,  he  became  professor  at  the  University  of 
Eerhn  in  1827,  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  that  city 
in  1830.  He  died  at  Berlin  ]March  i;!,  1851.  His  phil- 
ological works  are  distinguished  for  profound  learning 
and  able  criticism.  He  confined  himself  mainly  to  edi- 
tions of  classical  authors,  but  he  also  jniblished  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (Berlin,  1831 ;  3d  ed. 
184G;  in  a  larger  form,  184G-50).  In  this  edition  of  the 
New-Testament  Scriptures  in  the  original,  "he  aimed," 
.says  Dr.W.  L.  Alexander  (Kitto,  Bibl.  Ci/clop.  ii,  7G9), 
'•  at  presenting,  as  far  as  possible,  the  text  as  it  was  in 
the  authorized  copies  of  the  4th  century,  liis  design  be- 
ing, not  to  compare  various  readings  witli  the  received 
text,  but  to  supply  a  text  derived  from  ancient  authori- 
ties tlirectly  and  exclusively.  Relin(iuishing  the  possi- 
bility of  ascertaining  what  was  the  exact  text  of  the 
original  as  it  appeared  in  the  aiitographs  of  the  authors, 
he  set  himself  to  determine  the  oldest  attainable  text 
by  means  of  extant  codices.  For  this  purjiose  he  made 
use  of  only  a  very  fe\v  ]MSS.,  viz.  A,  I>,  C,  P,  Q,  T, 
Z,  for  the  Gospels;  D,  G,  II,  for  the  Epistles;  the  ante- 


Hieronymian  Latin  versions,  and  the  readings  of  Ori- 
gen,  Irenreus,  Cyprian,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Lucifer ;  and 
for  the  Apocalypse,  Primarius.  Under  the  Greek  text 
the  editor  cites  his  authorities,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the 
page  he  gives  the  Yidgate  version  edited  from  two  cod- 
ices of  the  Gth  century,  the  Fuldensis  and  the  Amian- 
tiuus,  preserved  in  tlie  Laurentian  Librarj'  at  Florence. 
.  .  .  On  its  first  appearance,  his  work  and  the  principles 
on  which  it  was  based  were  subjected  to  much  hostility, 
but  his  great  services  to  the  cause  of  N.-T.  criticism  are 
now  universally  admitted.  That  he  narrowed  tuirea- 
sonably  the  sphere  of  legitimate  authority  for  the  sacred 
text,  that  he  was  sometimes  capricious  in  his  selection 
of  authorities,  and  that,  while  he  did  not  always  follow 
his  authorities,  he  at  other  times  followed  them  even  in 
their  manifest  errors  and  blunders,  may  be  admitted. 
But,  after  every  deduction  from  the  merits  of  his  work 
is  made  which  justice  demands,  there  wiU  still  remain 
to  Lachmann  the  high  praise  of  having  been  the  first  to 
apply  to  the  editing  of  the  Greek  N.  T.  those  sound  prin- 
ciples of  textual  criticism  which  can  alone  secure  a  cor- 
rect and  trust^^•orthy  text.  In  this  he  followed,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  the  counsel  of  the  illustrious  Bent- 
ley,  uttered  more  than  a  century  before  (whence  some, 
who  sought  to  discredit  his  efforts,  unworthily  mocked 
him  as  '  Simla  Bentleii') ;  but  he  owed  nothing  to  Bent- 
ley  beyond  the  suggestion  of  the  principles  he  has  fol- 
lowed ;  and  he  possessed  and  has  ably  used  materials 
•which  in  Bentley's  time  were  not  to  be  had."  (Comp. 
Lachmann's  exposition  of  his  principles  in  Studien  iind 
Kritiken,  1830,  p.  817-845;  also  a  revie-\v  of  Scrivener's 
{^Collation  of  the  Gospels,  Cambr.  1853,  8vo]  strictures 
on  Lachmann's  edition  of  the  N.-T.  writings  in  Kitto, 
Joitrn.  /Sac.  Lit.  1853,  July,  \).  3G5  sq.)  See  Hertz,  Lach- 
mann; eine  Bio(/raphie  (Berlin,  1851,  8vo);  Tregelles, 
Printed  Text  of  the  Greek  N.  T.  p.  97  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Notiv, 
Biofj.  Generale,  xxviii,  532;  Pierer,  Univei'sal  Lexikon, 
ix,  954.     See  Criticism,  Biblical. 

Laconibe,  Pkri:,  a  celeljrated  Roman  Catholic  mo- 
nastic, a  native  of  Savoy,  floimshed  in  the  second  half 
of  the  17th  century,  first  as  the  spiritual  adviser  and 
confessor  of  jNIadame  (iuyon.  and  afterwards  as  a  zeal- 
ous follower  of  the  eminent  French  female  Jlystic.  In 
1G87,  when  the  Quietism  of  IMolinos,  which  Lacombe 
ardently  espoused,  was  condemned,  pere  Lacombe  was 
imprisoned,  and  he  died  in  prison  in  1G99.  During  liis 
imprisonment  he  became  very  much  depressed  in  mind, 
and  finally  lost  liis  reason.  This  gave  rise  to  the  state- 
ment made  in  our  vol.  iii,  p.  1(»39,  that  •'  he  died  in  a  mad- 
house." His  relation  with  JNIadame  Guyon  had  been 
very  intimate,  and  this  was  quite  natural  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  former  confessor  became  an  ardent  follow- 
er of  JIadame,  and  no  doubt  the  scandal  to  which  their 
associations  had  given  rise,  as  well  as  the  imprisonment, 
made  Lacombe  a  great  sufferer  in  his  last  days.  He 
wrote  .1  nali/se  de  I'oraison  mentale,  which  in  1688  was 
forbidden.     See  (h-vox.      (J.H.W.) 

Lacombe,  Dominique,  a  French  prelate  of  note, 
was  born  at  Montrejean  (Haute  Garomie)  July  25, 1749, 


LACORDAIRE 


183 


LACORDAIRE 


and  v:m  educated  in  the  college  at  Tarbes,  ■which  he  en- 
tered iu  1766.  In  1788  he  became  rector  of  a  college  at 
Bordeaux,  but  energetically  embracing  the  principles  of 
the  Kevolution  in  1789,  he  solemnly  declared  in  favor  of 
separation  of  Cluircli  and  State,  and  was  elected  in  con- 
sequence curate  of  St.  I'aul  at  Bordeaux,  Sent  to  the 
Assembly,  he  took  quite  a  prominent  part  in  politics 
until  the  decretal  proliibiting  all  ecclesiastical  ckess  was 
published  (April  7, 1792),  when  he  forthwitli  ceased  his 
service  to  the  state,  and  returned  to  Bordeaux  to  assume 
tlie  duties  of  Ids  ecclesiastical  functions.  In  1797  he 
was  elected  metropolitan  of  Bordeaux,  and  in  1802  was 
one  of  the  twelve  bishops  nominated  by  the  emperor 
Napoleon,  as  whose  zealous  partisan  Lacombe  is  known 
after  his  deviation  to  the  episcopacy  of  Angoideme.  He 
died  April  7, 1823.  See  Annales  de  la  Reli(jion,  xv,  134 ; 
Iloefer,  Nour.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxviii,  541. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Hexki,  a  noted  Ro- 
man ( 'atholic  theologian  of  this  century,  the  reviver  of 
the  Dominican  order,  and  a  most  distinguished  pidpit 
orator  of  modern  France,  was  born  at  Itecey-sur-Ource, 
in  the  department  Cote-d'Or,  March  12,  1802.  He  Avas 
educated  for  the  legal  profession,  first  at  Dijon,  where 
he  obtained  the  highest  honors,  and  afterwards  (1822) 
at  Paris,  and  in  1824  he  began  practice  as  an  advocate, 
and  rose  rapidly  to  distinction.  Lacordaire  was  at  this 
time,  like  most  of  the  youth  of  France,  a  Deist  of  the 
Voltaire  school,  but  Lamennais'  Essai  sur  V indifference, 
which  fell  into  his  liands,  decided  the  youthful  lawyer  to 
devote  himself  thereafter  to  the  cause  of  the  Christian 
religion,  which  he  felt  satisfied  must  form  the  basis  of 
all  social  life.  He  immediately  abandoned  his  profes- 
sion, and  entered  tlie  College  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  in  1827 
received  holy  orders.  IMontalembert,  Lacordaire's  bi- 
ograjiher,  however,  would  have  us  believe  tliat  this  sud- 
den change  from  atheism  to  orthodox  Christianity  "was 
due  to  no  man  and  to  no  book,  but  solely  to  a  sudden 
impulse  of  grace,  which  opened  his  eyes  to  the  sin  and 
folly  of  irreligion."  Shortly  after  his  ordination  he  was 
offered  the  position  of  auditor  of  the  rota  at  the  court 
of  Home,  an  office  which  at  once  confers  the  title  of 
monsignore,  and  is  always  a  step  to  the  episcopate,  and 
often  to  a  cardinal's  hat ;  but  he  declined  it  peremptorily. 
His  first  appointment  was  that  of  almoner  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Juilly,  also  known  as  the  College  of  Henry  IV. 
Here  he  became  personally  acquainted  with  the  abbe 
Lamennais,  and  speedily  the  youthful  priest  and  the 
learned  theologian  formed  a  close  and  intimate  alliance, 
which  was  interrupted  only  by  the  departure  of  Lamen- 
nais from  the  Cliurch  in  1833.  One  of  the  first,  and 
perhaps  most  important,  results  of  the  friendly  alliance 
of  these  three  men  was  the  establishment,  after  the  July 
revolution  of  1830,  of  the  Journal  L'A  venir,  "  an  organ 
at  once  of  the  highest  Church  principles  and  of  the 
most  extreme  radicalism."  See  Lamennais.  Count 
IMontalembert  has  furnished  us  a  life-like  portrait  of 
Lacordaire  at  this  time;  and,  although  much  allowance 
must  be  made  for  the  passionate  exclamations  of  a 
friend,  it  deserves  at  least  our  notice.  "  It  was  in  No- 
vember, 1830,  that  I  saw  him  for  the  first  time  in  the 
cabinet  of  the  abbii  Lamennais,  four  months  after  a  rev- 
olution wliich  had  appeared  for  a  moment  to  confound 
in  a  common  ruin  the  throne  and  the  altar,  and  one 
month  after  the  establishment  of  the  Journal  L' A  renir. 
That  journal  liad  for  its  motto  '  God  and  Liberty  P  It 
was  tlie  intention  of  the  founders  that  it  shoidd  regen- 
erate Catholic  opinion  in  France,  and  seal  its  union  with 

liberal  progress He  was  twenty-eight  years  of 

age;  he  was  dressed  as  a  layman,  the  slate  of  Paris  not 
then  permitting  priests  to  wear  tlieir  clerical  costume. 
His  slender  figure,  his  delicate  and  regular  features,  his 
chiselled  forehead,  the  sovereign  carriage  of  his  head, 
his  black  and  sparkling  eye,  an  indescribable  union  of 
high  spirit,  elegance,  and  modesty  in  his  whole  appear- 
ance, were  only  the  outward  tokens  of  a  soid  which 
seemed  reaily  to  overflow,  not  merely  in  the  free  con- 
flicts of  public  speaking,  but  in  the  effusions  of  intimate 


friendship.  The  brightness  of  his  glance  revealed  at 
once  treasures  of  indignation  and  of  tenderness  ;  it 
sought  not  merely  enemies  to  combat  and  overthrow, 
but  also  hearts  to  win  over  and  subdue.  His  voice,  so 
vigorous  and  vibrating,  took  oi'ton  accents  of  infinite 
sweetness.  Born  to  combat  and  to  love,  he  already 
bore  the  stamp  of  the  double  royalty  of  soul  and  of  tal- 
ent. He  appeared  to  me  charming  and  terrible,  as  the 
tj^pe  of  enthusiasm  for  good,  of  virtue  armed  in  defence 
of  the  truth.  I  saw  in  him  one  of  the  elect,  predesti- 
nated to  all  that  youth  most  desires  and  adores  —  ge- 
nius and  glory."  The  articles  published  in  the  .1  venir 
speedily  provoked  the  displeasure  of  the  episcopate,  and 
an  early  opportunity  was  sought  to  bring  the 'trans- 
gressors to  grief.  This  was  found  in  an  intemperate 
attack  written  by  Lacordaire  against  Louis  Philippe. 
Both  Lacordaire  and  Lamennais  ^vere  cited  before  a  jury 
for  trial  in  January-,  1831 ;  the  former,  however,  pleaded 
the  cause  of  the  journal  witli  so  much  eloquence  and 
abilitj'  that  both  the  accused  were  acquitted.  Thus 
encouraged,  they  adopted  more  vigorous  measures  to  se- 
cure liberty  of  education,  in  the  face  of  an  energetic 
opposition  from  the  university.  They  announced  that 
they  would  open  a  free  school  in  the  Frencli  capital, 
and  actually  began  teaching  in  Jlay,  1831.  Tlie  ])olice, 
however,  soon  put  an  end  to  this  bold  movement,  and, 
as  one  of  their  number  was  a  count  (Montalcmbert), 
they  were  accused  before  a  court  of  peers,  and  fined  100 
francs.  A  short  time  after  the  papal  see  openly  de- 
clared its  opposition  to  them  by  an  encyclical  censure 
which  Gregory  XYI  issued  Sept.  18,  1832.  Eejecting 
all  their  dogmas,  it  declared  "  the  whole  idea  of  the  re- 
generation of  the  Church  absurd,  liberty  of  conscience  a 
delirium,  freedom  of  the  press  fatal,  and  invit)lable  sub- 
mission to  the  prince  a  maxim  of  faith."  Even  before 
this  papal  censure  had  been  publicly  proclaimed  the 
three  chief  editors  oi  UAvenir  had  gone  to  Rome,  to 
prevent,  if  possible,  any  severe  measures  on  the  )iart  of 
the  pope.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Lamennais  i,.st  de- 
cided to  turn  from  the  corruptions  of  Rome — from  the 
corpse  which  he  saw  clearly  it  was  in  vain  to  attempt 
to  resuscitate.  Not  so,  however,  was  Lacordaire  affect- 
ed. His  imagination  had  been  vividly  impressed  by 
the  imposing  ceremonies  and  glorious  traditions  of  the 
Romish  Church,  and  he  was  prepared  at  once  to  sub- 
mit to  it  "  sicut  cadaver."  "  The  miseries,  the  infirmi- 
ties," says  Montalcmbert,  in  his  biography  of  Lacordaire, 
"  inseparable  from  the  mingling  of  evcrvtliing  human 
with  that  which  is  divine,  did  not  escape  his  notice,  but 
they  seemed  to  him  as  if  lost  in  the  mysterious  splen- 
dor of  tradition  and  authority.  He  the  journalist,  the 
citizen  of  1830,  he  the  democratic  liberal,  had  wmpre- 
hended  at  the  first  glance  not  only  the  inviolable  maj- 
esty of  the  supreme  pontificate,  but  its  difficidties,  its 
long  and  patient  designs,  its  indispensable  regard  for 
men  and  things  here  below.  The  faith  and  the  duty 
of  the  Catholic  priest  had  at  once  elevated  that  noble 
heart  above  all  the  mists  of  pride,  above  all  the  seduc- 
tions, all  the  temptations  of  talent,  above  all  the  intoxi- 
cation of  strife.  With  the  penetration  which  faith  and 
humility  confer,  he  passed  beforehand  upon  our  jireten- 
sions  the  judgment  which  has  been  ratified  by  time, 
that  great  auxiliary  of  the  Church  and  of  truth.  It 
was  then,  I  venture  to  believe,  that  (iod  marked  him 
forever  with  tlie  seal  of  his  grace,  and  that  he  gave  him 
the  assurance  of  the  reward  due  to  the  invincilile  fidel- 
ity of  a  truly  priestly  soul."  Hereafter  the  man  Lacor- 
daire is  lost  in  the  churchman,  the  active  and  iiKpiiring 
intellect  confined,  if  not  extinguished,  liy  the  official  re- 
ligion. His  bond  fde  retractation  of  course  drew  upon 
him  not  only  estrangement  from  his  master,  whose  in- 
tellectual philosophy  he  ha<l  never  really  adopted,  and 
wliose  retractation  was  never  more  than  fiirmal,  but  the 
rejiroach  of  \\orldliness.  It  was  due  in  realit}',  how- 
ever, to  a  precisely  opposite  cause.  His  heart  was  iden- 
tified with  the  cause  of  the  Church,  and  only  his  intel- 
lect with  the  Free-Church  theorv.     "Do  not  let  ue 


LACORDAIRE 


184 


LACORDAIRE 


chain  our  hearts  to  our  ideas,"  he  said  quite  eariiestlj':  ] 
and  he  evidently  felt  the  delight  in  submission  which 
always  accompanies  a  sacritice  of  self  for  something  one 
thinks  higher  and  better  than  self.  He  thought  he  had 
detected  a  pride  of  systematic  jihilosophy  in  the  views 
of  his  master,  Lamennais,  and  this  had,  he  said,  often 
galled  and  fretted  him.  lie  believed  that  the  Church, 
in  condemning  Lamennais  and  his  school,  had  delivered 
him  (Lacorilaire)  '•  from  the  most  terrible  of  all  oppres- 
sions, that  of  the  human  intellect;"  and  henceforth, 
though  tender  and  respectful  to  his  master  in  the  ad- 
versity of  papal  disfavor,  he  really  loved  the  Church 
the  better  for  having  humbled  himself  before  her  deci- 
sion, just  as  he  woukl  have  loved  God  better  fur  having 
boweil  his  own  self-will  to  the  divine  volition.  The 
Church,  he  held,  was  higher  than  his  intellect.  His 
spirit,  he  fancied,  had  gained  in  vital  power  by  humbling 
his  own  intellect  before  the  mind  of  the  Church.  And 
so  he  embraced  the  first  opportunity  that  presented  it- 
self to  convince  the  papal  see  of  his  sincerity.  Lamen- 
nais had  just  appeared  before  the  public  in  his  Paroles 
dun  croi/ant,  and  the  book  was  selling  extensively,  and 
finding  a  very  large  circle  of  readers.  Here  was  an  op- 
portunity to  break  a  lance  in  defence  of  Eome ;  and, 
though  the  attack  in  this  instance  had  to  be  directed 
even  against  his  own  former  master,  he  hesitated  not  to 
enter  the  lists.  He  replied  to  Lamennais'  book  by  his 
Considerations  sur  le  syst'eme  jjhilosophiqtie  de  M.  La- 
mennais, a  work  which  proved  a  total  failure,  and  which 
Montalembert,  the  associate  of  Lacordaire — his  bosom 
apostate  from  Lamennais — is  obliged  to  admit  as  hav- 
ing been  anything  but  successful.  New  honors,  notwith- 
standing, soon  sought  out  the  devoted  adherent  to  the 
cause  of  the  Ultramontanes,  first  (in  1833  and  1835)  in 
the  offer  of  the  editorship  of  the  journal  UUnivers,  then 
lately  established  to  further  the  LTltramontane  princi- 
ples, and  later  in  the  proffer  of  a  professor's  chair  at  the 
University  of  Louvain.  He  desired  none  of  these — the 
pulpit  and  the  convent  cell  he  had  decided  should  be 
his  future  place  of  resort,  "  to  speak  and  to  write,  to  live 
a  solitary  and  studious  life;"  he  says  in  a  letter  of  1833, 
"  such  is  the  wish  of  my  whole  soul." 

In  the  spring  of  1833  he  preached  for  the  first  time 
in  public.  It  was  in  the  great  church  of  St.  Koch,  in 
Paris.  "  I  was  there,"  says  SI.  IVIontalembert,  "  with 
MM.  dc  Courcelles,  Ampere,  and  some  others,  who  must 
remember  it  as  I  do.  He  failed  completely,  and,  com- 
ing out,  every  one  said,  'This  is  a  man  of  talent,  but  he 
never  will  be  a  preacher.'  Lacordaire  himself  thought 
the  same."  His  failure  was  very  much  like  that  of 
Sheridan,  D'Israeli,  Kobert  Hall,  and  many  other  ora- 
tors— an  incentive  to  become  great.  In  the  beginning 
of  1834  he  delivered  his  famous  Conferences  in  the  Col- 
lege Stanislas,  the  humblest  of  the  colleges  of  Paris, 
where  he  had  been  appointed  as  lecturer  to  the  students, 
and  where  his  failure  at  St.  Roch  was  now  recompensed 
by  a  great  success,  his  audience  oftentimes  amounting  to 
from  .500  to  600  persons.  In  the  year  following  (1835) 
we  find  him  installed  preacher  at  Notre  Dame,  and  for 
once  it  was  acknowledged  that  "  France  had  a  living 
preacher  who  knew  how  to  fascinate  the  intellect,  kin- 
dle tlie  imagination,  and  touch  tlie  heart  of  the  most 
cultivated  and  of  the  most  illiterate.  Whenever  La- 
cordaire was  announced  to  preach  in  Notre  Dame  the 
cathedral  was  surrounded,  long  before  the  doors  were 
open,  by  an  immense  and  heterogeneous  crowd.  Before 
he  appeared  in  the  pulpit,  the  vast  nave,  the  aisles,  and 
the  side  chapels  were  thronged  with  statesmen  and 
journalists,  members  of  the  Academy  and  tradesmen, 
workhig-men  and  high-born  women,  scejitics,  socialists, 
devout  (,'atholics,  and  resolute  Protestants,  who  were  all 
compelled  to  surrender  themselves  for  tlie  time- to  the 
irresistible  torrent  of  his  elofiuenj^n;"  (I\.  A\'.  Dale,  in  Con- 
(em/virari/  Rei-iew,  May,  180^,  p.  2). 

Onlv  two  years  after  his  appointment  to  Notre  Dame, 
Lacordaire  suddenly  fixed  llie  woiidiT  of  the  multitude 
again  upon  him  by  relintiuishing  the  career  of  distinc- 


tion which  had  so  lately  opened  to  him,  and  by  jour- 
neying to  Rome,  "with  the  principal  design,"  as  he 
himself  teUs  us  in  one  of  his  letters,  "  of  entering  the 
Dominican  order,  with  the  accessory  design  of  re-estab- 
lishing it  in  France."  This  opens  a  new  phase  in  the 
life  of  Lacoriiaire.  "  It  was  always  the  mark  of  Lacor- 
daire's  character,"  says  a  writer  in  the  SjKctator  (Lond, 
Dec.  7,  18(57),  ''that  all  his  deepest  feelings,  like  moral 
caustic,  burnt  inward,  so  that  he  complained  from  the 
beginning  of  life  to  the  end  that  even  the  deepest  friend- 
ship he  knew  led  him  not  into  society,  but  into  solitude," 
and  it  is  in  solitude  that  his  days  are  mainly  spent  after 
his  sudden  retreat  from  Notre  Dame  in  1837.  Hence- 
forth his  "  inner  life"  is  a  story  of  the  inward  progress 
of  self-humiliations — self-crucifixions,  as  he  called  them, 
measuring  them  by  the  standard  of  Christ's  sufferings. 
In  the  complete  self-sacrifice  of  the  monk,  in  the  abso- 
lute life  in  God  to  which  he  now  resigned  himself,  he  be- 
lieved he  coidd  alone  find  the  true  source  of  a  new  life  for 
human  society.  If  Christ's  self-sacrifice  was  the  soiurce 
of  human  redemption,  the  orders  which  set  forth  that 
self-sacrifice  most  perfectly  to  the  world  contained  the 
true  life-l)lood  of  the  world ;  and  henceforth  his  life  and 
that  of  his  followers  became  one  long  passion  of  self-im- 
molation, in  which  the  spirit  was  trained  by  the  sharp- 
est voluntary  penances  to  regulate  every  inward  move- 
ment by  the  ideal  of  Christian  humiUty  or  humiliation.- 
What  Lacordaire's  biographer  reverently  calls  '"holy 
follies"  were  of  daily  occurrence.  "  "Will  you,"  he  said 
one  day  on  the  Campagna  to  his  disciple,  pere  Lesson, 
'•  suffer  something  for  the  sake  of  him  who  has  suffered 
so  much  for  us?"  and,  showing  him  a  thorn-bush,  they 
both  at  once  precipitated  themselves  into  it,  and  came 
out  covered  with  blood.  How  this  was  "suffering  for 
Christ's  sake"  Lacordaire  does  not  explain  ;  but  he  seems 
to  have  thought  that  all  suffering,  needless  or  needful, 
voluntary  or  involuntary,  was  a  lesson  in  love  for  Christ. 
"All  his  mysticism,"  says  his  biographer,  "reduced  it- 
self to  this  one  principle,  to  suffer ;  to  suffer  in  order  to 
expiate  justice,  and  in  order  to  prove  love."  And 
henceforth  his  life  as  a  monk  was  a  burning  fire  cf  re- 
ligious passion  and  penance,  all  intended  to  teach  him, 
as  he  thought,  to  enter  more  deeply  into  crucified  love : 
"  His  thanksgiving  after  mass  was  generally  short ;  in 
making  it  lie  most  often  experienced  veni"  ardent  emo- 
tions of  love  to  God,  which  lie  went  to  appease  in  the 
cell  of  one  of  his  religious.  He  would  enter  with  his 
countenance  still  radiant  with  the  holy  joy  kmdled  at 
the  altar;  then,  humbly  kneeling  before  the  religious, 
and  kissing  his  feet,  he  would  beg  him  to  do  him  the 
charity  of  chastising  him  for  the  love  of  God.  Then  he 
would  uncover  his  shoulders,  and,  whether  willing  or 
unwilling,  the  brother  was  obliged  to  give  him  a  severe 
discipline.  He  would  rise  all  bruised  from  his  knees, 
and,  remaining  for  a  long  time  with  his  lips  pressed  to 
the  feet  of  him  who  had  scourged  him,  would  give  utter- 
ance to  his  gratitude  in  the  most  lively  terms,  and  then 
withdraw  with  joy  on  his  brow  and  in  his  heart.  At  oth- 
er times,  after  receiving  the  discipline,  he  would  beg  the 
religious  to  sit  do\ra  again  at  his  table,  and  prostra- 
ting himself  on  the  ground  under  his  feet,  he  would  re- 
main there  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  finishing  his  ]irayer 
in  silence,  and  delighting  himself  in  God,  as  he  felt  his 
head  under  the  foot  that  humbled  him.  These  penances 
were  very  often  renewed,  and  those  who  were  chosen  to 
execute  them  did  not  resign  themselves  to  the  oflice 
without  dilHculty.  It  was  a  real  penance  to  them,  es- 
pecially at  first;  they  would  willingly  have  changed 
places  with  him.  Hut  gradually  they  became  used  to 
it,  and  the  father  took  occasion  of  this  to  require  more, 
and  to  make  them  treat  him  according  to  his  wishes. 
Then  they  were  obliged  to  strike  him,  to  s]iit  in  his 
face,  to  speak  to  him  as  a  slave,  '(io  and  dean  my 
shoes;  bring  me  such  a  thing;  away  with  you,  wretch!' 
and  they  had  to  drive  him  from  them  like  a  dog.  The 
religious  whom  he  selected  to  render  him  these  services 
were  those  who  were  most  at  their  ease  with  him ;  and 


LACORDAIRE 


185 


LACTAKTIUS 


he  retiinied  by  preference  to  such  as  spared  him  least. 
His  thirst  for  penances  of  this  description  appears  the 
more  extraortlinary  from  the  fact  that  his  exceedingly 
delicate  and  sensitive  temperament  rendered  them  in- 
supportably  painful  to  him."  To  Protestants  this  sounds 
like  the  rehearsal  of  an  unreal  moral  tragedy,  a  rehearsal 
which  must  have  done  far  more  to  bewilder  the  minds 
of  those  who  were  guilty  of  these  artificial,  cruel,  and 
unmeaning  insults  to  one  they  loved  and  revered  than 
to  deepen  his  own  love  for  his  Lord.  Yet  in  scenes  like 
these  were  fostered  the  roots  of  his  life  as  a  Dominican 
friar— the  spirit  less  of  a  modern  Catholic  thinker  than 
of  a  mediajval  monk.  But  if  his  change  to  a  monastic 
seclusion  from  the  turmoils  of  Paris  life  must  appear 
strange  to  a  Protestant  reader,  greater  still  will  ever  be 
the  task  to  explain  how  this  advocate  of  liberty  of  con- 
science and  the  impropriety  of  the  interference  of  the 
civil  power  for  the  punishment  of  heretics  could  find  it 
iu  his  heart  to  resuscitate  an  order  which  has  more 
crimes  and  cruelties  to  answer  for  than  even  the  infa- 
mous sect  of  the  Assassins — an  order  whose  founder  was 
the  very  incarnation  of  persecution.  Just  here  also  it 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  alhule  to  the  uncritical  man- 
ner in  which  Lacordaire  composed  a  life  of  St.  Dominic 
— the  founder  of  the  Inquisition — entirely  ignoring  all 
those  historians  who  have  detailed  and  proved  the  atro- 
cious cruelties  perpetrated  by  that  saint  and  his  follow- 
ers (r/fl  de  Saint  hominiqne,  Paris,  1840^,  8vo). 

In  1840,  after  a  three-years'  novitiate  in  the  convent 
of  Querela,  Lacordaire  took  the  vo\vs  of  the  order  of  St. 
Dominic,  and  in  1841,  with  shaved  head  and  clad  in  the 
white  robe  of  his  order,  which  had  not  been  seen  in 
France  for  half  a  century,  he  once  more  ascended  the 
pidpit  of  Xotre  Dame.     From  this  time  his  voice  was 
frequently  heard  within  the  walls  of  that  great  cathe- 
dral of  the  capital  of  the  French,  as  well  as  in  many 
other  parts  of  France.     Thus,  in  1847,  he  preached  in 
the  cathedral  church  of  Nancy   the  funeral  sermon  of 
general  Drouot,  by  many  (e.  g.  Ste.-Beuve)  pronounced 
a  masterpiece  of  pulpit  oratory.      In  the  first  election 
which  succeeded  the  Revolution  of  1848  he  was  chosen 
one  of  the  representatives  of  Marseilles,  and  took  part  in 
some  of  the  debates  in  the  Assembly ;  but  he  resigned 
in  the  following  !May,  and  withdrew  entirely  from  polit- 
ical life.     In  1849,  and  again  in  1850  and  1851,  he  re- 
sumed his  courses  at  Notre  Dame.     To  immense  au- 
diences, such  as  no  orator  in  France  had  ever  been  able 
to  call  together  before,  he  delivered  in  these  eventfid 
years  a  series  of  discourses  on  the  communion  of  man 
with  God,  on  the  fall  and  the  restoration  of  man,  and  on 
the  providential  economy  of  the  restoration,  which,  to- 
gether with  earlier  discourses,  have  been  collected  in 
three  volumes,  under  the  title  of  Conferemes  de  Noti-e 
Dame  de  Paris  (1835-50 ;  a  selection  was  published  in 
English  dress  by  Henry  Langdon,  N.  York,  1871,  8vo). 
His  last  public  discourse  at  Paris  he  delivered  at  St. 
Roch  in  February,  1853.     To  some  of  his  remarks  the 
imperial  government  took  exception ;  and  Lacordaire, 
finding  himself  restricted  in  that  freedom  of  speech  of 
whieli  he  had  been  throughout  life  a  steady  and  power- 
ful defender,  never   again   preached  in  Paris ;  but  at 
Toulouse — the  birthplace  of  St.  Dominic  and  the  burial- 
place  ofvjt.  Aquinas — h*  delivered  in  1854  six  discoiurses 
on  life — the  life  of  the  passions,  the  moral  life,  tlie  super- 
natural life,  and  the  influence  of  the  supernatural  life  on 
the  public  and  private  life  of  man — which  his  biogra- 
pher (Montalembert)  pronounces  "  the  m(}St  eloquent, 
the  most  irreproachable  of  all."     Offered  the  direction 
of  the  school  and  convent  of  Soreze,  he  withdrew  to  that 
noted  retreat  of  the  Dominicans,  and  there  died,  Nov. 
21,  1861.     Besides  the  v.-orks  alluded  to — the  Confe- 
rences and  Considerations  2>fiilosophiques  —  Lacordaire 
wrote  a  Memoire  pour  le  retahlisseinent  en  France  de 
Vordre  des  fr'eres  jirecheurs  (1840).     His  correspondence 
with  ]\Iadame  Swetchine  (by  Falloux,  18G4),  with  :Mont- 
alembert  (1863),  and  with  a  young  friend  (by  I'abbe 
Perreire,  1863),  as  well  as  all  his  other  writings,  were 


pidjlished  as  (Euvres  completes  in  1851,1858,  and  1861, 
in  6  vols.  8vo  and  12mo.  Pie  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  in  1860  as  successor  to  M.  de  Tocqueville, 
upon  whom  he  pronounced  a  eulogy — the  customary  in- 
augural address — which  was  liis  last  public  address. 

Of  tlie  ability  Lacordaire  displayed  in  his  works  a 
writer  in  the  Brit,  and  For.  Evang.  Rev.  (Oct.  1863),  p. 
726  sq.,  thus  comments:  "As  a  writer,  Lacordaire  has 
not  the  slightest  pretensions  to  compete  with  Lamen- 
nais,  one  of  the  greatest  writers  of  French  prose.  His 
loose,  declamatory,  theatrical  style  is  in  every  respect 
far  inferior  to  the  simple,  grand,  nervous  eloquence  of 
Lamennais.  ^^'e  also  venture  to  atfirm  that,  in  too  ■ 
many  of  his  discourses,  instead  of  explaining  the  Word 
of  God  simply  and  familiarly  to  the  people,  he  goes  out 
of  his  way  to  attack  what  he  terms  the  prevailing  doubt 
and  scepticism  of  the  age,  and  attempts  to  guide  his 
hearers  to  a  positive  divine  faith  by  the  utter  annihila- 
tion of  the  natural  reason.  In  many  of  his  discourses, 
too,  he  falsifies  history  for  the  purpose  of  making  it  co- 
incide with  his  Romanist  prejudices.  He  absolutely 
refuses  to  recognise  any  good  whatever  in  former  sys- 
tems of  reUgion  and  philosophy.  Without  the  pale  of 
the  Romish  Church  all  is  evil,  within  it  everything  is 
good.  As  to  human  reason,  he  cannot  endure  it.  '  That 
which  at  present  ruins  everything,'  he  says, '  that  which 
causes  the  world  to  ride  insecurely  at  anchor,  is  the 
reason.'  'Our  intelligence  appears  to  me  like  a  ship 
without  sails  or  masts  on  au  unknown  sea.'  '  Societies 
are  tottering  when  tlie  thinkers  take  them  in  hand,  aiid 
the  precise  moment  of  their  downfall  is  that  wherein 
they  announced  to  them  that  the  intellect  is  emanci- 
pated.' And  while  human  reason  is  thus  summarily 
condemned,  the  infallibility  of  the  Church  is  asserted 
and  defended  in  the  most  absolute  manner.  '  The  Cath- 
olic doctrine.'  he  says,  '  resolves  all  questions,  and  takes 
from  them  even  the  cpiality  of  questions.  We  have  no 
longer  to  reason,  which  is  a  great  blessing,  for  we  are 
not  here  to  reason,  but  to  act,  and  to  build  up  in  time  a 
work  for  eternity.' '' 

See  jMontalembert,  Le  Fere  Lacordaire  (Paris,  1862, 
8vo);  Lomenie,  Le  Fere  Lacordaire  (1844);  Lorrain, 
Biogruphie  Jristorique  de  Lacordaii'e  (1847)  ;  Chocame, 
Inner  Life  of  P'ere  Lacordaire  (transl.  by  Father  Ayl- 
ward;  Lond.  and  New  York,  1867,  8 vo);  Yillard.  ( 'o?Te- 
spondence  inedite  et  biographie  (Par.  1870,  8vo) ;  Kirwan, 
Afodern  France  (1863)  ;  and  the  Jierue  des  deitx  Mondes, 
May  1,1864;  Sainte-Beuve,  Cfl!/senes  du  Lwidi,i,2Q%  s({.\ 
Brit,  and  For.  Ev.  Rev.  Oct.  1863,  art.  iii ;  Contemjwra- 
rij  Rev.  May,  1868,  art.  i.  INI.  Edmond  Scherer,  in  the 
Litteraiure  Confemporaine,  also  treated  of  pere  Lacor- 
daire, but  with  special  regard  to  his  ability  as  a  writer. 
His  estimate  of  the  noted  Dominican  is  rather  mifavor- 
able,  perhaps  even  unjust.  Of  the  discourses  of  Lacor- 
daire, he  maintains  that  they  are  "  unreadable"  (p.  166). 
See  also  Blackwood''s  Magazine,  Feb.  1863 ;  Lond.  Quart. 
Review,  Jidy,  1864.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lacroix,  Claudius,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  theolo- 
gian and  philosopher,  was  born  at  the  village  of  St.  An- 
dre, province  of  Limburg,  in  1652.  He  became  master 
of  philosophy  in  1673,  and  immediately  after  joined  the 
Order  of  Jesuits.  He  taught  moral  theology  first  at 
Cologne,  then  at  ISIiinster;  became  doctor  of  theology  in 
1698,  and  died  June  1,  1714.  He  wrote  a  commentary 
on  Busenbaum's  Moral  Theologie  (Cologne,  1719,  2  vols, 
folio).     See  Bitskxbaum. 

Lacroze,  JIathuuin  Yeyssiere  de,  a  distinguish- 
ed French  Orientalist,  was  in  turn  a  mercliant,  a  medi- 
cal student,  and  a  Benedictine  monk.  Finally,  having 
abjured  Romanism,  he  retired  to  Prussia,  where,  in  1697, 
he  became  librarian  to  the  king.  He  died  at  Berlin  in 
1739.  His  principal  works  are  Histoire  du  Christian- 
isme  des  Indes  (La  Haye,  1724,  sm.  ivd)  :  —  Ilistoire^du 
Chi-istianisme  irEthiopie  et  d'Armenie  (La  Haye,  1739, 
sm.  8vo).     See  Darling,  Cgclop.  Bihliog.  s.  v. 

Lactantius,  Lucius  Ccelius  (or  dciLius)  Fir- 


LACTANTIUS 


186 


LACTANTIUS 


inANUS,  one  of  the  early  Latin  fathers,  called  by  Jerome  I 
(Cittal.  c.  80)  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time,  and,  on 
account  of  the  line  and  rhetorical  culture  which  his 
■\vritin2;s  evince,  not  unfrequently  named  the  Christian 
Cicero  (or,  as  Jerome  has  it,  "  Fluvius  eloquential  Tulli- 
an;c"),Avas  formerly  supposed  to  have  been  by  birth  an 
Ai'rican,  but  is  now  generally  believed  to  have  been  of 
Italian  birth,  a  native  of  Firmum  (Fermo),  on  the  Adri- 
atic, Italy.  He  was  born  probably  near  the  middle  of 
tlie  3d  century;  his  parents,  according  to  his  own  ac- 
count, were  heathens,  and  he  onl)'  became  a  Christian 
at  a  somewhat  mature  age  (comp.  Be  Ira  I)ti,  c.  2 ;  In- 
slitt.  Dif.  vii,  2),  certainly  before  the  Diocletian  perse- 
cution. Lactantius  pursued  his  rhetorical  studies  in  the 
school  of  the  celebrated  rhetorician  and  apologist  Aruo- 
bius  of  Sicca,  in  proconsular  Africa,  and  it  is  thus,  in  all 
probability,  that  arose  the  notion  that  Lactantius  was 
of  African  birth.  While  yet  a  youth  Lactantius  gained 
celebrity  l)y  the  publication  oi"  a  poetical  work  called 
Si/mposion,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  riddles  in  hexame- 
ters for  table  amusement.  But  it  was  his  eloquence 
that  secured  him  really  great  renown,  and  he  was  heard 
of  by  Diocletian,  and  by  him  called  to  Nicomedia  as 
professor  of  Latin  eloquence.  This  city  was,  however, 
inhabited  and  visited  mainly  by  Greeks,  and  Lactantius 
found  but  few  pupils  to  instruct.  This  afforded  him 
plenty  of  leisure,  and  he  welcomed  it  as  an  opportunity 
to  devote  himself  largely  to  authorship.  Thus  he  con- 
tinued at  Nicomedia  ten  years,  while  the  Christians 
were  not  only  persecuted  by  the  emperors  with  fire  and 
sword,  but  also  assailed  by  the  heathen  philosophers 
with  the  weapons  of  science,  wit,  and  ridicule.  Against 
so  many  outrages  Lactantius  felt  impelled  to  undertake 
the  defence  fif  the  hated  and  despised  religion,  and  the 
more  as  he  thought  he  had  observed  that  they  proceed- 
ed, at  least  in  part,  from  ignorance  and  gross  misunder- 
standings. It  ^vas  during  this  defence  of  Christianity,  in 
all  probaljility,  that  he  became  himself  a  convert  to  the 
true  faith,  and  thus  may  it  be  accou.Ued  for  that  Con- 
stantine  called  him  to  his  court  in  (laid  as  preceptor 
(after  312  says  Dr.  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  iii,  95G)  of  his  son 
Crispus,  whom  Constantine  afterwards  (32G)  caused  to 
be  put  to  death.  Eusebius  tells  us  that  even  in  this 
exalted  position  he  remained  so  poor  as  often  to  want 
for  the  necessaries  of  life.  He  must  have  been  quite 
old  when  he  arrived  in  Gaul,  for  he  is  then  already  spo- 
ken of  as  a  gray-haired  old  man,  and  he  is  supposed  to 
have  died  at  the  imperial  residence  in  Treves  shortly 
after  his  pupil  Crispus,  about  330.  It  has  often  been  a 
matter  of  great  perplexity  to  antiquarians  to  account 
for  the  fact  that  Lactantius  escaped  personal  injurj^  dur- 
ing the  Diocletian  persecution.  Some  think,  and  this 
seems  to  be  reasonable,  that  Lactantius  escaped  sufFerin 
for  his  faith  because  he  was  generally  regarded  as  a 
jihilosopher,  and  not  as  a  Christian  ^\Titer;  and,  indeed, 
to  judge  from  his  Dc  Opificio  Dei,  he  appears  to  have 
been  more  attracted  Ijy  the  moral  and  philosophical  as- 
pects of  Christianity  than  by  the  supernatural  and  the 
dogmatic.  lu  fact,  in  all  the  theological  works  of  Lactan- 
tius is  manifest  the  intluence  of  his  early  studies  of  all 
the  masterpieces  of  ancient  rhetoric  and  jdiilosophy,  and 
he  may  be  delined  as  a  Christian  pupil  of  Cicero  and  of 
Seneca.  (Comp.,  on  the  inclination  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian teachers  in  the  IJoman  empire  to  style  themselves 
"phik)sophers,"  Jirif.  Quart.  7iV?'.  July,  lf<7l,  p.  '.>,  col.  1.) 
Jerome  even  says  of  him  {Epist.  83,  ad  PutiUuiim  [alias 
8i  ad  Maf/iiiim]  ),  '•  Lactantius  wrote  seven  books  against 
the  (Jentiles,  and  two  volumes  on  the  work  and  the  an- 
ger of  God.  If  you  wish  to  read  these  treatises,  j'ou 
will  fnul  in  them  a  compendium  of  Cicero's  Dialogues." 
He  liad  ontiTcd  more  (kei)ly  into  Christian  morals  than 
into  Christian  metaphysics,  and  his  works  offer  hone  of 
those  learned  and  profound  expositions  of  the  dogmas 
which  we  fmd  in  Clement  of  Alexandria  or  in  Origen. 
Lactantius,  however,  has  been  called,  as  we  alreadj- 
hinted,  the  Christian  Cicero,  on  account  of  his  resem- 
blance to  this  celebrated  classical  writer  iji  the  elegance 


and  finish  of  his  style,  but  still  more  on  account  of  hav- 
ing made  himself  the  advocate  and  propagator  of  the 
great  moral  truth  of  Christianity,  while  carefidly  avoid- 
ing all  dogmatic  speculation;  thus  also  did  Cicero  advo- 
cate all  the  great  practical  truths  of  the  best  ])hilosoph- 
ical  systems  of  antiquity,  but  set  little  store  bj'  what- 
ever was  purely  metaphysical. 

In  learning  and  cidture  Lactantius  excelled  all  the 
men  of  his  time;  in  the  words  of  Jerome,  he  was  "om- 
nium suo  tempore  eruditissiraus."  His  writings  betray 
a  noble  unconsciousness  which  forgets  itself  in  striving 
to  reach  its  lofty  aim.  The  modesty  of  his  claims  and 
of  his  estimate  of  himself  is  exhibited  and  embodied  in 
the  facts  of  his  life.  Although  at  the  coiu-t  of  the  great- 
est prince  on  earth,  and  by  his  position  invited  to  luxu- 
rious indulgence,  he  voluntarily  preferred  a  pjoverty 
which  not  only  excluded  superfluities,  but  also  often  dis- 
pensed with  the  necessaries  of  life.  Some  have  repre- 
senteil  that  he  pushed  his  austerities  even  to  an  unau- 
thorized extreme.  '■  I  shall  tliink  that  I  have  sufficiently 
lived,"  he  writes,  "  and  tliat  I  have  sufficiently  fulfilled 
the  office  of  a  man,  if  my  labor  shall  have  freed  any 
from  their  errors,  and  directed  them  in  the  way  to 
heaven." 

Lactantius  was  a  layman  and  a  rhetorician,  and  yet 
he  displays  in  his  writings  in  general — and  they  were 
not  few — such  a  depth  and  extent  of  theological  knowl- 
edge as  could  scarcely  have  been  expected.  It  is  sur- 
prising with  what  penetration  and  precision  he  handles 
man}^  intricate  subjects.  Warmth  of  feeluig,  richness 
of  thought,  and  clearness  of  apprehension  are  impressed 
upon  all  his  literary  productions.  His  expressions  arc 
always  lucid,  considerate,  and  well  arranged.  Nowhere 
does  tlie  reader  feel  an  unpleasant  tone  of  pedantrj'  or 
affectation ;  everywhere  he  is  attracted  by  the  impress 
of  genuine  learning  and  eloquence.  In  harmony  and 
purity  of  style,  in  beauty  and  elegance  of  expression,  he 
excels  aU  the  fathers  of  Christian  antiquity,  if  we  except 
Ambrose  in  some  of  his  letters,  and  Sidpicius  Severus. 
His  reputation  in  this  respect  was  so  celebrated  in  the 
earliest  times  that  men  loved  to  call  him  the  Christian 
Cicero.  So  much  for  form  and  diction.  The  case  is 
quite  othenvise  with  the  exposition  of  the  pecuhar  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  in  detail.  In  the  midst  of  admi- 
rable philosophical  developments,  as  with  other  writers 
of  this  class,  we  meet  Avith  many  mistakes,  many  crrd- 
neous  views  and  half-truths,  for  which  Gelasius  classed 
his  writings  with  the  ApocrA-jiha.  If  the  jnrigment 
above  expressed  is  thus,  in  some  measure,  modilitd,  yet 
is  his  merit  not  much  diminished.  That  is  to  say,  there 
are  at  bottom  almost  entirely  such  anomalies  as  he  met 
in  the  older  A\Titers  liefore  him,  and  ■\\hich  the  Church 
had  not  yet  distinctly  excluded  bj'  a  more  precise  defi- 
nition of  the  doctrines  in  question.  What  strikes  us 
more  unpleasantly  is  that  we  miss  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  by  proof  from  its  own  dogmas,  which  he 
himself  had  promised  to  give;  we  sympathize  with  Je- 
rome in  the  wish,  '•  L^tinam  tarn  nostra  contuTuare  potu- 
isset,  quam  facile  aliena  distinxit." 

Dr.  Schaff  gives  the  following  summary-  of  the  doc- 
trinal vie\vs  of  Lactantius  {Church  Jlist.  iii,  057)  :  "  His 
mistakes  and  errors  in  the  exposition  of  points  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  do  not  amount  to  heresies,  but  are  mostly 
due  to  the  crude  and  unsettled  state  of  the  Church  doc- 
trine at  the  time.  In  the  doctrine  of  sin  he  borders 
upon  j\Ianicha?ism.  In  anthropology  and  soteriology  lie 
follows  tlie  synergism  which,  until  Augustine,  was  al- 
most imiversal.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  he  was, 
like  most  of  the  ante-Nicene  fathers,  a  subordinatimiist. 
He  taught  a  duplex  nativitas  of  Christ,  one  at  the  crea- 
tion, and  one  at  the  incarnation.  Christ  went  forth 
from  God  at  the  creation  as  a  word  from  the  mouth,  yet 
hypostaticaUy." 

Worls. — We  will  briefly  notice  his  works  in  order :  1. 
Divinarum  Ijistitutiimniii,  libri  vii  (Divine  Institutes, 
seven  books),  a  comprehensive  apology  for  the  Christian 
religion,  which,  on  account  of  the  elegant  style  in  which 


LACTANTIUS 


187 


LACTANTIUS 


it  is  written,  has  been  favorite  reading,  and  is  said  to 
have  appeared  ia  more  tlian  a  hundred  editions.  His 
motive  for  writing  this  work  he  thus  assigns  himself: 
Since  men,  by  their  own  fault  bewildered,  can  no  longer 
find  the  Avay  back  to  trutli,  his  object  is  to  point  it  out 
to  them,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  confirm  in  it  those 
■\vlio  have  already  reached  it.  He  feels  himself  the 
more  impelled  to  this  because  his  jjredecessors  in  this 
field— and  he  names  particularly  Tertullian  and  Cyprian 
— liad  not,  in  liis  opinion,  satisfied  the  requirements  of 
the  case  on  all  sides,  and  had  performed  their  task  nei- 
ther with  the  requisite  learning  and  thoroughness,  nor 
with  tlie  suitable  adornment  of  art  and  scientific  deptli. 
To  this  unfortunate  circumstance  he  ascribes  it  that  the 
Christian  religion  was  held  in  such  contempt,  and  with 
the  educated  classes  was  as  good  as  totally  unkno\vn. 
■  When,  with  all  the  power  of  language  and  genius  which 
he  eminently  possessed,  Lactantius  promises  to  make  a 
ilofence  of  the  faith,  the  precedence  in  this  respect  must 
by  all  means  be  conceded  to  him ;  in  bcautj'  of  form 
and  splendor  of  diction  he  surpasses  all ;  but  Jerome 
justly  refuses  to  admit  the  same  in  respect  to  the  weight 
of  the  contents  and  the  solidit^  of  the  proofs.  The  work 
is  dedicated  to  Constantine  the  Great — if  the  passage  is 
not  an  interpolation — whom  he  extols  with  the  liighest 
reverence,  and  praises  as  the  first  Christian  prince,  and 
the  restorer  of  righteousness.  Consequently,  it  was 
written  at  the  time  when  lie,  advanced  in  years,  was  al- 
ready at  court;  but  the  Church  was  still  sighing  under 
a  severe  persecution,  evidently  that  of  Licinlus,  since  the 
author  refers  to  that  of  Diocletian  as  liaving  long  since 
died  out.  This  brings  us  to  the  year  320,  although  he 
had,  as  elsewhere  appears  from  his  own  words,  formed 
the  purpose  and  tlie  plan  at  a  nnich  earlier  jjeriod.  Some 
suppt)se  that  the  work  wan  commenced  in  Bithynia  and 
completed  in  Gaul  after  a  lapse  of  twenty  years.  Oth- 
ers, from  an  allusion  Avhich  it  contains  to  the  Diocletian 
persecution — '■Spectatio  sunt  enini  spectanturque  adhuc 
per  orbem  poena;  cultorum  Dei,"  etc.  (v,  17,  §  5),  suppose 
it  to  have  been  written  before  Lactantius  went  to  Gaul. 

The  seven  books  into  which  this  work  is  divided 
form  seven  separate  treatises.  Tlie  first  book  is  in- 
scribed Be  falsa  i-eligione.  lie  designedly  leaves  un- 
touched the  principal  question  in  regard  to  the  existence 
of  a  supreme  Providence,  and  takes  his  departure  from 
the  proposition  that  there  is  one  God,  and  that,  accord- 
ing to  our  idea  of  his  essence,  of  his  relation  to  the 
world  under  him,  and  of  that  to  him,  there  can  be  but 
one.  He  proceeds  then  to  confirm  this  dogma  by  the 
authority  of  the  prophets  (of  which,  however,  he  makes 
more  use  in  his  programme  than  in  liis  performance; 
and  which,  indeed,  would  liave  been  only  a  petitio  prin- 
cipii),  by  tlie  utterances  of  the  poets,  the  philosophers, 
and  the  sibyls  —  all  of  whom  consent  in  one  and  the 
same  truth  ;  and  this,  at  least,  is  good  as  an  argunientum 
ad  hoiainein,  though  he  seems  to  allege  it  as  having  a 
higher  and  proper  force  of  proof.  The  last  half  of  the 
book  consists  in  the  ludicrous  exposure  and  sarcastic 
confutation  of  tlie  mythological  sj'stem  of  deities  in 
general  and  in  detail,  as  recognised  by  its  advocates. 

The  second  book,  iJe  urifjine  erruris,  demonstrates  the 
manifold  absurdity  with  which  mankind,  while  all  na- 
ture imiiels  them  to  the  knowledge  of  the  one  God,  and 
a  law  of  necessity  teaches  every  one  instinctively  to 
seek  him,  are  nevertheless  so  blinded  as  to  wander 
away  to  the  worship  o.f  idols.  He  confutes  the  spurious 
grounds  by  which  particularly  the  educated  class  among 
the  heathen  sought  to  excuse  or  justify  idolatry,  and 
shows  how  this  whole  pagan  religion,  more  closely  con- 
sidered, is  only  a  reflex  of  their  thoroughly  materialized 
and  secularized  habit  of  mind.  I'.ut  since  the  heathen 
used  especially  to  appeal  to  the  antiquity  of  their  cultus 
and  to  venerable  tradition,  the  author  meets  them  in 
this  wise  :  In  matters  of  religion  every  one  must  see  for 
himself;  error,  though  ever  so  full  of  years,  has.  by  its 
old  age,  acquired  no  right,  and  must  give  way  to  the 
truth  so  soon  as  she  establishes  against  it  her  primitive 


and  indefeasible  claims.  He  proceeds,  with  constant 
reference  to  the  diverging  opinions  of  the  philosophers, 
to  develop  from  the  holy  Scriptures  the  history  of  the 
creation  and  of  the  origin  of  idolatry.  According  to 
him,  this  originated  in  its  first  germ  from  Ham,  who  lay 
under  his  father's  curse.  Among  his  posterity  the  loss 
of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God  first  prevailed ;  this 
passed  over  into  Sabaism  or  Parseeism  (worship  of  the 
heavenly  bodies) ;  spread  itself  in  this  form  first  in 
Egypt,  and  thence  among  the  neighboring  people.  In 
its  further  progress  it  included  the  deification  of  men,  an 
externally  pompous  worship,  and  finally  developed  it- 
self into  idolatry  proper,  which,  cherished  and  promoted 
by  the  influence  of  dajmons,  and  strengthened  by  means 
of  other  arts,  by  oracles,  magic,  etc.,  leavened  the  whole 
life  of  the  pagan  nations.  The  truth  of  this  intimate 
connection  of  the  da>raon  realm  with  the  heathen  poly- 
theistic worship,  and  with  the  phenomena  pertaining 
thereto,  lies  visibly  before  us,  says  Lactantius,  in  the 
Christian  power  of  exorcism;  and  with  this  he  cou- 
cludes. 

The  third  hook,  Be  falsa  sapientia,  exposes  the  hea- 
then philosophy  as  nugatorj'  and  false.  The  etymology 
of  the  word  philosophy  indicates,  saj'S  he,  not  the  pos- 
session of  wisdom,  but  a  striving  after  it;  and  in  its  ul- 
timate result  it  leaves  us  nothing  but  mere  opinions, 
upon  whose  grounds  or  groundlessness  it  can  give  us  no 
trustworthy  criterium,  and  consequently  no  certainty. 
The  residt  of  all  philosophy,  therefore,  when  brought 
into  relation  to  our  highest  end,  is  unsatisfying  and  use- 
less. Our  heart  thirsts  after  happiness,  anil  this  eager, 
fervent  impulse  no  human  wisdom  can  satiate.  The 
reason  why  it  cannot  is  this :  because,  torn  away  from 
its  union  with  religion,  the  fundamental  condition  of 
happiness,  it  must  necessarily  become  external,  one- 
sided, and  abstract.  He  finally  points  out  in  detail  this 
result  of  all  philosophy  in  the  history  of  the  different 
schools,  none  of  which  has  found  the  truth,  or  could  find 
it,  because  their  formal  princijile  had  already  misplaced 
the  way  to  the  desired  goal.  Therefore — and  this  is  the 
natural  conclusion — to  still  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  man 
must  not  turn  himself  to  these,  but  to  God's  own  revela- 
tion. 

The  fourth  book,  Be  vera  sajnentia,  proposes  to  pre- 
pare the  way  to  this  goal.  Starting  with  the  principle 
already  enunciated,  but  here  set  forth  more  in  detail, 
that  (genuine)  wisdom  and  religion  arc,  in  the  last 
analysis,  one,  they  may,  only  in  our  conception,  be  held 
asunder  as  distinct,  abstract  elements,  but  in  realitj'  and 
in  life  ought  never  to  be  separated.  The  heatlien  phi- 
losophy and  religion,  in  which  this  unnatural  antithesis 
and  separation  occurred,  were  therefore,  for  this  simple 
reason,  false.  The  true  unity  of  the  two  is  found  only 
in  Christianity.  In  order  to  exhibit  this  principle  as  a 
fact,  he  reviews  the  history  of  our  religion.  After  hav- 
ing briefly,  but  as  much  as  he  deemed  requisite  for  his 
purpose,  spoken  of  the  jirophets,  he  proceeils  to  develop 
the  doctrine,  after  his  fashion,  of  the  person  of  Jesus 
Christ,  from  the  first,  the  eternal  birth  of  the  Logos  from 
the  Father,  and  from  the  second,  his  incarnation  in  time ; 
he  establishes  the  truth  of  these,  together  with  his  De- 
ity anil  his  Messianic  office,  from  his  life,  his  miracles, 
and  the  pro]ihcts,  with  reference  almost  alwaj's  to  the 
Jews  only ;  but  finally  he  shows  to  the  heathen  how  the 
very  idea  of  true  ethical  wisdom  in  some  sort  includes 
in  itself  the  incarnation  of  the  lawgiver,  that  so  a  perfect 
example  maj'  be  gisen  of  the  possibility  of  keejiing  the 
law.  The  necessities  of  man  required  this  in  order  to  a 
mediation  between  God  and  man ;  and  the  lowly  life  of 
Christ,  his  sufferings,  and  even  his  death  on  the  cross, 
are  in  perfect  harmony  with  this  design. 

The  .fifth  book.  Be  jiistitia,  unfolds  first  the  author's 
motives  and  object.  Then,  entering  upon  the  subject 
itself,  he  teaches  how,  anciently,  in  the  times  called  by 
the  heathen  the  Golden  Age,  tiie  one  God  ^^•as  honored, 
and  with  his  worsViip  justice  bore  sway ;  and  how,  in  the 
sequel,  in  coimectiou  with  polytheism,  all  sorts  of  vice 


LACTANTIUS 


11 


LACTANTIUS 


came  trooping  in,  but  with  Clirist  a  kind  of  golden  age 
has  again  appeared  through  the  propagation  of  right- 
eousness, lie  further  shows  how  near  this  lies  to  all,  and 
that  oulv  through  wilfulness  it  can  fail  to  be  known; 
and  hoM-  the  heathen,  in  open  contradiction  to  the  idea 
of  religion,  to  reason,  and  to  every  sentiment  of  right, 
hate  tlie  Christians,  and  persecute  and  torment  them 
even  to  the  death.  Were  the  Christians  fools,  one  shoidd 
spare  them ;  if  wise,  imitate  them.  That  they  are  the 
latter  is  made  clear  by  their  virtuous  behavior  and 
their  untiinching  constancj'.  It  is  true  the  wisdom 
and  righteousness  of  God  condescend  to  clothe  them- 
selves in  the  appearance  of  folly,  partly  that  thus  the 
wisdom  of  the  world  may  bo  convinced  of  its  nothing- 
ness, and  partly  that  the  righteous  man  may  be  helped 
forward  on  the  narrow  way  to  his  reward.  The  pre- 
texts offered  by  the  heathen  in  justification  of  their 
treatment  of  the  Christians,  as  that  they  souglit  to  bring  j 
them  to  a  sober  mind,  etc.,  were,  he  maintains,  utterlj^ 
empty,  because,  in  the  first  place,  this  treatment  was  in 
itself  unsuitable,  and,  in  res|)ect  to  the  Christians,  who 
knew  very  well  how  to  defend  their  cause  with  all  so- 
berness, it  was  contemptuous  and  destructive  of  its  own 
object;  but, in  the  second  place,  these  pretexts  were  con- 
tradicted and  falsified  by  the  Komans'  contrary  practice 
of  toleration  towards  other  and  extremely  despicable  and 
senseless  religions.  Rather  it  was  abundantly  clear  that 
nothing  but  a  fierce  hatred  against  the  truth  impelled  to 
those  bloody  deeds  of  violence  and  cruelty. 

The  sixth  book,  De  vero  cidtii,  treats  of  the  practical 
side  of  true  religion.  A  merely  external  worship,  like 
that  of  the  heathen,  is  absolutely  worthless,  and  only 
that  is  true  in  which  the  human  soid  offers  itself  to  God. 
As  all  the  pliilosophers  agree  in  saying  there  are  two 
ways  for  man,  one  of  virtue,  the  other  of  vice;  the  for- 
mer narrow  and  toilsome,  leading  to  immortality ;  the 
latter  easy  and  pleasant,  leading  to  destruction :  the 
Christians  call  them  the  way  to  heaven  and  to  hell,  and 
eagerly  prefer  the  former,  that  at  the  last  they  may  attain 
the  enjoyment  of  the  blessedness  in  which  it  ends.  The 
philosophers  could  not  find  the  way  of  virtue,  because 
at  the  outset  they  had  formed  to  themselves  an  utterly 
different  idea  of  good  and  evil,  and  therefore  always 
sought  it  where  it  is  never  to  be  found — on  earth  in- 
ftead  of  in  heaven.  The  Christians,  who  walk  in  the 
light  of  revelation,  have  the  clew  of  the  truth,  the  eter- 
nal, unchangeable  law  of  God,  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
man,  which  unfolds  our  duties  both  towards  God  (officia 
pietatis)  and  towards  man  (officia  humanitatis).  Lac- 
tantius  then  proceeds  to  treat  of  the  virtues  which  are 
embraced  in  the  fundamental  principle  of  genuine  hu- 
manity— pity,  liberality,  care  for  the  widow,  the  orphan, 
the  sick,  the  dead,  etc.;  finally,  of  self-government  and 
the  mcxleration  of  the  desires  and  appetites,  particularly 
of  chastity  in  wedlock  and  out  of  i{;  and,  last  of  all,  of 
penitence  or  penance  (pccnitentia),  and  tlie  true  service 
of  God.  'I'iie  ^rmer  he  treats  as  a  saiixfoction,  and  in 
the  latter  he  does  not  rise  above  the  merely  ethical.  Ra- 
tionalistic position,  although,  through  his  whole  exposi- 
tion, he  makes  references,  by  way  of  contrast,  to  the  di- 
vergent views  of  the  philosoiihers. 

The  seventh  and  last  book,  7Je  rita  Jeo^r,  has  for  its 
subject  the  chief  end  of  man.  He  gives  us  briefly  his 
own  conception  of  the  great  end  of  our  existence,  thus: 
"Tiie  world  was  made  that  we  might  be  born;  we  are 
bom  that  wc  might  know  the  Creator  of  the  world  and 
of  ourselves;  we  know  him  that  we  may  honor  him; 
we  honor  him  that  we  may  receive  immortalitj'^  as  the 
reward  of  our  effort,  because  the  honoring  of  (iod  de- 
mands tlie  highest  effort;  wc  arc  rewarded  with  immor- 
tality, that  we,  like  the  angels,  may  forever  serve  the 
supreme  I'ather  and  Lord,  and  may  form  unto  God  an 
ever-during  kingdom  :  that  is  the  sum  and  substance  of 
all  things,  the  secret  of  (iod,  the  mystery  of  the  world." 
After  this  follows  the  proof  of  the  iinmortality  of  the 
soul,  imrsued  through  ten  distinct  arguments,  with  the 
refutation  of  objection?.     He  then  proceeds  with  an  at- 


tempt to  show  under  what  condition  the  natural  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  becomes  at  the  same  time  a  blessed 
immortality.  With  this  he  connects  his  views  in  re- 
gard to  the  time  and  the  signs  of  the  end  of  the  present 
world  to  the  last  judgment,  to  the  millennial  reign,  to 
the  general  resurrection  and  the  transformation  of  this 
world.  On  the  superabounding  delights  and  glories  of 
the  millennium  he  enlarges  with  special  satisfaction  and 
copious  eloquence.  In  conclusion,  he  congratulates  the 
Church  upon  the  peace  which  Cc>nstantine  has  given 
her,  and  calls  upon  all  to  forsake  the  worship  of  idols 
and  to  do  homage  to  the  one  true  God. 

2.  An  Ejntome  of  the  Institutes,  dedicated  to  Pentadius, 
is  appended  to  the  larger  work,  and  is  attributed  to  Lac- 
tantius  by  Jerome,  who  describes  it  as  being  even  in  his 
time  ciKe^aKog.  All  the  early  editions  of  this  abridg- 
ment begin  at  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  the  fifth  book 
of  the  original.  But  in  the  18th  centurj'  a  IMS.  con- 
taining nearly  the  entire  work  was  discovered  in  the 
royal  library  at  Turin,  and  was  published  bj'  C.  M.  Pfaff, 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen  (Paris,  1712). 
Walchius  and  others  have  doubted  the  genuineness  of 
this  Epitome,  but  Jerome's  assertion  appears  to  us  con- 
clusive. 

3.  De  Jra  Dei  (On  the  Anger  of  God).  It  has  often 
been  observed  how  the  Greek  philosophy,  and,  follow- 
ing its  lead,  the  heretical  Gnosis,  could  not  reconcile  jus- 
tice and  goodness.  This  had  also  struck  Lactantius, 
and  awakened  in  him  the  thought  of  proving  in  this 
treatise  that  the  abhorrence  of  evil  and  primitive  jus- 
tice are  necessarj'  and  fundamental  attributes  of  the  di- 
vine Being.  In  the  judgment  of  Jerome,  this  work  is 
composed  with  equal  learning  and  elofiuence.  Its  date 
is  probably  somewhat  later  than  that  of  the  Institutes. 

The  system  both  of  the  Epicureans  and  of  the  Stoics 
excluded  all  reaction  of  God  against  the  wicked.  The 
former,  in  order  not  to  disturb  God's  indolent  repose; 
the  latter,  in  order  not  to  transfer  to  the  idea  of  God  hu- 
man characteristics,  would  know  nothing  of  any  vital  or 
essential  manifestation  of  the  Deity  in  the  course  of  the 
world  or  towards  mankind.  Lactantius  showed  how, 
on  the  contrary,  in  the  worthy  idea  of  God's  essence  and 
operation,  the  conception  of  providence  cannot  be  want- 
ing ;  and  how,  moreover,  complacency  towards  the  good 
has,  as  its  natural  countcr|iart,  the  detestation  of  its  op- 
posite, the  evil.  Bcf ides,  religion  is  incontcstably  found- 
ed in  the  nature  of  man  ;  but,  if  we  assume  that  God  is 
not  angry  with  the  wicked,  or  does  not  avenge  the  trans- 
gressions of  his  commands,  from  religion  are  withdrawn, 
by  consequence,  its  rational  motive  and  all  its  founda- 
tions. If  there  is  a  moral  distinction  among  actions,  it 
is  impossible  that  God  should  stand  affected  in  the  same 
manner  towards  the  one  as  towards  the  other,  and  that 
without  its  being  necessar}',  in  consequence,  to  ascribe 
to  God  likewise  passions  or  affections  which  consist  in  a 
weakness,  as,  for  example,  fear.  When  Epicurus  objects 
that  God  could  punish — if  punish  he  must — without  any 
emotion  within  himself,  Lactantius  replies  :  the  view  of 
the  evil  must  of  itself  provoke  the  will  of  any  being  who 
is  good  to  a  counter  emotion,  and  it  cannot  be  indifler- 
ent  to  the  lawgiver  how  his  precepts  shall  be  observed. 
The  disproportion  of  the  external  fortunes  of  the  good 
and  the  bad  in  the  present  life  proves  nothing  to  the 
contrary  when  we  consider  the  proper  attitude  and  es- 
sence of  virtue,  etc.  The  whole  he  confirms  by  declara- 
tions of  the  prophets,  and  especially  of  the  sibyls. 

4.  De  Opijicio  Dei,  rel  forviatione  hoviinis  (On  Cre- 
ation).— This  is  thought  to  be  the  first-fruits  of  the 
Christian  genius  of  Lactantius,  since,  judging  from  the 
introduction,  the  persecution  was  still  in  progress.  The 
book  is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Demctrianus,  who,  having 
been  his  disciple,  w-as  now  an  officer  of  state ;  it  is  espe- 
cially directed  against  the  prevailing  philosophy,  and 
therefore  the  presentation  of  the  subject  is  kept,  in  form 
and  spirit,  upon  this  basis.  Tlie  subject  of  the  treatise 
is  the  organization  of  human  nature,  which  Cicero,  he 
says,  has  more  than  once  superficially  touched  upon  in 


LACTANTIUS 


189 


LACTANTIUS 


his  philosophical  writings,  but  never  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated. He  first  draws  a  general  parallel  between  the 
organism  of  the  beasts  and  that  of  man ;  to  the  latter 
God,  in  connection  with  an  apparently  scantier  outfit,  has 
given,  in  his  reason,  a  pre-eminence  far  outweighing  all 
tlie  superiority  of  the  beasts  in  physical  force.  Wlien 
philcisophy,  particularly  the  Epicurean,  reminds  us  of 
the  helplessness  of  human  infancy,  of  man's  weakness 
and  early  dissolution,  the  author  shows,  on  the  other 
hand,  that  these  objections  rest  upon  a  one-sided  mode 
of  regarding,  partly  the  phenomena  in  question  con- 
sidered aljsolutely,  and  partly  the  essence  and  the  end 
of  man  and  of  his  nature  (c.  1-4).  Having  thus,  in  a 
preliminary  way,  disposed  of  these  possible  objections 
against  his  subsequent  exhibition  of  the  subject,  he  pro- 
ceeds to  his  proper  business,  the  consideration  of  the 
human  body  as  the  habitation  and  organ  of  the  soul. 
He  indulges  in  a  detailed  investigation  and  analysis  of 
its  wonderful  structure ;  shows  the  beauty  and  symme- 
try of  its  several  limbs,  their  adaptation  to  their  corre- 
sponding functions,  and  their  admiral)le  connection  with 
the  totality  of  the  organism.  Hence  he  establishes, 
what  the  Epicureans  denied,  that  a  divine  creation,  and 
an  ordering  and  guiding  providence,  are  active  through- 
out the  universe  (c.  5-17).  In  conclusion,  he  dilates 
u)K>n  the  essence  of  our  soid,  upon  its  distinction  from 
spirit  (animus),  and,  finally,  upon  its  propagation.  He 
liere  reviews  the  opposing  philosophical  theories,  and 
declares  himself  thoroughly  opposed  to  generationism  or 
traducianism  (c.  17-20).  In  this  treatise  he  has  caught 
the  grand  idea,  and  furnished  the  leading  materials  of 
Paley's  famous  teleologlcal  argument;  and,  what  is  more 
surprising,  has  anticipated  some  of  the  most  striking 
an(l  comprehensive  ideas  of  modern  scientific  and  zoolog- 
ical classification. 

5.  De  mortibus  peisecutoi-tim  (On  Martyrdom).  —  Le 
Nourry  was  of  opinion  that  this  treatise  does  not  belong 
to  Lactantius.  In  the  only  codex  whicli  we  have  of  it, 
it  bears,  not  the  inscription  Firmiani  Lactantii,  but  Lu- 
cii  C;i?cilii,  which  is  never  given  to  our  author  by  the 
ancient  writers.  We  must  confess  that,  without  being 
aAvare  of  this  judgment  of  I,e  Nourry,  we  had  already, 
upon  a  careful  reading  of  the  treatise,  come  to  the  same 
conclusion  from  internal  evidence.  Mohler,  on  tlie  other 
hand,  maintains  its  genuineness;  in  confirmation  of 
which  he  refers  to  the  facts:  (1)  that  Jerome  refers  to  a 
work  of  Lactantius  under  the  name  De  Perseciitione, 
which,  says  he,  indicates  a  similar  subject  matter  with 
the  work  in  question ;  (2)  that  it  is  dedicated  to  a  cer- 
tain Donatus,  like  that  De  Dri  Dei,  and  the  writer  shows 
himself  to  have  been  an  eyewitness  of  the  transactions 
in  Nicomedia  under  Diocletian.  These  reasons  certainly 
are  not  very  strong;  but,  meanwhile,  it  is  a  curious 
question  whether  the  Donatus  addressed  in  this  treatise 
as  a  professor  may  not  have  been  the  first  Donatus  of 
heretical  notoriety.  Mohler  further  adds  that  the  style 
is  the  same  as  that  of  Lactantius's  other  works.  From 
this  we  must  strongly  dissent.  The  style  is  harsher, 
more  rugged,  and  broken  and  irregular — often  obscure. 
It  frequently  reminds  one  of  Tacitus;  whereas  the  gen- 
uine Lactantius  rarely  departs  from  an  imitation  of  the 
clear,  smooth,  flowing,  and  copious  stj'le  of  Cicero,  whom 
he  had  chosen  for  his  special  model  of  eloquence. 

In  the  early  editions  of  Lactantius  De  mortibus  2)€rse- 
cutorum  is  altogether  wanting.  It  was  first  printed  by 
Ste[)hen  Baluze  in  his  Miscellanea,  vol.  ii  (Paris,  1679), 
from  a  very  ancient  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheca  Colberti- 
na.  Its  authenticity  as  the  De  Persecutione  Libe?-  Umis 
of  Lactantius,  mentioned  by  Jerome,  is  maintained  by 
Baluze,  Ileumann,  and  others.  Among  the  latest  au- 
thorities in  favor  of  accepting  the  production  as  a  genu- 
ine work  of  Lactantius  we  count  JVIcihler  (see  below)  and 
Dr.  riiilip  Schaff  (Ch.  Hist,  iii,  958,  note  2).  Against 
accrediting  this  treatise  to  Lactantius  are  prominent, 
besides  Nourry  (in  the  Append,  to  ii,  830  S(j.  of  Migne's 
edition  of  Lactantius),  Pfaff,  Walch,  Le  Clerc,  Lardner, 
Gibbon,  Burckhardt,  and  others. 


The  object  of  this  work  is  to  show  the  truth  of  the 
Christian  religion  historically,  from  the  tragical  fate  of 
all  those  who  have  persecuted  the  Church  of  Christ.  It 
gives  a  very  detailed  description  of  several  scenes  in  the 
persecutions  of  Nero,  Domitian,  and  Valerian,  but  es- 
pecially dwells  upon  the  later  times,  those  of  Diocletian 
and  his  imperial  colleagues  Galerius  and  Maximin,  and 
shows  how  avenging  justice  overtook  them  all.  This 
work,  if  genuine,  furnishes  highly  important  contribu- 
tions to  ecclesiastical  history.  Among  other  things,  its 
author,  whoever  he  may  be,  declares  that  Peter  and  Paul 
preached  the  Gospel  at  Rome,  and  established  a  temple 
of  God  there,  where  they  both  suffered  martyrdom. 

G.  Lost  Writings. — The  Si/mposium  of  Lactantius  has 
probably  perished,  though  some  have  surmised  that  the 
yEnif/mata,  published  under  the  name  of  Symposius,  is 
really  the  youthful  composition  of  Lactantius.  Jerome 
mentions  besides  an  Itinerarium  in  hexameters,  two 
books  to  Asclepiades,  eight  books  of  letters  to  Probus, 
Severus,  and  Domitian,  all  of  which  are  lost.  It  ap- 
pears from  his  own  words  (^Instit.  vii,  1,  sub  fin.)  that  he 
had  formed  the  design  of  drawing  up  a  work  against 
the  Jews,  but  we  cannot  teU  whether  he  ever  accom- 
plished his  purpose. 

Several  other  pieces  still  extant,  but  which  have  been 
erroneously  ascribed  to  Lactantius,  are,  De  Phanice,  in 
elegiacs,  a  compilation  of  tales  and  legends  on  the  far- 
famed  Arabian  bird ;  it  is  probably  of  a  later  date  (see 
WernsdorfF,  Poetm  Lat.  Minores,  iii,  283)  : — Symposium, 
a  collection  of  one  hundred  riddles,  more  likely  the  work 
of  a  certain  Caalius  Firmianus : — De  Pascha  ad  Felicem 
Episcopum,  now  generally  considered  as  the  work  of 
Venantius  Honorianus  Clementianus  Fortunatus,  in  the 
Gth  century  : — De  Passione  Domini  (printed  in  G.  Fabri- 
cius's  Poet.  Vet.Eccles.  Op.  Christiana,  Basle,  15G4;  and 
in  Bibl.  Paf'r.  Lugdun.  1G77),  in  hexameters,  worthy  of 
Lactantius,  but  bearing  in  its  language  the  impress  of  a 
much  later  age. 

The  Editio  Princeps  of  Lactantius  was  printed  at  the 
monastery  of  Subiaco,  by  Swoynheym  and  Pannartz,  in 
14()5,  and  is  one  of  the  earliest  specimens  of  tyjjograph- 
ical  art;  the  same  printers  published  two  other  editions 
(Home,  14G8, 1470),  the  latter  under  the  direction  of  An- 
drew, bishop  of  Aleria.  A  number  of  editions  have  been 
published  since;  the  most  important  are  by  GaUteus 
(Lugd.  Bat.  IGGO,  in  a  series  of  Variorum  Classics,  8vo), 
C.  Cellarius  (Lpz.  1698,  8vo),  Walchius  (Lpz.  1715,  8vo), 
Heumann  (Getting.  1736,  8vo),  Bunemann  (Lpzg.  1739, 
8vo),  Le  Brun  and  Lenglet  du  Fresnoy  (Paris,  1748,  2 
vols.  4to),  F.  Ea  St.  Xaverio  (Home,  1754-9),  and  Migne 
(Paris,  1844,  2  vols,  royal  8vo).  A  convenient  manual 
edition  was  prepared  by  O.  F.  Fritzsche  for  Gersdorfs 
Bibliotheca  Pat  rum  ecc.les.  selecta  (Lips.  1842),  vols.  x,xi. 
See  Jerome,  De  Viris  III.  p.  79,  80 ;  Chronic.  Euseb.  ad 
ann.  cccxviii,  Comment,  in  Eccles.  c.  10 ;  Comment,  in 
Ej^hes.  c.  4,  Ad  Paidin.  Epist.;  Lactant.  Divin.  histit.  i, 
1,  §  8;  v,  2,  §  2;  iii,  13,  §  12;  Schrockh,  Kirchenrjesch. 
V,  232 ;  Schonemann,  Bibl.  Patr.  Lat.  vol.  i,  §  2 ;  Biihr, 
Gesch.  d.  Romisch.  Litterat.  Suppl.  Band,  1"  Abtheil.  §  9 ; 
2'^Abtheil.  §  38^6;  Biihr, />«e  christlich-rom.Theolor/ie, 
p.  72  sq. ;  Franciscus  Floridus,  Subcesivarum.  Lect.  liber 
ii,  ch.  iv;  Lenain  de  Tillemont,  Histoire  Eccles.  vol.  vi; 
Dupin,  Biblioth.  des  A  uteurs  eccles.  i,  295 ;  Brooke  IMoun- 
tain,^  Summanj  of  the  Writinr/s  of  lAictantius  (Lond. 
1839)  ;  Mohler,  Patrologie,  i,  917-933 ;  Ceillier,  Hist,  des 
Aut.  sacres,  ii,  494  sq. ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist.  vol.  iii,  §  173 ; 
Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  p.  160-163;  Christian  Re- 
view, 1845,  p.  415  sq. ;  Woodham,  Tertullicai,  p.  liii ; 
Leckey,  Hiit.  Europ.  Morals,  i,  493  sq.  Excellent  arti- 
cles may  also  be  found,  especially  on  the  writings  of 
Lactantius,  in  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog. 
ii,  701 ;  and  Herzog,  Recd-Encyklop.  viii,  158.  On  the 
Christology  of  Lactantius,  consult  Dorner,  Doctrine  of 
the  Person  of  Christ,  div.  i,  vol.  ii,  p.  192  sq. ;  Lamson,  The 
Church  in  'the  first  three  Centuries,  p.  183  sq.;  Bull,  On 
the  rr»«Vy  (ii,  index)  ;  'S(iM\Aer,Chr.  Dogmas ;  Zeitschr. 
f.  d.  hist.  Theol.  1871,  vol.  iv,  art.  xiii. 


LACTICINIA 


190 


LADD 


Lacticinia,  a  term  used  in  the  Church  law  of  fasts 
to  deiKitc  whatever  is  obtained  as  an  article  of  (bod  from 
the  nianinialia,  viz.  milk,  butter,  grease,  cheese.  Eggs 
are  usually  incliuied  with  these  articles.  Abstinence 
from  such  food  ^vas  required  in  the  Western  Church 
during  Lent,  while  the  more  stringent  customs  of  the 
Creek  Church  extended  the  prohibition  to  all  other 
fasts.     Thomas  Aquinas  uses  the  following  language: 


Ihy  Servant  since  ihe  Time  of  his  heJieving  and  professing 
himself  inspii-ed  (London,  1708,  small  8vo).  lie  is  also 
supposed  to  be  the  author  of  The  general  Delusion  of 
Christians  touching  the  Wai/s  of  God  revealing  himself 
to  and  by  the  Prophets  (1713, 8vo) ;  reprinted  a  few  years 
since.     See  Darling,  Encyclop.  Bihliogr.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lad  ("l"3,  na'aV,  often  rendered  "young  man,"  etc.; 
N.  T.  Traicdpiov,  a  little  child,  the  last  occurrmg  only 


"  In  jejunio  quadragesimali  interdicunter  universaliter  j  jJi^„\,;^  g^  ^^,1  »' child"  in  Matt,  xi,  16;  both  terms  be- 


ing  originally  without  respect  to  sex).  The  Heb.  word 
occasionally  thus  rendered  in  the  Auth.Yers.,  although 
occasionally  standing  for  a  girl  or  maiden  (Gen.  xxiv, 
14,  16,  28,  55;  xxxiv,  3,  12;  Deut.  xxii,  15  sq.),  for 
which  the  fem.  noun  (iTl"J,  naaruh')  is  usually  em- 
ployed, properly  denotes  a  hoy,  being  prob.  a  primitive 
word.  It  is  spoken  of  an  infant  just  born  (Exod.  ii,  6  ; 
Judg.  xiii,  5,  7;  1  Sam.  iv,  21),  of  a  boy  not  yet  full 
grown  (Gen.  xxi,  10  sq. ;  xxii,  12;  Isa.  vii,  10;  viii,  4), 
and  of  a  youth  nearly  twenty  years  old  (Gen.  xxxiv,  19; 
xli,  12  ;  1  Kings  iii,  7 ;  2  Sam.  xviii,  5, 29).  See  Child, 
etc. 

Iia'dau  (Ta^c'iv  v.  r.  A.a\av,  and  even  'Acrni',  Yulg. 
Dalarns),  one  of  the  Temple  servants  whose  descend- 
ants had  lost  their  pedigree  after  the  exile  (1  Esdr.  v, 
37)  ;  evidently  the  Delaiah  (q.  v.)  of  the  Hebrew  text 
(Ezra  ii.  60). ' 

Ladd,  Francis  Dudley,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 


ctiam  ova  et  lacticinia,  circa  quorum  abstinentiam  in 
aliis  jejmiiis  diversae  consuetudines  existuiit  a])ud  diver- 
sos."  The  Laodicean  and  Trullan  (A.D.  691)  councils 
made  stringent  requirements  on  the  subject.  Certain 
papal  dispensations,  granted  as  late  as  A.D.  1344  and 
A.D.  1485,  show  that  even  in  certain  parts  of  the  West- 
ern Church  this  abstinence  was  practiced  in  many  fasts 
besides  Lent.  In  some  Catholic  countries  general  dis- 
pensations on  this  point  have  become  permanent  by 
long  custom  and  positive  decree,  especially  on  the 
ground  of  health  and  necessity. 

In  tlie  English  Church  the  only  abstinence  that  was 
ever  enforced  was  from  tlesh-meat,  in  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth ;  but  its  object  -was  rather  the  promotion  of 
state  interests,  "  to  promote  fisheries,  to  maintain  mari- 
ners, and  set  men  a  fishing ;"  and  was  dispensed  with  by 
virtue  of  licenses,  which  were  sold,  according  to  the  rank 
of  the  ajiplicants,  bj'  the  curates,  under  an  act  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  in  the  fifth  year  of  her  [Elizabeth's]  reign 
(Walcott,  Sacred  A  rchwol.  p.  273, 
Fasts  ;  comp.  Hook,  Ch.  Diction- 
ary, article  Abstinence).    "  AVith 
us,"  says  Wheatly  (Hook,  Chiti-ch 
Diet.  p.  9),  "  neither  Church  nor 
State  makes  any  difference  in  the 
kinds  of  meat ;  but,  as  far  as  the 
former  determines  in  the  matter, 
she  seems  to  recommend  an  en- 
tire abstinence  from  all  manner 
of  food  till  the  time  of  fasting  be 
over;   declaring  in  her  [Ch.  of 
Engl.]  homilies  that  fasting  is  a 
withholding  of  meat,  drink,  and 
all  natural  food  from  the  body 
f(ir  the  determined  time  of  fast- 
ing."    See  Wetzer   und  Wclte, 
Kirchen-Lex.  s.  v.     See  also  Ab- 
stinenxe;  Fasts. 

Lacunary    Roofs.       The 

ceiling  of  churches  in  early  times 
was  often  composed  of  lacunary 
work,  i.  e.  it  was  divided  into  sev- 
eral jiancls  called  laquearia  or  la- 
cnnaria,  and  these  were  richly 
gilded  and  otherwise  ornament- 
ed. Jerome  often  speaks  in  his 
M-ritings  of  the  lacunar}-  golden 
roofs.    Sec  Farrar,  Eccl.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lacu'nus  (rather  Laccu- 
Nl'S,  ArtfOKori'or,  Vulg.  ('(ileiis\ 
one  ''of  the  sons  of  Addi,"  who 
ha<l  married  a  foreign  wife  afler 
the  exile  (1  Esdr.  ix,  31);  doubt- 
less the  Ciielal  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Hebrew  text  (Ezra  x,  30). 

Lacy,  John,  an  English  mys- 
tical writer,  nourished  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century.  He 
joined  the  French  prophets  upon 
their  appearance  in  London,  and 
]irofessed  to  have  supernatural 
revelations.  His  principal  works 
are.  Warnings  of  the  Eternal  Spir-  Aucioiit  Etryptians  assailing  a  Fortress  with  the  Testudo  and  Laddcis. 

it   III/   the    Mouth    of  his    Servant  l,  2,  3,  4,  liesi.'in-rs  i.roteclini;   liv  the  lestudn  armed  wnrrinrs,  a,  h.  c.  d,   at  tlie  base  of  the  fort,  f 

r   1                              if             /T  „„  1 drivinir  a  spike  hetween  the  ioii'its  of  the  stones  along  the  u|i)ier  courses  of  Ihe  foundation  walls,./,  to 

John,    SUrimmed    Lacy    (London,  p„n  the  foot  of  the  senHna-lidder;  6,7,8,  warriors  contendinR  with  the  defenders  of  the  tir,     - 

1707    Sm.  8vo)  : A    Relation  of  tlements,  h  ,•  9,  areher  attaeliiiiii  those  above  ;  10,  mounting  to  the  second  line  of  defences,  .9 


,,      ,        ,.  J- ^,     1  ^     1  •  to  lie  let  down  to  parry  the  assault 

the  Dealings  oj  God  to  las  lancor-      the  standard,  n. 


1,  k,  I,  m,  the  garrison  defending  the  citadel,  on  ' 


f  bat- 

11 ,  1 2  seem 

hl'ch  is  mounted 


LxVDD 


191 


LADDER 


was  bom  in  1820.  AV^hcn  only  eight  years  of  age  he 
showed  marked  indications  of  piety,  but  it  was  not  until 
his  fifteenth  year  that  he  joined  the  Church,  imder  the 
ministry  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  George  Sliephard,  now  professor 
in  Haugor  Theological  Seminary.  With  a  view  to  pre- 
pare for  the  ministry',  he  entered  Bowdoin  CoUege  at  the 
age  of  seventeen,  and  graduated  witli  honor  in  18-11 ; 
then  studied  theology  at  Bangor  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained at  Farmingtoii  in  184G.  In  Nov.,  1851,  he  re- 
ceived and  accepted  a  call  from  the  Penn  Presbyterian 
Churcli,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  During  the  war  he  labored 
incessantly  for  the  good  of  the  soldiers,  but  fell  a  prey 
to  disease  contracted  in  the  camps,  whither  he  had  gone 
several  times,  and  died  JiUy  7, 1862.  See  Wilson,  Presb. 
Historical  Almanac,  1863, p.  184. 

Ladd,  William,  an  American  philanthropist,  born 
at  Exeter,  New  Hampshire,  in  1778,  was  one  of  the  orig- 
inators of  the  American  Peace  Society,  of  which  he  be- 
came president.  He  died  in  1841.  Ladd  was  editor  of 
the  Friend  of  Peace  and  the  ]Iarhinger  of  Peace,  and 
wrote  several  essays  on  that  subject. 

Ladder  (U^'0,sullam',  a  staircase,  Yi^rh.irom  ?50, 
to  raise  up ;  Sept.  (cAi/za^  ;  the  Arab,  sullumun  has  the 


Aucieut  Assyrians  assaulting  a  City  with  Ladders, 


same  signification")  occurs  only  once,  in  the  account  of 
Jacob's  vision  in  his  dream  at  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii,  1"2), 
where  the  '"ladder  set  up  on  the  earth,  and  the  top  of  it 
reached  to  heaven ;  and  behold,  the  angels  of  God  as- 
cending and  descending  on  it,"  represented  the  Gospel 
dispensation,  the  blessings  of  which  the  patriarch's  pos- 
terity -were  to  inherit;  the  Kedeemer  himself  being  this 
mystic  channel  of  intercoiu-se  between  heaven  and  earth 
(John  i,  51).  (See  Lang,  Visio  Scahe  Jacob,  Alt.  IGtIO ; 
Schramm,  Ds  Scala  Jucobaa,  F.  ad  0. 17 — .)  Scaling- 
ladders  for  war  (K\ifj.aKic)  are  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha (1  Mace.  V,  30).  That  this  was  a  contrivance 
known  from  the  earliest  times,  we  have  abundant  evi- 
dence on  the  moniunents  of  Thebes,  where  attacks  ou 
fortified  places  are  represented  as  being  made  by  soldiers 
provided  with  scalmg-ladders  (Wilkinson,  i,  390).  (For 
illustration,  see  opposite  page.)  Similar  scenes  are  fre- 
quently depicted  on  the  Assyrian  monuments  (Lavard, 
Nineveh,  ii,  284).     See  Fortification. 

LADDER  OF  TYRUS,  the  (//  KXi/ta4'  'Yvpov  ;  Yidg. 
a  terminis  Ti/ri,  possibly  reading  (cXi'^ta),  one  of  the  ex- 
tremities (the  northern)  of  the  district  over  which  Si- 
mon MaccabiBUS  was  made  captain  (crrpnr?/ydf)  by  An- 
tiochus  YI  (or  Theos)  very  shortly  after  his  coming  to 
the  throne ;  the  other  being  ''  the 
borders  of  Egypt"  (1  Mace,  xi,  59). 
The  Ladder  of  Tyro  (ba  H'ob^.Q 
"iVS,  see  lleland,  PalcEst.  p.  343),  or 
of  the  Tyrians  (//  KXi/xa'^,  tiov  Tv~ 
iHbiv),  was  the  local  name  for  a 
high  mountain,  the  highest  in  that 
neighborhood,    a    hundred    stadia 
nortli    of  Ptolemais,  the    modern 
Akka  or  Acra  (Josephus,  War,  ii, 
10,  2).     The  rich  plain   of  Ptole- 
mais is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
a  rugged  mountain   ridge  which 
shoots  out  from  Lebanon  and  dips 
perpendicularly  into  the  sea,  fonn- 
ing  a  bold  promontory  about  300 
feet  in  height  (Russegger,  p.  3, 143, 
262 ;  Ritter,  Palest,  unci  xVy /•.  iii,  727, 
814  sq.).     The  waves  beat  against 
the  base  of  the  cliff,  leaving  no  pas- 
sage below.   In  ancient  times  a  road 
was  carried,  by  a  series  of  zigzags 
and  staircases,  over  the  summit,  to 
connect  the  plain  of  I'tolemais  with 
Tyre — hence  the  origin  of  the  name 
Scala  Ttp-iorum, "  Ladder  of  Tyre." 
It  was  the  southern  ]iass  into  Phoe- 
nicia proper,  and  formed  the  bound- 
ary between  that  country  and  Pal- 
estine   (Kenrick,  Phnenicia,  p.  20  ; 
Reland,  p.  544).     The  road  still  re- 
mains, and  is  the  only  one  along 
the  coast.     A  short  distance  from 
it  is  a  little  village  called  Naknrah, 
and  the  pass  is  now  called  lias  en- 
Xaldirah  ("the  excavated  prom- 
ontory"), doubtless  from  the  njad 
ivhicli  has  been  '•  hewn  in  the  rock" 
(Porter, //anrffiooZ-,  p.  389;  see  also 
Pococke,  i,  79 ;  Robinson.  Bib.  Res. 
iii,  89;  Stanley,  p.  200,  262).     The 
location  of  the  Itas  en-Nakhurah 
agrees  very  nearly  with  the  above 
jwsition  defined  by  Josephus,  as  it 
lies  10  miles,  or  about  120  stadia, 
from  Akka,  and  is  characterized  by 
tra^'cllers  as  ver\'  high  and  steep. 
P>oth  the  Ras  en-Nakhnrah  and  the 
Has  cl-A  bi/ad,  i.  e.  the  White  Cape, 
sometimes  called  Cape   Blanco,  a 
lieadland    six    miles    still   farther 
north,  are  surmounted  by  a  path 


LADISLAS 


192 


LADISLAUS 


cut  in  zigzags ;  that  over  the  latter  is  attributed  to  Al- 
exander the  Great.  It  is  possibly  from  this  circum- 
stance that  the  latter  is  by  some  travellers  (Irby,  Oct. 
21;  Wilson,  ii,  232 ;  Van  dc  Velde,i)/e?)zoj>,  p.  340;  etc.) 
treated  as  the  ladder  of  the  Tyrians.  But  by  the  early 
and  acciurate  Jewish  traveller,  hajj-Parchi  (Zunz,  in 
Baij.  ofTudda,  p.  402),  and  in  our  own  times  by  llobin- 
son  (iii,  82),  MisUn  (Zes  Saints  Lieux,  ii,  9).  Schwarz  (p. 
7(5),  Stanley  QSi/r.  and  Pal.  p.  2G4),  the  Kas  en-Nakhu- 
rah  is  identified  with  the  ladder ;  the  last-named  travel- 
ler pointing  out  well  that  the  reason  for  the  name  is  the 
fact  of  its  '•  differing  from  Carmel  in  that  it  leaves  no 
beach  between  itself  and  the  sea,  and  thus,  by  cutting 
off  all  communication  round  its  base,  acts  as  the  natural 
barrier  between  the  Bay  of  Acre  and  the  maritime  plain 
to  the  north — in  other  words,  betw-een  I'alestine  and 
Phtt-nicia"  (comp.  p.  260). — Smith;  Kitto. 

Ladislas  {Vladklas,  Vladislaf,  Uladislas)  II,  king 
of  Poland  (1380-1434),  known  also  imder  the  name  of 
Jaf/ieUo  or  Jafjelln,  deserves  a  place  in  our  work  on  ac- 
count of  his  introduction  of  Christianity  into  the  Polish 
dominions.  He  was  born  in  Lithuania  in  1348,  the  son 
of  Olgerd  and  grandson  of  Gedimin,  great  princes  of 
Lithuania.  He  succeeded  his  father  in  1386,  and,  by 
the  noble  influence  of  his  pious  Christian  wife  Hedvig, 
was  influenced  to  embrace  Christianity ;  a  short  time 
after  all  Lithuania  became  Christian,  and  when  Poland 
came  mider  his  sway  Christianity  became  the  dominant 
rcligidu  there.  He  died  in  Grodek,  near  Lemberg,  Ga- 
licia,  ;May  31, 1434.     See  Lithuania  ;  Poland. 

Ladislaus,  king  of  Naples  (A.D.  1386-1414),  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  on  the  violent  death  of  his  father, 
Charles  HL  Born  in  1376,  he  was  ten  years  old  at  the 
time  of  his  accession  to  the  disputed  crown.  Louis  of 
Anjou,  to  whom  queen  Joanna,  the  predecessor  of  Charles 
III,  had  bequeathed  the  kingdom,  was  his  competitor. 
Ladislaus  and  Louis  were  of  nearly  the  same  age.  Each 
was  left  under  the  guardianship  of  a  wido^ved  mother, 
and  each  had  on  his  side  the  authority  of  one  of  the  two 
rival  popes,  between  whom  Christendom  was  divided, 
and  whose  mutual  excommunications,  extending  to 
tlicir  respective  adherents,  were  the  scandal  of  the  age. 

The  reign  of  Ladislaus  is  historically  important  from 
its  intimate  connection  with  the  great  events  of  the 
time  in  Church  and  State.  At  an  early  age  he  devel- 
oped that  restless  energy  and  that  unscrupulous  ambi- 
tion which  made  him  a  model  for  Machiavelli's  "  Prince." 
When  but  sixteen  years  old,  his  mother  IMargaret  com- 
mitted him  to  the  barons  of  her  party  to  make  his  first 
essay  in  arms.  His  marriage  with  the  richest  heiress 
of  Sicily  put  into  his  hands  an  immense  dowry,  which 
he  employed  to  prosecute  his  designs,  securing,  when  it 
■was  expended,  from  the  ■venal  pontiff  a  divorce  from  his 
wife,  whom  he  bestowed  upon  one  of  his  favorites. 

By  means  of  the  papal  sanction  and  his  own  energy 
he  recovered  Naples  from  the  Angevin  party  (1400). 
The  faction  opposed  to  him  felt  the  full  weight  of  his 
vengeance.  His  security  was  increased  by  a  second 
marriage,  whicli  the  pontiff,  Boniface  IX,  proposed.  His 
ambition  Avas  excited  by  the  tempting  offer  of  the  Hun- 
garian crown,  made  by  those  w'ho,  dissatisfied  with 
Sigismund  (subsequently  emperor),  had  seized  and  im- 
prisoned him.  His  expedition  proved  unsuccessful,  and 
his  aVisence  from  Naples  inspired  anew  the  hopes  and 
efforts  (if  the  Angevin  party.  His  prompt  return  (1403) 
defeated  their  attempts.  The  most  powerful  of  the  dis- 
affected ndbilitj'  felt  the  weight  of  his  vengeance.  Many 
were  tlirust  into  prison.  Numbers  were  strangled.  Oth- 
ers fled.  Wholesale  confiscation  enriched  the  royal  treas- 
ury. A  reign  of  terror  prevailed  throughout  the  king- 
dom. 

Jealous  of  his  powerful  alh^,  Boniface  IX  showed 
himself  no  longer  disjiosed  to  co-operate  with  the  ty- 
rant;  but  at  this  juncture  he  died.  In  spite  of  letters 
from  tlie  king  of  France  deprecating  a  new  election, 
that  Cliristendora  might  be  miited  under  one  pontiff 


(the  French  prelates  supported  as  rival  pope  Benedict 
XIII,  q.  v.),  the  cardinals  chose  Innocent  VII  (q.  v.)  as 
his  successor.  Ladislaus,  whose  policy  was  opposed  to 
the  reunion  of  Christendom,  hastened  to  Eorae  to  con- 
gratulate him  upon  his  accession.  He  had  designs, 
moreover,  upon  Kome  itself,  torn  bj^  Guelph  and  Ghib- 
elline  factions.  Dissembling  his  purpose,  he  proposed 
himself  as  mediator,  and  secured  a  strong  hold  upon  the 
government  of  the  city,  while  his  royal  title  was  solemn- 
ly confirmed. 

Turning  from  Eome,  he  led  his  army  to  Southern  It- 
aly (1400),  but  was  repelled  by  the  yalor  of  the  Ursini. 
The  new  pope  already  regarded  him  with  mistrust.  At 
his  instigation  the  Poman  factions  were  brought  into 
colhsion.  Alarmed  for  his  safety,  the  pope  tied.  Ladis- 
laus ordered  his  generals  to  take  possession  of  the  city, 
but  they  were  repidsed.  The  citizens,  inclining  to  favor 
the  exiled  pontiff,  recalled  him  to  Pome.  Ladislaus, 
whose  attention  had  again  been  diverted  to  Southern 
Italy,  where  a  marriage  with  the  widow  of  Paymond  de 
Ursini  had  accomplished  more  than  arms,  now  advanced 
in  open  hostility,  resolved  to  regain  his  control  of  the 
city.  He  was  embittered  against  the  pontiff,  v,'ho  re- 
sented his  unscrupulous  spoliation  of  churches  and  mon- 
asteries, as  well  as  other  revenues  of  the  Church,  and 
who  complained,  moreover,  of  his  conspiracy  and  trea- 
son against  himself.  The  charges  against  the  king 
were  drawn  up  in  sixteen  articles,  and  on  the  ground  of 
these  he  ■\vas  declared  to  have  forfeited  his  kingdom,  as 
well  as  the  fiefs  ■which  he  held  of  the  Church,  and  ■was 
excommunicated  by  the  Church.  Ladislaus,  however, 
succeeded  in  calming  the  papal  resentment,  and  a  treaty 
was  effected  which  restored  him  to  his  former  power 
and  privileges;  but  as  he  evaded  all  the  provisions 
which  conflicted  with  his  ambition,  the  excommunica- 
tion would  have  been  renewed  had  not  Innocent  died 
suddenly  (Nov.  6, 1406). 

Gregory  XII,  successor  of  Innocent  YII,  pledged  him- 
self on  his  election  to  promote  the  unity  of  the  Church. 
His  disinclination  to  meet  his  rival  in  conference  ■was 
encouraged  by  Ladislaus,  ■who  assured  him  of  protection. 
The  miscrupulous  proceedings  of  the  king  stood  in  need 
of  the  papal  sanction,  and  he  was  willing  to  make  some 
efforts  to  secure  a  pope  for  himself.  Gregory  XII  dis- 
appointed the  expectations  of  his  cardinals.  Alarmed 
by  the  sedition  at  Pome,  he  fled  to  Yiterbo  (August  3, 
1407),  and  afterwards  to- Sienna  and  Lucca.  Ladislaus 
seized  the  occasion  to  make  inroads  upon  the  States  of 
the  Church.  Gregory  comjilained  of  his  conduct,  and 
menaced  him  with  the  thunders  of  the  Church.  He 
found  himself  forced,  ho^wever,  to  accept  the  plausible 
excuses  of  the  king,  whose  support  he  needed.  Ladis- 
laus now  resolved  to  prosecute  his  long-cherished  desire 
of  possessing  himself  of  Pome.  By  means  of  force  and 
treachery  he  succeeded  in  his  project.  On  the  2oth  of 
April,  1408,  Pome  opened  its  gates  to  him,  and  the  ty- 
rant of  Naples  was  welcomed  by  the  shouts  of  the  people. 

Gregory  exulted  in  the  king's  success.  He  hoped 
himself  to  be  able  now  to  return  to  Pome.  He  was  en- 
couraged to  refuse  his  assent  to  the  appointment  of  the 
council  proposed  to  he  held  at  Pisa,  which  he  justly 
feared  miglit  prove  fatal  to  his  claims.  IMeanwhile 
Ladislaus  prosecuted  his  ambitious  plans.  He  hojied  to 
secure  possession  of  Sienna  and  Florence.  For  several 
months  he  prosecuted  his  plans  by  diplomacy  and 
threats;  but  the  cautious  resistance  of  the  republics,  and 
the  hostile  attitude  of  the  Pisan  Council,  which  ■was 
now  CMarch,  1400)  in  session,  disconcerted  him.  The 
new  pontiff,  Alexander  Y,  elected  by  tlie  council,  fa- 
vored the  jiretensions  of  Louis  of  Anjou,  the  rival  pre- 
tender to  the  throne  <if  Xajiles.  The  latter,  followed  by 
an  army,  and  surrounded  by  his  partisans,  entered  Italy 
and  secured  a  lodgment  in  Rome.  Ladislaus,  in  the 
height  of  his  passion,  swore  to  annihilate  the  authors  of 
his  calamity.  He  provided  for  the  security  of  Gregory, 
who  had  been  holding  a  council  in  Aquileia,  rivaj  to 
that  of  Pisa,  and  ordained  his  recognition  as  pontiff 


LADISLAUS 


193 


LADVOCAT 


throughout  the  kingdom.  He  then  proceeded  in  force 
to  Kome,  of  -which  lie  quickly  regained  possession. 

Alexander  Y,  indignant  at  the  king's  course,  made 
up  a  catalogue  of  his  crimes,  and  ordered  Ladislaus  be- 
fore him  to  hear  the  sentence  which  pronounced  liis 
forfeiture  of  liis  throne.  Regardless  of  the  summons, 
Ladislaus  prosecuted  his  measures  of  violent  rapacity, 
amassing  the  means  to  continue  the  war.  But  at  this 
juncture  he  lost  possession  of  Rome.  With  treachery 
within  and  the  forces  of  Balthasar  Cossa  without,  the 
city  yielded  to  the  allies,  and  the  papal  authority  was 
re-established  within  its  walls. 

Tlie  sudden  death  of  Alexander  V  (May  3,  1410) 
opened  the  way  to  the  election  of  Balthasar  Cossa  him- 
self, the  sworn  foe  of  Ladislaus,  under  the  title  of  John 
XXIIL  Leaving  Bologna,  which  he  had  ruled  as  a 
despot  under  the  title  of  legate,  he  advanced  in  triumph 
to  Rome.  Ladislaus  was  now  confronted  by  an  Italian 
pope  and  a  French  army  under  Louis.  The  sentence 
of  excommunication  was  pronounced  against  him,  but, 
reckless  of  spiritual  terrors,  he  marshalled  his  forces  and 
prepared  for  the  conflict.  The  battle  took  place  May 
19,  l-tU,  near  I'onte-Corvo,  and,  after  a  desperate  con- 
test, the  forces  of  Ladislaus  were  defeated.  Instead  of 
being  disheartened  by  reverse,  however,  he  exerted  him- 
self successfully  to  bring  into  the  held  a  new  army  large- 
ly composed  of  the  fragments  of  the  old.  In  a  short 
time,  b}'  a  liberal  use  of  money,  he  had  greatly  profited 
by  the  respite  which  his  enemies,  too  sluggish  to  pursue 
their  advantage,  allowed  him.  Retracing  his  disasters, 
he  said  that  on  the  first  day  his  crown  and  personal  lib- 
erty were  endangered ;  on  the  second,  he  feared  only  for 
his  kingdom ;  on  the  third,  his  foe  could  only  waste 
himself. 

John  XXIII  had  exulted  in  the  defeat  of  his  foe.  The 
joy  at  Rome  was  expressed  by  pageants  and  processions ; 
but  the  pope  soon  discovered  that  he  had  been  too  pre- 
cipitate in  his  demonstrations.  lie  encouraged  the 
hopes  of  Louis,  but  declined  to  aid  him  by  arms.  He 
contented  himself  with  sending  Ladislaus  (August  11, 
1411)  a  summons  to  appear  before  him  as  a  heretic  and 
favorer  of  schism,  and  with  pubUshing  a  crusade  against 
him.  But  the  withdrawal  of  Louis  from  Italy  left  Lad- 
islaus without  a  competitor,  and  of  a  sudden  the  pope 
saw  himself  almost  helpless  in  the  hands  of  Ladislaus, 
and  in  constant  fear  of  his  ravages  and  assaults.  Anx- 
ious for  peace,  he  proposed  a  compromise  with  Ladislaus. 
Tlie  latter  was  to  abandon  the  anti-pope,  Gregorj'  XII, 
and  tlrive  him  from  the  kingdom.  The  pope  was  to 
confirm  the  king  in  possession  of  his  dominions,  to  ■which 
other  possessions  were  to  bo  added,  and  was  to  be  ap- 
pointed gonfalionere  of  the  Church,  and  to  be  paid  spe- 
cified sums  of  money.  Thus  John  XXIII  sacrificed  his 
ally  to  his  foe,  and  Ladislaus  did  the  same.  The  double 
ingratitude  and  treachery  were  endorsed  bj'  the  public 
recognition  of  the  legitimacy  of  the  pontiff  on  the  p.art 
of  Ladislaus,  who  ascribed  his  new  and  more  correct  ap- 
prehensions to  the  instruction  of  the  Father  of  light. 
Gregory  was  forced  to  flee  to  Rimini,  and  at  an  inter- 
view between  Ladislaus  and  the  pope,  the  latter  received 
from  the  former  marks  of  profound  homage. 

To  this  hoUow  compromise  mutual  distrust  succeeded. 
The  pope  sought  to  recover  his  old  allies.  He  excul- 
pated himself  to  Louis,  and  again  denounced  the  king 
of  Naples.  The  latter  responded  by  hostile  demonstra- 
tions. The  council  which  the  pope  had  meanwhile 
convoked  at  Rome  was  considered  by  him  as  depending 
on  the  appf)intment  and  authority  of  that  of  Pisa,  and, 
as  hostile  to  his  interests,  he  hoped  to  disperse  it.  The 
prospect  of  gaining  some  advantage  over  his  old  foe, 
Sigismund  of  Hungary,  now  elected  emperor,  was  also 
kept  in  view.  Gathering  his  forces,  he  approached 
Rome.  The  faithlessness  and  feebleness  of  the  papal 
forces  facilitated  its  capture.  The  pope  and  cardinals 
fled.  From  place  to  place  they  wandered,  yet  even 
Florence  dared  not  entertain  them  from  fear  of  the 
vengeance  of  Ladislaus.  John  XXIII  besought  help  of 
v.— N 


Sigismimd,  which  was  finally  granted  on  the  stipulation 
that  the  pope  should  immediately  convoke  a  General 
Council     See  John  XXIII. 

Ladislaus  meanwhUe  gave  full  scope  to  his  vengeance. 
Rome  trembled  with  terror.  Some  of  her  most  distin- 
guished citizens  were  sacrificed  to  his  revenge.  The 
States  of  the  Church  came  into  his  hands.  Sienna  and 
Florence  felt  themselves  threatened.  John  XXIII  for- 
tified himself  at  Boulogne,  and  gathered  forces  about 
him.  Even  here  he  did  not  feel  himself  safe.  His  car- 
dinals prepared  for  flight,  and  some  deserted  him.  The 
citizens  sought  to  hide  their  treasures,  and  tied,  gome  to 
Venice,  or  other  places  not  yet  threatened. 

There  appeared  no  longer  hope  of  effectual  resistance 
to  the  advance  of  Ladislaus.  All  Italy  seemed  about  to 
be  forced  to  submit  to  his  swaj-.  But  at  this  juncture, 
while  Imgering  at  Rerusia,  he  was  smitten  by  a  mortal 
disease.  A  slow  fever  wasted  his  strength,  but  did  not 
subdue  his  thirst  for  vengeance.  He  had  destined  the 
Ursini,  who  had  obstructed  his  capture  of  Rome,  and 
whom  he  had  promised  to  spare,  as  victims.  They  vis- 
ited him  in  his  sickness,  and  were  thrust  into  prison  by 
his  orders.  This  gross  violation  of  faith  excited  gen- 
eral indignation.  The  murmurs  of  the  soldiers  con- 
strained him  to  pause  in  his  purjjose  of  vengeance.  As 
his  disease  progressed  his  passions  became  more  fierce. 
Returnhig  by  way  of  Ostia  to  Naples,  the  officers  who 
accompanied  him  were  on  the  watch  to  prevent  him 
from  ordering  the  Ursini  to  be  cast  overboard  into  the 
sea.  When  he  reached  his  capital  he  was  no  longer 
master  of  himself.  Every  word  that  escaped  him  was 
an  order  for  some  fatal  arrest.  He  charged  his  sister, 
the  princess  Joanna,  to  see  that  Paul  de  Ursini  be  put 
to  death.  I'or  the  last  three  days  of  his  life  his  mind 
was  occupied  only  with  thoughts  of  vengeance.  With 
fearful  cries  he  was  heard  to  ask,  "Is  Paul  dead?" 
sometimes  calling  for  his  dagger  that  he  might  stab 
himself.  He  could  only  be  calmed  for  the  moment  by 
his  sister's  treacherous  assurance  that  his  orders  should 
be  executed. 

In  the  midst  of  his  paroxysms  Ladislaus  died,  Aug.  6 
or  8,  1414.  Naples  was  relieved  of  a  Ij-rar.t  and  Italy 
of  a  terror  that  had  disquieted  her  for  years.  History 
maj^  account  Ladislaus  a  modern  Herod.  All  that  was. 
unscrupulous,  cruel,  and  depraved  seemed  to  be  incar- 
nate in  him.  He  alternated  between  private  lust  and. 
public  violence.  In  his  own  age  he  was  the  most  notori- 
ous representative  of  the  vigor  and  craft  of  the  Italian. 
'•  prince."     See  Naples. 

See,  for  notices  more  or  less  extended  of  the  deeds  or 
career  of  Ladislaus,  Van  dcr  Hardt,  Monstrehfs  Chroni- 
cles ;  Niern,  Life  of  John  XXIII ;  Poggi,  Eraccioltni's' 
Wridmis.  Also  the  works  of  the  earlier  as  well  as  the 
later  Italian  historians,  including  Sismondi  and  Proctor. 
The  most  extended  and  connected  account  of  his  life,  per- 
haps, is  that  given  by  INI.  d'Egly,  Jlistoire  des  Rois  dcg 
Deux  Sidles.  He  seems  to  have  carefully  sifted  his 
authorities,  and  he  devotes  over  200  pages  of  his  second 
volume  almost  exclusively  to  Ladislaus.     (E.  H.G.) 

Ladvocat,  Jean  Baptist,  a  noted  French  theolo- 
gian and  author,  was  born  at  Vancouleurs  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17th  centurj',  and  was  educated  first  at  Pont- 
a-Mouson,  afterwards  in  Paris  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  subse({uently  became  a  professor.  In  1751  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair,  founded  at  his  suggestion  in  the 
Sorbonne  by  the  duke  of  Orleans,  for  the  inteqwetation 
of  the  Old-Testament  Scriptures  according  to  the  He- 
brew text.  He  died  in  1765.  Ladvocat  wrote  Diciion- 
naire  Geographique portaiif: — Diciionn.  Jlisloriqiie  por- 
tatifdes  grands  hommes  (2  vols.  8vo :  this  is  an  abridg- 
ment of  Moreri,  and  is  full  of  errors).  He  also  wrote 
a  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  his  pupils ;  Tracta- 
tiis  de  Condliis  in  Geiwre  ;  and  Lett  re  dans  luqiielle  il  ex- 
amine si  les  Textes  originaux  de  VEcriture  sent  corriim- 
pus  et  si  la  Vulgate  leur  est  preferable.  Ladvocat  was. 
as  an  expositor  of  Scripture,  a  zealous  disciple  of  Hou- 
bigant.     He  was  also  a  correspondent  of  Dr.  Kenuicott, 


LADY 


194 


LAHMI 


whose  (xreat  work  ho  zealously  promoted,  and  he  collated 
many  SiSS.  for  him  in  the  IJoyal  Library  at  Paris. — 
llooiv,  /■:(■(■!(  s.  JJioffrap/ii/,  vi,  oOG. 

Lady  is  the  rendering  in  the  Auth.  A'ers.  of  the  fol- 
lowing terms  in  the  origmal:  riilia  {f/ehe'retJi,{em.  of 
■|^-"s  a  mlrjhtij  man),  applied  to  Babylon  as  the  mistress 
of  nations  (Isa.  xlvii,  5,  7 ;  elsewhere  a  "  mistress,"  as 
opposctl  to  a  maid-servant,  Gen.  xvi,  4,  8,  9 ;  2  Kings  v, 
3;  I'rov.  xxx,  23;  Psa.  cxxii'i,  2,  Isa.  xxiv,  2);  ITTJ 
(sarah',  fem.  of  "lb,  noble ;  the  same  as  the  name  given 
to  Sarai),  a  noble  female  (Judg.  v,  29;  Esth.  i,  18;  else- 
where a  "  princess,"  spec,  the  king's  wives  of  noble  birth, 
1  Kings  xi,  13,  different  from  concubines,  comp.  Cant,  vi, 
8;  "queen,"  Isa.  xlix,  23;  "princess"  among  provinces. 
Lam.  i,  1) ;  KVi/ia  (fem.  of  Kvpioc,  lord  or  master),  mis- 
tress, occurs  only  as  an  epithet  of  a  Christian  female  (2 
John  i,  1 ,  5 ),  either  as  an  honorable  title  of  regard,  or  as 
a  fem.  [)ropor  name  Cvria  (q.  v.). 

Lady  Chapel,  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Virgin 
Man,'  (^"  Our  Lath-"),  and  usually,  but  not  always,  placed 
eastwards  from  the  altar  when  attached  to  cathedrals. 
Henry  YII's  chapel  at  Westminster  is  the  lady  chapel 
of  that  cathctlral. 

Lady  Day.     See  Annunciation,  Feast  of. 

Lady  Fast,  a  species  of  penance,  voluntary  or  en- 
joined, in  which  the  penitent  had  the  choice  of  fasting 
once  a  week  for  seven  years  on  that  day  of  the  week  on 
which  Lddi/  J>ay  (q.  v.)  happened  to  fall,  beginning  his 
course  from  tliat  day,  or  of  finishing  his  penance  sooner 
by  taking  as  many  fasting-days  together  as  would  fall 
to  his  lot  m  one  year. — Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  s.  v. 

Lady  of  Mercy,  Our,  a  Spanish  order  of  knight- 
hood, instituted  in  1218  by  James  I  of  Aragon,  in  fulfil- 
ment of  a  vow  made  to  the  Virgin,  during  his  captivity 
ill  France,  for  the  redemption  of  Christian  captives  from 
among  the  Moors ;  and  to  this  end  each  knight,  at  his 
inauguration,  was  obliged  to  take  the  vow  that,  if  neces- 
sary for  their  ransom,  he  would  remain  himself  a  cap- 
tive in  their  stead.  'Within  the  first  six  years  of  the 
existence  of  the  order  no  fewer  than  400  captives  are 
said  to  have  been  ransomed  by  its  efforts.  On  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Moors  from  Spain  the  labors  of  the 
knights  were  transferred  to  Africa,  Their  badge  is  a 
shield  party  per  fess  gules  and  or,  in  chief  a  cross  pattee 
argent,  in  base  four  pallets  gules  for  Aragon,  the  shield 
crowned  \vith  a  ducal  coronet.  The  order  was  extend- 
ed to  ladies  in  1201. — Chambers,  Cyclopaedia,  s.  v. 

Lady  of  Montesa,  Our,  an  order  of  knighthood, 
founded  in  l.'>17  by  king  .lames  II  of  Aragon,  after  the 
abrogation  of  the  Order  of  the  Templars,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Ciiristians  against  the  ]\Ioors.  By  permis- 
sion of  pope  John  XXII,  James  of  Aragon  used  all  the 
estates  of  the  ex-Templars  and  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  situated  in  Valencia  for  this  new  order,  which  king 
James  n.-imed  after  the  town  and  castle  of  Montesa,  its 
head-quarters.  The  order  is  now  conferred  merely  as  a 
mark  nf  royal  favor,  though  the  provisions  of  its  statutes 
are  still  nominally  observed  on  new  creations.  The 
badge  is  a  red  cross  edged  with  gold,  the  costume  a  long 
white  woollen  mantle,  decorated  with  a  cross  on  the  left 
breast,  and  tied  with  very  long  white  cords. — Chambers, 
Cychqm'dia,  s.  v. 

Lady  Psalter.     See  Rosary. 

La'el  (licit.  l.aeV ,  ?N3,yo?-  or  of  God,  i.  e.  created 
by  him ;  otherwise  to  God,  i.  c.  devoted  to  him  ;  occurs 
also  in  .Job  xxxiii,C,  where  the  Auth.Vers.  has  "  in  God's 
stead  :"  Scptuag.  Aoi';X),  father  of  Elias.iph,  which  latter 
was  chief  of  the  family  of  the  Gershonites  at  the  Exode 
(Numb,  iii,  24).      B.C."  ante  1G57. 

LcCtare  Sunday,  called  also  Mid-t.ent,  is  the 
fourth  Siuiday  of  Lent.  It  is'  named  La-tare  (to  rejoice) 
from  the  first  word  of  the  Introit  of  the  mass,  which  is 
from  Isa.  liv,  1.     The  characteristic  of  the  services  of 


the  day  is  joyousness,  and  the  music  of  the  organ,  which 
throughout  the  rest  of  Lent  is  suspended,  is  on  this  day 
resumed.  Lwtare  Sunday  is  also  called  dominica  de 
rosa,  because  it  is  the  day  selected  by  the  pope  for  the 
blessing  of  the  Golden  Eose.  See  iiiege\,  Ilandbuch  d, 
christl.-Kirchlichen  Alterthiimer,  iv,  360,  367. 

Laevinus,  Torrentinus,  commonly  called  Torren- 
TIN.  a  Dutch  theologian,  who  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  Kith  century,  was  a  native  of  (Jhent,  and  was 
educated  in  the  University  of  Louvain  in  law  and  philos- 
ophy. After  an  extended  tour  in  Italy,  he  became  suc- 
cessively canon  of  Liege,  vicar-general  to  the  bishop  of 
Liege,  and  finally  bishop  of  Antwerp,  from  which  he  was 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Mechlin,  where  he  died  in  1595. 
At  Louvain  Torrentin  founded  a  Jesuitical  college,  to 
which  he  bequeathed  his  library  and  a  large  collection 
of  curiosities. 

Lafaye  (also  known  by  the  Latin  name  Fayus),  Ax- 
TOiNE,  a  French  Protestant  minister,  was  born  at  Cha- 
teaudun  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  centurj'.  He  be- 
came professor  of  philosophy  at  Geneva  in  1570,  and  rec- 
tor in  1580.  He  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  theol- 
ogy in  1584,  and  died  in  1615.  In  1587  he  took  part  in 
the  composition  of  the  Preface  to  the  French  translation 
of  the  Bible.  His  works  are,  De  rernaculis  Bibliorum 
interpretationibus  et  sacris  vernacula  lim/ita  pera;jendis 
(Gen.  1572, 4to)  :—De  Verba  Dei  (Gen.  1591, 4to):— i)e 
Traditionibus,  adversus  pontificios  (Gen.  1592,  4to)  : — De 
Christo  mediatore  (Gen.  1597,  4to)  : — De  Bonis  Opei-ibiis 
(Gen.  1601,  4to): — Geneva  libei-ata,  seu  narratio  libera- 
tionis  illius  qua  diviniius  immissa  est  Geneva  (Geneva, 
1603,  r2mo) : — Enchiridion  Disputatio7mm  theoloyicarum 
(Gen.  1605, 8vo) : — De  Vita  et  Obitu  Bezce  Uypomnemata 
(Geneva,  1606, 4to)  : — Commentarii  in  Ecclesiasten  (Gen. 
1609, 8vo) : — Coinment.  in  Episf.  ad  Romcmos  (Gen.  1608, 
8vo)  : — Comment,  in  Psalmos  xlix  et  Ixxxvii  (Gen.  1609, 
8vo)'. — Comment,  in  priorem  Epistol.  ad  Timotheum  (Ge- 
neva, 1609, 8  vo): — Emblemata  et  Epiigi-ammata  select  a  ex 
stromatis  j^ei-ipateticis  (Gen.  1610,  8vo).  See  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxviii,  686. 

Lafitau,  Joseph  Francois,  a  French  Roman  Cath- 
olic missionary  of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  born  at  Bor- 
deaux in  1670,  labored  for  many  years  among  the  Iro- 
quois tribe  of  American  Indians.  He  died  in  1740.  La- 
fitau is  especially  noted  for  his  archteological  researches, 
among  which  is  Maiirs  des  saiivoffes  A  mericains  com- 
parees  aiix  maiirs  des  premiers  temps  (Paris,  1723, 2  vols. 
4to).  He  wrote  also  Ilistoire  des  decouvc?ies  et  des  con- 
quetes  des  Portvgais  dans  le  nouveau  monde. 

La'had  (Heb.  id.  ^'TO,  in  pause  1il5,  prob.  oppress- 
or, otherwise  //rt»?f;  Sept.  Aoo  v.  r.  Aant^Vulg.  Laad), 
the  second  named  of  the  two  sons  of  Jahath,  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Zerah,  grandson  of  Judali  (1  Chron.  iv,  2),  B.C. 
post  1612. 

Lahai-roi.     See  Beer-i.ahai-roi. 

Lah'mam  (Heb.  L«c/i»i«s',  D'cnb,  prob.  an  errone- 
ous reading  for  Lachmam' ,  C^rib,  their  bread,  which  is 
read  in  some  MSS.,  and  which  the  Vulg.  and  Auth.Vers. 
follow;  Septuag.  An^ificVulg. /.(7;p?«f;»i),  a  city  in  the 
plain  of  Judah,  mentioned  between  Cabbon  and  Kith- 
lish  (Josh.  XV,  40),  probably  situated  among  the  Philis- 
tines west  of  the  Highlands  of  Jud.ta.  A  writer  in  Fair- 
bairn's  Dictionai-y,  s.  v.,  by  a  series  of  arguments  resting 
essentially  upon  the  insecure  foundation  of  the  mere  or- 
der of  the  names  in  Joshua,  seeks  to  identify  Lahmara 
with  the  el-IIumani  mentioned  by  Smith  in  the  list  in 
Eobinson's  Researches  (iii.  Append,  p.  119);  but  of  this 
place  there  is  no  other  trace  save  perhaps  the  name 
Tell-Imam  on  Zimmerman's  Map,  some  six  miles  to  the 
S.E.  of  the  vicinity  of  the  other  associated  names,  and 
apparently  out  of  the  bounds  of  the  group,  if  not  of  the 
tribe  itself.  Lahmam  is  possibly  the  present  Beit-Le- 
hia,  a  short  distance  N.E.  of  Gaza  (Hobinson,  iii.  Ap- 
pend, p.  1 18  ;  Van  de  Velde,  Memoir,  yi.  1 15). 

Lah'mi  (Heb.  Lachmi',  "^wrib,  my  bread;  Septuag. 


LAIDLIE 


195 


LAINEZ 


Aff^ifi  V.  r.  Aoo^ii,  Aaxfii,  etc. ;  Vulg.  Bellilchemiles),  a 
person  named  (1  Chron.  xx,  5)  as  beinsj  the  brother  of 
(ioliath,  and  slain  by  Elhanan,  one  of  David's  heroes; 
but  prob.  a  corrupt  reading  for  Beth-lehemite,  as  in 
the  parallel  passage  (2  Sam.  xxi,  19).  See  Elhanan. 
It  would  seem  that  both  these  passages  should  be  re- 
stored so  as  to  read  thus :  "  Elhanan,  the  son  of  Jair  (or 
Dodo)  of  Bethlehem,  slew  the  brother  of  Goliath  of 
(iath,  whose  spear-hanille  was  like  a  weaver's  beam." 
See  Jaih. 

Laidlie,  Archibald,  D.D.,  a  noted  minister  of  the 
Reformed  (  Dutch)  Church,  was  born  at  Kelso,  Scotland, 
Dec.  4,  1727.  After  graduating  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  he  was  ordained  to  the  Gospel  ministry 
in  175;',  and  became  pastor  of  the  Scotch  Church  in 
Flushing,  Holland,  where  he  officiated  four  years,  and 
as  a  member  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  of  that  country 
was  held  in  high  repute.  He  there  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  Dutch  Church  and  language,  and  was  prov- 
identially prepared  for  his  ministrj^  in  America.  The 
bitter  controversy  concerning  the  use  of  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage in  preaching  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  this 
country  was  practically  settled  by  the  call  and  accept- 
ance of  Dr.  Laidlie  as  pastor  of  the  Collegiate  Church 
of  Xew  York.  He  was  the  tirst  minister  called  to  preach 
in  the  English  tongue  in  this  denomination.  His  first 
sermon  was  delivered  April  15,  17(j4,  from  2  Cor.  v,  11. 
It  was  two  hours  long,  most  carefully  prepared,  and  de- 
livered to  an  immense  audience  with  great  effect  in  the 
Jliddle  Dutch  Church,  which  was  set  apart  for  his  use 
on  a  part  of  each  Sabbath  day.  This  event  marks  a 
new  era  in  the  history  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  which  Dr.  Livingston  declared  '•  shoidd  have  begun 
a  hundred  years  before."  It  would  have  saved  the 
Church  a  civd  lawsidt,  a  weary  ecclesiastical  strife,  and 
a  century  of  growth.  Trained  in  the  Scotch  theology, 
and  warmly  devoted  to  the  Dutch  Church,  Dr.  LaidUe's 
evangelical  and  powerful  ministry  resulted  in  great  spir- 
itual blessings.  He  was  a  winner  of  souls.  A  great 
reviv^al  crowned  his  ministry.  Crowds  waited  upon  his 
preaching.  His  pastoral  tact  and  success  were  rcmark- 
abl?.  His  brief  ministry  was  interrupted  during  the 
Revolutionary  War,  when  he  retired  to  Red  Hook,  and 
died  there  in  1778,  at  the  age  of  tifty-one,  a  victim  of 
consumption.  His  memory  is  held  in  great  esteem. 
He  was  prudent,  wise,  devout,  a  peacemaker,  and  a 
dauntless  herald  of  the  truth.  Tlie  circumstances  of  his 
c:ill,  the  critical  period  of  his  advent,  the  learning,  wis- 
dom, grace,  and  success  of  his  ministry,  have  made  his 
name  historical  in  his  Church.  He  left  no  printed  books, 
but  his  "  works  do  follow  him."  It  is  related  that  one 
of  his  aged  parishioners  once  said  to  him,  soon  after  he 
came  to  New  York,  "Ah  !  dominie,  we  offered  up  many 
an  earnest  prayer  in  Dutch  for  your  coaaing  among  us, 
and  the  Lord  has  heard  us  in  Enr/lish,  and  has  sent  you 
to  us."  But  his  coming  illustrated  another  phase  of 
contradictory  human  nature  in  those  who  had  most 
strenuously  insisted  upon  the  retention  of  the  language 
of  the  mother  country.  Some  of  these  very  people,  of- 
fendeil  and  baflled  by  their  more  sensible  co-worship- 
pers, actually  left  the  Dutch  Church  and  joined  the 
Episcopal,  saying  as  they  departed,  "  If  we  must  have 
English,  we  will  have  all  English."  Among  them  were 
the  Stuyvesants,  Livingstons,  and  other  eminent  fami- 
lies of  the  city,  who  have  ever  since  been  connected 
with  the  latter  denomination. — Dr.  Thos.  Do  Witt,  His- 
torical Discourse  (ISM) :  Dr.  Gunn,  IJ/'e  oj' Dr.  Lirin/j- 
stoii;  Sprague,  Ann.  of  the  Anier.  Pulpit,  vol.  ix.  (W. 
J.  R.  T.) 

Lainez  (or  Laynes),  Francisco,  a  Portuguese 
Roman  Catholic  missionary,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  165G. 
His  true  name  was  Francisco  Troi/ano.  He  joined  the 
.Jesuits  in  1G72,  and  was  sent  to  the  coast  of  Malabar  in 
Ki.Sl.  He  landed  at  Goa,  and  settled  az  Catur,  in  Ma- 
dura. It  is  claimed  by  his  order  that  lie  baptized  there 
13,G00  inhabitants.  After  a  residence  of  twenty-two 
years  in  India  he  returned  to  Rome  in  1703,  and  was 


appointed  bishop  of  Meliapur.  In  1708  he  started  again 
for  India,  and  arrived  at  (Joa  September  25, 1709.  Here 
he  now  had  many  difficulties  with  the  civil  authori- 
ties, and  finally  retired  to  the  Jesuits'  establishment  at 
Chandernagore,  where  he  died,  June  11,  1715.  He 
wrote,  DeJ'ensio  Iiidicarum  Missionum  Madurensis  et 
Carnotensis,  etc.  (Rome,  1707,  4to) :  —  Carta  esorita  de 
Mudure  aos  padres  da  companhia  missionarios  acerca 
do  V.  P.  Joiio  de  Brito,  translated  into  French  in  the 
Letires  edifiantes  et  curieuses,  ii,  1-56 ;  and  in  the  Mer- 
cure,  under  the  title  Lettre  dn  P.  Francois  de  Laynes, 
jesuite,  etc.  (^larch,  1695).  See  Barbosa  Machado,  Bih- 
liotheca  Lusitana;  P.  Prat,  Vie  de  Jean  de  Brito  (2  vols. 
8vo) ;  Franco.  Imaffern  da  virtude  uro  noviciado  de  Coim- 
bra  (2  vols,  fol.) ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  41. 

Lainez,  lago,  a  celebrated  Spanish  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Almancario,  near  Siguenca,  in  Castile,  in  1512, 
and  was  educated  at  the  high-school  of  AJcsJa.  In  his 
nineteenth  year  he  was  attracted  to  Paris  by  the  renown 
of  Ignatius,  and  at  once  became  one  of  his  most  ardent 
followers.  He  accompanied  Loj'ola  on  his  journey  to 
Rome,  and  there  obtained  from  pope  Paul  HI  the  ap- 
pointment to  a  professor's  chair  in  the  "  Collegium  della 
Sapienza."  On  the  death  of  the  great  leader  of  the 
Jesuitical  order  (in  155C)  Lainez  was  elected  his  suc- 
cessor, and  became  general  of  the  order  (.June  19, 1557). 
A  cardinal's  hat  and  other  high  positions  he  refused, 
determined  to  devote  all  his  time  and  energy  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  new  order.  In  the  Council  of  Trent, 
where,  with  Salmeron,  he  represented  Ids  order,  he  took 
an  active  part,  anil  opposed  the  doctrine  of  Seripando 
on  justification.  Lainez  appeared  on  the  field  of  con- 
troversy more  with  a  work  on  the  subject  than  with  a 
speech.  He  had  the  greatest  number  of  the  divines  on 
his  side.  He  also  took  a  leading  part  in  that  conned  in 
the  discussion  concerning  the  divine  right  of  bishops 
and  the  infallibility  of  the  pope.  The  historians  have 
preserved  a  very  full  report  of  his  speech  on  this  point. 
It  contains  the  most  extravagant  assertions  of  pontifical 
power  and  authority.  Lainez  maintained  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  sole  ruler  of  his  Church  ;  that  when  he  left  the 
world  he  constituted  Peter  and  his  successors  his  vic- 
ars ;  that,  in  consequence,  the  pope  is  absolute  lord  and 
master,  supreme  and  infallible ;  that  bishops  derive  from 
him  their  power  and  jurisdiction;  and  that,  in  fact, 
there  is  no  power  whatever  in  the  Church  excepting 
that  which  emanates  from  him,  so  that  even  general 
councils  have  no  authority,  are  not  infallible,  do  not  en- 
joy the  inriuence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  unless  they  are 
summoned  and  controlled  by  papal  authority  (compare 
Pallav.  lib.  xviii,  s.  15  ;  Sarpi,  lib.  vii,  s.  20;  Le  Plat,  v, 
524).  Lainez  also  took  an  active  part  (in  1501)  in  the 
Conference  of  Poissy  (q.  v.),  where  he  aimed  to  concili- 
ate the  Huguenots  (q.  v.,  especiall}'  p.  392).  At  Ven- 
ice he  afterwards  expounded  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  for 
the  express  edification  of  the  nobility ;  and,  aided  by 
Lippomano,  he  succeeded  in  laying  the  foundation  of  a 
college  of  Jesuits.  He  devoted  great  attention  to  the 
schools,  and  directed  the  thoughts  of  his  order  towards^ 
education,  ^Vell  aware  tiiat  man  is  most  intiuenced  dur- 
ing his  whole  life  by  his  earl}'  impressions.  In  some 
parts  of  Germany — at  Ingolstadt  for  instance — the  Jes- 
uits soon  acquired  the  reputation  of  most  successful 
teachers.  This  new  direction  given  to  the  order  by 
Lainez  came  near,  however,  involving  them  in  serious 
difficulties :  the  Jesuits  had  at  first  attached  themselves 
to  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  Thomists;  but,  desiring  to 
be  independent  in  doctrine  as  well  as  life,  the  Inquisition 
soon  found  reasons  to  criticise  the  freedom  with  ^vhich 
they  pursued  their  speculations  on  this  point,  and  Lai- 
nez himself  was  suspected  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition 
(see  Llorente,  iii,  83).  He  died  at  Rome  Jan.  19,  1565. 
It  was  under  the  guidanJI  of  Lainez  that  the  spirit  of 
intrigue  entered  freely  into  the  society.  He  possessed 
a  peculiar  craftiness  and  dexterity  in  managing  affairs, 
and  was  freipiently  led  by  it  into  lov.-  and  unworthy 
tricks.     His  ruling  passion  was  ambition,  which  he 


LAING 


196 


LAISH 


knew  well  how  to  conceal  iiiulcr  a  veil  of  humility  and 
piety.  ,Bv  liis  artful  policy  lie  transformed  the  charac- 
ter of  the  Jesuitical  order  into  a  terrible  army,  that,  for 
the  sake  of  advancing  its  o\ni  interests,  shrunk  from 
no  attempt  to  gain  its  ends;  an  order  which  has  be- 
come a  reproach  to  the  Church  that  gave  it  birth.  The 
.lesuits  in  the  19th  century  are  recognised  as  a  bold 
band  —  an  order  which  dares  to  undermine  states,  to 
rend  the  Church,  and  even  to  menace  the  pope.  See 
JiistiTS.  Lainez  wrote  several  theological  works,  but 
none  of  them  had  been  completed,  and  nothing  from 
his  pen,  except  some  speeches,  has  ever  been  print- 
ed. See  Michel  d'Esne,  Vie  de  Laiiiez  (Douai,  1597) ; 
'iiicolhn,  Hist.  Jesuits,  p.  506  sq.;  Veisuch  einer  neuen 
Gesch.  des  Jesuiterordens,  vol.  ii ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist. 
iii,  90,  n.  20 ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  the  Papaqj,  16th  and  17th 
Centuries,  i,  145, 153, 163,  399,  585 ;  Hardwick,  Hist.  Ref. 
ch.  viii;  Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  x,  31;  and  for  the 
Roman  Catholic  version,  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  316.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Laing,  James,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  in 
Berry  Holes  of  Plain,  Perth  County,  Scotland,  in  1785, 
and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where 
he  graduated  with  distinction  in  1816.  After  teaching 
for  some  time,  he  determined  to  devote  himself  to  the 
ministry,  and  in  1825  was  licensed  by  the  Glasgow  Relief 
Presbyterj-.  May  8, 1830,  he  emigrated  to  the  United 
States;  was  ordained  by  Washington  Classis  in  1832, 
and  was  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Argyle,  N.  Y. 
In  183-1  he  removed  to  Andes,  where  he  died  Nov.  15, 
1858.  •'  Mr.  Laing  was  a  man  to  be  esteemed,  loved, 
and  trusted — a  laborious  pastor  and  '  Israelite  indeed,  in 
whom  there  was  no  guile.' " — Wilson,  Fresh.  Histoi-ical 
Almanac,  1867,  p.  359. 

La'ish  (Heb.  La'yish,  d^b  Judg.  xviii,  14,  27, 29 ;  1 
Sam.  XXV,  44,  a  lion,  as  in  Isa.  xxx,  6,  etc.,  in  pause  d^b^ 
text  'CJlb,  2  Sam.  iii,  15,  with  n  local  fT^?^ ;  Judg.  xviii, 
7 ;  Isa.  X,  30 ;  Sept.  AdiQ  in  Sam.,  Aaitju  in  Judg.,  An- 
laa  in  Isa. ;  Yulg.  Lais,  but  Laisa  in  Isa.),  the  nanae  of 
at  least  one  place  and  perhaps  also  of  a  man. 

1.  A  city  in  the  extreme  northern  border  of  Pales- 
tine (Judglxviii,7, 14, 27,29),  also  called  Lesheji  (Josh. 
xix,  47),  and  subsequently,  after  being  occupied  by  a 
colony  of  Danites  (Josh,  xix,  47;  Judg.  xviii,  27  sq.), 
also  Dax  (Judg.  xviii,  29;  Jer.  viii,  16),  a  name  some- 
times given  to  it  in  anticipation  (Gen.  xiv,  14 ;  Deut. 
xxxiv,  1;  comp.  Jahn,£'i«?«V.  II,i,66;  Hug,  in  the /"ret - 
burr/.  Zeitschr.  v,  137  sq.).  It  lay  in  a  fruitful  district, 
near  the  sources  of  the  upper  Jordan  (Josephus,  A  ni.  viii, 
8, 4),  four  miles  from  Paneas  towards  Tyre  (Eusebius, 
Onomasf.).  Saadias  and  the  Samaritan  version  falsely 
give,  instead  of  Dan  (in  Gen.  xiv,  14),  "Paneas"  (see 
Winer,  Diss,  de  vers.  Sam.  p.  54),  which  also  Jerome  (at 
Ezek.  xxvii,  15,  and  Amos  viii,  14)  gives  as  an  equiva- 
lent. Laish  was  long  the  seat  of  a  corrupt  >vorship  of 
Jehovah  (Judg.  xviii,  14  sq.),  and  as  it  fell  within  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  Jeroboam  established  there  the  idola- 
try of  the  golden  calf  (1  Kings  xii,  28  sq.).— Winer,  ii,4. 
The  occupation  of  this  place  by  the  Sidonians  is  easily 
accounted  for.  Sidon  was  a  commercial  city.  Situated 
on  the  coast,  with  only  a  narrow  strip  of  plain  beside  it, 
and  the  bare  and  rocky  side  of  Lebanon  impending  over 
it,  a  large  and  constant  supjily  of  food  had  to  be  brought 
from  a  distance.  The  plain  around  Laish  is  one  of  the 
richest  in  Syria,  and  tlie  enterprising  Phoenicians  took 
possession  of  it,  built  a  town,  and  ])laced  in  it  a  large 
colonj'  of  laborers,  expecting  to  draw  from  it  an  unfail- 
ing supply  of  corn  and  fruit.  Josephus  calls  this  plain 
''  the  great  plain  of  the  city  of  Sidon"  (.1  nl.  v,  3, 1).  A 
road  was  made  across  the  mountains  to  it  at  an  immense 
cost,  and  still  forms  one  of  thejnain  roads  from  the  sea- 
coast  to  the  interior.  Strong\astles  were  built  to  pro- 
tect the  road  and  the  colony.  Kulat  esh-Shukif,  one 
of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Syria,  stands  on  a  com- 
manding hill  over  the  place  \vhcre  the  ancient  road 
crosses  the  river  Leoutes.  and  it  is  manifestly  of  Phoeni- 


cian origin.  So  also  the  great  castles  of  Banias,  four 
miles  east  of  Laish,  and  Ilunhi.  about  six  miles  Mcst  of 
it,  Avere  founded  by  the  I'hoenicians,  as  is  evident  from 
the  character  of  their  architecture  (Porter,  Handhouk;  p. 
444,  447  ;  Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  50,  52, 371,  403).  It 
is  most  interesting  to  discover,  after  the  lapse  of  more 
tlian  three  thousand  years,  distinct  traces  of  the  wealth 
and  enterprise  of  the  Phoenicians  around  the  site  and 
fertile  plain  of  Laish. — Kitto,  s.  v.    See  Dan. 

2.  A  place  mentioned  in  Isa.  x,  30,  where  the  proph- 
et, in  describing  tlie  advance  of  the  Assyrian  host  upon 
Jerusalem,  enumerates  Laish  with  a  number  of  other 
towns  on  the  north  of  the  city.  It  is  not  quite  certain 
whether  the  writer  is  here  relating  a  real  event,  or  de- 
tailing a  prophetic  vision,  or  giving  a  solemn  warning 
under  a  striking  allegory ;  but,  however  this  may  be,  the 
description  is  singularly  graphic,  and  the  line  of  march 
is  pointed  out  with  remarkable  minuteness  and  precis- 
ion. Aiath,Migron,  and  Michmash  are  passed;  the  deep 
ravine  which  separates  the  latter  from  Geba  is  then 
crossed ;  Ramah  sees  and  is  afraid — '•  Gibcah  of  Saul  is 
tied."  The  writer  now,  with  great  dramatic  effect, 
changes  his  mode  of  description.  To  terror  and  flight 
he  appends  an  exclamation  of  alarm,  representing  one 
place  as  crj^ing,  another  as  listening,  and  a  third  as  re- 
sponding — "  Lift  up  thy  voice,  daughter  of  Gallim  ! 
Hearken, Laishah  !  Alas,  poor  Anathoth  !"  The  words 
niij^b  "2^'ll'pin  are  rendered  in  the  A.  Y.,  '-Cause  it 
(thy  voice)  to  be  heard  unto  Laish" — that  is,  apparent- 
ly, to  the  northern  border-city  of  Palestine ;  following 
the  version  of  Junius  and  TremeUius,  and  the  comment 
of  Grotius,  because  tlie  last  syllable  of  the  name  which 
appears  here  as  Laishah  is  taken  to  be  the  Hebrew  par- 
ticle of  motion,  "to  Laish"  (agreeably  to  the  Hebrew 
accent),  as  is  undoubtedly  the  case  in  Judg.  xviii,  7. 
But  such  a  rendering  is  foimd  neither  in  any  of  the  an- 
cient versions,  nor  in  those  of  modern  scholars,  as  Gese- 
nius,  Ewald,  Zimz,  etc. ;  nor  is  the  Hebrew  word  here 
rendered  "  cause  it  to  be  heard"  foimd  elsewhere  in  that 
voice,  but  always  absolute  —  "  hearken"  or  "  attend." 
There  is  a  certain  violence  in  the  sudden  introduction 
amongst  these  little  Benjamite  villages  of  the  frontier 
town  so  very  far  remote,  and  not  less  in  the  use  of  its 
ancient  name,  elsewhere  so  constantly  superseded  by 
Dan  (see  Jer.  viii,  16).  Laishah  was  doubtless  a  small 
town  on  the  line  of  march  near  Anathoth  (see  Lowth, 
Umbreit,  Alexander,  Gesenius,  ad  loc). — Kitto;  Smith. 
INIany,  therefore,  understanding  a  different  place  from 
Dan  (Kosenmiiller,  A  Iterth.  Ill,  ii,  191 ;  Hitzig  and  Kno- 
hQ\,  Comment,  ad  loc),  regard  it  as  the  Laisa  (E\taai(, 
Cod.  Alex.  'AX«(7«)  mentioned  in  1  Mace,  ix,  5;  but  Re- 
land  has  shown  that  the  city  of  Judah  there  referred  to 
is  Adasa,  and  the  form  of  the  word  in  Isa.  does  not  war- 
rant this  interpretation  (see  Gesenius,  Comment,  ad  loc). 
This  Adasa  has  been  discovered  by  Eli  Smith  in  the 
modern  ruined  village  Adasa,  immediately  north  of  Je- 
rusalem (Robinson,  Researches,  iii,  Append,  p.  121). 

A  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionanj  plausibly  suggests 
that  the  Laishah  in  question  may  be  found  in  the  pres- 
ent little  village  El-Isaiviyeh,  in  a  valley  about  a  milo 
N.E.  of  Jerusalem  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii,  108),  beauti- 
fully situated,  and  unquestionably  occupying  an  ancient 
site'  (Tobler,  TopoyrajMe  von  Jerusalem,  ii,  §  719). 

3.  A  native  of  GaUim,  and  father  of  Phalti  or  Phal- 
tiel,  to  which  latter  Saul  gave  David's  wife  Michal  (1 
Sam.  XXV,  44 ;  2  Sam.  iii,  15,  in  which  latter  passage  the 
text  appears  to  have  read  d^b.  Lush).  B.C.  ante  1062. 
"It  is  very  rcmarkal)le  that  the  names  of  Laish  (La- 
isliali)  and  Gallim  should  be  found  in  conjunction  at  a 
much  later  date  (Isa.  x.  30)"  (Smith).  "  This  associa- 
tion of  names  makes  it  more  than  probable  that  Laishah 
was  founded  by  Michal's  father-in-law,  who,  according 
to  the  custom  of  those  times,  gave  it  his  own  name. 
The  allusion  to  the  lion  which  it  involves  is  interesting, 
for  this  neighborhood  was  another  of  the  favorite  haunts 
of  that  animal.    It  was  by  such  ravines  as  wadys  Farah 


LAISHAH 


197 


LAKE 


and  Selam  that  it  was  wont  to  '  come  up  from  the  swell- 
ing of  Jordan'  (Jer.  xlix,  19) ;  in  the  opposite  direction 
we  have  a  further  trace  of  it  in  the  Chephirah  ('  young 
lion,'  now  Kefir)  of  western  Benjamin  (Josh,  ix,  17 ; 
xviii,  2G) ;  northward,  we  find  it  encountering  the  dis- 
obedient propliet  on  his  return  from  Bethel  (1  Kings 
xiii,  24:) ;  while  in  the  pastures  of  Bethlehem  to  the 
south  we  see  it  vanquished  by  the  sujierior  jjrowess  of 
the  youthful  David  {l  Sam.  xvii,  14-17)"  (Fairbairn). 

Laishah  (Heb.  La'yeshah,  iT^'^^,  i.e.  Laish,  with  H 
paragogic,  Isa.  x,  30).     See  Laish,  2. 

Laity,  the  people  as  distinguished  from  the  clergy. 
The  (ireek  word  XdiKoQ,  derived  from  Xaof  (Latin  syn- 
onyme  pkbs),  people,  and  signifying  one  of  the  peo])k',  is 
retained  in  the  Latin  laicus,  from  which  laitij  is  derived. 
In  the  Sept.Xaof  is  used  as  the  synonyme  of  the  Hebrew 
nS",  2^t02^le.  As  synonymes  of  these  Scripture  terms  we 
may  also  cite  the  words  "  faithful,"  "  saints,"  and  "  idi-* 
ot£e"  (q.  v.).  Comp.  Kiddle,  Christian  A  n'iqHilies,  p.  188 
sq.,  274,  275 ;  Vinet,  Pastoral  Theolor/;)  (N.  Y.  1854),  p. 
345.  In  the  O.-T.  Scriptures  we  find  allusions  to  the 
luity  in  Dent,  xviii,  3,  where  upon  them  is  laid  the  ob- 
ligation to  pay  a  tithe  to  the  priest  when  offering  sacri- 
fice; and  in  Ezokiel's  vision  of  the  new  Temple,  where 
"  the  ministers  of  the  house"  (o'l  Xtirovpyovi'rti;)  are  to 
boil  the  sacrifices  of  the  laity  (Ezek.  xlvi,  24).  So  also 
in  1  Chron.  xvi,  36,  "all  the  laity  said  Amen,  and  praised 
the  Lord,"  when  Asaph  and  his  brethren  had  finished 
the  psalm  given  to  tliem  by  David ;  see  likewise  2  Kings 
xxiii,  2,  3  ;  Neh.  viii,  1 1 ;  Isa.  xxiv,  2 ;  IIos.  iv,  9.  In 
the  N.-T.  Scriptures  this  distinction  seems  to  have  been 
ignored  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  for,  although  there 
arc  passages  in  which  the  laity  are  spoken  of  as  a  class, 
it  is  nowhere  intimated  that  they  were  not  allowed  to 
exercise  the  prerogatives  of  the  clergy  in  a  great  meas- 
ure. Coleman  (^The  Apostolical  and  Primitive  Church 
[Phila.  1869, 12mo],  p.  230 ;  compare  p.  226  [6]),  one  of 
the  best  autliorities  on  Christian  antiquities,  holds  that 
in  the  earlj"^  stages  of  Christianity  "  all  were  accustomed 
to  teach  and  to  baptize,"  a  practice  to  which  Tertullian 
(born  about  A.D.  160)  soon  objected  (Z'e  Prwscript.  ch. 
xli).  From  the  writings  of  the  early  fathers,  it  is  evi- 
dent, moreover,  that  only  in  the  2d  and  3d  centuries, 
after  the  general  establishment  of  the  churches,  a  stricter 
distinction  was  inaugurated.  The  introduction  of  the 
episcopal  office,  however,  first  definitely  settled  the  po- 
sition of  the  layman  in  the  Church.  As  early  as  A.D. 
182,  or  thereabouts,  we  find  Clement  of  Rome  pointing 
to  the  laity  as  a  distinct  class.  In  a  letter  of  his  to  the 
Corinthians  respecting  the  order  of  the  Church,  after 
defining  the  positions  of  the  bishops,  priests,  and  dea- 
cons respectively,  he  adds,  6  Xa'iKog  ui>^poj-jro(;  toXq  \a- 
V/co7c  TvaocTayfiamv  oi^irai,  "the  laj'man  is  bound  by 
the  laws  which  belong  to  laymen"  {Ad  Corinth,  i,  40). 
A  little  later,  Cyprian  (born  about'  the  beginning  of  the 
3d  century)  uses  the  words  "  clerus"  and  "  plebs"  as  of 
the  two  bodies  which  make  up  the  Christian  Church 
(£/7.  Ix).  But  the  idea  that  the  priesthood  formed  an 
intermediate  class  between  God  (Christ)  and  the  Chris- 
tian community  first  became  prevalent  during  the  cor- 
ruptions that  ensued  upon  the  establishment  of  the  prel- 
acy. Gradually,  as  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  increased, 
the  infliK'uce  which  the  laity  had  exercised  in  tlie  gov- 
ernment of  the  Church  was  taken  from  them,  and  in 
602  a  synod  held  at  Kome  under  Sj'mmachus  finall}'  de- 
prived the  layman  of  all  activity  in  the  management 
of  any  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  (compare  Coleman, 
Apostolic  and  Primitive  Church,  p.  118). 

In  the  Church  of  the  Reformers  a  very  different  spirit 
prevailed.  All  Christians  were  looked  upon  as  consti- 
tuting a  common  and  equal  priesthood.  Still  the  desire 
of  making  a  visible  distinction  often  led  even  the  Prot- 
estant Church  astray,  and  to  this  day  the  question  re- 
mains unsettled  in  some  churches  how  far  the  laity 
ought  to  share  in  the  government  of  the  Church ;  and 
hence  the  depth  of  the  distinction  implied  in  the  use  of 


the  word  "clergy"  and  "  laity"  varies  with  the  "Church" 
views  of  those  employing  them.  Some  very  strict  Prot- 
estants prefer  the  words  "mmister"  and  "people"  in- 
stead of  clergy  and  laity. 

Farrar  (in  his  Eccles.  Diet,  p.  349  sq.)  thus  draws  the 
line  of  distinction  between  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the 
Protestant  Church :  "  It  is  for  the  sake  of  the  people 
that  the  ordinances  of  religion,  and  the  clergy  as  the 
dispensers  of  them,  exist ;  they  are  called  to  bear  the 
burdens  of  the  Church,  as  they  receive  its  benefits.  It 
is,  however,  questioned  by  some  how  far  the  professional 
distinctions  between  clergy  and  laity  are  desirable.  As 
religious  teachers,  the  clergy  may  be  expected  to  be 
more  especially  occupied  in  fitting  themselves  for  that 
ofHce  in  qualifying  themselves  to  explain,  and  to  en- 
force on  others,  the  evidences,  the  doctrines,  and  the 
obligations ;  but  they  are  not  to  be  expected  to  under- 
stand more  of  things  surpassing  human  reason  than  God 
has  made  known  by  revelation,  or  to  be  the  depositories 
of  certain  mysterious  speculative  doctrines;  but  '■sttiv- 
ards  of  the  mysteries  of  God,'  rightly  dividing  (or  dis- 
pensing, opSioTOjioin'TEc)  the  word  of  the  truth.  The  la- 
ity are  in  danger  of  perverting  Christianity,  and  making 
it,  in  fact,  two  religions,  one  for  the  initiated  fe;v,  and  one 
for  the  mass  of  the  people,  who  are  to  follow  implicitly 
the  guidance  of  the  others,  trusting  to  their  vicarious 
wisdom,  and  piety,  and  learning.  They  are  to  lioware 
of  the  lurking  tendency  which  is  in  the  hearts  of  all 
men  to  that  very  error  which  has  been  openly  sanction- 
ed and  estal)lished  in  the  Romish  and  Greek  churches — 
the  error  of  thinking  to  serve  God  by  a  deputy  and  rep- 
resentative; of  regarding  the  learning  and  faith,  the 
prayers  and  piety,  and  the  scrupidous  sanctity  of  the 
'  priest'  as  being  in  some  way  or  other  transferred  from 
him  to  the  people.  The  laity  are  also  to  be  constantly 
warned  that  the  source  of  these  errors  lies  in  the  very 
fact  of  thus  regarding  the  clergyman  as  a  priest  (in  the 
sacerdotal  sense  of  that  term),  as  holding  a  kind  of  me- 
diatorial position,  one  which  makes  him  something  dis- 
tinct from,  and  therefore  no  rule  for  themselves ;  a  view 
whicli,  while  it  unduly  exalts  the  clergy,  tends  most 
mischievously  to  degrade  the  tone  of  religion  and  mor- 
als among  the  people,  by  making  them  contented  with 
a  less  measure  of  strictness  of  life  and  seriousness  of  de- 
meanor than  they  require  in  their  ministers.  Laymen 
need  also  to  be  reminded  that  they  constitute,  though 
not  exclusively,  yet  principally,  'the  Church;'  the  cler- 
gy being  the  7ninisfers  of  '  the  Church'  (1  Cor.  iii,  5) ; 
that  it  is  for  the  people's  sakes  that  the  ordinances  of 
religion,  and  the  clergy,  as  dispensers  of  the  same,  ex- 
ist; that  they  are  the  'body  of  Christ;'  that  on  them 
rests  the  duty  of  bearing  the  burdens,  as  they  receive 
the  benefits  of  the  Church;  and,  finally,  that  there  is  no 
difference  between  tliem  and  the  clergy  in  Church 
standing,  except  that  the  clergy  are  the  officers  of  each 
particular  church,  to  minister  tlie  Word  and  sacraments 
to  that  portion  of  its  members  over  whom  they  are 
placed."  See  Clergy;  Lay  Representation;  Lay' 
Preaching;  Mediator;  Ministry;  Pastoral  Of- 
fice; Priest.     (J.  H.W.) 

Lake  (Xlj-ivi],  a  pool),  a  term  used  in  the  N.  T.  only 
of  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth(Luke  v,  1,2;  viii,  22, 23, 33), 
and  of  the  burning  sulijhurous  pool  of  Hades  (Rev.  xix, 
20 ;  XX,  10, 14, 15;  xxi,  8).  The  more  usual  word  is  sea 
(q.  v.).  The  principal  lakes  of  Palestine,  besides  the 
above  Sea  of  Tiberias,  are  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Wa- 
ters of  Morom.     See  each  in  its  place. 

Lake,  Arthur,  a  distinguished  English  prelate,  was 
born  at  Southampton  about  1550,  and  was  educated  at 
Winchester  School,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  of  which 
latter  he  was  chosen  fellow  in  1589.  He  became  suc- 
cessively archdeacon  of  Surrey  in  1605,  dean  of  AVorces- 
ter  in  1608,  and  finally  bishop  of  Bath  and  AA'ells  in  1616. 
He  died  l\Iay  4, 1626.  Lake  made  important  donations 
to  the  library  of  New  College,  an<l  founded  a  chair  for 
Hebrew  and  for  mathematics  in  that  institution.  He 
was  a  very  learned  man,  especially  versed  in  the  ancient 


LAKE 


198 


LA  LUZERNE 


fathers,  and  very  successful  as  a  preacher.  After  his 
death  there  vere  pubUshetl  several  volumes  of  his  ser- 
mons:  Expoaition  It f  the  First  Psalm ;  Exposition  of  the 
J'i/'l //-first  J'siiliii ;  and  Meditations — all  of  which  were 
collected  and  published  in  one  volume,  under  the  title 
I\'inety-nine  iSermons,  with  some  Religious  and  Divine 
Meditations  (Lond.  1629,  fol.)  r — Theses  de  Sahhato  (at  the 
end  of  Twisse  on  the  Sabbath) : — On  Love  to  6'o(/ (Tracts 
of  Angl.  Fathers,  4, 39).  See  \^' oot\,  Athence  Oxonienses ; 
Chalmers,  General  Biogr.  Dictionary ;  Walton,  Life  of 
Dp.  Sanderson ;  Hook,  Ecclesiastical  Biograj)]ig,  vi,  509  : 
Darling,  Cyclopcedia  Dibliograjihica,  ii,  1755 ;  Allibone, 
Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1048. 

Lake,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  English  prelate,  flour- 
ished in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  in  1G8-2;  was  transferred  to 
Eristol  in  1G84,  and  in  1685  to  Chichester.  In  1689  he 
was  ejected  for  nonconfonnity.  He  died  about  the  close 
of  the  1 7th  century.  Lake  published  only  a  few  sermons 
(1670,  4to;  1671,  4to,  etc.).  See  Defence  of  B2\  Lake's 
Profession,  etc.  (1690,  4to). — AUibone,  Diet.  English  and 
American  A  uthors,  ii,  1048. 

Lakeniacher,  .Johann  Gottfried,  a  German  the- 
ologian and  Orientalist,  was  born  at  Osterwyck,  near 
Halberstadt.Nov.  17, 1695,  and  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Helmstiidt  and  Halle.  In  1724  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Greek,  and  in  1727  of  Oriental  lit- 
erature at  Halle.  He  died  March  16, 1736.  His  works 
are,  Elementa  lingua;  A  rahicxe  (Helmst.  1718, 4to),  a  work 
which  has  been  highly  commended  for  its  intrinsic  value 
as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  Arabic  language : 
— Obsei-vationes  philologiccp,  quihus  varia  prcecipue  S. 
Codicis  loca  ex  antiquitatihus  illustrantur  (pars  i-x,  ibid, 
1725-33,  8vo,  and  often): — Antiquitates  Greecorum  Sa- 
crce  (ibid,  1734,  8vo). — During,  Gelehrte  Thcol.  Deutsch- 
lands,  ii,  223. 

Lakin,  Benjajiin,  a  jSIethodist  minister,  was  horn 
in  :Montgomery  Co.,  J\Id.,  Aug.  23, 1767 ;  was  converted 
in  1791,  and  shortly  after  entered  the  ministry.  His  first 
station  Avas  Hinkston  Circuit  (Nov.  6, 1794) ;  he  joined 
Holston  Conference  in  1795,  and  was  appointed  to  Green 
Circuit.  "  Diligently  and  successfully  Mr.  Lakin  labored 
in  the  Lord's  vineyard  until  1818,  when  his  health  and 
.strength  so  far  failed  him  that  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  the  active  ranks  of  the  ministry.  ...  He  was  at 
first  placed  on  the  list  of  suiiernumerary  preachers,  but 
soon  after  on  the  superannuate  mil.  This  relation  to 
his  Conference  he  sustained  until  liis  death,"  Feb.  5, 1849. 
See  Prof  Sam.  Williams,  in  Sprague,  A  nnuls  A  mer.  Pul- 
2nf,  vii,  267  sq. 

Lakshmi  is  the  name  of  a  female  Hindu  deity,  the 
consort  of  the  god  Vishnu  (q.  v.).  According  to  the 
mystical  doctrine  of  the  worshippers  of  Vishnu,  this  god 
produced  the  three  goddesses  Brahmi,. Lakshmi,  and 
Chandika,  the  first  representing  his  creating,  the  second 
his  preserving,  and  the  lliinl  his  destroying  energy. 
This  view,  however,  founded  on  the  superiority  of  Vish- 
nu over  the  two  other  gods  of  the  Hindu  triad — Brah- 
mi or  Saraswati  being  generally  looked  upon  as  the  en- 
ergy of  Brahma,  and  Chandika,  another  name  of  Durga, 
as  the  energy  of  Siva — is  later  than  the  myth,  relating 
to  Lakshmi,  of  the  epic  period  ;  for,  according  to  the  lat- 
ter, she  is  the  goddess  of  Fortune  and  of  Beauty,  and 
arose  from  the  Ocean  of  ^Milk  when  it  was  churned  by 
the  gods  to  procure  the  beverage  of  Immortality,  and  it 
was  only  after  this  wonderful  occurrence  that  she  be- 
came the  wife  of  Vishnu.  When  she  emerged  from  the 
agitated  milk-sea,  one  text  of  the  Ramayana  relates, 
"she  was  reposing  on  a  lotus-flower,  endowed  with  tran- 
scendent beauty,  in  the  first  bloom  of  youth,  her  body 
covered  with  all  kinds  of  ornaments,  and  marked  witli 
every  auspicious  sign.  .  .  .  TlTus  originated,  and  adored 
by  the  world,  the  goddess,  who  is  also  called  Padma  and 
(S^'i,  betook  herself  to  the  bosom  of  Hari — i.  c.  Vishnu."' 

A  curious  festival  is  celebrated  in  honor  of  Lakshmi 
on  the  fifth  lunar  day  of  the  light  half  of  the  month  Ma- 


gha  (February),  when  she  is  identified  with  Saraswati, 
the  consort  of  Brahma,  and  the  goddess  of  learning.  In 
his  treatise  on  festivals,  Kaghunandana,  a  great  modern 
authority,  mentions,  on  the  faith  of  a  work  called  Sam- 
watsara-sandipa,  that  this  divinity  is  to  be  worshipped 
in  the  forenoon  of  that  day  with  flowers,  perfumes,  rice, 
and  water;  that  due  honor  is  to  be  paid  to  inkstand  and 
writing-reed,  and  no  writing  to  be  done.  Wilson,  in  his 
essay  on  the  Religious  Festivals  of  the  Hindus  {Wo7-ks,\\, 
188  sq.),  thus  describes  the  celebration:  "On  the  morn- 
ing of  the  2d  of  February  the  whole  of  the  pens  and  ink- 
stands, and  the  books,  if  not  too  numerous  and  bulky, 
are  collected,  the  pens  or  reeds  cleaned,  the  inkstands 
scoured,  and  the  books,  wrapped  \i\}  in  new  cloth,  are  ar- 
ranged upon  a  platform  or  a  sheet,  and  strewn  over  with 
flowers  and  blades  of  j'oung  barley,  and  that  no  flowers 
except  white  are  to  be  offered.  After  performing  the 
necessary  rites  .  .  .  all  the  members  of  the  family  as- 
semble and  make  their  prostrations — the  books,  the  pens 
and  ink,  having  an  entire  holiday ;  and,  should  any  emer- 
gency require  a  written  communication  on  the  day  ded- 
icated to  the  divinity  of  scholarship,  it  is  done  with 
chalk  or  charcoal  upon  a  black  or  white  board."  There 
are  parts  of  India  where  this  festival  is  celebrated  at  dif- 
ferent seasons,  according  to  the  double  aspect  under 
which  Lakshmi  is  viewed  by  her  worshippers.  The  fes- 
tival in  February  seems  originally  to  have  been  a  ver- 
nal feast,  marking  the  commencement  of  the  season  of 
spring. — Chambers,  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

La'kum  (Heb.  Lakhim',  CliTip,  according  to  Gese- 
nius,  way-stopper,  i.  e.  fortified  place;  Sept.  AoKovf^i  v.  r. 
AwSc'tfi  and'AK-poj',  Vulg.  Lecuni),  a  place  on  the  north- 
eastern border  of  Naphtah,  mentioned  after  Jafaiecl  in 
the  direction  of  the  Jordan  (Josh,  xix,  S3),  and  there- 
fore probably  situated  not  far  south  of  Lake  Mcrom.  The 
Talmud  (Mcgilloth,ls.s.,  1)  speaks  of  a  Liikim  (Cp"!?), 
perhaps  the  same  place  (see  Belaud, Palcvsf.  p.  875).  The 
site  of  Lakkum  is  possibly  indicated  by  the  ruins  mark- 
ed on  Van  de  Velde's  Map  adjoining  a  small  pool  east 
of  Tell- A  Iha rati  and  south-east  of  Safed. 

Lalita -Vistaiia  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  Buddhistic  literatm-e.  It  contains 
a  narrative  of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  Buddha  Sakya- 
muni  [see  Buddha],  and  is  considered  by  the  Buddh- 
ists as  one  of  their  nine  chief  works  treating  of  Dharma, 
or  religious  law.  It  is  one  of  the  develojied  sutras  of 
the  Mahayana  system.  An  edition  of  the  Sanscrit  text, 
and  an  English  translation  of  this  work  by  BaLu  \lt- 
jendralal  Mitra,  is  publishing  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal.  A  French  translation  from 
the  Thibetan  has  been  made  hy  Ph.  Ed.  Foucaux.  In 
Chinese  there  are  two  translations  of  it.  See  E.  Biu:- 
nouf  Introduction  a  Vllistcire  da  Buddhisme  Indien  (Par. 
1844);  and  W.  Wassiljew,  Dtr  Euddhismus,  seine  Dog- 
men,  Geschichte  und  Literatur  (St.  Petersbiu-g,  1860). — 
Chambers,  Cyclopwdia,  s.  v. 

Lallemant,  Jacques  Philippe,  a  French  Jes- 
uit, was  born  near  Abbeville  about  ICCO,  and  died  in 
1748.  He  published  a  remarkable  work  entitled  The 
true  Spirit  of  the  new  Disciples  of  Saint  Augustine  (1706 
sq.,  4  vols.).  He  also  wrote  Moral  Refections,  with 
Notes,  on  the  New  Testament  (1714,  11  vols.). 

Lallemant,  Pierre,  a  mystical  French  writer, 
wa..  born  at  Bheims  in  1622,  and  died  in  1673.  He  pub- 
lished The  Spiritual  Testament  (1672),  and  other  works 
of  a  like  character. 

La  Ltizerne,  Cksau  Gi'ii>i.aume  de.  a  distinguish- 
ed French  prelate,  was  born  at  Paris  July  7.  1738.  In- 
tended for  tiie  Church  by  his  family,  he  .studied  at  the 
seminary  of  St.^Magloire,  and  while  yet  quite  young  had 
several  benefits  bestowed  upon  him  through  family  in- 
fluence. In  1754  he  was  made  canon  in  minorihus  of 
the  cathedral  of  I'aris,  and  in  1756  abbot  of  Mortemer. 
In  1762  he  graduated  with  distinction,  and  was  imme- 
diately appointed  grand  vicar  to  the  archbishop  of  Nar- 


LAMA 


199 


LAMAISM 


bonne,  and  in  1770  (Juno  24)  was  finally  raised  to  the 
bishopric  of  Langres.  This  position  securing  him  a  seat 
in  the  States  with  the  nobility,  he  took  an  active  part 
in  political  events,  and  tried  to  conciliate  the  claims 
of  the  third  estate  with  those  of  the  nobility  and  cler- 
gy. He  subsequently  opposed  the  declaration  of  rights 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  new  constitution,  and  spoke 
in  favor  of  making  the  right  of  veto  granted  to  the 
king  more  decisive.  At  the  close  of  August,  1789,  he 
became  president  of  the  Assemblee  Constituante,  but, 
after  witnessing  the  excesses  of  the  5th  and  (3th  of  Oc- 
tober, he  retired  to  his  diocese.  Here  he  strenuously 
ojjposed  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clerg}',  and  was 
obliged  in  1791  to  leave  France.  He  went  successively 
to  Switzerland  and  Austria,  and  finally  settled  at  Venice 
in  1799,  and  remained  there  until  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons  to  the  throne  of  France.  He  was  made  car- 
dinal July  28,  1817,  and  minister  of  state.  The  see  of 
Langres  having  been  restored.  La  Luzerne  was  reap- 
pointed to  it,  but  legal  difficulties  prevented  his  assum- 
ing its  direction.  Li  1818  he  was  the  only  bishop  called 
to  the  council  of  ministers  to  contrive  the  ratification  of 
the  concordat  of  the  preceding  year.  Although  strongly 
attached  to  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church,  La  Lu- 
zerne earnestly  advocated  a  strict  compliance  with  the 
letter  of  the  Concordat,  He  died  June  21, 1821.  Be- 
sides the  Oraisonfunehre  de  Charles  Emmanuel  III,  roi 
de  Sardaiffiie  (1773,  4to  and  12mo),  and  the  OraisotiJ'u- 
mbre  de  Louis  XV,  roi  de  France  (1774,  4to  and  12mo), 
he  wrote  a  number  of  pastoral  instructions,  etc.,  and  po- 
litical pamphlets.  Most  of  his  writings  were  collected 
and  published  under  the  style  CEuvres  de  M.  de  La  Lu- 
zerne (Lyons  and  Paris,  1842,  10  vols.  8vo).  See  Le 
ILonifeur,  July  26, 1821;  A7ni  de  la  Religion  et  du  Roi, 
xxviii,  225-233",  Mahul,  Annuaire  Necrologique,  1821, 
p.  239;  Qnerard,  La  France  Litteraire;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generule,  xxix,  38.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'ma  {\n(.{a,  Matt,  xxvii,  A(i,  which  is  also  read 
in  tlie  best  MSS.  at  Mark  xv,  34,  where  the  received 
text  has  Xai.iua  :  the  Heb.  has  both  forms,  iT2b,  lamah'. 

•I  '    '  '  T  t' 

and  ri53i3,  lam'mah,for  what ;  the  Syriac  version  has 
lemono),  a  terra  signifying  why  (as  the  context  explains 
it,  tvari,  by  which  also  the  Sept.  interprets),  quoted  by 
our  Saviour  on  the  cross  from  Psa.  xxii,  1  [2  in  the  He- 
brew ]. 

Ijaniaism  (from  the  Thibetan  h-Lama  [pronounced 
Lama^,  spiritual  teacher  or  lord)  is  the  Thibetan  form 
of  Buddhism  (q.  v.),  blended  with  and  modified  by  the 
religions  which  preceded  it  in  tliat  portion  of  China. 
Among  these  was  the  belief  in  the  "  JMystic  Cross," 
which  originated  in  the  circumstance  that  an  Indian 
prince  of  the  Litsabyi  or  Lichhavyi  race,  being  conquered 
in  war,  sought  refuge  in  Thibet,  where  he  became  king. 
The  Lichhavyis  of  Vaisili  professed  belief  in  "  Swasti." 
Swasti  is  a  monogrammatic  sign  formed  of  the  letters 
Su  and  Ti,  and  "  Suti'"  is  the  Pali  form  of  the  Sanskrit 
'•  Swasti,"  a  compound  of  su  (well)  and  asti  (it  is) ;  so 
that  "swasti"  implies  complete  resignation  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, which  was  the  chief  dogma  of  the  fatalists 
who  called  themselves  Swastikas,  or  followers  of  the 
IMystic  Cross.  These  people  were  also  annihilationists; 
hence  their  Thibetan  name  of  Mu-stegs-pa  or  Finiti- 
niists.  They  were  grossly  atheistical  and  indecent  in 
dress,  but  called  themselves  "  Pure-doers,"  and  the  sy- 
nonymous title  Punya,  "the  pure,"  Avas  carried  with 
them  into  Thibet,  and  became  modified  into  T'on  or  the 
"  Bons."  This  form  of  faith  continued  for  nine  centu- 
ries, until  Buddhism  was  generally  introduced  about  the 
midiUe  of  the  7th  century.  Even  then  the  followers  of 
the  Jlystic  Cross  were  still  powerful. 

llistorg Buddhism  was  probably  introduced  into 

Thibet  during  the  reign  of  Asoka,  who  propagated  that 
religion  with  ardor  upwards  of  two  thousand  years  ago. 
Li  B.C.  240,  at  the  close  of  the  third  synod,  numerous 
missionaries  were  dispatched  to  all  surrounding  coun- 
tries to  spread  the  doctrines  of  Sakyamuiii.     But  the 


more  formal  history  of  Buddhism  in  Thibet  I)egins  with 
king  Srongtsan  (larapo  (born  A.D.  G17,  died  G98),  who 
sent  to  India  his  prime  minister  Thumi  Sanibhota,  with 
sixteen  companions,  to  study  letters  and  religion.  He 
had  the  sacred  books  translated  into  Thibetan,  and  issued 
laws  abolishing  all  other  religions,  and  directing  the  es- 
tablishment of  this  one.  His  wives,  the  one  a  Nepau- 
lese,  the  other  a  Chinese,  greatly  assisted  him  in  these 
enterprises.  He  met,  however,  with  only  tolerable  suc- 
cess, and  the  religion  did  not  greatly  flourish.  Under 
king  Thisrong-de-tsan  (A.D.  728-786)  Buddhism  was 
more  successful  in  Thibet,  overcoming  the  efforts  of  the 
chiefs  to  crush  the  "new  religion."  This  prince  in- 
duced great  teachers  from  Bengal  and  Kafiristan  to  re- 
side in  Thibet.  They  sujierseded  the  Chinese  priests, 
who  were  the  earliest  Buddhist  missionaries.  A  imblic 
disputation  on  religions,  Avliich  was  ordered  by  the  king, 
greatly  increased  the  influence  of  the  Indian  priests. 
Large  monasteries  were  erected,  and  a  temple  at  Samye, 
and  the  translation  of  sacred  books  into  the  vernacular 
was  more  energetically  conducted.  King  Langdar  or 
Langdharma  tried  to  abolish  Buddhism,  and  in  bis  ef- 
forts to  do  so  commanded  the  destruction  of  all  temjiles, 
monasteries,  images,  and  sacred  books  pertaining  to  that 
religion.  The  indignation  against  these  efforts  was  so 
intense  that  it  resulted  in  the  murder  of  the  king  in 
A.D.  900.  His  son  and  successor  was  also  unfavorably 
disposed  towards  Buddhism,  and  gradual!}'  the  nc\v  re- 
ligion lost  many  adherents,  and  those  still  remaining 
faithful  even  suffered  persecution. 

From  A.D.  971  dates  the  revival  of  Buddhism,  or  the 
second  general  effort  to  propagate  this  religion  in  Tlii- 
bet,  under  Bilamgur  Tsan,  who  rebuilt  eight  temples, 
and  under  whom  the  priests  who  had  tied  the  country 
returned, and  fresh  accessions  were  made  from  the  priest- 
hood of  India.  Among  those  from  India  came  in  A.D. 
1041  the  celebrated  priest  Atisha.  In  the  12th  or  13th 
century  the  modification  of  Buddhism  known  as  the 
Tantrika  mysticism  was  introduced.  Considerat  \j  later 
a  great  impetus  was  given  to  Buddhism  by  the  cele- 
brated reformer  Tsonkhapa  (born  A.D.  1357),  who  en- 
deavored, about  the  opening  of  the  15th  century,  to  unite 
the  dialectical  and  mystical  schools,  and  to  put  an  end 
to  the  tricks,  pretended  miracles,  and  other  corruptions 
of  the  priesthood.  He  published  new  works  on  relig- 
ion ;  but,  so  far  as  regards  the  marked  similarity  be- 
tween the  ceremonial  of  the  Chinese  Buddhists  and 
some  Christian  sects,  Schlagintweit  says  that  "  we  are 
not  yet  able  to  decide  the  question  as  to  how  far  Buddh- 
ism may  have  borrowed  from  Christianity,  but  the  rites 
of  the  Buddhists  enumerated  by  the  French  missionary 
(Hue)  can  for  the  most  jiart  cither  be  traced  back  to 
institutions  peculiar  to  Buddhism,  or  they  have  sprung 
up  in  periods  posterior  to  Tsonkhapa"  (q.  v.). 

Sects. — According  to  Schlagintweit,  there  was  no  di- 
vision of  Lamaism  into  sects  previous  to  the  11th  cen- 
tury. Subsequently,  however,  there  arose  numerous 
subdivisions  of  the  people,  nine  of  which  still  exist, 
which  are  reputed  orthodox,  though  there  is  not  much 
known  about  them.  In  distinction  from  the  other  sects 
which  Tsonkhapa  labored  energetically  to  supersede,  he 
ordered  his  disciples  to  wear  a  j'ellow  dress  instead  of 
red,  the  color  of  the  older  religionists,  and,  to  make  the 
distinction  still  greater,  he  provided  a  peculiar  pattern 
for  a  cap,  also  to  be  made  of  yellow  cloth. 

1.  The  eldest  of  the  primitive  sects  is  the  Ni/igmajia. 
The  lamas  of  Bhutan  and  Ladak  belong  to  this  sect, 
and  they  adhere  to  ancient  rites,  ceremonies,  and  usages 
such  as  obtained  among  the  earliest  Chinese  priests. 
They  acknowledge  some  sacred  books  not  included  in 
the  Kanjur  or  Tanjur  hereinafter  mentioned.  2.  Anoth- 
er ancient  sect  is  the  Urgj/enpa.  or  the  disciples  of  Ur- 
gyen,  who  differ  from  the  first  in  their  worship  of  Ami- 
tabha  as  Padma  Sambliava,  3.  A  sect  founded  l)v  Brom- 
ston  (born  A.D.  1002)  observe  only  "prcceiits"  and  not 
"  transcendental  wisdom."  This  sect  wear  a  red  dress. 
4.  The  Sakgajja,  whose  particular  tenets  are  not  known, 


LAMAISM 


200 


LAMAISM 


but  who  wear  a  rod  dress  also.  5.  The  Gelulyn  CGal- 
danpa  or  (Jcldaiiiiia)  adlicre  to  the  doctrines  of  Tson- 
khapa,  and  this  sect  is  now  the  most  numerous  in  Thibet. 
G.  The  Kurr/yiitpa,  leave  Prfijna  Parimita,  resting  in  their 
observance  of  tlie  Aphorisms  (Sutras)  and  in  the  '•suc- 
cession of  precepts."  7.  The  Kurmapa,  and,  8.  Brilantg- 
pa,  are  not  much  known.  9.  The  Brugpa  (Dujip  or  Dad 
Uuypa)  have  a  particular  worship  of  the  thunderbolt 
(Dorge )  which  fell  from  heaven  in  Eastern  Thibet.  This 
sect  observe  the  Tantrika  mysticism. 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  is  the"Z)0)i"  religion, 
the  followers  of  which  are  called  Bonpas.  They  own 
many  wealthy  monasteries.  They  are  probably  the  de- 
scendants of  those  who  did  not  originally  accept  Buddh- 
ism, but  preserved  the  ancient  rites  and  superstitions 
of  the  country. 

Sacred  Books. — Lamaism  has  a  voluminous  sacred  lit- 
erature. Originally  it  consisted  almost  wholl}'  of  trans- 
lations, but  after  this  it  developed  rapidly  an  indigenous 
element,  especially  after  the  14th  century,  under  the  im- 
pulse given  to  it  by  Tsonkhapa.  The  commentaries  on 
the  sacred  text  are  frequently  in  the  vernacular.  But 
the  great  works  are  a  compilation  of  Sanskrit  translators, 
containing  sacred  and  profane  publications  of  different 
jieriods.  These  are  respectively  translations  of  "  the 
commandments"  and  of  the  doctrines  of  Sakyamuni,  in 
which  are  embraced  philosophy,  logic,  rhetoric,  and  Sans- 
krit grammar.  The  principal  of  these  translations  date 
from  about  the  9th  century.  Minor  ones  are  probably 
of  later  origin,  but  the  modern  arrangement  of  the  works 
is  probably  not  older  than  the  present  centur}%  These 
collections  v.ere  printed  in  17-28-46,  by  order  of  the  re- 
gent of  Lhassa,  and  are  now  printed  at  many  of  the 
monasteries.  They  are  entitled ''A'a;?/;//-  and  Tciiijur;" 
according  to  IMliller,  the  proper  spelhng  is  Bkah-hf/yur 
and  Bstan-/if/i/ur. 

"The  Kanjur  consists  of  the  following  sections:  1. 
Duh-a  (Sanscrit,  Vinat/a),  or  discipline  ;  2.  Sher-phjin 
(Sans.  Frajnapdrumitd),  or  philosophy  and  metaphyics ; 
3.  Phuh'hhen  (Sans.  Buddhavata  Sangha),  or  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Buddhas,  their  incarnations,  etc. ;  4.  dKon 
brTser/ss  (Sans.  Ratnukutu),  or  the  collection  of  precious 
things ;  5.  niDo  ssDe  (Sans.  Sutrantra),  or  the  collection 
of  Sutras ;  6.  Mjang  dass  (Sans.  Nirvana^,  or  the  libera- 
tion from  wordily  pains;  7.  rGjud (Sans.  Taiitras},  or  in- 
cantations, etc."  (Chambers).  There  are  many  editions 
of  the  Kanjur,  varying  from  100  to  108  volumes  folio.  It 
embraces  108;j  distinct  works.  INIassive  as  this  code  is, 
editions  of  it  have  been  printed  at  Pekin,  Lhassa,  and 
other  places.  T'hese  have  been  sold  for  sums  ranging 
as  high  as  £600,  or,  when  rnen  deal  in  kine,  for  7000 
oxen.  A  most  valuable  analysis  of  this  immense  Bible 
is  given  in  the  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  xx,  by  Alexan- 
der Csomii  lie  Koriis,  a  Hungarian  who  made  his  way 
to  Thibet  on  foot  for  other  purposes,  but  became  an  en- 
thusiastic student  of  the  Thibetan  Scriptures. 

The  Tdiijirr  is  "a  collection  of  treatises  in  225  vol- 
umes, elegantly  printed  at  Pekin,  containing  transla- 
tions from  Sanskrit  and  Prakrit,  on  dogmas,  pliilosophj', 
grammar,  medicine,  and  ethics,  with  Amara's  Rosha  or 
^•ocabulary,  and  fragments  of  the  Mahabharata  and  of 
other  C[)ic  poems.  The  work  of  the  great  reformer,  the 
history  of  I5uddhism,  lives  of  saints,  and  all  sorts  of 
works  on  theology  and  magic,  till  the  libraries.  But 
the  Thibetans  also  possess  annals,  genealogies,  and  laws, 
as,  for  instance,  the  'Mirror  of  Kings'  (translated  into 
Mongolic  by  Ssanang  Ssetscn,  and  into  German  by 
Schmidt),  or  I'.odhimor  (' Wiiy  to  Wisdom'),  and  works 
on  astmiioniy  and  chronology"  (Appleton). 

Among  tlie  native  sacred  literature  of  Thibet  is  the 
historical  bimk  called  Maui  Kambiim,  containing  the 
legendary  tales  of  Padmapani's  propagation  of  Buddh- 
ism in  Thibet,  and  the  origin  and  appUcation,of  the  sa- 
cred formula  "  Om  ^[am  I'adma  Hum."  It  contains  a 
description  of  the  wonderful  region  Sukhavati,  where 
Amitabha  sits  enthroned,  and  where  those  are  who  most 
merit  blissful  existence ;  a  history  of  creation ;  prayers 


to  Padmapani,  and  the  advantages  of  frequent  repetition 
of  Ora  ]Slani;  the  meaning  of  that  sacred  sentence;  an 
account  of  the  tigurative  representations  of  Padmapani, 
and  of  his  images,  which  represent  him  with  faces  varj-- 
ing  from  three  to  one  thousand.  It  contains,  moreover, 
the  ethics  and  religious  ordinances  of  Buddhism  ;  biog- 
raphy ;  a  description  of  the  irresistible  power  of  "  Om 
Mani,"  etc.,  and  tells  how  it  secures  deliverance  from 
being  reborn ;  legends,  translations  of  sacred  books,  etc. 
This  has  been  translated  into  Mongolian. 

Grades  of  Initiation, — The  Buddhist  community  is 
divided  into  three  classes.  The  first  or  highest  is  known 
in  Thibet  as  True  Intelligence,  or  Chang  Chhuh,  mean- 
ing "  the  perfect"  or  "  accomplished ;"  and  Chang  Chhtib 
Sempali,  or  "  Perfect  Strength  of  I\Iind,"  because  the 
graduate  has  accomplished  the  grand  object  of  life,  which 
is  the  perfect  suppression  of  all  bodily  desire  and  com- 
l)lete  abstraction  of  mind.  These  are  the  Bodhisatwas 
of  Sanskrit  (or,  in  Chinese,  Pitsas),  who  are  incipient 
Buddhas,  rising  by  self-sacritice  and  their  good  influence 
over  their  fellow-men  to  the  highest  goal.  Every  age 
produces  a  number  of  these  Bodhisatwas.  The  second 
class  comprises  those  having  "individual  intelligence" 
or  self-intelligence,  the  Pratyel-a,  who  turn  not  out  of 
the  way.  The  third  is  the  Sravaka  or  auditor  (lis- 
tener). 

Orders  of  Beings. — The  self-existent  Adi  Buddha,  by 
five  spontaneous  acts  of  divine  wisdom,  and  by  five  ex- 
ertions of  mental  reflection  {dhyan^,  projected  from  his 
own  essence  five  intelligences  of  the  iirst  order,  known 
as  the  Pancha  Dhgdiii-  Buddha,  or  "  P'ive  celestial 
Buddhas,"  whose  names  are  Vairochana,  Akshobi/a, 
Ratna  Sambhara,  Amitabha,  and  Anwgha  /Siddha, 
These  five  intelligences  of  the  first  order  created  "  five 
inteUigences"  of  a  second  order,  or  Bodhisatwas,  who 
"become  creative  agents  in  the  hands  of  God,  or  serve 
as  links  uniting  him  with  all  the  lower  grades  of  crea- 
turely  existence."  The  Lohesicaras  ( Jigtcn  Baugchuk), 
or  "  Lords  of  the  World,"  are  also  acknowledged  in  Thi- 
betan Buddhism.  All  these  are  celestial  beings,  the 
spontaneous  emanations  from  the  Deity,  who  have  never 
been  subject  to  the  pains  of  transmigration. 

Inferior  to  these  are  the  created  or  mortal  beings,  di- 
vided into  six  classes,  named  JJroba  Rihlnil',  or  "  Six 
advances  or  progressors,"  because  their  soids  advance 
by  transmigration  from  one  state  to  a  better  one,  until 
they  finally  attain  absorption,  and  are  no  longer  subject 
to  transmigration.  These  six  are:  ].  Lhd,  or  gods;  2. 
Lha  Via  gin.  Titans ;  o.  Jli,  which  equals  man ;  4.  iJu- 
dro,  brutes i  5.  Yidvk,  goblins;  G.  Mgalho,  the  damned. 

The  hells  are  eight  cold  and  sixteen  hot,  and  are  fa- 
vorite subjects  of  Chinese  and  Thibetan  painters.  The 
punishment  is  not  everlasting,  but  after  expiation  the 
person  may  be  born  again. 

Objects  of  Worship. — In  early  periods  Lamaism  con- 
fined its  worship  to  the  triad  Buddha,  Dharma,  and 
Sangha ;  and  pious  reverence  was  shown  to  the  relics  of 
former  Buddhas,  as  well  as  to  those  of  Sakya  himself 
and  his  principal  disciples;  but  there  is  no  mention  of 
the  elaborate  system  of  Dhyani  Buddhas,  Padmapani, 
etc.,  earlier  than  about  A.D.  400.  Primitive  Buddhism 
is  now  stated  to  have  been  undoubtedly  atheistic,  but 
was  in  later  ages  greatly  modified. 

/Sakyamuni  is  worshipped  in  Ladak  as  "  Shakya  Thub- 
ba,"  yet  there  is  a  legend  to  the  effect  that  at  the  end 
of  twenty-five  centuries  from  the  present  time  he  is  to 
be  superseded  by  a  more  benign  Buddha,  called  Mai- 
trcga,  or  Mi-le.  The  people,  however,  worship  others 
equally  with  Sakya,  though  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  tiie  worshij)  is  of  later  date,  as  Fa  Hian  is  the  first 
who  makes  mention  of  it.  He  speaks  of  it  as  extant  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  in  A.D.  400.  These  other  deities 
are  Padmapani.  Jamya,  and  Chanrazili  (or  Padmapani, 
Manju  Sri,  and  Ava  Lokiteswara") ;  and  though  the  peo- 
ple still  confirm  an  oath  by  appealing  to  the  three  su- 
premacies of  the  liuildhist  triad,  yet.  when  they  under- 
take any  enterprise  or  begin  a  journey,  their  prayers  for 


LAMAISM 


201 


LAMAISM 


success  are  almost  invariably  addressed  to  Padmapani. 
The  mystic  sentence  "  Om  Muni  Pmlma  Hiini"  is  re- 
peated in  worship,  and  is  constantly  heard  as  one  moves 
through  the  country.  It  has  been  variously  translated 
as  "Oh,  the  jewel  in  the  lotus!"  and  "Hail  to  him  of 
the  jewel  and  the  lotus!"  and  "  Glory  to  the  lotus-bear- 
er Hum !" 

Padmapani  is  a  "Dhyani  Bodhisattna,"  and  of  all  the 
gods  is  most  frequently  worshipped,  because  he  is  a  rep- 
resentative of  Sakyamuni,  and  guardian  and  jiropagator 
of  his  faith  until  the  appearance  of  the  Buddha  iMai- 
treya.  He  is  the  patron  deity  of  Thibet,  and  manifests 
himself  from  age  to  age  in  human  shape,  becoming  Da- 
lai Lama  (see  below)  by  the  emission  of  a  beam  of  light, 
and  ultimately  is  to  be  born  as  the  most  perfect  Buddlia 
— not  in  India,  where  his  predecessors  became  such,  but 
in  Thibet.  He  has  a  great  many  names,  and  is  repre- 
sented in  various  figures,  sometimes  having  eleven  faces 
and  eight  hands,  the  faces  forming  a  pyramid  ranged  in 
four  rows,  each  series  being  of  a  different  complexion, 
as  white,  yellow,  blue,  red ;  sometimes  he  is  represented 
as  having  one  head  and  four  arms. 

Co-regent  with  Padmapani  is  ^lanju  Sri,  who  diffuses 
religious  truth,  bearing  .1  naked  sword  as  symbolic  of 
power  and  acumen;  he  is  lord  of  the  intellect,  and  the 
author  of  the  joy  of  the  family  circle,  and  is  deputy 
governor  of  the  whole  earth.  The  representations  of 
him  in  Thibet,  as  in  Mongolia,  make  him  to  have  innu- 
merable eyes  and  liands,  and  even  ten  heads,  crownetl, 
and  rising  in  the  form  of  a  cone,  one  above  another ;  he 
is  often  represented  as  incarnate  in  the  person  of  some 
Dalai  Lama  as  Padmapani. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  these  are  the 
only  objects  of  worship  in  Thibet.  The  earliest  wor- 
ship of  that  country  was  a  species  of  nature  or  element 
worship ;  and,  as  Lamaism  ingrafted  tJie  ancient  gods 
and  spirits  of  the  former  inhabitants  on  itself,  tlie  poorer 
people  still  make  offerings  to  their  old  divinities,  the 
gods  of  the  hills,  the  woods,  the  dales,  the  mountains,  the 
rivers,  and  have  field,  family,  and  house  divinities.  La- 
maism was,  besides  this,  greatly  affected  by  its  contact 
with  the  Shamanism  (q.  v.)  of  the  Mongolians. 

These  gods  are  particles  of  the  Supreme  Intelligence, 
and,  though  they  are  many,  they  are  all  a  multiplica- 
tion of  the  one  God.  The  Thibetan  name  for  deity  is 
>.S'/i!(/,  the  equivalent  of  the  Sanskrit  Dera.  They  assist 
man,  each  having  his  own  sphere,  within  which  he 
reigns  supremo.     These  gods  are  both  male  and  female. 

There  arc,  besides  these,  malignant  gods,  called  "  Da," 
or  envmif,  and  "  Geg,"  decil.  The  most  malignant  of 
them  are,  1.  Lhamayin,  to  whom  many  ill-natured  spir- 
its are  subject.  They  cause  untimely  death.  2.  The 
Dudpos,  or  judges  of  the  dead.  Tlicse  try  to  prevent 
the  depopulation  of  the  world  by  prompting  evil  desire, 
by  becoming  beautiful  women.  They  disturb  devout 
assemblies.  They  are,  of  course,  antagonized  by  the 
more  benevolent  deities,  among  whom  some  become 
specially  famous,  as  the  Drag-sheds,  "  the  cruel  hang- 
men," who  are  subdivided  into  eight  classes.  Legends 
concerning  them  abound. 

Doctrines. — AccortUng  to  Csoma,  (in  the  Bengal  Soci- 
efg  Journal,  vii,  1-45),  the  higher  philosophies  are  not 
popularly  understood,  yet  the  people  of  Thibet  are  in 
general  tolerably  familiar  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Three 
Vehicles  (Triyana),  a  dogma  of  the  JIahayani  school, 
explained  in  the  Thibetan  Compendium  called  Lamrim, 
or  "  The  gradual  Way  to  Perfection."  The  argument 
of  the  book  is  to  the  effect  that  the  Buddha  dogmas  are 
intended  for  the  lowest,  middle,  and  highest  people,  and 
they  are  graded  accordingly.  In  the  matter  of  creeds, 
for  instance,  there  is  tlie  following  order.  The  lowest 
people  must  believe  in  God,  future  life,  and  that  the 
fruit  of  works  is  to  be  earned  in  this  life,  while  the  mid- 
dle class  are  to  know  (1 )  that  every  compound  is  per- 
ishable ;  (-2)  that  all  imperfection  is  pain,  and  that  de- 
liverance from  bodily  existence  is  the  only  real  happi- 
ness.    A  person  of  the  highest  class,  in  addition  to  all 


the  foregoing,  must  know  that  from  the  bodj'  to  the 
Supreme  Soul  nothing  is  existent  but  himself;  that  he 
will  not  always  be,  nor  ever  cease  absolutely  from  being. 

In  moral  duties  there  is  a  like  gradation.  Tlie  vul- 
gar are  to  jiractice  ten  virtues,  to  which  the  middle  class 
are  to  add  meditation,  wisdom,  etc. ;  while  the  supe- 
rior class  must,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  practice 
the  six  transcendental  virtues.  In  their  ultimate  des- 
tiny this  gradation  pursues  these  classes,  the  lowest  be- 
ing admitted  to  Ijecome  men,  gods,  etc.,  the  next  hav- 
ing hope  of  rebirth  in  Sukhavati,  without  pain  or  bodily 
existence,  and  the  best  expecting  to  reach  themselves 
Nirvana,  and  to  lead  others  thereunto  also.  The  priests 
who  take  the  vows  called  Dom  can  alone  hope  for  this. 

A  more  popular  code,  however,  is  necessary  for  sim- 
pler people,  and  hence  the  following  eight  precepts  com- 
monly obtain:  1.  To  seek  to  take  refuge  only  with 
Buddha.  2.  To  form  in  one's  mind  the  resolution  to 
strive  to  attain  the  highest  degree  of  perfection,  in  order 
to  be  united  with  the  Supreme  Intelligence.  3.  To  pros- 
trate one's  self  before  the  image  of  Buddha  to  adore 
him.  4.  To  bring  offerings  before  him,  such  as  are 
pleasing  to  any  of  the  six  senses,  as  lights,  flowers,  gar- 
lands, incense,  perfumes,  all  kinds  of  edibles  and  drink- 
ables, stufls,  cloth,  etc.,  for  garments,  and  hanging  or- 
naments. 5.  To  make  music,  sing  hymns,  and  utter  the 
praises  of  Buddha,  respecting  his  person  and  doctrines, 
love  or  mercy,  perfections  or  attributes,  and  his  acts  or 
performances  for  the  benefit  of  all  animal  beings.  G. 
To  confess  one's  sins  with  a  contrite  heart,  to  ask  for- 
giveness for  them,  and  to  resolve  sincerely  not  to  com- 
mit the  like  hereafter.  7.  To  rejoice  in  the  moral  mer- 
its of  all  animal  beings,  and  to  wish  that  they  may 
thereby  obiain  final  emancipation  or  beatitude.  8.  To 
pray  and  entreat  all  Buddhas  that  are  now  in  the  world 
to  turn  the  wheel  of  religion  (or  to  teach  their  doctrines), 
and  not  to  leave  the  world  too  soon,  but  to  remain  here 
for  many  ages  or  kalpas. 

Buddhism  in  Thibet,  as  elsewhere,  accepts  the  doc- 
trine of  me/emjjsychosis.  The  forms  under  which  any 
living  beings  may  be  reborn  are  sixfold,  enumerated 
previously  as  among  the  inferior  objects  of  worship. 
Good  works  involve  rebirth,  just  as  bad  ones  do.  Shinje, 
"  the  Lord  of  the  Dead,"  determines  the  end  of  life  and 
the  form  of  the  rebirth.  He  has  a  wonderful  mirror, 
which  reflects  the  good  and  bad  actions  of  men,  and  a 
balance  in  which  to  weigh  them.  When  being  in  any 
one  form  must  cease,  he  sends  his  servants  to  bring  the 
soul  before  him  for  the  announcement  of  the  form  it 
shall  next  assume.  If  the  servant  bring  the  wrong  per- 
son the  mirror  shows  it,  and  the  soul  is  dismissed. 

The  olyect  of  rebirth  being  the  expiation  of  sins, 
atonement  for  them  may  lessen  these  if  made  in  this 
life,  as  will  also  the  subduing  of  evil  desires,  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue,  and  confession.  The  Mahayana  school 
says  that  confession  confers  entire  absolution  from  sins. 
So  also  Thibetan  Buddhism  now  considers  it.  Confes- 
sion, however,  includes  repentance  and  promises  of 
amendment.  Various  ceremonies  accompany  the  avow- 
al. Consecrated  water  must  be  used,  which,  however, 
can  only  be  rendered  fit  by  the  priests  by  a  ceremony 
called  Tvisol,  or  "Entreaties  for  ablution."  Abstinence 
from  food  and  recitation  of  prayers  are  also  observed, 
but  the  commonest  form  is  that  of  a  simple  address  to 
the  gods.  The  confessors  who  deliver  from  sins  are 
generally  Buildhas  who  preceded  Sakyamimi,  or  holy 
spirits  equal  in  power  to  Buddhas.  There  are  tliirty- 
five  of  these  eminent  in  tliis  work,  known  as  the  "thirty- 
five  Buddhas  of  Confession,"  beautifully  colored  images 
of  ?i'hom  are  found  in  the  monasteries,  and  to  whom 
prayers  are  made  in  the  Thibetan  liturgy. 

Kegarding  the  future  abode  of  the  blessed,  Lamaism 
differs  from  other  Buddliism.  Nirvana  (annihilation) 
is  not  carefully  pointed  out,  and  the  sacred  books  say 
it  is  impossible  to  define  its  attributes  an(i  properties. 
But  to  those  fading  to  olitaiu  Nirvana,  or  unconscious 
existence,  the  next  best  state  that  can  be  offered  is  Suk- 


LAMAISM 


202 


LAMAISM 


harali,  entrance  upon  -which  exempts  Irom  rebirth,  but 
not  from  absi)hite  existence.  Thibetans  do  not  now 
•generally  distinguish  between  the  two,  the  great  stress 
being  laid  on  tlic  deliverance  from  rebirth.  This  region 
is  located  towards  the  west,  in  a  large  lake,  the  surface 
of  which  is  covered  with  lotus-Howers  of  rare  perfume, 
and  of  red  and  white  color.  Devotion  is  kindled  by 
birds  of  l\aradise,  food  and  clothing  being  had  for  the 
wishing.  Human  forms  may  be  assumed  and  laid  aside 
at  ])lcasure.     These  are  on  their  way  to  be  Bud<lhas. 

Priesthood. — The  first  organization  of  the  Thiljotan 
clergy  dates  from  A.D.  72G-78t),  and  the  present  hierar- 
chical system  from  about  the  loth  century.  In  A.D. 
1-117  the  Lama  Tsonkhapa  found'ed  the  Golden  IMonas- 
tery,  but  the  Dalai  Lama  at  Lhassa  and  the  Panchen 
Kinpoche,  both  credited  with  divine  origin,  gained 
greater  influence  than  that  of  Golden.  The  Dalai  La- 
ma (Grand  Lama)  is  an  incarnation  of  the  '■  Dhyani 
Eodhisattwa"  Chenrisi,  who  becomes  reincorporated  by 
a  beam  of  light  which  leaves  him  and  enters  the  person 
selected  for  the  descent.  The  "  Panchen,"  on  the  other 
liand,  are  incorporations  of  the  father  of  Chenrisi,  who 
was  named  Amitabha.  The  first  to  assume  the  title  of 
"  His  precious  Majesty,"  and  the  first  Dalai  Lama,  was 
Gedun  Grub  (1389-1473).  With  the  fifth  Dalai  Lama 
the  temporal  government  was  extended  over  all  Thibet. 
These  Dalai  Lamas  are  elected  by  the  priests,  but  since 
A.D.  1792  these  elections  have  been  greatly  influenced 


Figure  of  the  Dalai  Lama. 

hv  the  Chinese  government  at  Pekin.  Next  below  (he 
Dalai  Lamas  are  the  superiors  of  monasteries,  called 
Khaiipos.  They  are  appointed  by  the  Dalai  Lamas  for 
a  term  of  three  or  six  years,  and  some  of  them  are  con- 
sidered to  be  incarnations.  The  third  in  grade  are  the 
superintendents  of  choral  songs  and  the  music  of  the 
divine  services,  and  are  termed  Budzad.  Next  succeed- 
ing are  the  Gehkoi,  who  are  elected  bj'  the  monks  to 
maintain  order;  below  the  Gebkoi  are  the  oiio/.'.  The 
sixth  in  order  is  the  Lama,  a  title  which  literally  per- 
tains oidy  to  '•  su|ierior"  priests,  but,  by  courtesy,  is  now 
applied  to  all  IJuddhist  jiriests.  The  Tsihhan  are  astrol- 
ogers, who  marry,  are  fortune-tellers,  conjure  evil  spirits, 
etc.     Tlieir  instruments  are  an  arrow  and  triangle. 

In  the  organization  of  the  orders  there  is  a  code  of 
some  two  hundred  and  fifty  rulers.  Celibacy  and  pov- 
erty have  had  much  to  do  in  the  formation  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  priesthood.  The  vow  to  lead  a  life  of  celi- 
bacy is  rarely  revoked.  "While  the  priests  personally 
must  continue  poor,  the  monasteries  may  be  wealthy, 
and  they  actually  have  great  revenues.  Living  on  alms, 
most  is  collected  about  harvest  time.  Fees  from  funer- 
als, marriages,  illness,  etc.,  are  among  their  resources. 
The  property  of  the  monasteries  is  free  from  taxation. 


The  elder  son  generally  becomes  a  lama.  lu  1855 
the  total  number  of  lamas,  as  estimated  in  the  Jienyal 
Societij  Journal,  was  18,5U0,  in  twelve  monasteries  of 
Eastern  Thibet.  In  Western  Thibet  Cunningham  esti- 
mates one  to  every  thirteen  laymen,  while  in  Spiti  they 
number  one  to  seven  of  the  population. 

These  priests  till  the  gardens  attached  to  the  monas- 
teries, revolve  prayer  cylinders,  carve  blocks,  anrl  ]iaint. 
They  are  often  illiterate,  and,  though  most  of  them  know 
how  to  read  and  write,  they  do  not  care  to  accpiire  knowl- 
edge. Their  dress  and  caps  are  of  double  felt,  with 
charms  between  the  folds,  or  they  wear  large  straw  hats. 
The  head  lama's  cap  is  generally  low  and  conical,  though 
some  are  hexagonal,  and  others  like  a  mitre.  Thej-  wear 
also  a  gown,  which  reaches  to  the  calves  of  their  legs; 
this  has  a  slender  girdle  and  an  upright  collar.  They 
wear  also  trowsers,  and  boots  of  stiff  felt.  They  carry 
rosaries  containing  108  beads,  made  of  wood,  pebliles,  or 
bones.  Their  amidet  boxes  contain  images  of  deities, 
relics,  and  objects  dreaded  by  evil  spirits. 

Buildings  and  ]\[onuments. — The  priests  live  in  mon- 
asteries, each  of  which  receives  a  religious  name.  The 
architecture  is  similar  to  that  of  the  houses  of  the 
wealth}'.  The  entrance  faces  either  the  south  or  east. 
They  are  always  decorated  Avith  Hags.  They  sometimes 
consist  of  one  large  house,  several  stories  high,  and  in 
other  cases  of  several  buildings  with  temples  attached. 
In  their  exterior  appearance  they  are  much  inferior  to 
those  of  other  countries. 

The  temples  have  nothing  imposing  about  them. 
The  roofs  are  fiat  or  slojiing,  with  square  holes  for  win- 
dows and  skylights.  The  walls  are  towards  the  quar- 
ters of  the  heavens.  The  north  side  should  be  colored 
green,  the  south  side  yellow,  the  east  side  white,  the 
west  red.  They  are  not  always,  however,  in  this  order. 
The  interior  of  the  building  is  generally  one  large  room, 
with  side  halls  decorated  with  paintings,  images,  etc. 
The  side  halls  contain  the  library,  the  volumes  of  which 
are  on  shelves,  and  sometimes  wrajiped  in  silk.  In  the 
corners  are  ,statues  of  deities,  the  religious  dresses  of  the 
priests,  musical  instruments,  and  other  articles  of  sacred 
appointment.  "  The  Lamaic  temples  are  of  Indo-Chinese 
form,  square,  fronting  the  east  in  Thibet  and  the  south 
in  Mongolia.  They  are  often  cruciform.  There  are 
three  gates,  and  three  interior  divisions,  viz.,  the  en- 
trance-hall, the  body  of  the  edifice  with  two  parallel  rows 
of  columns,  and  the  .sanctuary  with  the  throne  of  the 
high  lama"  (Appleton),  For  a  descrijition  of  two  of  the 
largest  lama  temples  in  China,  see  Doolittle,  Social  Life 
of  the  Chinese,  ii,  457  sq. 

The  Chodiens  are  monuments  from  eight  to  fifteen 
feet,  or  even  sometimes  forty  feet  high.  They  are  re- 
ceptacles for  the  offerings  of  the  people,  and  reposito- 
ries of  relics,  and  are  very  much  revered  by  the  lamas. 
They  are  set  up  in  the  temples,  and  are  moulded  from 
metals,  or  even  of  clay  and  straw. 

The  Man  is  a  wall  six  feet  long  and  four  or  five  feet 
broad,  of  sacred  use.  Derchoks  and  lapchas  are  sacred 
flags  and  heaps  of  stones.  Prayers  are  inscribed  on  the 
flags,  and  the  people  seem  ever  eager  to  make  new  lap- 
chas. 

Images,  etc. — The  representations  of  deities  and  other 
sacred  personages  arc  copied  everj'where.  From  the 
earliest  period  relics  and  images  of  Puddha  have  been 
honored  and  worshipped  with  simple  ceremonies,  as  pros- 
trations, presentation  of  flowers,  jierfumcs,  praj'ers,  and 
hymns.  At  the  present  day,  Buddhas  preceding  Sakya- 
muni,  as  well  as  the  Dhyani  Buddhas,  a  host  of  gods, 
spirits  deified,  priests  of  local  reputation,  are  all  repre- 
sented in  images  or  pictures.  The  "  (iallery  of  Por- 
traits" has  drawings  of  over  tliree  hiuidred  saints. 

The  lamas  have  a  monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of 
these,  as  they  are  efficacious  only  after  the  jierformance 
of  certain  ceremonies  at  many  junctures  in  their  prepa- 
ration, and  these  the  lamas  alone  know  how  to  perform. 
Pictures  must  be  commenced  on  prescribed  days;  on 
certain  other  days  the  eyes  must  be  painted,  etc.    Draw- 


LAMATSM 


203 


LAMAISM 


ings  and  paintings  arc  traced  with  pinholes,  through 
which  powder  is  sifted ;  they  are  bordered  by  several 
strips  of  silk,  of  blue,  yellow,  red,  and  other  colors.  Stat- 
ues and  bass-reliefs  of  clay,  papier-mache,  bread-dough, 
or  metals,  or  even  of  butter  run  in  a  mould,  are  made. 
The  best  executed  contain  relics,  as  aslies,  bones,  hair, 
rags,  and  grain ;  these  arc  sometimes  contained  in  a  hole 
in  the  bottom  of  the  image. 

The  images  and  statues  of  the  Buddlia,  Bodhisat- 
twas,  and  the  Dragsheds  differ  greatly  from  each  other. 
Saki/amuni  is  represented  in  many  attitudes,  -with  one 
hand  uplifted  or  holding  an  alms-bowl,  as  sitting,  or  as 
recumbent.  Padmapani  has  sometimes  eleven  faces 
and  a  thousand  hands.  "MeUia,  the  god  of  tire,  when 
driving  away  evil  spirits,  rides  a  red  ram,  and  has  a  hor- 
rible countenance ;"  but  he  is  represented  in  many  other 
attitudes.  The  Bodhisattwas  have  a  shining  counte- 
nance, and  are  seated  on  a  lotus-Hower.  The  Dragsheds 
who  protect  against  evil  spirits  are  fierce-looking,  of 
dark  complexion,  and  sometimes  have  a  third  eye  in  the 
Ibrehead,  to  represent  their  wisdom.  They  are  almost 
naked,  but  wear  a  necklace  of  human  skulls,  and  have 
rings  on  tlieir  arms  and  ankles.  They  have  in  their 
hands  various  instruments  symbolic  of  their  power.  The 
Doije,  or  thunderbolt, ''  may  best  be  represented  by  four 
or  eight  metallic  hoops  joined  together  so  as  to  form 
two  balls,"  which  are  on  a  staff,  with  points  projecting. 
The  P/iurbu,  or  "nail,"  the  Beckon,  "club,"  and  Zar/pa, 
or  "  snare"  to  catch  evil  spirits,  and  the  Kajialu,  or 
drinking-vessel,  which  is  a  human  skull,  are  among  these 
sacred  instruments. 

Forms  of  Worship. — The  religious  services  consist  of 
singing,  accompanied  with  instrumental  music,  offerings, 
prayers,  etc.  The  offerings  are  of  clarified  butter.  Hour, 
tamarind- wood,  flowers,  grain,  peacock  feathers,  etc. 
There  are  no  blood-offerings,  as  any  sacrifices  entailing 
injury  to  life  are  strictly  forbidden  in  the  Buddhistic 
faith.  Drums,  trumpets  made  of  the  human  thigh-bone, 
cymbals,  and  flageolets,  are  among  the  sacred  musical 
instruments. 

The  Prayer  cylinder  is  an  instrument  peculiar  to  the 
Buddhists.  It  is  called  "kliorben"  (Hardy  says  hdarlas 
or  Tchukor,  according  to  liuc  =  turninff-prcri/er).  It  is 
generally  of  brass,  enveloped,  in  wood  or  leather.  A 
wooden  handle  passes  through  the  cylinder,  fomiing  its 
axis,  around  which  is  rolled  the  long  strip  of  clotli  or 
paper  on  which  is  the  prayer  of  printed  sacred  sentences. 
A  small  pebble  or  piece  of  metal,  at  the  end  of  a  short 
chain,  facilitates  the  rotation  of  the  cylinder  in  the  hand. 
Large  cylinders  near  the  monasteries  are  kept  in  motion 
by  persons  employed  for  the  purpose,  or  by  being  at- 
tached to  streams  of  running  water  like  a  mill-wheel. 
Each  revolution,  if  made  slowly,  and  from  right  to  left, 
is  equivalent  to  the  repetition  of  the  sentences  inclosed. 
Generally  the  inscription  is  oidy  a  repetition  of  the  sen- 
tence "  Om  mani  padma  hum."  There  is  also  a  sacred 
drama. 

Sacred  Pays  and  Festirals. — The  monthly  festivals 
are  four,  and  are  coimccted  with  the  phases  of  the  moon. 
No  animal  food  must  be  eaten,  but  ordinary  avocations 
need  not  be  discontinued.  There  are  particular  festi- 
vals for  each  month,  and  three  great  annual  festivals. 
"The  Lor/  ijSsur,  or  the  festival  of  the  new  year,  in 
February,  marks  the  commencement  of  the  season  of 
spring,  or  the  victory  of  light  and  warmth  over  dark- 
ness and  cold.  The  Lamaists,  like  the  Buddhists,  cele- 
brate it  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  obtained  by 
the  Buddha  Sakyamuni  over  the  six  heretic  teachers. 
It  lasts  lifteen  days,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  feasts, 
dances,  illuminations,  and  other  manifestations  of  joy; 
it  is,  in  short,  the  Thibetan  Carnival.  The  second  fes- 
tival,' probably  the  oldest  festival  of  the  Buddhistic 
Church,  is  held  in  commemoration  of  the  conception  or 
incarnation  of  the  Buddha,  and  marks  the  commence- 
ment of  summer.  The  third  is  the  u-aier-feast,  in  Au- 
gust and  September,  marking  the  commencement  of  au- 
tumn" (Chambers), 


Ceremonies. — Tvisol,  or  prayer  for  ablution,  is  among 
the  most  sacred  of  Buddhist  rites.  The  "  ceremony  of 
continued  abstinence"  is  performed  once  or  twice  a  year, 
and  occupies  four  days,  prayers  being  read  in  praise  of 
Padmapani. 

Rites  are  also  observed  for  the  attainment  of  super- 
natural faculties  called  Siddhi,  of  which  eight  classes  are 
distingiushed :  the  power  to  conjure;  longevity;  water 
of  life;  discovery  of  hidden  treasures;  entering  into  In- 
dra's  cave ;  the  art  of  making  gold  ;  the  transformation 
of  earth  into  gold ;  the  acquiring  of  the  inappreciable 
jewel. 

This  siddhi,  however,  cannot  be  obtained  without  cer- 
tain austerities,  observances,  and  incantations.  The  lat- 
ter must  be  repeated  a  fixed  number  of  timer.,  as,  for  in- 
stance, 100,000  times  a  day.  Meditation  is  always  nec- 
essary. 

Peculiar  ceremonies  are  observed  for  securing  the  as- 
sistance of  the  gods :  these  are  the  rite  iJnhJed,  or  mak- 
ing ready  a  burnt-offering,  which  has  various  names  and 
is  diflerently  observed,  as  the  "  sacrifice  for  peace,"  the 
"rich  sacrifice,"  to  secure  good  harvests;  the  sacrifice 
for  power,  to  obtain  influence  or  success ;  the  "  fierce  sac- 
rifice," to  secure  protection  from  untimely  death,  etc. 
Incantation  of  Lungta,  or  "the  horse  of  the  wind,"  is 
powerful  for  good,  as  is  also  the  talisman  Changpo, 
which  protects  from  evil  spirits.  The  evil  spirits  are 
limited  in  their  mischief  by  the  magical  figure  Phurbu, 
a  triangle  drawn  on  paper  covered  with  charms.  Among 
the  multitudinous  ceremonies  are  those  performed  in 
cases  of  illness.  Each  malignant  spirit  causes  some  par- 
ticular disease :  Eahu  inflicts  palsy,  others  cause  chil- 
dren to  fall  sick,  etc.  Charms,  noisy  music,  and  pray- 
ers accompany  what  rude  medicine  is  administered. 

"  Baptism  and  confirmation  are  the  two  principal  sac- 
raments of  Lamaism.  The  former  is  administered  on 
the  third  or  tenth  day  after  birth  ;  the  latter,  generally 
when  the  child  can  walk  or  speak.  The  marriage  cere- 
mony is  to  Thibetans  not  a  religious,  but  a  civil  act ; 
nevertheless,  the  lamas  knov»  how  to  turn  it  to  the  best 
advantage,  as  it  is  from  them  that  the  bridegroom  and 
bride  have  to  learn  the  auspicious  day  when  it  should 
be  performed;  nor  do  they  fail  to  complete  the  act  with 
prayers  and  rites,  which  must  be  responded  to  with 
handsome  presents"  (Chambers). 

"The  bodies  of  rich  laymen  are  buried,  and  their 
ashes  preserved,  while  those  of  the  common  people  are 
either  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  birds  or  eaten  by  sa- 
cred dogs,  which  are  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  the  bones 
are  pounded  in  mortars,  and  given  to  the  animals  in  the 
shape  of  balls.  Eich  persons  about  to  die  are  assisted 
by  lamas,  who  let  out  the  soul  by  pulling  the  skin  from 
the  skull  and  making  a  hole  in  it.  Eeligious  services 
for  departed  souls  are  said  in  the  ratio  of  payment  re- 
ceived. The  mode  of  the  funeral  is  determmed  by  as- 
trology" (Appleton\ 

Great  importance  is  attached  to  astronomy,  and  ta- 
bles of  divination  are  in  high  esteem,  as  are  soothsayers' 
formulas. 

Holy  Places. — "  The  principal  holy  place  in  Thibet  is 
Lassa,  with  the  monasteries  Lha-brang,  the  cathedral ; 
Ba-mo-tshhe  (great  circuit),  wherein  is  the  Chinese 
idol  of  Fo;  and  Moru  (pure"),  having  a  celebrated  print- 
ing-office. Near  the  city  is  Gar-ma-khian  (mother  clois- 
ter), wherein  bad  spirits  are  personated,  and  about  a 
mile  distant  a  three-pointed  hill,  with  the  chief  of  aU 
monasteries  and  palaces,  called  Potala  (  Buddha's  ^Slount), 
occupied  by  about  10,(100  lamas  in  various  dwellings. 
Several  fine  ]iarks  and  gardens  adorn  the  environs  of  the 
holy  city.  Among  the  thirty  great  lamaseries  in  the 
neighborhood  are  Sse-ra  (golden),  on  the  road  to  Mon- 
golia, with  Buddha's  sceptre  floating  in  the  air,  and 
15,000  lamas;  'Brass  ssPungss  (branch-heap),  founded 
by  the  reformer,  with  a  jMongolic  school,  odO  sorcerers, 
and  15,000  lamas;  and  dGal  Dan  (.Joy  of  heaven),  also 
built  by  the  reformer,  whose  bodj'  sometimes  converses 
with  the  8000  lamas.     On  the  road  to  Ssu-tchuan  is 


LAMAISM 


204 


LA  MARCK 


Lha-rL  (god  mountain"),  witli  a  fine  temple;  there  is  an- 
otlier  sacred  place  in  the  metropolis  of  Khani ;  others 
at  Issha-mDo  (two  ways),  Djaya,  etc.,  with  printing- 
offices;  many  others  on  the  roads  to  Pekin,  besides  the 
northern  raonasterj';  all  containing  an  incredible  num- 
ber of  monks,  under  Khntukhtus  and  lower  lamas;  so 
that  father  Hue  counts  3000  monasteries  in  U  alone; 
others  «4,000  monies  in  U,  Tsang,  and  Kham,  of  the 
yellow  .sect,  hermits,  beggars,  and  vagaljonds  not  in- 
cluded. About  120  miles  south-west  from  Lassa,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Painora  with  the  great  gTsang- 
p(>-t.shhu  (Sanpn),  is  the  second  metropolis  of  Lamaism, 
viz.  liKra-,Shiss-Lhun-po  (mount  of  grace),  also  called 
bLabrang.  with  five  great  cenobies,  many  temples,  pal- 
aces, mausoleums,  pj^amids,  and  the  like.  In  the  neigh- 
boring city  there  is  a  Chinese  garrison.  About  midway 
between  the  two  bLa-brangs  there  are  three  rocky  isl- 
ands in  a  lake,  called  gYang-brog  (happy  desert ;  Yam- 
bro  on  English  maps),  which  contain  temples,  a  mag- 
nificent palace,  and  thousands  of  monks  and  nuns,  sub- 
ject to  the  rUo-rDje-Phag-mo  (saint,  or  adamantine 
sow),  a  female  Khutukhtu,  who  becomes  incarnated  'Nvith 
a  figure  of  a  sow's  snout  on  her  neck,  in  consequence  of 
her  having  escaped  from  Lassa  during  the  troubles  of 
the  regency  in  tlie  shape  of  that  animal.  The  Cliinese 
believe  her  to  be  the  incarnate  Ursa  INIajor.  On  the 
road  to  Nepaul  there  are  tlie  sNar-thang  monastery, 
where  the  Kanjur  was  printed;  and  Ssaskya,  mentioned 
above,  no\v  the  see  of  the  red-capped  Gong-rDogss  (high 
lord)  liin-po-tshhe,  who  is  hereditary.  On  the  road  to 
Bhotau  are  the  monasteries  Kisu  and  Gantum  Gumba 
of  Turner,  and  many  others,  swarming  with  lamas,  some 
filletl  with  Ainils  (nuns).  Bhotan  is  subject  to  the  Da- 
lai, but  there  are  also  three  red-capped  Ein-po-tshhe. 
The  metropolis  is  bKra-Shiss  Tshoss  rDsong  (gloria  sa- 
lutis  tideique  arx.  Turner's  Tassisudon),  under  an  incar- 
nate great  lama  and  a  secular  Uharma-raja,  who  rules 
over  six  districts,  with  about  10,000  lamas  and  45,000 
families.  In  Sikkim  the  aboriginal  Leptchas  have  many 
mendicant  lamas  who  practice  magic,  the  other  tribes 
being  pure  Buddhists.  Buddhism  flourished  in  Nepaul 
as  early  as  the  7tli  century  of  our  a»ra.  It  now  exists 
there  with  Brahminism  and  Mohammedanism,  so  that 
Neiiaul  has  also  a  double  literature.  In  Kunawar,  and 
elsewhere  on  the  Upper  Sutlej,  there  are  many  great 
monasteries  of  both  the  yellow  and  the  red  caps,  living 
in  ]ieace  with  each  other.  At  Sungnam  there  is  a  great 
liljrary,  a  printing  establishment,  and  a  gigantic  statue 
of  Buddha.  Ladakh  became  Buddhist  before  our  oera; 
its  history  is  even  less  known  than  that  of  Thibet.  Al- 
though invaded  by  Moslems  (about  16u0),  it  has  many 
lamas,  both  male  and  female.  In  China  there  are  two 
Buddhistic  sects,  viz.  that  of  Fo,  since  A.D.  65,  fostered 
by  the  government,  very  numerous,  but  without  hierar- 
chy, each  monastery  beuig  under  an  abbot,  who  is  a  cit- 
izen of  the  I'ith  class;  and  the  Lamaists,  organized,  as 
in  Thibet,  under  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  with 
three  Kliutnkhtus  at  Pekin,  one  of  whom  is  attached  to 
t!ie  court,  while  another's  diocese  is  in  South  Mongolia, 
and  the  third  governs  the  central  one  of  their  great 
monasteries.  The  most  celebrated  temples  in  the  eigh- 
teen provinces  are  one  on  the  U-tai-shan  (five-topped 
mountain),  in  Shan-si.  and  one  in  Yuiuian.  In  Si-fan. 
or  Tangut,  aliout  the  Koko-Xor,  Lamaism  flourished 
under  tlie  Ilia  at  the  close  of  the  'Jth  century.  The 
great  reformer  was  incarnated  in  Amdo.  The  great 
cenoby  of  ssKubum  was  visited  and  endowed  by  Khang- 
hi,  and  has  a  celebrated  luiiversity.  Mongolia  is  the 
paradise  of  lamas,  they  forming  about  one  eighth  of  its 
population.  Its  patriarch,  the  Gegen  -  Khutukhtu.  a 
Bodhisattwa  of  ^L•xitreya,  is  eipuil  in  rank  to  both  Thi- 
betan ]M)i)es,  resides  at  Urga.  on  the  road  between Tekin 
and  Kiachta,  lat.  48=  20',  with  about  20,000  monks,  and 
has  attained  the  liighest  Khnbilghanism  by  sixteen 
incarnations,  having  been  first  the  son  of  Altan  Kha- 
klian  of  the  Khalkas,  and  having  once  died  (1839),  after 
a  vi,->it  to  Pekin,  cither  by  poison  or  from  licentiousness. 


The  Urgan  cenoby  owns  about  30,000  families  of  slaves. 
The  cathedral  at  Kuku  Khotun,  among  the  Turned,  is 
under  an  incarnate  patriarch,  now  second  to  the  pre- 
ceding. Most  cenobies  and  temples  now  extant  in  Mon- 
golia were  built  or  restored  after  the  second  conversion. 
A  Khutukhtu  rules  over  the  celebrated  establishment 
of  the  '  five  towers.'  Dyo  Naiman  Ssuma,  the  summer 
residence  of  the  second  Pekin  Khutukhtu,  contains  108 
temples  and  a  famous  manufactory  of  idols.  INIanv 
other  abodes  of  lamas  are  scarcely  inferior  to  those  we 
have  mentioned.  The  desert  of  Gobi  contains  many 
such  establishments.  Sungaria  contains  numerous  ruins 
of  Lamaism,  on  the  Irtish  and  elsewhere,  among  which 
those  of  Ablai-Klit,  near  Usk-Kamenogorsk,  are  most 
renowned,  because  the  first  fragments  of  the  holy  canon 
were  brought  thence  to  Europe  about  1750.  The  Tor- 
guts  have  built  many  sacred  places  since  their  return 
from  the  west.  A  few  lamas  were  found  among  the 
Burj'iits  (in  Kussia),  near  Lake  Baikal,  about  IGO  years 
ago,  as  missionaries  from  LTrga.  Now  almost  all  of 
them  south  of  the  lake  are  Lamao-Shamanites,  and  have 
wooden  temples.  The  Calmucks  between  the  Don, 
Volga,  and  LIral  arc  forbidden  to  maintain  intercourse 
with  the  Delai,  although  they  keep  up  a  Lamaic  wor- 
ship in  Shitiini-urgas  (church  tents)!' 

Government. — "  Since  the  restoration  of  the  power  of 
the  Dalai  by  the  emperor  Khian-lung,  all  the  decrees 
of  government  are  issued  in  the  name  of  each  of  the  two 
high  lamas,  in  their  respective  dioceses ;  but  the  real 
power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  whose  two  Ta- 
tchin  (great  mandarins)  reside  at  Lassa,  with  Chinese 
garrisons  in  the  neighborhood,  to  watch  both  the  ocean 
of  holiness  and  the  Tsang-vang,  who,  as  vicar  of  the  em- 
peror, administers  the  affairs  of  the  country.  The  lower 
offices  only  are  hereditary'.  The  annual  tribute  of  the 
two  high  lamas  is  carried  every  third  year  to  I'ekin  by 
caravans"  (Appleton,  Cyclo])adia,  s.  v.). 

Literature. — See,  besides  the  sacred  books  mentioned 
above,  and  the  works  eited  under  Buddhisji,  A.  Cun- 
ningham, Ladal;  Physical,  Statistical,  and  Historical 
(London,  1854) ;  Csomii  de  Koros,  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Asiatic  Society,  Bengal,  i,  121-269;  ii,  57,  201,  388;  iii, 
57;  iv,  142;  v,  264,  384;  vii  (pt.  i),  142;  xx,  553-585; 
Hardwick,  Christ  and  other  Masters,  ii,  88  sq. ;  Hue  et 
(jahat,  Souvenirs  d'lin  Voyage  dans  la  Tartaric,  le  Thibet, 
et  la  Chine  (Paris,  1852) ;  Hodgson,  Illustrations  of  the 
Literature  and  Religion  of  the  Buddhists  (Serampore, 
1841);  Kcippen  (Fr.),  Die  Lamaische  Jlierarchie,  etc. 
(Berlin,  1859);  Schlagintweit,  jB»(/<//m-?H  in  Tibet  (Lpzg, 
and  London,  18G3).     See  Thibet.     (J.  T.  G.) 

La  Marck,  Evrard  de,  cardinal  bishop  and  lord 
of  Liege,  was  born  about  1475.  His  personal  qualities, 
as  well  as  the  services  rendered  to  the  Church  of  Liege 
by  his  ancestors,  caused  him  to  be  chosen  bishop  of  that 
citj-  in  1506.  He  at  once  ap])lied  to  Kome  for  approba- 
tion, and,  on  the  reception  of  the  papal  buU  of  installa- 
tion by  pope  Julius  II,  repaired  to  Liege,  where  he  was 
received  with  great  enthusiasm.  He  confirmed  the 
privileges  of  the  city,  which  he  governed  with  such 
wisdom  that,  while  war  was  raging  outside,  his  diocese 
continued  to  enjoy  undisturbed  peace.  He  restored  the 
old  discipline  of  St.  Hubert,  first  bishop  of  Liege,  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  improve- 
ment of  his  charge.  In  acknowledgment  of  services 
he  had  rendered  to  Louis  XII  in  the  affairs  of  Italy,  he 
was  made  bishop  of  Chartres.  Francis  I  even  promised 
to  procure  him  a  cardinal's  hat,  but  a  protege  of  the 
duchess  of  Angouleme  obtaining  it  in  his  stead,  he  en- 
tered in  1518  uito  the  league  of  Austria  against  France, 
antl  even  warred  against  his  own  brother,  Kobert  de  la 
Marck,  who  had  made  peace  with  Francis  I.  In  the 
Diet  of  Frankfort  he  advocated  the  nomination  of  Charles 
V  as  emperor  of  (iermany,  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
archbishopric  of  Valencia.  In  1521  he  was  created  car- 
dinal, and  thereafter  became  a  zealous  opponent  of  the 
Keformation.  According  to  Abraham  Bzovius,  he  ap- 
pointed in  each  district  men  on  whom  he  could  relj-  to 


LA  MAKCK 


205 


LAMB 


ferret  out  and  punish  all  heretics.  A  great  many  were 
found  and  punished  by  exile  or  death,  while  their  pos- 
sessions were  sequestered.  He  is  said  to  have  cruelly 
tortured  Protestant  theologians.  He  had  at  lirst  wel- 
comed Erasmus,  who  dedicated  to  him  his  paraphrase 
on  the  Ei)istle  to  the  Romans,  but  turned  about  and 
called  him  a  heathen  and  a  publican  when  he  saw  him 
incline  towards  the  new  doctrines.  In  1529  he  was 
called  to  Cambrai,  where  the  Ladies'  Peace  was  con- 
cluded. In  153-2  he  equipped  at  his  own  expense  a  body 
of  troops  to  war  against  the  Turks.  Appointed  legate 
o  latere  in  1533,  he  labored  with  new  zeal  to  uproot  all 
heresy.  For  this  object  he  assembled  a  synod  at  Liege 
in  1538,  but  the  priests,  dissatisfied  with  his  austerity, 
declared  against  him.  He  hoped  to  subdue  their  oppo- 
sition, but  suddenly  died,  Feb.  IG,  1538.  See  Chapeau- 
ville,  Hist,  des  Cardinaux,  vol.  iii,  ch.  v  and  vi ;  Auber, 
Ilistoire  des  Cardinaux,  iii,  331 ,  Louis  Doni  d'Attichy, 
Flares  Cardinalium,  vol.  iii;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rule,  xxix,  52.     (,T.  N.  P.) 

La  Marck,  Jean  Baptists  Pierre  Antoine 
de  Monet,  Chevalier  de,  a  very  distinguished 
French  naturalist,  deserves  a  iilace  here  on  account  of 
his  connection  with  the  celebrated  theory  of  the  "  Va- 
riation of  Species,"  lately  so  generally  made  known  by 
the  English  naturalist  Darwin.  See  Man,  Origin  of. 
La  IMarck  was  born  at  Barcnton,  in  Picardy,  Aug.  1 ,  1744, 
and  was  intended  for  the  Church  ;  he  entered,  however, 
the  army,  but  accidental  injury  led  him  to  adopt  the 
mercantile  profession.  During  his  leisure  hours  he 
studied  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  1778  finally  came 
before  the  public  with  a  work  on  botany,  which  secured 
him  the  position  of  botanist  to  the  king.  In  1793  he 
was  made  a  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  "  Jardin 
des  Plantes."  He  died  Dec.  20,  1829.  His  greatest 
work  is  his  Ilistoire  des  Animuux  sans  Vertebres  (Paris, 
1815-22,  7  vols.  8vo;  2d  ed.  Paris,  1835,  etc.).  In  Phi- 
losophie  Zoolof/ique  (Paris,  1809,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  some 
other  of  his  productions,  he  advanced  extremely  specu- 
lative views,  which,  since  Darwin's  rise,  have  become 
the  consideration  of  scientific  scholars.  So  much  is  cer- 
tain, that  La  JNIarck  was  the  first  (if  we  except  a  few 
obscure  wortls  of  Buffon  towards  the  close  of  his  life)  to 
advocate  "  Variation  of  Species."  For  a  more  detailed 
account  and  a  complete  list  of  his  works,  see  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Bior/.  Gi'iierale,  xxix,  55-G2).      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lanib  is  the  representative  of  several  Hebrew  and 
Greek  words  in  the  A.V.,  some  of  which  have  wide  and 
others  distinctive  meanings.     See  Ewe. 

1.  The  most  usual  term,  b^S)  I'c'bes  (with  its  trans- 
posed form  3'4?3,  ke'seh,  and  the  feminines  >1'U^3,  Idb- 
sali',  or  (1*^33,  kuhsuh',  and  n3"^2,  Jdshdh'),  denotes  a 
male  lamb  from  the  first  to  the  third  year.  The  former, 
perhaps,  more  nearly  coincide  with  the  provincial  terra 
hof/  or  hoijget,  which  is  applied  to  a  young  ram  before  he 
is  shorn.  The  corresponding  word  in  Arabic,  according 
to  Gesenius,  denotes  a  ram  at  that  period  when  he  has 
lost  his  first  two  teeth  and  four  others  make  their  ap- 
pearance, wliich  hajipens  in  the  second  or  third  year. 
Young  rams  of  this  age  i'orraed  an  important  part  of  al- 
most every  sacrifice.  They  were  offered  at  the  Aailj 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice  (Exod.  xxix,  38-41),  on 
the  Sabbath  day  (Numb,  xxviii,  9),  at  the  feasts  of  the 
new  moon  (Numb,  xxviii,  11),  of  trumpets  (Numb,  xxix, 
2),  of  tabernacles  (Numb,  xxix,  13-40),  of  Pentecost 
(Lev.  xxiii,  18-20),  and  of  the  Passover  (Exod.  xii,  5). 
They  were  brought  by  the  princes  of  the  congregation 
as  burnt-offerings  at  the  dedication  of  the  tabernacle 
(Numb,  vii),  and  were  offered  on  solemn  occasions  like 
the  consecration  of  Aaron  (Lev.  ix,  3),  the  coronation 
of  Solomon  (1  Chron.  xxix,  21),  the  purification  of  the 
Temple  under  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxix,  21),  and  the 
great  Passover  held  in  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
XXXV,  7).  They  formed  part  of  the  sacrifice  offered  at 
the  purification  of  women  after  childbirtli  (Lev.  xii,  G), 
and  at  the  cleansing  of  a  leper  (Lev.  xiv,  10-25).    They 


accompanied  the  presentation  of  first-fruits  (Lev.  xxiii, 
12).  When  the  Nazarites  commenced  their  ])eriod  of 
separation  they  offered  a  he-lamb  for  a  trespass-offering 
(Numb,  vi,  12),  and  at  its  conclusion  a  he-lamb  was 
sacrificed  as  a  burnt-offering,  and  a  ewe-lamb  as  a  sin- 
offering  (v,  14).  A  ewe-lamb  was  also  the  offering  for 
the  sin  of  ignorance  (Lev.  iv,  32).     Sec  Sacrifice. 

2.  The  corresponding  Chaldee  term  to  the  above  is 
153X,  immur'  (Ezra  vi,  9,  17 ;  vii,  17).  In  the  Targum 
it  assumes  the  form  N^"2"'>Sl. 

3.  A  special  term  is  n?I3,  taleh'  (1  Sara,  vii,  9 ;  Isa. 
Ixv,  25),  a  young  sucking  lamb;  originally  the  young 
of  any  animal.  The  noun  from  the  same  root  in  Arabic 
signifies  "  a  fawn,"  in  Ethioj)ic  "  a  kid,"  in  Samaritan 
"  a  boy,"  while  in  Syriac  it  denotes  "  a  boy,"  and  in  the 
feminine  "  a  girl."  Hence  "  Talitha  kumi,"  "  Damsel, 
arise !"  (Mark  v,  41).  The  plural  of  a  cognate  form  oc- 
curs C?:^,  teW)  in  Isa.  xl,  11. 

4.  Less  exact  is  '^3,  car,  a  fat  ram,  or,  more  probably, 
"  wether,"  as  the  word  is  generally  employed  in  opjiosi- 
tion  to  aijil,  which  strictly  denotes  a  "ram"  (Deut. 
xxxii,  14 ;  2  Kings  iii,  4 ;  Isa.  xxxiv,  G).  Mcsha,  king 
of  Moab,  sent  tribute  to  the  king  of  Israel  100,000  fat 
wethers ;  and  this  circumstance  is  made  use  of  by  R. 
Joseph  Kimchi  to  explain  Isa.  xvi,  1,  which  he  regards 
as  an  exhortation  to  the  Moabites  to  renew  their  trib- 
ute. The  Tyrians  obtained  their  supply  from  Arabia 
and  Kedar  (Ezek.  xxvii,  21),  and  the  pastures  of  Ba- 
shan  were  famous  as  grazing-gromids  (Ezek.xxxix,  18). 
See  Ram. 

5.  Still  more  general  is  'Xb:,^*;}??, rendered  "lamb"  in 
Exod.  xii,  21,  properly  a  collective  term  denoting  a 
"  tlock"  of  small  cattle,  sheep  and  goats,  in  distinction 
from  herds  of  the  larger  animals  (Eccles.  ii,  7 ;  Ezek. 
xlv,  15).     See  Flock. 

G.  In  opposition  to  this  collective  term  the  word  tT^, 
seh,  is  applied  to  denote  the  individuals  of  a  flock, 
whether  sheep  or  goats ;  and  hence,  though  "  lamb"  is 
in  many  passages  the  rendering  of  the  A.  V.,  the  mar- 
ginal reading  gives  "  kid"  (Gen.  xxii,  7,  8  ;  Exod.  xii, 
3;  xxii,  1,  etc.). — Smith,  s.  v.     See  Kid. 

7.  In  the  N.  T.  we  find  apviov  (strictly  the  diminu- 
tive of  api'p',  which  latter  once  occurs,  Luke  x,  1),  a 
lambkin,  the  almost  exclusive  word,  ajt/vof  being  only 
employed  iu  a  few  passages,  directly  referring  to  Christ, 
as  noticed  below. 

It  appears  that  originally  the  paschal  victim  might 
be  indifferently  of  the  goats  or  of  the  sheep  (Exod.  xii, 
3-5).  In  later  times,  however,  the  offspring  of  sheep 
appears  to  have  been  almost  miiformly  taken,  and  in 
sacrifices  generally,  with  the  exception  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  Sundry  peculiar 
enactments  are  contained  in  the  same  law  respecting 
the  qualities  of  the  animal  (Exod.  xxii,  30;  xxxiii,  19; 
Lev.  xxii,  27).     See  Passover. 

In  the  symbohcal  language  of  Scripture  the  lamb  is 
the  tj-pe  of  meekness  and  innocence  (Isa.  xi,  G ;  Ixv, 
25 ;  Luke  x,  3 ;  John  xxi,  15).     See  Sheep. 

The  hypocritical  assumption  of  this  meekness,  and 
the  carrying  on  of  persecution  under  a  show  of  charity 
to  the  souls  of  men,  and  bestowing  absolutions  and  in- 
dulgences on  those  who  conform  to  its  rules,  appears  to 
have  given  rise  to  the  application  of  this  othenvise  sa- 
cred title  to  Antichrist  (Rev.  xiii,  11) :  "And  I  beheld 
another  beast  coming  up  out  of  the  earth,  and  he  had 
two  horns  like  a  lamb,  and  he  spake  as  a  dragon."  This 
evidently  has  reference  to  the  ostensibly  mild  and  toler- 
ant character  of  the  jiagan  forms  of  religion,  which  nev- 
ertheless, in  the  end,  were  found  co-operating  with  the 
relentless  secular  power.  It  finds  a  fit  counteri)art  in  the 
Jesuitical  pretensions  of  Romanism.     See  Anticiiuist. 

Lamb  {as  a  Christian  emblem'),  the  symbol  of  Christ 
(Gen.  iv,4;  Exod.xii,3;  xxix,  38;  Isa.xvi,  1 :  Jer.  liii, 
7;  John  i,  3G;  1  Pet.  i,  19;  Rev.  xiii,  8),  who  was  t\nii- 
fied  by  the  paschal  lamb,  the  blood  of  which  was  spruak- 


LAMP, 


206 


LAMBERT 


led  on  the  door-posts  and  lintel  of  the  doors  like  a  Taii- 
cross,  to  preserve  the  Hebrews  fruni  destruction.  In 
very  old  sepulchres  the  land)  stands  on  a  hill  amid  the 
four  rivers  of  Paradise,  or  in  the  Baptist's  hand.  It 
sometimes  carries  a  milk-pail  and  crook,  to  represent 
the  Good  Shepherd.  In  the  5th  century  it  is  encircled 
with  a  nimbus.  In  the  4th  century  its  head  is  crowned 
with  the  cross  and  monogram.  In  the  ()tli  century  it 
bears  a  spear,  the  emblem  of  wisdom,  ending  in  a  cross ; 
or  appears,  bleeding  from  five  wounds,  in  a  chalice.  At 
last  it  is  girdled  with  a  golden  zone  of  power  and  jus- 
tice (Isa.  xi,  5),  bears  the  banner-cross  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, or  treads  upon  a  serpent  (Kev.  xviii,  14).  At  length, 
in  the  8th  and  9th  centuries,  it  lies  on  a  throne  amid 
angels  and  saints,  as  in  the  apocalyptic  vision.  When 
fixed  to  a  cross  it  formed  the  crucifix  of  the  primitive 
Church,  and  therefore  was  afterwards  added  on  the  re- 
verse of  an  actual  crucifix,  as  on  tlie  stational  cross  of 
Velletri.  In  G92  the  council  in  TruUo  ordered  the  im- 
age of  the  Saviour  to  be  substituted  for  the  lamb.  Je- 
sus is  the  Shepherd  to  watch  over  his  flock,  as  he  was 
the  Lamb,  the  victim  from  the  sheep.  Walafrid  Strabo 
condemns  the  practice  of  placing  near  or  luider  the  al- 
tar on  Good  Friday  lamb's  flesh,  which  received  bene- 
diction and  was  eaten  on  Easter  day.  Probably  to  this 
custom  the  Greeks  alluded  when  they  accused  the  Lat- 
ins of  offering  a  lamb  on  the  altar  at  mass  in  the  9th 
centuri'.  In  ancient  times  the  pope  and  cardinals  ate 
lamb  on  Easter  day. — Walcott,  /Sacred  A  i-chceolofjy,  s.  v. 

LAMB  OF  GOD  {cqiviQ  eeov,  John  i,29,3G;  so  of 
the  Messiah,  Test,  xii  Pair.  p.  724,  725,  730),  a  title  of 
the  Redeemer  (compare  Acts  viii,32;  1  Pet.  i,  19,  where 
alone  the  term  n/ifof  is  elsewhere  employed,  and  with 
a  lilce  reference).  This  symbolical  appellation  applied 
ti)  Jesus  Christ,  in  John  i,  29,  SO,  does  not  refer  merely 
to  tlic  character  or  disposition  of  the  Saviour,  inasnuich 
as  he  is  also  called  '•  the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah" 
(Rev.  v,  5).  Neither  can  the  appellation  signify  the 
moM  excellent  lamb,  as  a  sort  of  Hebrew  superlative.  The 
term  lamb  is  simply  used,  in  this  case,  to  signify  the 
sacrifice,  i.  e.  the  sacrijicial  victim,  of  which  the  forr-.er 
sacrifices  were  typical  (Numb.  vi.  12;  Lev.  iv,  32;  v,  G, 
18;  xiv,  12-17).  So  the  prophet  understood  it:  "He  is 
brought  as  a  lamb  to  the  slaughter"  (Isa.  liii,7);  and 
Paul :  "  For  even  Christ,  our  Passover,"  i.  e.  our  Passover 
lamb,  "  is  sacrificed  for  us"  (1  Cor.  v,  7  ;  comp.  Pet.  i,  18, 
19).  As  the  lamb  was  the  symbol  of  sacrifice,  the  Re- 
deemer is  called  "  the  Sacrifice  of  God,"  or  the  divine 
Sacrifice  (John  i,  14 ;  comp.  1  John  xx,  28  ;  Acts  xx,  28 ; 
Rom.  ix,  5,  1  Tim.  iii,  16;  Tit,  ii,  13).  As  the  Baptist 
]X)inted  to  the  divinity  of  the  Redeemer's  sacrifice,  he 
ioiew  that  in  this  consisted  its  efficacy  to  remove  the 
sin  of  the  world.  The  dignity  of  the  Sacrifice,  whose 
Idood  alone  has  an  atoning  efiicaey  for  the  sm  of  the 
world,  is  acknowledged  in  heaven.  In  the  symbolic 
scenery,  John  beheld  "a  Lamis,  as  it  had  been  slain,  hav- 
ing seven  horns  and  seven  eyes,  which  are  the  .seven 
sinrits  of  (Jod."  i.  e.  invested  with  the  attributes  of  God. 
onniipotence  and  omniscience,  raised  to  the  throne  of 
universal  empire,  and  receiving  the  homage  of  the  uni- 
verse (1  Cor.  XV,  25;  Phil,  ii,  9-11;  1  John  iii,  8;  Heb. 
X,  5-17;  Rev.  v,  8-14).  See  the  monographs  on  this 
sidiject  eiteil  by  Yolbeding,  Index  Pnif/rammatuni,  p.  52. 


Agmm  Dei. 


In  the  Romish  Church  the  expression  is  blasphemous- 
Ij'  applied  in  its  Latin  form  to  a  consecrated  wax  or 
dough  image  bearing  a  cross,  used  as  a  charm  by  the 
superstitious.     See  Agnus  Dei. 

Lamb,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  divine  and  anti- 
quary, was  born  about  1790.  He  was  made  master  of 
Corpus  Christi  College  in  1822,  and  iii  1837  was  honored 
with  the  deanery  of  Bristol.  He  died  in  1850.  Lamb 
published  IJist.  Account  of  the  XXX IX  Articles,  1553- 
1.571  (Cambridge,  1829, 4to;  2d  ed.  1835,4to);  etc.  See 
Lond.Gentl.  Maej.  1848,  pt.  ii,  p.  55;  1850,  pt.  i,  p.  CG7; 
Christian  Remembrancer,  June,  1829. 

Lamb,  Thomas,  an  English  Baptist  minister  and 
strict  Calvinist,tlourishcd  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century.  He  died  about  1672.  He  is  noted  as  the  (jp- 
ponent  of  John  Goodwin,  the  bold  defender  of  Armin- 
ianism,  whose  Redemption  Redeemed  (London,  1651,  fol.) 
Lamb  ans'wered  in  a  work  entitled  A  bsolute  Freedom 
from  Sin  by  Christ's  Death  for  the  Woiid,  etc.  (London, 
165C,  4to). 

Lambdin,  WiixiAJt,  a  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Talbot  Co.,  Md., 
June  4,1784;  was  converted  at  sixteen;  removed  to 
Pittsburg  in  1805;  joined  the  Baltimore  Conference  in 
1808;  was  on  various  circuits  and  stations  until  1815; 
then  local  till  1822 ,  then  in  Pittsburg  Conference  until 
1830  ;  then  local  at  Wheeling  until  1842 ;  then  in  Mem- 
phis Conference,  Tennessee,  where  he  labored  until  he 
was  superannuated  in  1848.  He  died  in  Henrj' County, 
Tenn..  ]May  22, 1854.  Lambdin  was  an  able  and  faith- 
ful minister  of  the  Word,  and  served  the  Church  long 
and  successfully.  —  Annals  of  the  Methodist  Episcojml 
Chnrch  South,  1855,  p.  348. 

I  ambert  von  Herskeld,  or  Aschaffenburg,  an 
eminent  German  historian  of  the  11th  century,  was  bom, 
it  is  supposed  by  some,  at  Aschaffenburg,  about  1034. 
In  1058  he  entered  the  convent  of  Hersfeld,  the  school 
of  which  was  at  that  time  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in 
(jermany,  and  in  the  same  year,  1058,  was  ordained 
priest.  Shoitly  after  he  went  on  a  journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem, without  the  consent  or  knowledge  of  the  abbot  of 
his  convent.  After  his  return  in  the  following  year, 
Lambert  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits,  yet  as  an 
inmate  of  the  convent  which  he  had  entered  before  his 
dej)artiire  for  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  in  great  favor 
among  his  superiors,  as  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  sent  to  visit  the  convents  of  Sigeberg  and  Saalfeld, 
newh'-established  institutions.  The  precise  date  of  his 
death  is  not  ascertained — probably  about  1080.  His 
■works,  which  are  numerous,  are  especially  valuable  as 
giving  a  clear  perception  of  the  state  of  letters  in  his 
times.  His  first  ■\vork  was  a  heroic  poem,  which  is  now 
lost.  He  then  wrote  a  history  of  the  Convent  of  Hers- 
feld, which  contains  vahial)le  information  for  the  history 
of  the  11th  century,  but  unfortunately  we  possess  only 
fragments  of  this  work.  These  were  published  by  Ma- 
der  from  a  Wolfenbiittel  Codex:  comp.  Vetustas,  siincii- 
monia,  potentia  atqne  maiesias  diicnm  Brunsvicensium  ac 
Lynebnrfiensiiim  domus  (Helmstadt,  16G1-4),  p.  150;  and 
again  in  A  ntiqq.  h'nnisric.  p.  1.50.  This  same  codex  was 
also  published  by  j\I.  (!.  Waitz,  vii,  138-141.  His  third 
work  is  a  history  of  (Jermany  in  two  parts.  The  second 
part  is  the  most  conijilete.  a?  well  as  the  most  interest- 
ing: it  begins  with  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  and  extends 
to  the  election  of  king  Rudolf.  It  is  believed  by  some 
that  this  work,  treating  contemporary  events,  was  writ- 
ten at  different  periods,  whenever  anything  occurred 
which  seemed  to  tlie  author  important  enough  to  be 
mentioned.  It  appears,  however,  to  have  been  concluded 
about  10S4.  Landiert's  works  are  remarkable  for  purity 
of  style  and  elegance-  of  diction,  as  well  as  for  learning 
and  accuracy.  IVIilman  {Ldt.  Christianity,  x'ui.oSo)  says 
that  he  occupies  as  a  historian.  "  if  not  the  first,  nearly 
the  first  place  in  mediieval  history."  Hase  {Ch.  History, 
p.  182).  however,  thinks  that  Lambert  was  too  little  ac- 
quainted with  the  ways  of  the  world  to  make  a  proper 


LAMBERT 


20: 


LAMBERT 


chronicler.  Speaking  of  his  German  history,  Hase  says 
that  it  is  "just  such  a  picture  of  society  as  might  be  ex- 
pected from  a  pious  monk  who  had  matie  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  lioly  sepulchre,  and  looked  out  upon  the  world  and 
his  nation  from  the  small  stained  window  of  his  cell."  In 
his  allusions  to  the  difKculties  which  occurred  between 
the  temporal  and  ecclesiastical  powers,  Lambert  shows 
a  rare  degree  of  impartiality,  although  necessarily  yield- 
ing to  some  extent  to  the  effects  of  his  position  as  a 
monk,  as  well  as  of  the  troubles  of  the  times.  Some  of 
his  writings  were  translated  into  German  by  Hegewisch, 
and  his  whole  works  by  F.  B.  v,  Bucholz  (Frankf.  1819)  ; 
also,  more  recently,  by  Hesse,  in  the  Gesclikhtschreiher 
deutscher  Vorzeit.  d.  XT  Jahrh.  (Berl.  1855,  6  vols.).  See 
Frisch,  Comparaiio  critica  de  Lamberti  Sch.  annal,  etc., 
Diss,  inauff.  Monachii  (1830,  8\-o);  Stenze],  F?dHl:isc/ie 
Kaiser,  i,  495  ,  ii,  101  sq. ;  Viderit,  Conuneitf.  de  Lamb. 
Schafiiub.  (Hersf.  1828,  4to) ;  Hesse,  Recension.  Jen.  Lit. 
Zeitij.  1830,  No.  130 ;  Wilman,  Otto  III  Kxhirs,  vi,  p.  214 ; 
Hirsch  and  Waitz,  Chr.  Corbej.  p.  36,  Gicsebrecht,  An- 
nides  Altahenses  (Berlin,  1841);  Yloto,  Kaiser  Ileinrich 
J  I ',■  tiriinhagen,  A dalbert  v.  Bremen,  1854 ;  Ranke,  .1  bhh. 
d. Berlin.  A kad.xon  1854,  p.  430  sq.;  WituUeber  Benzo 
(Marburg,  1856);  Herzog,  Real-Encijklopddie,  viii, 
166  S([. 

Lambert  of  Maestricht,  a  martyr  and  a  saint  of 
the  Komish  Church,  commemorated  on  Sept.  17,  was  born 
at  Maestricht,  Holland,  towards  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century ;  was  educated  by  Theodard,  bishop  of  that  see, 
whom  he  succeeded  in  office  when  that  prelate  died  a 
martyr  in  (JfiS.  The  major  domus  Ebroin  was  then  in 
Avar  with  the  Merovingian  dynasty,  and  persecuted  all 
its  supporters.  Upon  Lambert  also  fell  his  displeasure, 
and  he  deprived  him  of  his  bishopric,  and  appointed 
Faramund  in  his  place.  Lambert  remained  for  seven 
years  (674-81)  in  the  Convent  of  Stablo,  where  he  led  a 
life  of  penitence  and  humiliation.  When  Pepin  d'Her- 
istal,  after  killing  Ebroin,  became  the  head  of  the  king- 
dom, Lambert  was  restored  to  his  bishopric.  The  an- 
cient historians  relate  that  he  was  killed  by  a  Frankish 
chieftain  named  Dodo,  out  of  revenge.  Two  relatives 
of  Dodo  attempted  to  seize  on  the  goods  of  the  Church, 
and  were  killed  liy  Lambert's  nejihew ;  Dodo,  in  return, 
caused  Lambert  himself  to  be  murdered  at  Liege.  Sub- 
sequent writers  attempted  to  render  this  liistory  more 
interesting.  They  say  that  he  was  murdered  by  Dodo 
on  account  of  the  freedom  with  which  he  reproved  Pe- 
pin d'Heristal  for  his  improper  intimacy  with  AlpaTs,  a 
sister  of  Dodo.  Siegbert  of  Gemblours  and  others  say 
that  on  one  occasion  he  refused  at  the  king's  table  to 
bless  iVlpais's  cup  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and,  seeing 
that  he  would  be  killed  for  this,  he  forbade  his  followers 
defending  him,  and  said  to  them,  "  If  >'ou  truly  love  me, 
love  Jesus,  and  confess  your  sins  to  him ;  as  for  me,  it  is 
time  that  I  should  go  to  live  in  communion  with  him." 
After  saying  Avhich,  he  knelt  down,  and,  while  praying 
for  his  enemies,  was  killed  with  a  spear.  It  was  on  the 
17th  of  September,  708  (709  according  to  the  Bollan- 
dists;  others  say  697  or  698).  So  great  was  the  venera- 
tion in  which  Lambert  was  held  by  his  contemporaries, 
that  in  714  a  church  was  built  in  commemoration  of  him 
at  Liege.  His  successor  in  the  bishopric  was  Hubert. 
Biographies  of  Lambert  were  written  by  Godeschalk, 
deacon  of  the  Church  of  Liege  in  the  middle  of  the  8th 
century ,  Stephan,  bishop  of  Liege  in  903 ,  a  canon  call- 
ed Nicholas,  about  1120;  and  a  monk  named  lleiner. 
See  A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints ;  F.  W.  Kettberg,  K. 
Gesch.Dcutschl.ands,  i,  558  sq.;  Herzog,  Real-EncyHop. 
viii,  165;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  323,324. 

Lambert,  Chandley,  a  jMethod,ist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Alford,  Berkshire  County,  JNIass.,  in 
1781,  and  converted  at  Lansingburg,  N.  York,  March  27, 
1804.  He  entered  the  Black  Kiver  Conference  in  1807, 
labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  for  twenty  years, 
was  superannuated  in  1827,  and  died  at  Lowville,  N.  Y., 
March  16, 1845.    Lambert  was  a  man  of  great  integrity 


and  usefulness.  His  mind  was  superior  and  well  stored 
with  information,  and  his  preaching  eminently  practical 
and  fidl  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Many  souls  were  convert- 
ed through  his  labors. — Black  River  Conference  Memo- 
rial, \>.\i>^.      (G.  L.T.) 

Lambert,  Francis  (generally  known  as  T^ambert 
of  Avignon,  the  name  of  his  native  place),  also  called 
John  Sekranus,  a  French  theologian,  and  one  of  the 
early  apostles  of  the  Keformation,  was  born  in-  1487. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  became  a  Gray  Friar,  was  then 
ordained  priest,  and  preached  for  a  while  with  great 
success.  He  soon,  however,  tired  of  the  world,  and, 
thinking  to  find  peace  of  mind  in  stricter  seclusion,  he 
asked  permission  to  join  the  Carthusians.  Refused  by 
his  superiors,  he  left  his  order  in  1522,  and  embraced  the 
doctrines  of  Luther,  whose  writings  he  had  secured  and 
carefully  studied.  On  a  visit  to  Switzerland  he  was  re- 
ceived by  Sebastian  de  Monte  Falcone,  prince-bishop  of 
Lausanne,  and  went  to  Berne  and  Zurich,  where  he  had 
a  public  conference  with  Zwingle.  He  thereupon  cast 
aside  the  dress  of  his  order,  took  the  name  of  John  Ser- 
ranus,  and  began  preaching  the  rcfc)rraed  principles  in 
the  several  cities  of  Switzerland  and  Germany.  In  1522 
he  held  public  conferences  at  Eisenach,  and  was  greatly 
instrumental  in  propagating  the  Reformation  in  Thu- 
ringia  and  Hesse.  In  January,  1523,  he  joined  Luther 
at  Wittenberg,  where  he  wrote  his  commentaries  on 
Hosea  and  other  books.  In  1524  he  went  to  Metz,  and 
afterwards  to  Strasburg,  where  he  remained  until  called 
to  Hombourg  by  the  landgrave,  Philip  of  Hesse,  in  1526. 
Here,  in  a  synod  held  in  October  of  the  same  year,  he 
argued  in  Latin,  and  Adam  Craton,or  Crafft,  in  German, 
against  the  tenets  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  as  de- 
fended by  Nicholas  Ilerborn  and  John  Sperber.  The 
latter  were  declared  vanquished  and  driven  out  of  Hesse. 
The  convents  were  closed  up,  and  their  revenues  em- 
ployed to  establish  four  hospitals  and  a  Protestant  acad- 
emy at  Marburg.  Lambert  became  its  first  professor  of 
theology.  In  1529  he  took  part  in  the  Conference  of 
Marburg  between  the  theologians  of  Switzerland,  Sax- 
ony, Suabia,  and  other  southern  German  provinces.  He 
died  April  18,1530.  All  the  writers  of  his  time  agree 
in  calling  him  a  learne<l,  industrious,  and  upright  man. 
His  numerous  works  are  now  very  scarce;  among  the 
most  important  are  Commentai'ius  in  Evanrjelium  Iju- 
cce.  (Wittemberg,  1523,  8vo;  Nuremberg  and  Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo;  Frankfort,  1693,  8vo): — hi  Cantica  canfico- 
rum  Salomonis  libellus,  etc.  (Strasburg,  1524,  8vo) : — De 
fideliiun  vocatione  in  rcffnum  Christi,  id  est  Ecclesiam, 
etc.  (Strasburg,  1525,  8vo)  : — Farrago  omnium  fere  re- 
rum  theologicurum  (1525?),  consisting  of  385  proposi- 
tions arranged  into  thirteen  chapters,  and  which  con- 
tain the  whole  theological  system  of  the  author: — In 
Johdem  j-irophetam,  etc.  (Strasb.  1525,  8vo): — In  Amos, 
Abdiam,  et  Jonam,  et  Allegorice  in  Jonam  (Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo)  : — In  Micheam,Nuum  et  Abacuc  (Strasburg, 
1525,  8vo) : — Theses  theologicm  in  synodo  I/omburgensi 
dispictatcB  (Erfurt,  1527,  4to  and  8vo) :  —  Exegeseos  in 
Apocalipsim  libri  vii  (Marburg,  1528,  8vo) : — De  Sgm- 
bolo  foederis  numquani  rumpendi  quani  communionem  va- 
cant ;  Fr.  Lamberti  Confessio,  etc.  (1530, 8vo ;  translated 
into  German,  1557, 8vo)  : — Conimenfarii  in  quatuor  libros 
Regum  et  in  Acta  Apostolorum  (Strasb.  1526;  Frankft. 
1539) : — De  Regno,  Civitate  et  Domo  Dei  ac  Domini  nus- 
tri  J.-C,  etc.  (Worms,  1538,  8vo).  See  J.  G.  Schelhorn, 
Amanitates  Litteraria,  iv,  807,  312,  324,  328,  x,  1235 ,• 
Seckendorf,  Commentarius  de  Lutheranismo,  lib.  ii,  sect, 
viii ;  Frcher,  Theatrum  VironmiDoctorum,  i,  104 ;  Bayle, 
Hist.  Diet,  iii,  708  sq. ;  J.  Tilemann,  Vitce.  Professorum 
theologice  AIarpu?-gensiu!7i;  Abraham  Scultet,  Annales 
Evangelii,  ann.  1526;  Le  Long,  Biblioth.  Sacra;  J.  F. 
Hekelius,  Epistolm  Singular,  manip.  primus;  Niceron, 
Memoires,  xxxix,  234  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Xoiir.  Biog.  Genirale, 
xxix,  132 ;  Baum  (Johann  W.\  Lambert  v.  A  rignon  nach 
seimm  Leben.  etc.  (1840);  HchTiJckh,  Kirchengeschichte 
s.d.Ref.  i,  380,434;  ii,  219. 

Lambei't,  George,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 


LAMBERT 


208 


LAMBRUSCHINI 


born  Jan.  31,  1742,  at  Chelsea,  En,£jland.  In  1707  he 
became  a  student  at  the  theological  school  under  the 
charge  of  liev.  James  Scott,  at  Hcckmondwicke,  iMig- 
land.  lie  pursued  his  studies  there  for  live  years,  and 
then  accepted  tlie  charge  of  a  church  at  Hull,  April  9. 
17(j9,  wlicre  lie  continued  his  ministrations  until  his 
death,  JNIarch  17, 1816.  Mr.  Lambert  was  a  minister  of 
more  than  ordinarj-  power  and  success,  attaching  to 
liimself,  by  his  intellectual  vigor,  moral  worth,  and 
Christian  excellence,  not  onl\'  his  own  people,  but  also 
numerous  members  and  ministers  of  other  denomina- 
tions. He  published  two  volumes  of  his  sermons,  On 
various  useful  and  important  Subjects,  adapted  to  the 
Family  and  the  Closet.  Lambert  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  London  IMissionary  Society,  and  preached  its 
first  anniversary  sermon  in  May,  1796.  See  Morison, 
JIL^siiinari/  Fathers,  p.  375  sq. 

Lambert,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  noted  German 
phil(iso|)her  and  mathematician,  was  born  Aug.  29, 1728, 
at  jMuhlhausen,  Alsace,  of  a  French  Protestant  family. 
His  talents  and  application  to  study  having  gained  him 
friends,  he  obtained  a  good  education,  making  remark- 
able progress  in  mathematics,  philosophy,  and  Oriental 
languages.  In  1756-58  he  visited  Holland,  France,  and 
Italy,  and  while  residing  in  the  tirst-named  country  ap- 
peared in  print  mth  his  Sur  les  jnvprietes  remarquables 
de  la  route  de  la  lumiere,  etc.  In  176-t  Frederick  the 
Great  summoned  him  to  Berlin,  and  made  him  a  mem- 
ber both  of  the  Council  of  Architecture  and  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences.  He  died  in  that  city  Sept.  25,  1777, 
leaving  behind  him  the  renown  of  having  been  the 
greatest  analyst  in  mathematics,  logic,  and  metaphysics 
that  the  18tli  century  had  produced.  Lambert  was  the 
first  to  lay  a  scientific  basis  for  the  measurement  of  the 
intensity  of  light  in  his  Pijrometrie  (Augsburg,  1700). 
and  he  discovered  the  theory  of  the  speaking-tube.  In 
philosophy,  and  particularly  in  analytical  logic,  he 
sought  to  establish  an  accurate  system  by  bringing 
mathematics  to  bear  upon  these  subjects,  in  his  Neues 
Organon,  oder  Gedanken  iiher  die  Erj'orschunf/  tend  Be- 
ziehumj  des  Wahren  (Lpzg.  1704, 2  vols.).  Of  his  other 
^vorks,  we  may  mention  his  profound  Kosmologiscke 
Briefe  iiber  die  Einrichtung  des  Weltbaus  (Augsb.  1761), 
and  his  correspondence  with  Kant.  See  Hoefer,  Koin: 
Bioff.  Generale,  xxix,  151  sq. ;  Chambers,  Ci/clop.  s.  v. ; 
Graf,  JAimbert's  Leben  (1829) ;  Huber,  Lambei-t  nach  s. 
Lebenii.Wirken  (1829). 

Lambert,  Jolin,  an  English  reformer,  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  and  was  for  a  time  minister 
of  an  English  company  at  Antwerp.  After  his  return 
to  England  he  was  charged  with  heresy  because  he  re- 
jected the  dogma  of  transubstantiation.  He  was  tried 
before  the  king  and  bishops,  and,  upon  refusing  to  recant, 
was  burned  at  Smithfield,  Nov.  20, 1538.  Lambert  was 
distinguished  for  his  learning.  He  wrote  a  Treatise  on 
the  Lord's  Supper  (edited  by  John  Ball,  London,  1538, 
Ifimo) : — Treatise  on  Predestination  and  Flection  (Can- 
terbury, 1550,  8vo).  See  Burnet, ///*•/.  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, i,  406 ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii, 
1051. 

Lambert,  Joseph,  a  French  ecclesiastic  and  mor- 
alist, was  born  in  I'aris  in  1654.  He  took  sacred  or- 
ders when  thirty  years  old,  and  nourished  afterwards  as 
jirior  of  Saint-Martin-de-Palai.seau.  He  died  January 
31,  1722.  Among  his  best  works  are  L'Annee  eranr/el- 
ique,  oil  homilies  sur  les  Evangiles  (Paris,  1()93-1697,  7 
vols.  12mo,  and  often) : — Instruction  sur  le  s/pnbole  (Par. 
1728,  2  vols.  12mo,  and  often).  See,  for  a  full  list  of  his 
writings,  lloefer,  .Xotn:  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  150. 

Lambert,  Ralph,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of  the  Church  of 
England,  lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
He  was  successively  dean  of  Uawn,  and  bishop  of  Dro- 
more  and  of  Meath.  He  is  noted  especially  for  his  plea 
ill  favor  of  depriving  Presbyterian  ministers  of  all  power 
to  celebrate  marriage.  Some  of  his  Sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  1693, 1702,  and  1703.     The  date  of  his  death, 


or  other  particulars  of  his  life,  are  not  at  hand. — AUi- 
bone, Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1052 ,  Keid,  Ilist. 
Irish  Presb.  Church,  iii,  38. 

Lambert,  St.,  de,  Charles  Francois,  marquis, 
a  noted  French  infidel  and  poet,  a  coutemporarj'  and  co- 
laborer  of  Voltaire  on  the  French  Fnci/clopadia  (q.  v.), 
was  born  at  Yezelise,  in  Lorraine,  in  1716  or  1717. 
About  1750  he  went  to  Paris,  and  soon  found  associates 
in  Kousseau,  Voltaire,  Grimm,  and  other  celebrated 
French  infidels  of  Voltaire's  day.  He  became  esjieciaUy 
celebrated  as  a  poet,  his  productions  were  greatly  lauded 
by  Voltaire,  and,  finally,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
French  Academy.  As  a  philosopher,  however,  he  did 
not  really  appear  before  the  public  until  1797,  when  he 
published  Les  Principes  des  Moeuis  chez  toutes  les  na- 
tions, ou  Catechisme  vniversel  (1797-1800).  He  died 
Feb.  9,  1803.  St.  Lambert's  personal  liistory  fully  coin- 
cides with  the  doctrines  he  espoused.  Ignoring  all  need 
of  religion,  his  morals  were  truly  Epicurean,  and  we 
need  not  wonder  to  find  that  his  celebrity  was  first 
gained  by  the  publication  of  his  criminal  intercourse 
with  a  woman,  and  the  birth  of  an  illegitimate  child. 

As  to  a  more  detailed  description  of  St.  Lambert's 
philosophical  system,  it  may  suffice  to  say  here  that  it 
very  much  resembles  that  of  Helvetius,  Mhom  St.  Lam- 
bert slavishly  followed.  Thus  he  teaches,  in  treating 
of  man's  nature,  and  his  duties  with  regard  to  human 
nature,  that  "  man,  when  he  first  enters  upon  the  stage 
of  life,  is  simply  an  organized  and  sentient  mass,  and 
that,  whatever  feelings  or  thoughts  he  may  afterwards 
acquire,  still  they  are  simply  different  manifestations  of 
the  sensational  facidty,  occasioned  by  the  pressure  of 
his  various  wants  and  necessities.  With  regard  to  eth- 
ics, he  maintains  that,  as  man  possesses  only  sensations, 
his  sole  good  must  be  personal  enjoyment,  his  only  duty 
the  attainment  of  it;  and  that,  as  we  may  be  mistaken 
as  to  what  objects  are  really  adapted  to  promote  our 
pleasure,  the  safest  nde  by  which  we  can  judge  of  duty 
in  particular  cases  is  public  opinion."  lahis  Catechisme 
Universel  he  divides  the  whole  mass  of  man's  duty  into 
three  classes — his  duty  to  himself,  to  his  own  family, 
and  to  society  at  large ;  while  the  duties  of  religion  are 
never  mentioned,  and  the  very  name  of  God  is  alto- 
gether excluded.  Condorcet's  fundamental  doctrine  of 
ethics — the  present  perfectibility  of  mankind,  both  in- 
dividually and  socially,  by  means  of  education  —  St. 
Lambert  proposed  to  substitute  in  place  of  the  sanctions 
both  of  morality  and  religion,  as  the  great  regenerating 
principle  of  human  nature  (compare  IMorcll,  llistori/  of 
Modern  Philosophi/,  p.  111).  See  Puymaigre,  Saint- 
Lambert  (1840) ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biofj.  Generale.  s.  v.  (J. 
H.W.) 

Lambeth  Articles.     See  Articles,  Lambeth. 

Lambruschiui,  Loiis,  an  eminent  Italian  prelate 
and  statesman,  was  born  at  Genoa  INIay  16, 1776.  Hav- 
ing entered  the  Order  of  Baniabites,  he  became  bishop 
of  Sabine,  then  archbishop  of  Genoa;  was  sent  to  France 
as  papal  nuncio  during  the  reign  of  Charles  X,  and  final- 
ly created  cardinal  Sept.  30, 1831.  I'ope  Gregory  XVI 
appointed  him  abbot  of  Santa  Maria  di  Farfa,  secretary 
of  state  for  foreign  affairs,  librarian  of  the  Church,  grand 
prior  of  the  order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  grand  chan- 
cellor of  the  order  of  St.  Gregory,  and  prefect  of  the  con- 
gregation of  studies.  Opposed  to  all  innovations,  Lam- 
bruschiui took  an  active  part  in  all  the  religious  and 
political  persecutions  which  marked  the  pontifical  career 
of  Gregory  XVI,  and  became  consequently  very  unpop- 
ular. In  ]«45  he  surrendered  the  direction  of  inililic  in- 
struction to  cardinal  Mezzofante.  On  the  death  of  (ireg- 
ory  XVI  in  1846,  Lambruschini  came  very  near  being 
elected  pope.  Piu.^  IX  appointed  him  member  of  the 
states  council,  and  restored  him  to  the  sccretarj'ship  and 
librarianshi])  of  the  Vatican.  In  1847  he  was  also  made 
bishop  of  Porto  de  San  Kufina  and  of  Civita  Vecchia, 
chancellor  of  the  (lontifical  orders,  and  sul)ilean  of  the 
sacred  college.     A\Ticn  the  revolution  broke  out  in  Ita- 


LAMECH 


209 


LAMECir 


ly  Lambnischini  was  in  danger,  and  fled  to  Civita  Ycc- 
chia,  but,  not  finding  more  security  there,  he  returned  to 
Kome.  In  1848  he  tied  first  to  Naples,  and  afterwards 
joined  Pius  IX  at  Gaeta.  He  re-entered  Rome  with 
the  pope  in  1850,  and  was  appointed  cardinal  of  the  pa- 
pal household.  He  is  said  to  have  then  advised  meas- 
nres  of  moderation,  which  were  rejected  by  cardinal  An- 
tonelli.  He  died  May  12,  1854.  His  principal  works 
were  translated  into  French,  under  the  title  Meditations 
sitr  les  Vertus  de  Suinte  Therese,i}recedees  dhtn  ahrerje  de 
sa  vie  (Paris,  1827, 18mo)  -.—Sur  PlmmacuUe  Conception 
de  Marie,  dissertation  poUmique  (Paris  and  Besan(,'on, 
184o,8vo):— />ft'oriOM  au  Sucre  Cceiir  de  Jesus,  etc.  {Var. 
1857, 18mo).  See  JJict.de  la  Conversation;  Eourquclot 
ct  Jlaury,  La  Litterature  Fran^aise  Contemp. ;  Hoefer, 
Xoui:  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  175.     (J.  N.  P.) 

La'mech  (Ileb. Ze'meA-,  T^'oh, taster, oi\ie.r\s\se,  a  vig- 
orous youth,  in  pause  La'meh,  "'^b ;  Septiiag.  and  N.  T. 
Aa/(£x ;  Josephus  Aafiixog,  Ant.  i,2,2),  the  name  of  two 
antediluvian  patriarchs. 

1.  The  fifth  in  descent  from  Cain,  being  the  son  of 
IMethusael,  and  father  of  Jabal,  Jubal,  Tubal-cain,  and 
Naamah  (Gen.  iv,  18-24).  B.C.  cir.  3770.  He  is  re- 
corded to  have  taken  two  wives,  Adah  and  ZiUah  ;  and 
there  appears  no  reason  why  the  fact  should  have  been 
mentioned,  unless  to  point  him  out  as  the  author  of  the 
evil  practice  of  polj'gamy.  The  manner  in  which  the 
sons  of  Lamech  distinguished  themselves  as  the  inven- 
tors of  useful  arts  is  mentioned  under  their  several  names 
(q.  v.).  The  Targum  of  Jonathan  (ad  loc.)  adds,  that 
his  daughter  was  "the  mistress  of  sounds  and  songs,"  i. 
e.  the  first  poetess ;  which  Jewish  tradition  embellishes 
by  saying  that  all  the  world  wondered  after  her,  even 
the  sons  of  God,  and  that  evil  spirits  were  born  of  her 
(^Midrash  on  Kuth,  and  Zohar).  Josephus  {Ant.  i,  2, 2) 
relates  that  the  number  of  Lamech's  sons  was  seventy- 
seven,  and  Jerome  records  the  same  tradition,  adding 
that  they  were  all  cut  off  by  the  Deluge,  and  that  this 
v.-as  the  seventy-and-sevenfold  vengeance  which  La- 
mech imprecated. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  connection  with 
Lamech  is  the  poetical  address  which  he  is  very  abrupt- 
ly introduced  as  making  to  his  wives,  being,  indeed,  the 
only  example  of  antediluvian  poetry  extant  (Gen.  iv,  23, 
24): 

Adah  and  Zillah,  hear  my  voice  ; 
Wives  of  Lamech,  listen  to  my  say  ! 
For  a  man  I  slew  for  my  wound, 
Even  a  youth  for  my  bruise : 
If  seveufold  Cain  was  to  be  avenged, 
Then  Lamech  seventy  and  seven. 

It  has  all  the  appearance  of  an  extract  from  an  old  poem, 
which  we  may  suppose  to  have  been  handed  down  by 
tradition  to  the  time  of  Moses.  It  is  very  difficult  to 
discover  to  what  it  refers,  and  the  best  explanation  can 
be  nothing  more  than  a  conjecture.  It  is  the  subject 
of  a  dissertation  by  Hilliger  in  Thesaurus  Theologico- 
Philol.  i,  141,  and  is  discussed  at  length  by  the  various 
commentators  on  Genesis.  See  also  Hase,  De  Oraculo 
Lamec/ii  (Brem.  1712) ;  Schroder,  De  Lamecho  homicida 
(Marb.  1721).  The  following  is  a  synopsis  of  ancient 
and  modern  views.  "  Chrysostom  {Horn,  xx  in  Gen.)  re- 
gards Lamech  as  a  murderer  stung  by  remorse,  driven 
to  make  public  confession  of  his  guilt  solely  to  ease  his 
conscience,  and  afterwards  {Horn,  in  Psa.  vi)  obtaining 
mercy.  Theodoret  {Quwsf.  in  Gen.  xliv)  sets  him  down 
as  a  murderer.  Basil  (A)).  2(50  [317],  §5)  interprets 
Lamech's  words  to  mean  that  he  had  committed  two 
murders,  and  that  he  deserved  a  much  severer  punish- 
ment than  Cain,  as  having  sinned  after  plainer  warn- 
ing; Basil  adds,  that  some  persons  interpret  the  last 
lines  of  the  poem  as  meaning  that,  whereas  Cain's  sin 
increased,  and  was  fuUowod  after  seven  generations  by 
the  punislmient  of  the  Deluge  washing  out  the  foulness 
of  the  world,  so  Lamech's  sin  shall  be  followed  in  the 
seventy-seventh  (sec  Luke  iii,  23-38)  generation  by  the 
coming  of  him  who  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  w.orld. 

v.— O 


Jerome  {Ep.  xxxvi,  ad  Damasum,  t.  i,  p.  IGl)  relates  as 
a  tradition  of  his  predecessors  and  of  the  Jews  that  Cain 
was  accidentally  slain  by  Lamech  in  the  seventh  gener- 
ation from  Adam.     This  legend  is  told  with  fuller  de- 
tails by  Jarchi.     (See  Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc.) 
According  to  him,  the  occasion  of  the  poem  was  the  re- 
fusal of  Lamech's  wives  to  associate  with  him  in  conse- 
quence of  his  liaving  killed  Cain  and  Tubal-cain ;  La- 
mech, it  is  said,  was  blind,  and  was  led  about  by  Tubal- 
cain;  when  the  latter  saw  in  the  thicket  what  he  sup- 
posed to  be  a  wild  beast,  Lamech,  by  his  son's  direction, 
shot  an  arrow  at  it,  and  tlnis  slew  Cain ;  in  alarm  and 
indignation  at  the  deed,  he  killed  his  son ;  hence  his 
wives  refused  to  associate  with  him ;  and  he  excuses 
himself  as  having  acted  without  a  vengeful  or  murder- 
ous purpose.     Onkelos,  followed  by  Pseudo- Jonathan, 
paraphrases  it, '  I  have  not  slain  a  man  that  I  should 
bear  sin  on  his  account.'    The  Arab.Yer.  (Saadias)  puts 
it  in  an  interrogative  form, 'Have  I  slain  a  man?'  etc. 
These  two  versions,  which  are  substantially  the  same, 
are  adopted  by  De  Dieu  and  bishop  Patrick.     Aben- 
Ezra,  Calvin,  Drusius,  and  Cartwright  interi^ret  it  in 
the  future  tense  as  a  threat, '  I  will  slay  any  man  who 
wounds  me.'    Luther  considers  the  occasion  of  the  poem 
to  be  the  deliberate  murder  of  Cain  by  Lamech.    Light- 
foot  {Decas  Chorogr.  Marc.  p}-cem.  §  iv)  considers  La- 
mech as  expressing  remorse  for  having,  as  the  first  po- 
lygamist,  introduced  more  destruction  and  minder  than 
Cain  was  the  author  of  into  the  world"  (Smith).    Shuck- 
ford,  in  his  Connection,  supposes  that  the  descendants  of 
Cain  had  lived  for  a  long  time  in  fear  of  vengeance  for 
the  death  of  Abel  from  the  family  of  Adam ;  and  that 
Lamech,  in  order  to  persuade  his  wives  of  the  ground- 
lessness of  such  fears,  used  the  argument  in  the  text,  i.  c. 
if  any  one  who  might  slay  Cain,  the  murderer  of  his 
brother,  was  threatened  with  sevenfold  vengeance,  sure- 
ly they  must  expect  a  far  sorer  punishment  who  should 
presume  to  kill  any  of  us  on  the  same  account.     Others 
regard  Lamech's  .speech  as  a  heaven-daring  avowal  of 
murder,  in  which  he  had  himself  received  a  slight 
wound.     Some  have  even  sought  to  identify  Lamech 
with  the  Asiatic  deity  Lemus  or  Lames  (see  IMovers, 
Phi'm.  477;  Nork,  Bibl.  Mjithol.  i,  235).     Herder,  in  his 
Hebrew  I^oetri/,  supposes  that  the  haughty  and  revenge- 
ful Lamech,  overjoyed  by  the  invention  of  metallic  weap- 
ons by  his  son  Tubal-cain,  breaks  out  in  this  triumjihal 
song,  boasting  that  if  Cain,  by  the  providence  of  (iod, 
was  to  be  avenged  sevenfold,  he,  by  means  of  the  newly- 
invented  weapons,  so  much  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind  known  at  that  time,  would  be  able  to  take  a  much 
heavier  vengeance  on  those  who  injured  him.    This  hy- 
pothesis as  to  the  occasion  of  the  poem  was  partly  an- 
ticipated by  Hess,  and  has  been  received  by  Ivosenmiil- 
ler,  Ewald,  and  Delitzsch.     Pfeiffer  (Diff'.  Scrip.  Loc.  p. 
25)  collects  different  opinions  up  to  his  time  with  his 
usual  diligence,  and  concludes  that  the  poem  is  Lamech's 
vindication  of  himself  to  his  wives,  who  were  in  terror 
for  the  possible  consequences  of  his  having  slain  two  of 
the  posterity  of  Seth.     This  judicious  view  is  substan- 
tially that  of  Lowth  (De  S.  Poesi  IJeb.  iv,  91)  and  Mi- 
chaelis,  who  think  that  Lamech  is  excusing  himself  for 
some  murder  which  he  had  committed  in  self-defence 
("  for  a  wound  inflicted  on  me"),  and  he  opposes  a  hom- 
icide of  this  nature  to  the  wilful  and  inexcusable  fratri- 
cide of  Cain.     Under  this  view  Lamech  would  appear 
to  have  intended  to  comfort  his  wives  by  the  assurance 
that  he  was  really  exposed  to  no  danger  from  this  act, 
and  that  any  attempt  upon  his  life  on  the  part  of  the 
friends  of  the  deceased  would  not  fail  to  bring  down 
upon  them  the  severest  vengeance  (compare  Dathe  and 
KosenmilUer,  ad  loc;  see  also  Turner's  Companion  to 
Genesis,  p.  209).     "  That  he  had  slain  a  man,  a  young 
man  (for  the  youth  of  one  clause  is  undoubtedly  but  a 
more  specific  indication  of  the  man  in  the  other),  and 
this  not  in  cool  blood,  but  in  consequence  of  a  wound  or 
bruise  he  had  himself  received,  is,  if  not  the  only  possi- 
ble, certainly  the  natural  and  obvious  meaning  of  the 


LAMENNAIS 


210 


LAMENNAIS 


■words ;  and  on  the  ground  apiiarcntly  of  a  difference  be- 
tween his  case  and  that  of  Cain's— namely,  that  lie  had 
dune  !/;»/(rprovaeati(m  what  Cain  had  done  vithout  it — 
he  assures  Intnselt'  of  an  interest  in  the  divine  guard- 
ianship and  protection  immeasurably  greater  than  that 
granted  to  Cain.  This  seems  as  plainly  the  import  of 
Lamech's  speech  as  lani!;uage  could  well  make  it.  But 
if  it  seems  to  imply,  as  it  certainly  does,  that  Lamech 
was  not  an  offender  after  the  type  and  measure  of  Cain, 
it  at  the  same  time  shows  how  that  branch  of  the  hu- 
man family  wore  becoming  familiar  with  strife  and 
bloodshed,  and,  instead  of  mourning  over  it,  were  rather 
presuming  on  the. divine  mercy  and  forbearance  to  brace 
themselves  for  its  encounters,  that  they  might  repel 
force  with  force.  The  prelude  already  appears  here  of 
the  terrible  scenes  which,  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  genera- 
tions, disclosed  themselves  far  and  wide — when  the  earth 
Avas  tilled  with  violence,  and  deeds  were  every  day  done 
which  cried  in  the  ear  of  heaNen  for  vengeance.  Such 
was  the  miserable  result  of  the  human  art  and  the  earth- 
ly resources  brought  into  play  by  the  Cainite  race,  and 
on  -which  they  proudly  leaned  for  their  ascendency ;  nor 
is  it  too  much  to  say  that  here  also,  even  in  respect  to 
the  luetic  gift  of  natiu-e,  the  beginning  was  prophetic 
of  the  end"  (Fairbairn).     See  Antediluvians. 

2.  The  seventh  in  descent  from  Seth,  being  the  son 
of  Methuselah,  and  father  of  several  sons,  of  whom  ap- 
parently the  oldest  was  Noah  (Gen.  v,  25-31 ;  1  Chron. 
i,  3 ;  Luke  iii,  3G).  B.C.  3297-2520.  He  was  182  years 
old  at  the  birth  of  Noah,  and  survived  that  event  595 
;i-ears,  making  his  total  age  707.  His  character  appears 
to  have  been  different  from  that  of  his  Cainite  name- 
sake (see  Dettinger,  in  the  Tub.  Zcitschr.f.  Theol.  1835, 
i.  11  sq.).  "Chrysostom  (Serin,  ix  in  Gen.,  and  Jfom. 
xxi  //(  (Jen.),  perhaps  thinking  of  the  character  of  the 
other  Lamech,  speaks  of  this  as  an  unrighteous  man, 
though  moved  by  a  divine  impulse  to  give  a  prophetic 
name  to  his  son.  Buttman  and  others,  observing  that 
the  names  of  Lamech  and  Enoch  are  found  in  the  list 
of  Seth's,  as  well  as  of  Cain's  family,  infer  that  the  two 
lists  are  merely  different  versions  or  recensions  of  one 
original  list — traces  of  two  conflicting  liistories  of  the 
first  human  family.  This  theory  is  deservedly  repudi- 
ated by  Delitzsch  on  Gen.  v"  (Smith). 

Lamennais,  Felicite  Robert,  Abbe  de,  a  Ro- 
man CaihoHc  theologian  and  philosopher,  occupies  a  dis- 
tinguished place  in  the  ecclesiastical,  political,  and  lit- 
erary history  of  France  of  the  19th  century.  He  was 
born  of  a  noble  family  at  St.Malo,  in  Bretagne,  June  6, 
1782.  In  his  boyhood,  his  clerical  tutor  having  fled 
to  iMigland  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution,  he  and 
his  brother  continued  their  studies  together  with  singu- 
lar iiideiiendencc.  It  is  said  that  when  only  twelve 
years  old  he  was  able  to  read  Livy  and  Plutarch  with 
ease.  "  In  1794,  having  been  sent  to  live  with  .in  uncle, 
this  relation,  not  knowing  what  to  do  with  a  wilful  boy, 
used  to  shut  him  n|i  for  whole  days  in  a  library  consist- 
ing of  two  compartments,  one  of  which,  called  'Hell,' 
contained  a  large  number  of  prohibited  books,  which 
little  Robert  was  enjoined  not  to  read.  But  the  lad  al- 
ready cared  for  none  but  books  of  reflection,  and  finding 
some  of  these  on  the  )irohibited  shelves,  that  division 
became  his  favorite.  Long  hours  were  thus  spent  in 
reading  the  ardent  pages  of  Rousseau,  the  thoughtful 
volumes  of  31alebran<he,  and  other  writers  of  sentiment 
and  philosophy.  Such  a  course  of  reading,  far  from  pro- 
ducing its  usual  effects  of  jjrecocious  vainglory  and  un- 
belief on  so  young  a  mind,  served  rather  to  ripen  his 
judgment,  and  to  develop  that  religious  fervor  which 
was  a  part  of  his  nature"  {l-'.iif/li/^h  Cyrlopwdhi).  He 
soon  took  a  decidedly  religious  course,  and,  though  of- 
fered a  mercaiuile  career  by  his  father,  chose  the"  clerical 
profession.  Before,  however,  entering  upon  the  studies 
of  the  sacred  office,  he  accepted  in  1807  the  position  as 
teacher  of  mathematics  in  tlic  college  of  his  native  place. 

To  promote  practical  piety,  he  published  in  1808  a 
translation  of  the  ascetic  Guide  Spiriditl  of  Louis  dc 


Blois.     In  reference  to  the  Concordat  of  Napoleon,  he 
wrote  Reflexions  sur  Vetat  de  Vef/lise  en  France  pendant 
le  dix-huitieme  siecle  et  snr  la  situation  uciuelle  (1808). 
He  here  denounces  the  materialism  propagated  by  the 
philosophers  of  the  18th  century,  bitterly  deplores  the 
apathy  thence  induced  to  religion,  and  expresses  much 
hope  from  the  beneficent  influence  of  the  Concordat,  and 
declares  the  la\vs  of  religion  and  morality  to  be  the  su- 
preme laws  of  life.     The  imperial  censorship,  however, 
detected  a  dangerous  independent  tendency  in  this  w'ork, 
especially  in  the  demand  for  ecclesiastical  synods  and 
conferences,  and  the  issue  of  the  first  edition  was  sup- 
l)ressed.     After  having  received  the  clerical  tonsure  (in 
1811),  he  published,  in  defence  of  the  papal  authority 
and  against  Napoleon,  Tradition  de  Vcylise  siir  Vinstitu- 
tion  des  eveques  (Paris,  1814).    I'rom  retirement  in  Eng- 
land, whither  he  had  been  obliged  to  flee  during  the 
Hundred  Days,  Lamennais  returned  to  France  (in  181(5) 
in   full   sympathy  with   the  Restoration,  and   entcrec] 
more  ardently  than  ever  upon  the  work  of  disseminating 
his  earlier  opinions.     He  was  ordained  priest  in  1817, 
and  in  this  year  began  the  publication  of  his  Essai  sur 
Vindijference  en  inatiere  de  relif/ion  (Paris,  1817-1820,  4 
vols.).     This  work,  of  which  Lacordaire  said  that  it 
caused  its  author  to  rise,  in  a  single  day,  like  a  new  Bos- 
suet  above  the  horizon,  thoroughly  aroused  public  at- 
tention to  the  author  and  his  pjrinciplcs,  attracted  many 
readers  by  the  eloquence  of  its  style,  and  has  passed 
through  many  editions.    The  -work  belongs  to  the  Cath- 
olic reactionary  school  of  philosophy,  to  which  Josei>h 
de  jNIaistre  had  given  the  leading  impulse.    The  author 
first  points  out  certain  perilous  tendencies  of  the  age 
which  seem  to  threaten  another  revolution,  and  notices 
the  vjirious  systems  of  religious  indifference.     He  next 
asserts  the  absolute  importance  of  religion  to  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  state.   The  incjuiry  concerning  the  ground 
of  certainty  in  matters  of  religion  is  then  met  b}-  postu- 
lating authority  —  that  is,  the  consenting  testimony  of 
mankind  as  the  only  ground.     This  testimony  finds  its 
interpretation  by  divine  appointment  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  finally  in  the  pope.     This  whole  scheme 
proceeds  upon  the  basis  of  sceptical  philosophy,  which 
denies  to  the  individual  reason  the  possession  of  certain- 
ty concerning  any  truth,  whether  scientific,  philosophic, 
or  rehgious,  and  Avhich  takes  refuge  for  the  attainment 
of  religious   certainty   in   a   common   consent   divinely 
guided.     It  thus  becomes  the  duty  of  the  state,  for  the 
security  of  its  own  welfare  and  that  of  the  individual,  to 
enforce  bv  every  moral  and  physical  means  the  decisions 
of  this  authoritative  Church.     Here  was  an  attempt  to 
win  back  both  jirince  and  people  to  the  absolute  submis- 
sion demanded  by  Gregory  VII  and  Innocent  III.    The 
French  Church  was  alarmed  at  so  extreme  a  position, and 
disavowed  its  own  chamjiion.     A  Defense  de  I'Essai  sur 
rindifference  was  issued  by  the  author.    In  1818  Lamen- 
nais joined  hands  for  a  brief  period  with  certain  Royal- 
ists in  founding  the  '•  Conservateur;"  but  afterwards,  in 
sympathy  with  another  coterie  called  the  drapeau  lihvnc, 
his  severity  in  writing  against  the  management  of  the 
university  invited  the  attention  of  the  police  authorities. 
In  1824  he  visited  Rome,  and  was  received  with  distinc- 
tion bv  iiope  Leo  XII;  he  is  said  to  have  declined  a 
cardinalship.  as  he  had  previously  declined  a  bishopric 
which  had  been  urged  upon  him  by  the  ministry  at 
Paris.     In  La  Relii/ion  ccnsideree  dans  ses  i-apporls  arcc 
Vordre  civil  et  politique  (Paris,  1825-2G,  2  vols.)  he  first 
began  to  exhibit  that  freedom  of  thought,  reaching  to 
the  last  boundary  of  revolution  (I)ut  which,  however, 
independent  of  Church  interests,  abandons  nothing  in 
spiritual  failh).     It  contained  an  attack  upon  (iailican 
lirinciiiles,  and  upon  some  measures  of  the  king,  which 
brought  him  again  before  the  courts.     Defended  by  the 
legal  skill  of  Berryer.  he  was  let  off  with  a  fine  of  thirtj' 
francs.     There  is  a  manifest  prognostication  of  the  com- 
ing disturbance,  of  the  breach  between  the  hierarchical 
authority  aiul  the  spirit  of  the  times  in  his  Proi/res  de 
la  revolution  it  de  la  f/uerre  contre  l'e<jlise  (1829). 


LAMENNAIS 


211 


LAMENNAIS 


The  July  revolution  completed,  the  Church  must  now 
be  saved  by  bringhig  it  into  harmony  with  the  demands 
of  civil  liberty,  and  to  serve  such  an  end  Lamennais 
enters  upon  the  second  period  of  his  career.     With  the 
co-operation  of  Lacordaire  (q.  v.)  and  ]\Iontalembert  (q. 
V.)  he  founded  the  journal  UA  veiiir,  which  had  for  its 
motto  "  God  and  Freedom,"  and  for  its  guiding  thought 
concerning  the  Church  that  the  latter  can  save  itself 
from  the  ruin  which  waits  on  political  absolutism  only 
by  freeing  itself  from  all  relations  with  the  state,  and 
from  the  corruptions  of  hierarchical  luxury,  while  it  is 
to  riourish  only  through  the  voluntary  devotion  of  its 
adherents,  and  in  harmony  with  laws  which  secure  for 
the  people  freedom   of  education   and   worship.      He 
preached  such  a  doctrine  enthusiastically,  and  believed 
that  Rome  would  receive  it.     He  was  present  at  Rome 
in  1831  with  Lacordaire  and  :Montalembert,  and  sought 
to  win  the  representatives  of  the  French,  Russian,  Aus- 
trian, and  Prussian  courts  to  his  views.     An  audience 
was  granted  by  the  pope  only  on  contUtion  of  silence 
concerning  the  matters  agitated.    When,  however,  La- 
cordaire had  presented  a  scheme  of  these  views  in  writ- 
ing, the  French  bishops,  ou  April  2-2,  1832,  presented  an 
outspoken  opposition  to  them.     A  few  extracts  from  an 
encyclical  letter  condemnatory  of  such  principles  which 
■was  issued  by  Gregory  XYI  on  Aug.  15,  1832,  best  ex- 
plains the  peculiar  position  assumed  by  the  writers  of 
LWvenir:  "From  this  infectious  source  of  indiflferent- 
ism,"  says  the  encyclical,  '■  Hows  that  absurd  and  erro- 
neous maxim,  or,  rather,  tliat  madness,  which  would 
insure  and  guarantee  to  all  liberty  of  conscience.     The 
way  is  prepared  for  this  pernicious  error  by  the  free  and 
unlimited  liberty  of  opinion  which  is  spreading  abroad, 
to  the  misfortune  of  civil  and  religious  society,  some 
asserting  with  extreme  imprudence  that  it  may  be  pro- 
ductive of  certain  advantages  to  religion."     And  after- 
wards it  adds :  '•  With  this  is  connected  that  lamentable 
liberty  whicli  we  cannot  regard  with  too  much  horror, 
the  liberty  of  the  press  to  publish  all  sorts  of  writings, 
a  liberty  which  some  persons  dare  to  demand  and  extol 
with  so  much  noise  and  ardor."     A  copy  of  it  was  sent 
with   special   exjalanations   to   Lamennais  by   cardinal 
Pacca,  who  urged  him  to  render  submission  to  the  au- 
thority he  had  himself  so  highly  extolled,  and,  as  if  to 
make  even  more  explicit  the  meaning  of  the  encyclical 
of  which  he  was  the  transmittcnt,  addeii,  "  The  doc- 
trines of  the  LW  venir  upon  the  liberty  of  worship  and 
the  liberty  of  the  press  are  very  reprehensible,  and  in 
ojjposition  to  the  teaching,  tlie  maxims,  and  the  policy 
of  the  Church  [the  italics  are  ours].     They  have  ex- 
ceedingly astonished  and  afflicted  the  holy  lather;  for 
if,  under  certain  circumstances,  prudence  compels  us  to 
tolerate  them  as  lesser  evils,  such  doctrines  can  never 
be  held  up  by  a  Roman  Catholic  as  good  in  themselves, 
or  as  things  desirable."     Strangely  enough,  as  it  must 
appear  to  Protestiant  ideas,  the  tliree  editors  of  U A  venir 
—  Lamennais  and  his  two  younger  coadjutors,  Lacor- 
daire and  Jlontalembcrt — submitted  to  tlie  papal  see, 
and,  of  course,  to  evince  their  sincerity,  discontinued  the 
pul)lication  oi  UAvtnlr.     But  Lamennais  having  after- 
wards, in  certain  smaller  articles,  expressed  himself  in  a 
spirit  contrary  to  the  views  of  the  encyclical,  he  received 
a  letter  from  the  pope  on  the  subject,  and  thereupon,  in 
a  formal  way,  subscribed  a  submission,  Dec.  11,  1833,  at 
the  palace  of  the  archbishop  of  Paris.     In  the  Affaires 
de  Rome  (see  below),  however,  he  declared  that  this  sub- 
mission on  his  part  had  been  made  only  for  the  sake 
of  peace,  and  that,  in  truth,  the  welfare  of  the  people 
must  be  considered  before  that  of  the  Church.     In  1834 
Paroles  cVun  croi/ant  appeared,  Avhich  passed  in  a  fcAV 
years   through  100  editions,  and   was   translated  into 
many  languages.     In  this  work  a  new  spirit  is  mani- 
fest.    In  earnest  language  the  former  and  existing  evils 
of  society  are  deplored,  while  in  a  style  of  prophetic  ar- 
dor  the  future    is   anticipated.     A  new   Christianity, 
based  on  the  principles  of  the  New  Testament,  in  a  rev- 
olutionized democratic  state  is  sought.     A  certain  ideal 


external  form  was  still  Lamennais'  hope.  He  had  ideal- 
ized the  Church,  and  would  now  seek  a  like  panacea  in 
a  social  reorganizati(jn  (see  Brit,  and  For.  Evangel.  Re- 
view, Oct.  18G3,  p.  731).  This  work  was  severely  con- 
demned by  a  special  decree  of  Gregory  XVI,  Aug.  7, 1834. 
In  the  'Affaires  de  Home  (Paris,  1836)  Lamennais  en- 
ters fuUy  upon  the  fnial  period  of  his  life.  He  here 
breaks  cop^pletely  and  irrevocably  with  the  Church;  de- 
clares the  Roman  hierarchy,  of  which  he  had  long  been 
the  champion,  to  be  incompatible  with  a  true  Christian- 
ity and  a  true  humanism,  and  hereafter  Lamennais  was 
regarded  by  the  Church  authorities  as  an  apostate. 
Like  Luther,  Ulrich  von  llutten,  and  many  other  great 
men,  Lamennais  had  been  completely  disenchanted  by 
the  sight  of  the  corruptions  of  Rome  in  her  very  strong- 
hold. "  His  strong  and  clear  vision  saw  in  her  but  a 
corpse  whicli  it  was  vain  to  attempt  to  resuscitate ;  a 
conglomerate  religion  made  up  of  Christianity  perverted 
by  Jewish  symbolism,  and  degraded  and  sensualized  by 
Oriental  and  classical  mythology  and  philosophy.  Yet 
he  hesitated  long  before  he  could  make  >ip  his  mind  ti) 
deny  his  whole  previous  life,  to  forsake  and  repudiate 
what  he  had  formerly  defended,  to  become  an  antago- 
nist of  the  Church  of  which  he  had  formerly  been  the 
bulwark  and  the  champion;  and  it  required  a  year's 
meditation  and  self-examination,  amid  the  woods  of  his 
paternal  domain  of  La  Chesnaye,  before  he  resolved  final- 
ly and  forever  to  break  with  the  Church  of  Rome.  In 
a  worldly  point  of  view,  be  had  everything  to  lose  and 
nothing  to  gain  by  the  course  which  he  pursued,  and  it 
required  no  ordinary  courage,  no  small  portion  of  the 
martyr-spirit  to  act  as  he  acted"  {For.  and  Brit.  Erang. 
Review,  Oct.  18G3,  p.  730).  In  1837  he  began  to  edit  a 
daily  journal,  Le  livre  du  Peiiple.  His  work,  Le  Pai/s  et 
le  Gouvernement  (1840),  was  obnoxious  to  the  authorities, 
and  caused  the  author  two  years'  imprisonment  and  a 
tine  of  2000  francs.  The  most  important  and  elaborate 
work  of  the  latter  days  of  Lamennais  is  his  Esqtiisse  d'line 
Philosophie,  in  4  volumes  (Paris,  1840-4G) ;  a  w^rk  elo- 
quent and  religious  in  tone,  and  exhibiting  the  author's 
general  philosophical  conceptions  in  this  later  period  of 
his  life.  Here  the  authoritative  ground  of  certainty  is 
found,  not  in  the  common  testimony  of  mankind,  but  in 
the  common  reason.  Pliilosophy  is  understood  in  a  broad 
sense,  having  for  its  range  the  facts  of  general  being ;  it 
is  not  merely  a  matter  of  psychology  or  metaphysics. 
The  method  of  this  philosophy  is  the  assumption  of  cer- 
tain foundation  truths  which  all  mankind  admit.  Al)- 
solute  existence  is  not  capable  of  proof,  and  in  like  man- 
ner God  and  the  world  are  two  fundamental  assump- 
tions. God  has  in  his  own  essence  necessity  and  varie- 
ty. He  is  an  eternal  conscious  Ego.  He  has  the  tri- 
une attributes  of  power,  intelligence,  and  love,  uhicli  in 
Scripture  language  are  exi)ressed  as  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holy  Spirit.  God  has  society  within  himself,  v.i  the  type 
of  a'u  society,  and  the  three  attributes  produce  and  ex- 
plain the  laws  of  whatever  is  outside  of  God.  These 
attributes  are  recognised  as  controlling  elements  through 
every  development  of  tiiis  idiilosophical  system.  Crea- 
tion is  not  emanation,  hut  the  original  divine  ideas  are 
made  real  by  CnKX»J'rce  poiver.  This  is  not  Pantheism 
or  Dualism.  IMatter  arises  under  the  mysterious  power 
of  God  in  the  limitation  of  individuals.  Properly  speak- 
ing, matter  is  not  a  distinct  entity ;  it  is  but  a  limitation 
of  that  which  exists.  Time  and  space,  the  modes  of 
our  existence,  are  the  limitations  of  eternity  and  im- 
mensity, which  are  tlie  modes  of  God's  existence.  The 
nature  of  the  universe  is  to  be  determined  by  the  aid  of 
the  disclosures  of  science,  but  the  laws  of  its  existence 
and  operation  in  the  forms  of  inorganic,  organic,  and  in- 
tellectual being  are  determined  by  the  applicati<in  of  the 
principles  inherent  in  the  three  divine  attributes,  ilan 
is  the  most  elevated  of  the  beings  known  to  us.  The 
great  ]iroblem  concerning  man  is  the  origin  of  moral 
evil.  This  is  to  be  explained  as  a  limitation  of  the  free 
moral  agent  in  his  connnunion  with  (iod.  Thus,  al- 
though iuirtfid  to  the  subject,  the  actuality  of  moral  evil 


LAMENNAIS 


212 


LAMENNAIS 


does  not  introduce  any  positive  disorder  into  the  nni- 
vcrse  regarded  as  a  realization  of  the  divine  ideas.  The 
true  purpose  of  man's  life  is  to  free  himself  from  this 
state  of  isolation,  of  negation  in  self,  and  come  into  en- 
tire harmony  with  the  divine  will.  The  application  of 
this  svstem  to  the  several  faculties  and  pursuits  of  man 
is  developed  at  large.  Hope  for  the  world  thus  lies  in 
the  development  of  the  people.  Religion  and  nature 
will  issue  in  one  when  fully  disclosed.  Everything  in 
the  \vork  seems  to  proceed  from  a  religions,  but  no  lon- 
ger churchly  stand -point. 

Lamennais'  Discussions  Critiques  et  pensees  diverses 
sur  III  Rcliniim  et  la  Philosophie  (Paris,  18-11)  gives  the 
author's  views  on  social  questions.  In  place  of  the 
Church  autliority  whose  claims  he  formerly  advocated, 
he  would  now  have  the  democratic  theocracy  honored. 
This  is  in  great  measure  a  retraction  of  his  work  Sur 
V iiuliffe rence  en  maiiere  de  Religion.  Of  similar  im- 
port is  La  Relifjion  du  piosse  et  de  Farenir  du  Penple 
(1842).  It  is  no  longer  the  future  of  the  Church  of 
which  he  speaks,  but  of  the  people.  His  Church  is  now 
the  religion  of  brotherly  love,  and  he  will  have  it  rise 
upon  the  ruins  of  both  Komanism  and  Protestantism. 
Amschaspaiuls  et  Darvans  (1843),  and  Les  evangiles,  tra- 
duction nouvelle  avec  des  notes  et  des  reflexions  (184G), 
were  issued  professedly  as  a  defence  for  the  people 
against  a  mythological  and  superstitious  credulity.  La- 
mennais was  greatly  interested  in  the  February  Kevolu- 
tion,  and  exerted  his  intluence  to  prevent  acts  of  vio- 
lence against  the  Church  and  religious  interests.  Grat- 
itude for  his  services  in  this  regard  led  to  his  election 
to  the  Assembly  from  the  department  of  the  Seine,  and 
in  his  seat  he  ahvays  sided  with  the  Left.  He  is  said  to 
have  spoken  but  once,  and  that  in  opposition  to  the  dic- 
tatorship of  Cavaignac.  He  undertook  the  editorship, 
conjointly  with  I'ascal  Duj)rat,  of  the  journal  Le  Peuple 
Consiitudiit.  He  was  grieved  by  the  violence  of  the  Red 
Republicans,  though  still  steadfast  in  his  hope  of  the 
democracy;  and  was  forced  into  retirement  by  the  coup 
d'etat,  meeting  with  disappointment  in  this  direction 
likewise.  Nothing,  however,  availed  to  change  the 
views  he  had  in  later  years  adopted,  and  the  Church 
sought  in  vain,  through  the  intluence  of  relatives,  to  re- 
call him  to  her  ftiith  on  his  dying  bed.  He  died  at  Par- 
is, in  the  Rue  du  Grand  Chartres,  Feb.  27, 1854.  He  had 
refused  to  see  a  minister,  and  his  wiU  ordered  that  no 
fonnal  ceremony  sho\dd  attend  his  burial.  He  wished 
his  holly  to  be  placed  in  the  corbillard  des  pauvres,  or 
pauper's  hearse,  and  this  direction  was  complied  with. 
His  remains  were  followed  by  a  few  friends,  as  Beran- 
ger  and  Gamier  Pages,  and  also,  notwithstanding  the 
police  prohibition,  by  a  large  number  of  the  people,  who 
gatheretl  at  the  cemetery  Pere  la  Chaise.  No  prayer 
was  uttered,  nor  last  word  said,  and  the  remains  were 
placed  in  the  common  grave,  without  cross  or  stone  to 
mark  their  resting-place.  Lamennais  was  small  of 
stature,  though  of  attractive  physiognomy;  somewhat 
slow  and  hesitating  in  speech,  with  something  of  the 
Bretagnc  dialect;  less  able  with  his  tongue  than  with 
his  pen.  His  family  had  lost  most  of  their  property  in 
the  lirst  Revolution,  and  he  himself  a  large  part  of  his 
own  through  misplaced  confidence.  In  later  j'ears  he 
resided  mostly  on  a  small  estate  in  Lachesnaye,  near 
Dinau,  in  Hretagne. 

As  a  literary  character,  Lamennais  occupied  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  revival  of  style  under  the  Restoration. 
His  era  succeeds  that  of  Chateaubriand,  and  corresponds 
with  that  of  ^Madame  de  Stael  and  .Joseph  de  Maistre. 
He  was  an  earnest  if  not  )irofound  thinker,  but  especial- 
ly brilliant  as  a  writer.  He  had  the  culture  of  art  com- 
bined with  the  vehemence  of  passion,  though  the  latter 
element  perhaps  too  often  expressed  itself  in  the  manner 
of  declamatiiin.  As  a  theorist  in  social  iihilosophy  he 
had  a  counterpart  in  Benjamin  Constant,  who  took  his 
stand-jioint  in  individual  liberty,  while  Lamennais  set 
out  from  the  assumption  of  a  consenting  unity  in  society 
and  religion.    It  has  been  claimed  that  his  steadfastness 


to  this  primar\'  principle  explains  the  variation  of  posi- 
tion which  changed  political  circumstances  seemed  to 
necessitate,  causing  him  to  be  at  one  time  all  for  the 
Church,  at  another  all  for  the  people.  There  were,  at 
all  events,  three  distinct  periods  in  his  career,  in  tlie 
first  of  which  he  was  Ultramontane ;  in  the  second  he 
sought  to  mediate  between  the  Church  and  democratic 
ideas ;  Avhile  at  the  last  he  cast  off  all  cliurchly  control, 
and  became  a  chiliastic  prophet  of  the  democracy. 

M.  Guizot,  in  the  second  series  of  his  Meditations  on 
the  Actual  State  of  Christianity,  thus  portraitures  La- 
mennais :  "  This  apostle  of  universal  reason  was  at  the 
same  time  the  proudest  worsliipper  of  his  own  reason. 
Under  the  pressure  of  events  without,  and  of  an  ardent 
controversy,  a  transformation  took  place  in  him,  marked 
at  once  by  its  logical  deductions  and  its  moral  inconsist- 
ency ;  he  changed  his  camp  without  changing  his  prin- 
ciples; in  the  attempt  to  lead  the  supreme  authoritj^of 
his  Church  to  admit  his  principles  he  had  failed ;  and 
from  that  instant  the  very  spirit  of  revolt  that  he  had 
so  severely  rebuked  broke  loose  in  his  soul  and  in  his 
writings,  finding  expression  at  one  time  in  an  indigna- 
tion fuU  of  hatred  levelled  at  the  po^verful,  the  rich,  and 
the  fortunate  ones  of  the  world ;  at  another  time  in  a 
tender  sympathy  for  the  miseries  of  humanity.  The 
Words  of  a  Believer  are  the  eloquent  outburst  of  this 
tumidt  in  his  soul.  Plunged  in  the  chaos  of  sentiments 
the  most  contradictor^',  and  yet  claiming  to  be  always 
consistent  with  himself,  the  champion  of  authority  be- 
came in  the  state  the  most  baited  of  democrats,  and  in 
the  Church  the  haughtiest  of  rebels.  It  is  not  without 
sorrow  that  I  thus  express  my  unreserved  opmion  of  a 
man  of  superior  talent — mind  lofty,  soul  intense;  a  man 
in  the  sequel  profoundly  sad  himself,  although  haughty 
in  his  very  fall.  One  cannot  read  in  their  stormy  suc- 
cession the  numerous  writings  of  tiie  abbe  dc  Lamen- 
nais without  recognising  in  them  traces,  I  will  not  say  of 
his  intellectual  perplexities — his  pride  did  not  feel  them 
— but  of  the  sufferings  of  his  soul,  whether  for  good  or  for 
evil.  His  was  a  noble  nature,  but  fuU  of  exaggeration  in 
his  opinions,  of  fanatical  arrogance,  and  of  angry  asper- 
ity in  his  polemics.  One  title  to  our  gratitude  remains 
to  the  abbe  de  Lamennais — he  thundered  to  purpose 
against  the  gross  and  vulgar  forgetfulness  of  the  great 
moral  interests  of  humanity.  His  essay  on  indifference 
in  religious  questions  inflicted  a  rude  blow  upon  that 
vice  of  the  time,  and  recalled  men's  souls  to  regions 
above.  And  thus  it  was,  too,  that  he  rendered  service 
to  the  great  movement  and  awakening  of  Christians  in 
the  19th  century,  and  that  he  merits  his  place  in  that 
movement,  although  he  deserted  it." 

One  of  Lamennais'  last  and  most  earnest  injunctions 
was  that  certain  papers,  which  contained  his  latest  sen- 
timents, should  be  published  without  alteration  or  sup- 
pression ;  but  the  religious  advisers  of  his  niece  (who 
was  also  his  housekeeper)  so  far  wrought  on  her  suscep- 
tibility as  to  cause  her  to  refuse  to  give  up  the  jiapers  to 
the  persons  whom  Lamennais  had  authorized  to  super- 
intend their  publication.  The  matter  was  in  conse- 
quence brought  before  the  proper  legal  tribimal,  when 
the  judges  directed  (August,  1850)  that  the  papers  shoidd 
be  handed  over  for  publication  in  their  integrity. 

The  first  edition  of  Lamennais'  collected  works  was 
published  under  the  title  G-luvres  completes  (Paris,  1836- 
37, 12  vols.  8vo).  Several  editions  have  appeared  since. 
See  Paganel,  Examen  critique  des  Opinions  dc  I'A  hhe  de 
Lamennais  (2d  edit.  1825,  2  vols.  8vo)  ;  H.  Lacordaire, 
Considerations  sur  le  Si/steme  J'hilosophique  de  M.  de 
Lamennais  (1834,  8vo) ;  E.  Lerminier,  Les  Adversaires 
de  Lamennais  (in  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  1834); 
Robinet,  Etudes  szir  I'abbe  de  Lamennais  (1835) ;  Ma- 
drolle,  Jlistoire  secrete  du  Partie  et  de  I'Apostasie  de  M. 
de  Lamennais  (1843);  Lomenie,  il/.  f/e  Lamennais  (1840); 
Sainte-Beuve,  Critique  et  Portraits  Litteraires,  v  (Paris, 
1846);  and, by  the  same  author.  Portraits  Contemporains 
(1846),  i,  134-191 ;  E.  Renan,  Lamennais  et  ses  en-its  (in 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  August,  1857) ;  Morell,  Hist. 


LAMENNAIS 


213       LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


Modem  PhUosophj,  p.  527-37;  Damiron,  Z'^^ai  snr  Vhis- 
toire  de  la  Philosojjhie  en  France  au  Ideme  siecle  (1828), 
p.  105-197;  ll!i!L^,Les  Dogvies  Chretiens,\,AA^  8(\.\  For- 
ei(jn  Qiuir.  Rev.  April,  1838 ;  Brit,  and  For.  Rev.  1843,  p. 
382  sq.;  Westminster  Review,  A\)xi\,\9.hQ;  18G6,  p.  174; 
Revue  Chrkienne,  vol.  xiv,  No.  3,  p.  173.  See  also  the  ex- 
cellent articles  in  Herzog,  Real-EnajUop.  viii,  178-184 ; 
Hoefer,  Kouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxix,  182  sq.     (E.  B.  0.) 

Lamennais,  Jean  Marie  Robert  de,  a  French 
theoloiiian,  brother  of  the  preceding,  born  at  St.  Malo 
about  1775,  flourished  as  canon  of  the  diocese  of  Kennes, 
and  was  the  founder  of  the  order  known  as  Les  fr'eres 
de  Lamennais  de  Ploermel  (compare  Ilerzog,  Recd-Ency- 
klojh  iv,  509).  He  wrote  several  works  on  religious  sub- 
jects, but  they  are  of  no  particular  value.  In  the  prep- 
aration of  Tradition  de  Veglise  sur  I' institution  des  evcques 
he  greatly  assisted  his  brother.  He  died  in  1860. — 
Thomas,  Biographical  Dictionary,  p.  1362. 

Lament  (represented  by  numerous  Heb.  and  sev- 
eral Gr.  words,  of  which  the  principal  are  P3X,  uhcd',  to 
mnurn;  ITIJ  X,  «««/*',  to  sm//j;  ilifi, nahah', to  wail ;  'ISO, 
saphad',  to  smite  the  breast  in  token  of  violent  grief; 
"jJip,  hin,to  strike  a  mournful  tune ;  iirS, hahah',  to  weepi ; 
^p7]viw,  to  wail  aloud ;  kotttu),  to  cut,  i.  e.  beat  the  bo- 
som, etc.,  in  violent  liursts  of  grief;  with  their  deriva- 
tives). The  Orientals  are  accustomed  to  bewail  the 
dead  in  the  most  passionate  manner,  and  even  hire  pro- 
fessional mourners,  usually  women,  to  perform  this  cere- 
mony more  effectually  at  funerals.  See  Burial;  Gkief, 
etc. 

The  '^3''p,  hinah',  elegy,  or  dii'ge,  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  earliest  Hebrew  writings.  The  first  example  of  it 
which  we  meet  with,  and  also  one  of  tlie  most  beautiful 
and  pathetic,  is  the  lament  of  David  over  Saul  and  Jon- 
athan (2  Sam.  i,  17-27).  Notwithstanding,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that,  from  an  early  period,  and  not  on  rare 
occasions,  the  Hebrew  poetic  spirit  found  utterance  in 
this  class  of  compositions.  The  kimih  is  mentioned  as 
a  frequent  accompaniment  of  mourning  in  Amos  viii,  10 : 
'•  I  will  turn  your  feasts  into  mourning,  and  all  your 
songs  into  lamentation"  (ilS'^p).  Jeremiah  wrote  a  la- 
ment on  the  death  of  Josiah,which,  as  we  are  informed, 
was  added  to  the  collection  of  kinoth  or  dirges  existing 
at  that  time  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  25;  compare  also  Jer.  vii, 
29 ;  ix,  9, 10, 19).  In  2  Sam.  iii,  33,  34,  is  preserved  the 
brief  but  touching  lament  of  David  over  Abner  (q.  v.). 

The  kinah  was  of  two  sorts,  historical  andpi-ophetical. 
The  laments  of  David  and  Jeremiah  already  mentioned 
are  of  the  former  sort.  In  the  prophetic  writings,  and 
especially  in  Ezekiel,  we  meet  with  the  prophetic  la- 
ment, which  had  reference  to  some  calamity  yet  future, 
but  vividly  anticipated  and  realized.  Thus  Ezek.  xxvii, 
2,  "  Son  of  man,  take  up  a  lamentation  for  Tyrus,"  etc. 
In  this  case  the  prophet  himself  is  told  to  raise  his  la- 
ment, as  if  the  city  had  already  been  overthrown.  In 
others  he  gives  to  his  prophecy  the  form  of  a  lament,  to 
be  used  when  the  predicted  calamity  has  actually  taken 
place.  The  calamity  is  so  inevitable  that  the  prepara- 
tions for  bewailing  it  may  be  now  begun.  (Comp.  Ezek. 
xix,  1, 14;  xxvi,  17;  xxvii,  32;  xxviii,  12;  xxxii,  2, 16. 
So  Amos  V,  1.) 

The  only  other  passage  in  which  113 "^p,  or  its  cognate 
verb  'ilp  (lMm-n),\s  found,  is  Ezek.  ii,  10,  where  we  read 
of  a  "  roll  of  a  book,"  "ISO  r^5p  {megilluth  sepher),  be- 
ing spread  out  before  the  prophet ;  "  and  there  was  writ- 
ten therein  lamentations,  D'^3"^p  (kinim),  and  mourning, 
and  woe."  It  is  a  remarkable  coincidence,  but  probably 
nothing  more,  that  immediately  before  the  book  of  Eze- 
kiel there  stands  in  most  of  the  versions  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  a  il^S^a,  or  roll,  which  answers  quite  to  this 
description.  Those  who  regard  the  book  of  Lamenta- 
tions as  belonging  to  the  class  of  prophetic  laments 
might  probably  find  in  this  coincidence  a  confirmation 
of  their  views. 


The  opinion  just  mentioned,  that  the  book  of  Lamen- 
tations was  written  pirolepticcdly  in  view  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  belongs  to  the  class  of  prophetic 
kinoth,  as  intended  to  describe  that  event  proplietically, 
is  an  ancient  opinion,  held  and  defended  by  critics  of  no 
mean  reputation,  is  not  now  so  generally  entertained 
as  formerly.  The  prophetic  laments  are  usually  very 
brief;  or,  if  thej'  include  more  than  a  few  verses,  always 
tend  to  pass  into  distinct  prophecy,  and  rarely  keep  up 
to  the  close  their  character  as  laments  (Ezek.  xxvii,  27, 
etc.).  Perhaps  the  most  perfect  example  is  the  lament 
in  Ezek.  xxviii,  12-19;  but  even  there  we  meet  with  a 
"  Thus  saith  the  Lord"  (ver.  12).  It  is  therefore,  ^jrimci 
facie,  improbal)le  that  an  elegiac  composition  so  length- 
ened and  elaborate  as  the  book  of  Lamentations  should 
bear  a  distinctively  prophetic  character ;  though,  on  the 
other  hand,  its  assumed  prophetical  character  might  be 
said  to  justify  this  extended  wail.  Moreover,  in  the 
book  itself  there  is  not  the  slightest  indication  that  it 
does  bear  such  a  character;  and  the  most  ancient  tradi.- 
tion — that  contained  in  the  Sept. — gives  to  it  a  histori- 
cal foundation.  It  is,  indeed,  an  old  conjecture,  that  the 
book  of  Lamentations  is  identical  with  the  lament  wliich 
Jeremiah  composed  on  the  death  of  Josiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxv,  25)  ;  but  this,  if  its  main  or  only  purpose,  is  quite 
inconsistent  with  the  fact  that  throughout  the  entire 
book  tliere  is  not  a  single  allusion  to  the  death  of  Josiah. 
Only  once  is  mention  made  of  the  king,  '•  the  anointed  of 
the  Lord"  (iv,  20),  and  the  reference  is  evidently  not  to 
Josiah. — Fairbairn,  s.  v.    See  Lajientations,  Book  of. 

LAjNIENTATIONS,  Book  of,  one  of  the  books  of  the 
O.T.  commonly  assigned  to  Jeremiah,  and  consisting  of 
a  remarkable  series  of  threnodies.  In  the  following 
treatment  of  it  we  largely  foUow  the  articles  in  Smith 
and  Kitto,  s.  v. 

I.  Title.— The.  Hebrew  name  of  this  book,  n^iX,  Ey- 
kah',  "  How,"  is  taken,  like  those  of  the  five  books  of 
INIoses,  from  the  Hebrew  word  with  which  it  opens,  and 
which  appears  to  have  been  almost  a  received  formula 
for  the  commencement  of  a  song  of  wailing  (compare  2 
Sam.  i,  19-27).  The  Eabbins  remark  upon  this  title, 
"  Three  prophets  have  used  the  word  riD'^X  with  refer- 
ence to  Israel :  Moses,  Isaiah,  and  Jeremiah.  To  what 
are  they  to  be  likened '?  To  three  bridesmen  (^'^J'^^TUIty 
=:Mi)pTt](p6poi)  who  have  seen  the  afterwards  widowed 
wife  in  three  different  stages.  The  first  has  seen  her  in 
her  opulence  and  her  pride,  and  he  said,  "  Oh,  how  shall 
I  bear  alone  your  overbearing  and  your  strife  ?'  (Deut.  i, 
2).  The  second  has  seen  her  in  her  dissipation  and  dis- 
soluteness, and  he  said, '  Oh,  how  has  she  become  a  har- 
lot !'  (Isa.  i,  21).  And  the  third  has  seen  her  in  her  ut- 
ter desolation,  and  he  said, '  Oh,  how  does  she  sit  soli- 
tary !'  (Lam.  i,  1)"  (Introduction  to  Echa  Rabatkf). 

Later  Jewish  w'riters  usually  designate  the  book  by 
the  more  descriptive  title  riiD^p,  Kinoth',  "  lamenta- 
tions" —  dirge,  a  term  which  they  found  in  Jer.  vii,  29 ; 
ix,  10,20;  2  Chron.  xxxv,  25,  and  which  already  had 
probably  been  applied  familiarly  to  the  book  itself.  See 
Lajient. 

The  Septuagint  translators  found  themselves  obliged,, 
as  in  the  other  cases  referred  to,  to  substitute  some  title 
more  significant,  and  adopted  Bptji'd  'lepei^iiov  as  the 
equivalent  of  the  latter  Hebrew  term.  The  Vulgate 
gives  the  Greek  word,  and  explains  it  {Threni,  ill  est, 
Lamentationes  Jeremiee  Propheta').  Lutlier  and  the  A. 
V.  have  given  the  translation  only,  in  "  Klagelieder"' and 
"Lamentations"  respectively. 

II.  Position. — In  the  present  Hebrew  Bible  the  book 
of  Lamentations  stands  in  the  Hagiograi)ha  (Kethiihim) 
between  Ruth  and  Ecclesiastes.  The  Jews  believe  that 
it  was  not  written  by  the  gift  of  prophecy,  but  by  the 
Spirit  of  (iod  (between  which  they  make  a  distinction), 
and  give  this  as  a  reason  for  not  placing  it  among  the 
prophets.  In  the  arrangement  adopted  for  synagogue 
use,  and  reproduced  in  some  editions,  as  in  the  Bomberg 
Bible  of  1521,  it  stands  among  the  five  Megilloth  after 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   214   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


the  books  of  iVrosos,  or  books  of  Ruth,  Esther,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  and  Solomon's  SonR.  This  position  of  the  book 
proliably  had  a  Utiirgical  origin,  as  it  is  read  in  their 
synagogues  on  the  nintli  of  the  month  Ab,  which  is  a 
fast  fnr  the  destruction  of  the  holy  city.  In  the  ancient 
Hebrew  copies,  however,  this  book  is  supposed  to  have 
occupied  the  place  which  is  now  assigned  to  it  in  most 
versions,  namely,  after  Jeremiah.  Indeed,  from  the  man- 
ner in  which  Josephus  reckons  up  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (^Contra  Apion,  i,  8),  it  has  been  supposed 
that  Jeremiah  and  it  originally  formed  Init  one  book 
(Prideaux,  Connection,  i,  332).  The  Septuagint  groups 
the  writings  connected  with  the  name  of  Jeremiah  to- 
gether, but  the  book  of  Baruch  comes  between  the 
prophecy  and  the  Lamentation.  On  the  hypothesis  of 
some  ^Titers  that  Jer.  lii  was  originally  the  introduction 
to  the  poem,  and  not  the  conclusion  of  the  prophecy, 
and  that  the  preface  of  the  .Sept.  (which  is  not  found 
cither  in  the  Hebrew  or  in  the  Targum  of  Jonathan) 
was  inserted  to  diminish  the  aljrnptness  occasioned  by 
this  separation  of  the  book  I'rom  that  with  which  it  had 
been  originally  connected,  it  woidd  follow  that  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  Yulg.  and  tlie  A.  Y.  corresponds  more 
closely  than  any  other  to  that  which  we  must  look  upon 
as  the  original  one. 

III.  Form. — The  structure  of  this  book  is  peculiarly 
artificial,  being  strictly  poetic,  and  in  many  portions 
acrostic. 

(1.)  Ch.  i,  ii,  and  iv  contain  22  verses  each,  arranged 
in  alphabetic  order,  each  verse  falling  into  three  nearly 
balanced  clauses  (Ewald,/'oe^/?wc/^  p.  1-47);  ii,  19  forms 
an  exception,  as  having  a  fourth  clause,  the  result  of  an 
interpolation,  as  if  the  writer  had  shaken  off  for  a  mo- 
ment the  restraint  of  his  self-imposed  law.  Possibly 
the  hiversion  of  the  usual  order  of  "  and  £  in  ch.  ii,  iii, 
iv,  may  have  arisen  from  a  like  forgetfulness.  Grotius 
(ad  loc.)  explains  it  on  the  assumption  that  here  Jere- 
miah followed  the  order  of  the  Chaktean  alphabet. 
Similar  anomalies  occur  in  Psa.  xxxvii,  and  have  re- 
ceived a  like  explanation  (De  Wette,  Psa.  p.  57).  It  is, 
however,  a  mere  hypothesis  that  the  Chaldajan  alpha- 
bet differed  in  this  respect  from  the  Hebrew;  nor  is  it 
easy  to  see  why  Jeremiah  should  have  chosen  the  He- 
brew order  for  one  poem,  and  the  Chaldiean  for  the  oth- 
er three. 

(2.)  Ch.  iii  contains  three  short  verses  under  each  let- 
ter of  the  alphabet,  the  initial  letter  being  three  times 
repeated. 

(3.)  Ch.  V  contains  the  same  number  of  verses  as  ch. 
i,  ii,  iv,  but  without  the  alphabetic  order.  The  thought 
suggests  itself  that  the  earnestness  of  the  prayer  with 
\vhieh  the  book  closes  may  have  carried  the  writer  be- 
yond the  limits  within  which  he  had  previously  con- 
lined  himself:  but  the  conjecture  (of  Ewald)  that  we 
liave  here,  as  in  Psa.  ix  and  x,  the  rough  draught  of 
■what  was  intended  to  have  been  finished  afterwards  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  others,  is  at  least  a  probable 
one. 

IV.  Author. — The  poems  included  in  this  collection 
appear  in  the  Hebrew  canon  with  no  name  attached  to 
them,  and  there  is  no  direct  external  evidence  that  they 
were  written  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  earlier  than  the 
date  given  in  the  prefatory  verse  which  appears  in  the 
Septuagint,  which  is  .is  follows:  "And  it  came  to  pass, 
after  Israel  had  been  carried  away  cai)tlve,  and  Jerusa- 
lem liad  heconie  tlesniale,  that  Jeremiah  sat  weeping, 
and  lamented  with  this  lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and 
said."  Tills  has  been  copied  into  the  Arabic  and  Vul- 
gate versions;  but  as  it  does  not  exist  in  the  Hel)rew, 
Chaldee,  or  Syriac,  it  was  regarded  by  Jerome  as  spuri- 
ous, and  is  not  admitted  into  his  version.  This  repre- 
sents, however,  tlie  established  belief  of  the  Jews  after 
the  completion  of  the  canon,  'i'lie  Talnuid,'embodying 
the  earliest  traditions,  has:  '"Jeremiah  wrote  his  book, 
the  book  of  Kings,  and  the  Lamentations"' (/)«6«  Bttthra, 
15,  a ).  Later  Jewish  writers  are  equally  explicit  {Echa 
liubb.  introd.).     Josephus  {Ant.  x,  5, 1)  follows,  as  far 


as  the  question  of  authorship  is  concerned,  in  the  same 
track,  and  the  absence  of  any  tradition  or  jirobalde  con- 
jecture to  the  contrary  leaves  the  concensus  of  critics 
and  commentators  almost  undisturbed.  (See  below.) 
An  agreement  so  striking  rests,  as  might  be  expected, 
on  strong  internal  evidence.  The  poems  belong  unmis- 
takably to  the  last  days  of  the  kingdom  or  the  com- 
mencement of  the  exile.  They  are  written  bj'  one  who 
speaks,  with  the  vividness  and  intensity  of  an  eye-wit- 
ness, of  the  misery  which  he  bewails.  It  might  almost 
be  enough  to  ask  Avho  else  then  living  could  have  writ- 
ten with  that  union  of  strong  passionate  feeling  and  en- 
tire submission  to  Jehovah  which  characterizes  both  the 
Lamentations  and  the  Prophecy  of  Jeremiah.  The  evi- 
dences of  identity  are,  however,  stronger  and  more  mi- 
nute. In  both  we  meet,  once  and  again,  with  the  pic- 
ture of  the  "  Virgin-daughter  of  Zion"  sitting  down  in 
her  shame  and  misery  (Lam.  i,  15 ;  ii,  13  ;  Jer.  xiv,  17). 
In  both  there  is  the  same  vehement  outpouring  of  sor- 
row. The  prophet's  eyes  flow  down  with  tears  (Lam. 
i,  16;  ii,  11;  iii,  48,  49;  Jer.  ix,  1 ;  xiii,  17;  xiv,  17). 
There  is  the  same  haunting  feeling  of  being  suir-omided 
with  fears  and  terrors  on  everj'  side  ( Lam.  ii,  22 ;  Jer.  vi, 
25 ;  xlvi,  5).  In  both  the  worst  of  all  the  evils  is  the 
iniquity  of  the  prophets  and  the  priests  (Lam.  ii,  14  ;  iv, 
13 ;  Jer.  v,  30,  31 ;  xiv,  13, 14).  The  suflterer  appeals  for 
vengeance  to  the  righteous  Judge  (Lam.  iii,  64-6G ;  Jer. 
xi,  20).  He  bids  the  rival  nation  that  exulted  in  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  prepare  for  a  like  desolation  (Lam.  iv, 
21 ;  Jer.  xlix,  12).  The  personal  references  to  Jere- 
miah's own  fate,  such  as  we  know  it  from  his  book  of 
Prophecies  and  Kings,  are  not  wanting  (comp.  Lam.  ii, 
1 1,  and  iii,  with  Jer.  XV,  15  sq.;  xvii,]3sq.;  xx,7;  Lam. 
iii,  14  with  Jer.  xx,  7 ;  iii,  64-06  with  Jer.  xvii,  18 ;  v 
with  iv,  17-20).  As  in  the  Prophecies,  so  here,  the  in- 
iquities of  the  people  are  given  as  the  cause  of  the  exile 
and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  (com- 
pare i,  5,  8, 14, 22 ;  iii,  39,  42 ;  iv,  6,  22 ;  v,  16  with  Jer. 
xiii,  22-26;  xiv,  7;  xvi,  10  sq. ;  xvii,  1  sq.),  their  sinful 
trust  in  false  prophets  and  iniquitous  priests,  their  rely- 
ing on  tlie  safety  of  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  aid  of  power- 
less and  treacherous  allies,  etc.  What  is  more,  his  poet- 
ical and  prophetical  individuality  pervades  the  whole  so 
unmistakably  that  it  seems  hardly  necessarj'  to  refer  to 
the  numerous  parallel  passages  adduced  by  Eichhorn, 
Bertholdt,  Keil,  De  Wette,  Jahn,  Bleek,  and  others.  If 
contents,  spirit,  manner,  individuality,  are  any  guaran- 
tee at  all,  then  Jeremiah  is  the  author,  and  sole  author 
of  the  book  before  us.  He  even  seems  to  refer  to  his 
other  book  (comp.  ii,  14;  Jer.  xiv,  13).  But  were  any 
further  proof  needed,  we  would  certainly  find  it  in  the 
very  diction  and  phraseology  common  to  both  works, 
and  peculiar  to  them  alone  (comp.  "^'n,  Lam.  i,  22,  and 
Jer.  viii,  18 ;  mSI  1T^'3,  Lam.  iii,  47,  and  Jer.  xxi v,  17  ; 
xlviii,43 ;  i^"  t"2  12"1",  Lam.  ii,  1 1,  and  Jer.  vi,  14,  and 
viii,  11 ;  S'l^D^  "115"2,  Lam.  ii,  22,  and  Jer.  vi,  25,  and 
frequently  the  very  frequent  use  of  "■'^'di  ""^"l-in,  C'l'p, 
fWC"^.  in  both;  phrases  like  "I  became  a  mockery  all 
day  long,"  Lam.  iii,  14,  and  Jer.  xx,  7,  etc. :  the  use  of 
the  1  parag.,  and  other  grammatical  peculiarities.  See 
Keil,  Einleit.  in  das  A .  T.  §  129). 

The  only  exceptions  to  this  unanimity  of  opinion  as 
to  the  authorship  of  Lamentations  are  Ilardt,  who,  for 
reasons  of  his  own,  ascribed  the  five  different  elegies  to 
Daniel,  Shadrach,  IMeshach,  Abednego,  and  king  .lehon- 
ja  respectively,  and,  in  our  own  time,  Conz  and  Thenius. 
The  last  holds  that  only  Lam.  ii  and  iv  belong  to  Jere- 
miah (the  former  written  in  Palestine,  the  latter  in 
Egypt),  the  three  others,  hov.-ever,  having  been  written 
by  Jeremiah's  contemporaries  and  disciples.  His  rea- 
sons for  this  assumption  are,  that  Jeremiah  could  not 
liavc  treated  the  same  subject  five  times;  that  ii  and  iv 
are  difftrent  from  i,  iii,  v,  which  are  less  worthy  of  Jere- 
miah's pen;  that  the  three  latter  do  not  quite  fit  Jere- 
miah's own  circumstances;  and,  finally,  because  there  is 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   215   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


a  ilifFerence  in  the  aljihabetical  structure  (see  above)  of 
i  and  of  ii-iv.  These  objections  to  Jeremiah's  exclu- 
sive autliorship  seem  about  as  tenable  as  Hardt's  Sha- 
drach,  Meshach,  Abednego,  and  consorts.  The  first  two 
jioints  arc  not  worth  consideration ;  the  third  is  an- 
swered by  the  simple  proposition  that  they  are  poems, 
anil  not  a  historical  narrative  which  we  have  before  us, 
and  that  therefore  a  certain  license  must  be  given  to 
the  poet  in  the  use  of  broad  similes  in  his  gencralizings, 
and  in  his  putting  himself  sometimes  in  the  place  of  the 
whole  people  as  its  spokesman  and  chief  mourner.  And 
if,  finally,  the  structure  ditfers  in  i  from  ii  and  iv,  then  it 
may  as  well  be  asked  why  iii,  which  is  not  supposed  to 
be  written  by  Jeremiah,  is  like  ii  and  iv,  which  are  al- 
lowed to  be  ^\•ritten  by  him  ?  If  somebody  has  imitated 
the  structure  in  iii,  why  has  it  not  been  also  imitated  in 
i  and  vV  A  further  refutation  of  this  attempt  to  take 
away  two  fifths  of  Jeremiah's  authorship — supported  by 
no  investigator  as  we  said — has  been  given  by  Ewald, 
and  we  have  indeed  only  mentioned  it  for  the  sake  of 
completeness.  Bunsen,  it  is  true  {fjott  in  der.Gesch.  i, 
420 ),  indicates  Baruch  as  probably  the  author,  in  part  at 
least,  of  Lamentations ;  but  this  is  evidently  a  mere  con- 
jecture. 

V.  Occasion. — The  earliest  statement  on  this  point  is 
that  of  Josephus  {Ant.  x,  5,  1).  He  finds  among  the 
books  which  were  extant  in  his  own  time  the  lamenta- 
tions on  the  death  of  Josiah,  which  are  mentioned  in  2 
Chron.  xxxv,  25.  As  there  are  no  traces  of  any  other 
poem  of  this  kind  in  the  later  Jewish  literature,  it  has 
been  inferred,  naturally  enough,  that  he  speaks  of  this. 
This  opinion  was  maintained  also  by  Jerome,  and  has 
been  defended  by  some  modern  writers  (Usher,  Dathe, 
jNIichaelis,  Notes  to  Lowth,  Prsel.  xxii  [Michaelis  and 
Dathe,  however,  afterwards  abandoned  this  hypothesis, 
and  adopted  that  of  the  later  date]  ;  Calovius,  Prolegom. 
ad  Thren. ;  De  Wette,  Einl.  in  das  A.  Test.,  Klagl.).  It 
doss  not  ap])ear,  however,  to  rest  on  any  better  grounds 
than  a  hasty  conjecture,  arising  from  the  reluctance  of 
men  to  admit  that  any  work  by  an  inspired  writer  can 
have  perished,  or  the  arbitrary  assumption  (De  Wette, 
I.  c.)  that  the  same  man  could  not,  twice  in  his  life,  have 
been  the  spokesman  of  a  great  national  sorrow.  (The 
argument  that  iii,  27  implies  the  youth  of  the  writer 
hardly  needs  to  be  confuted.)  Against  it  we  have  to 
set  (1)  the  tradition  on  the  other  side  embodied  in  the 
preface  of  the  Septuagint ;  (2)  the  contents  of  the  book 
itself.  Admitting  that  some  of  the  calamities  described 
in  it  may  have  been  common  to  the  invasions  of  Necho 
and  Nebuchadnezzar,  we  yet  look  in  vain  for  a  single 
•word  distinctive  of  a  funeral  dirge  over  a  devout  and 
zealous  reformer  like  Josiah,  while  we  find,  step  by  step, 
the  closest  possible  likeness  between  the  pictures  of  mis- 
ery in  the  Lamentations  and  the  events  of  the  closing 
years  of  the  reign  of  Zedekiah.  The  long  siege  had 
brought  on  the  famine  in  which  the  young  children 
fainted  for  hunger  (Lam.  ii,  11, 12,  20;  iv,  4,  9;  2  Kings 
XXV,  3).  The  city  was  taken  by  storm  (Lam.  ii,  7 ;  iv, 
12;  2  (Jhron.  xxxvi,  17).  The  Temple  itself  was  pol- 
luted with  the  massacre  of  the  priests  who  defended  it 
(Lam.  ii,  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  17),  and  then  destroy- 
ed (Lam.  ii,  G;  2  (Jhron.  xxxvi,  19).  The  fortresses 
and  strongholds  of  Judah  were  thrown  down.  The 
anointed  of  the  Lord,  under  whose  shadow  the  remnant 
of  the  people  might  have  hoped  to  live  in  safety,  was 
taken  i)risoner  (Lam.  iv,  20  ;  Jer.  xxxix,  5).  The  chief 
of  the  people  were  carried  into  exile  (Lam.  i,  5;  ii,  9;  2 
Kings  XXV,  11).  The  bitterest  grief  was  found  in  the 
malignant  exultation  of  the  Edomites  (Lam.  iv,  21 ;  Psa. 
cxxxvii,  7).  Under  the  rule  of  the  stranger  the  Sab- 
baths and  solemn  feasts  were  forgotten  (Lam.  i,  4;  ii,  G), 
as  they  could  hardly  have  been  during  the  short  period 
in  which  Jerusalem  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians. 
Unless  we  adopt  the  strained  hypothesis  that  the  whole 
poem  is  prophetic  in  the  sense  of  being  predictive,  the 
writer  seeing  the  future  as  if  it  were  actually  present, 
or  the  still  wilder  conjecture  of  Jarchi  that  this  was  the 


roll  which  Jehoiachin  destroyed,  and  which  was  re- 
written by  Baruch  or  Jeremiah  (Cari)zov,  Introd.  ad  lib. 
F.  T.  iii,  c.  iv),  we  are  compelled  to  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  coincidence  is  not  accidental,  and  to  adopt 
the  later,  not  the  earlier  of  the  dates.  At  what  perioil 
after  the  capture  of  the  city  the  prophet  gave  this  ut- 
terance to  his  sorrow  we  can  only  conjecture,  anil  the 
materials  for  doing  so  with  any  probability  are  but 
scanty.  The  local  tradition  which  pointed  out  a  cavern 
in  the  neighborhood  of . I  erusalem  as  the  refuge  to  which 
Jeremiah  withdrew  that  he  might  write  this  book  (Del 
Kio,  Prolefj.  in  Thren.,  quoted  by  Carpzov,  Introd.  1.  c), 
is  as  trustworthy  as  most  of  tlie  other  legends  of  the 
time  of  Helena.  He  may  have  written  it  immediately 
alter  the  attack  was  over,  or  when  he  was  with  Geda- 
liah  at  IMizpeh,  or  when  he  was  with  his  countrymen 
at  Tahpanhes.  Pareau  refers  ch.  i  to  Jer.  xxxvii,  5  sq. ; 
ch.  iii  to  Jer.  xxxviii,  2  sq. ;  ch.  iv  to  Jer.  xxxix,  1  sq., 
and  2  Kings  xxv,  1  sq. ;  ch.  ii  to  the  destruction  of  the 
city  and  Temple ;  ch.  v  is  admitted  to  be  the  latest  in 
order,  and  to  refer  to  the  time  after  that  event.  Ewald 
says  that  the  situation  is  the  same  throughout,  and  only 
the  time  different.  "  In  chaps,  i  and  ii  we  find  sorrow 
without  consolation ;  in  ch.  iii  consolation  for  the  poet 
himself;  in  chapter  iv  the  lamentation  is  renewed  with 
greater  violence;  but  soon  the  whole  people,  as  if  urged 
by  their  own  spontaneous  impulse,  fall  to  weeping  and 
hoping"  {Die  Poetischen  Biicher).  De  Wette  describes 
the  Lamentations  some\vhat  curtly,  as  "five  songs  re- 
lating to  the  destruction  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  its 
Temple  (ch.  i,  ii,  iv,  v),  and  to  the  unhappy  lot  of  the 
poet  himself  (chap.  iii).  The  historical  relation  of  the 
whole  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  yet  there  seems  a  grad- 
ual ascent  in  describing  the  condition  of  the  city"  (AY«- 
leitung,  §  273). 

There  can  hardly  be  any  doubt,  however,  as  to  the 
time  to  which  these  threnodies  refer.  A  brief  glance  at 
the  corresponding  portions  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  affords  decisive  evidence  that  they  speak, 
one  and  all,  of  the  whole  period  from  the  beginning  of 
the  last  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  its  terrible  end. 
This  has  also,  from  the  Se]it.  and  the  IMidrash  down- 
wards, been  the  almost  unanimous  opinion  of  investiga- 
tors (Carpzov,  Eichhorn,  Jahn,  Bertholdt,  Bonnelius, 
Horrer,  Kiegler,  Pareau,  etc.).  It  would  seem  to  be 
equally  clear  that  these  poems  belong,  broadly  speaking, 
to  no  particular  jihase  of  t  lie  great  epoch  of  terrors,  but 
that,  written  probably  within  a  very  brief  space  of  time 
(more  especially  does  this  appear  to  be  the  case  with 
the  first  lour),  they  portray  indiscriminately  some  woe- 
ful scene  that  presented  itself  "  at  the  head  of  every 
street,"  or  give  way  to  a  wild,  passionate  outcry  of  ter- 
ror, misery,  despair,  hope,  jjrayer,  revenge,  as  these  in 
vehement  succession  svv'ept  over  the  poet's  soul. 

Yet  it  has  been  suggested  (and  the  text  has  been 
strained  to  the  utmost  to  prove  it)  that  the  successive 
elegies  are  the  pictures  of  successive  events  portrayed  in 
song;  that,  in  fact,  the  Lamentations  are  a  descriptive 
threnody — a  drama  in  which,  scene  after  scene,  the  on- 
ward march  ol"  dread  fate  is  descriljcd,  intermixed  with 
plaints,  reflections,  prayers,  consolations,  such  as  the 
chorus  would  utter  in  grave  and  measured  rhythms,  ac- 
companied by  the  sighs  and  tears  to  Avhich  the  specta- 
tors would  be  moved  by  the  irredeemably  doomed  he- 
roes and  actors.  Thus,  for  instance,  it  has  been  main- 
tained that  the  first  chapter  speaks  of  Jehoiachin's  cap- 
ture and  exile  (Horrer,  Jahn,  Piegler,  etc.),  upon  which 
there  is  this  to  be  observed,  that  a  mere  glance  at  1 
Kings  xxiv  shows  that  such  scenes  as  are  described  in 
this  first  elegy  (famine,  slaughter  of  youths,  etc.)  do  not 
in  the  least  agree  with  the  time  and  circumstances  of 
Jehoiachin,  while  they  do  exactly  correspond  with  the 
following  chapter  of  Kings,  in  which  the  reign  under 
Zedekiah,  with  all  its  accompanying  horrors,  to  the 
downfall  of  the  city  and  empire,  are  related  with  the  se- 
vere calmness  of  the  historian,  or  rather  the  dry  minute- 
ness of  the  annalist.     Neither  can  we,  for  our  own  part, 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   216   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


see  that  •' gradual  change  in  the  state  of  the  city"  which 
t)e  Wcttesees  in  the  consecutive  chapters;  nor  can  we 
trace  the  gradual  progress  in  the  mind  of  the  people- 
that  is.  in  the  lirst  two  chapters,  heaviest,  forever  incon- 
solable grief ;  ill  the  third,  tlie  turning-point  (the  clas- 
sical peripeti/) ;  in  the  fourth  and  fifth,  the  mind  that 
gradually  collects  itself,  and  linally  tiiids  comfort  in  fer- 
vent prayer — which  is  Ewald's  ingenious  suggestion,  to 
wliicli  Keil  assents,  as  far  as  "  a  general  inner  progress 
of  the  poems"'  goes.  To  our,  and,  we  take  it,  to  everj' 
unbiassed  view,  each  of  the  elegies  is  complete,  as  far 
as  it  goes,  in  itself,  all  treating  the  same,  or  almost  the 
same,  scenes  and  thoughts  in  ever  new  modes.  In  this 
respect  they  might,  to  a  certain  degree,  be  likened  to 
the  "/»  Memoiiam"  and  the  second  movement  of  the 
■■Eroiccr — the  highest  things  to  which  we  can  at  all 
compare  them  in  the  varied  realms  of  song.  The  gen- 
eral state  of  the  nation,  as  well  as  of  the  poet,  seem  not 
much  different  from  the  first  to  the  last,  or,  at  all  events, 
the  fourth  poem.  It  would  certainly  appear,  moreover, 
as  if,  so  far  from  forming  a  consistent  and  progressive 
whole,  consciously  leading  onward  to  harmony  and  su- 
preme peace,  they  had  not  even  been  composed  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  before  us  now.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the 
iburth  chapter  is  certainly  more  akin  to  the  second  than 
to  the  third.  Accident,  more  than  a  settled  plan,  must 
have  jilaced  them  in  their  present  order.  But  the  his- 
tory of  tills  collection  and  redaction  is  one  so  obscure 
that  we  will  not  even  venture  on  a  new  speculation  con- 
cerning it. 

YI.  Cunients. — The  book  is  a  collection  of  five  elegies 
sung  on  the  ruins  of  Zion ;  and  the  fall  of  Judsa,  the  de- 
struction of  the  sanctuary,  the  exile  of  the  people,  and 
all  the  terrors  of  sword,  fire,  and  famine  in  the  city  of 
.Jerusalem,  are  the  principal  themes  upon  which  they 
turn  in  many  varied  strains.  We  may  regard  the  first 
two  chaiJters  as  occupied  chiefly  with  the  circumstances 
of  the  siege,  and  those  immediately  following  that  event ; 
ill  the  third  the  prophet  dei)lores  the  calamities  and 
persecuti(jns  to  which  he  was  himself  exjiosed ;  the 
fourth  refers  to  the  ruin  and  desolation  of  the  city,  and 
the  unhappy  lot  of  Zedekiah ;  and  the  fifth  and  last 
seems  to  be  a  sort  of  prayer  in  the  name,  or  on  behalf, 
of  the  Jews  in  their  dispersion  and  captivity.  More 
particularly, 

1.  Chap.  i.  The  opening  verse  strikes  the  key-note 
of  the  whole  poem.  That  which  haunts  the  prophet's 
mind  is  the  solitude  in  which  he  finds  himself.  She 
that  was  "  princess  among  the  nations"  (1)  sits  (like  the 
JUD.EA  cAi'TA  of  the  Eomaii  medals),  '•  solitary,"  "  as  a 
widow."  Her  "  lovers"  (the  nations  with  whom  she  had 
been  allied)  hold  aloof  from  her  (2).  The  heathen  have 
entered  into  the  sanctuary,  and  mock  at  her  Sabbaths 
(7,10).  After  the  manner  so  characteristic  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  the  personality  of  the  writer  now  recedes  and 
now  advances,  and  blends  by  hardly  perceptible  transi- 
tions wish  that  of  the  city  which  he  personifies,  and 
with  which  he,  as  it  were,  identifies  himself.  At  one 
time  it  is  the  daughter  of  Zion  that  asks,  "  Is  it  nothing 
to  you,  all  ye  that  pass  by  V"  (12).  At  another,  it  is  the 
])i-ophet  who  looks  on  her,  and  portrays  her  as  "  spread- 
ing forth  her  hands,  and  there  is  none  to  comfort  her" 
(17  ).  ^[ingling  with  this  outliurst  of  sorrow  there  are 
two  tliouglits  characteristic  both  of  the  man  and  the 
time.  The  calamities  which  the  nation  sufl'ers  are  the 
consequences  of  its  sins.  There  must  be  the  confession 
of  those  sins :  "  The  Lord  is  righteous,  for  I  have  rebelled 
against  his  commandment"  ( 18).  There  is,  however, 
t,his  gleam  of  consolation  that  Judah  is  not  alone  in  her 
sufferings.  Those  wlio  have  exulted  in  her  destruction 
shall  drink  of  the  same  cup.  They  shall  be  like  unto 
her  in  the  day  that  the  Lord  sh-ill  call  (21). 

2.  ('ha)),  ii.  As  the  solitude  Of  the  city  was  the  sub- 
ject of  the  first  lamentation,  so  the  destruction  that  had 
laid  it  waste  is  that  which  is  most  conspicuons  in  the 
second.  Jehovah  had  thrown  down  in  his  wrath  the 
strongholds  of  the  daughter  of  Judah  (2).    The  rampart 


and  the  wall  lament  together  (8).  The  walls  of  the 
yialace  are  given  up  into  the  hand  of  the  enemy  (7). 
The  breach  is  great,  as  if  made  by  the  inrusliing  of  the 
sea  (13).  "With  this  there  had  been  united  all  the  horrors 
of  the  I'amine  and  the  assault — young  children  fainting 
for  hunger  in  the  top  of  every  street  (19) ;  women  eating 
their  own  children,  and  so  fidfiUing  the  curse  of  Deut. 
xxviii,  53  (20);  the  priest  and  the  prophet  slain  in  the 
sanctuary  of  the  L(jrd  (ibid.).  Added  to  all  this,  there 
was  the  remembrance  of  that  which  had  been  all  along 
the  great  trial  of  Jeremiah's  life,  against  which  he  had 
to  wage  continual  war.  The  prophets  of  Jerusalem  had 
seen  vain  and  foolish  things,  false  burdens,  and  causes 
of  banishment  (1-1).  A  righteous  judgment  had  fallen 
on  them.  The  prophets  found  no  vision  of  Jehovah  (9). 
The  king  and  the  princes  who  had  listened  to  them 
were  captive  among  the  Gentiles. 

3.  Chap.  iii.  The  difference  iu  the  stnicture  of  this 
poem,  which  has  already  been  noticed,  indicates  a  corre- 
sponding diflference  in  its  substance.  In  the  two  pre- 
ceding poems  Jeremiah  had  spoken  of  the  miserj'  and 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  third  he  speaks  chief- 
ly, though  not  exchfsively,  of  his  own.  He  himself  is 
the  man  that  has  seen  affliction  (1),  who  has  been 
brought  into  darkness  and  not  into  light  (2).  He  looks 
back  upon  the  long  life  of  suffering  which  he  has  been 
called  on  to  endure,  the  scorn  and  derision  of  the  people, 
the  bitterness  as  of  one  drunken  with  wormwood  ( 14, 
15).  But  that  experience  was  not  one  which  had  ended 
in  darkness  and  despair.  Here,  as  in  the  prophecies,  we 
find  a  Gospel  for  the  weary  and  heavy-laden,  a  trust,  not 
to  be  shaken,  in  the  mercy  and  righteousness  of  Jeho- 
vah, The  mercies  of  the  Lord  are  new  every  morning 
(22,  23).  He  is  good  to  them  that  wait  for  him  (25). 
The  retrospect  of  that  sharp  experience  shoAved  him 
that  it  all  formed  part  of  the  discipline  which  was  in- 
tended to  lead  him  on  to  a  higher  blessedness.  It  was 
good  for  a  man  to  bear  the  yoke  in  his  youth,  good  that 
he  should  both  hope  and  cjuietly  wait  (26,  27).  AMth 
this,  etjually  characteristic  of  the  prophet's  individual- 
ity, there  is  the  protest  against  the  wrong  which  had 
been  or  might  hereafter  be  committed  by  rulers  and 
princes  (34-36),  the  confession  that  all  that  had  come 
on  him  and  his  ]5eople  was  but  a  righteous  retribution, 
to  be  accepted  liumbly,  with  searchmgs  of  heart,  and 
repentance  (39-42).  The  closing  verses  may  refer  to 
that  special  epoch  in  the  prophet's  lil'e  when  his  own 
sufferings  had  been  shaqjest  (53-56).  and  the  cruelties 
of  his  enemies  most  triumphant.  If  so,  we  can  enter 
more  fully,  remembering  this,  into  the  thanksgiving 
M'itli  which  he  acknowledges  the  help,  deliverance,  re- 
demption, which  he  had  received  from  God  (57,  58). 
Feeling  sure  that,  at  some  time  or  other,  there  would  be 
for  him  a  yet  higher  lesson,  we  can  enter  Avith  some 
measure  of  sympathy  even  into  the  terrible  earnestness 
of  his  appeal  from  tlie  unjust  judgment  of  earth  to  the 
righteous  Judge,  into  his  cr\-  for  a  retribution  without 
which  it  seemed  to  him  that  the  Eternid  llighteousness 
would  fail  (64-66). 

4.  Chap.  iv.  It  might  seem,  at  first,  as  if  the  fourth 
poem  did  but  reproduce  the  jjictures  and  the  thoughts 
of  the  first  and  second.  There  come  before  us  once 
again  the  famine,  the  misery,  the  desolation  that  had 
fallen  on  the  lioly  city,  making  all  faces  gather  black- 
ness. One  new  element  in  the  picture  is  found  iu  the 
contrast  between  the  past  glorv-  of  the  consecrated  fam- 
ilies of  kingly  and  priestly  stock  (A.  Vers.  '•  Nazaritcs"), 
and  their  later  miser}-  and  shame.  Some  changes  there 
are,  however,  n(;t  without  interest  in  their  relation  to 
the  poet's  own  life  anil  to  the  historj'  of  his  time.  All 
the  facts  gain  a  now  significance  by  being  seen  in  the 
light  of  the  i)ersoiKd-  exjjerience  of  the  third  poem.  The 
declaration  that  all  this  had  come  '"for  the  sins  of  the 
prophets  and  the  iniquities  of  the  priests"  is  clearer  and 
sharper  than  before  (ver.  13).  There  is  the  giving  up 
of  the  last  hope  which  Jeremiah  had  cherished  when  he 
urged  on  Zedekiah  the  wisdom  of  aubmissioii  to  the 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF   217   LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF 


Chakteans  (verse  20).  The  closing  words  indicate  the 
strength  of  that  feeling  against  the  Edomites  which 
lasted  all  through  the  captivity  (ver.  21,  22).  She,  the 
daughter  of  Edom,  had  rejoiced  in  the  fall  of  her  rival, 
and  had  pressed  on  the  work  of  destruction.  But  for 
her,  too,  there  ivas  the  doom  of  being  drunken  with  the 
cup  of  the  Lord's  wrath.  For  the  daughter  of  Ziou 
there  was  hope  of  pardon  when  discipline  should  have 
done  it^  work,  and  the  punishment  of  her  iniquity 
should  be  accomplished. 

5.  Chap.  V.  One  great  difference  in  the  fifth  and  last 
section  of  the  poem  has  already  been  pointed  out.  It 
obviously  indicates  either  a  deliberate  abandonment  of 
tlie  alphabetic  structure,  or  the  unfinished  character  of 
the  concluding  elegy.  The  title  prefixed  in  the  Vul- 
gate, "  Oratio  JeremicB  Praphetas"  points  to  one  marked 
characteristic  which  may  have  occasioned  this  differ- 
ence. There  are  signs  also  of  a  later  date  than  that  of 
the  preceding  poems.  Though  the  horrors  of  the  fam- 
ine are  ineffaceable,  yet  that  which  he  has  before  him  is 
rather  the  continued,  protracted  suffering  of  the  rule  of 
the  Chakteans.  The  mountain  of  Zion  is  desolate,  and 
the  foxes  walk  on  it  (ver.  18).  Slaves  have  ruled  over 
the  people  of  Jehovah  (ver.  8).  Women  have  been  sub- 
jected to  intolerable  outrages  (verse  11).  The  young 
men  have  been  taken  to  grind,  and  the  children  have 
fallen  under  the  wood  (ver.  13).  But  in  this  also,  deep 
as  might  be  the  humiliation,  there  ^vas  hope,  even  as 
there  had  been  in  the  dark  hours  of  the  prophet's  own 
life.  He  and  his  people  are  sustained  by  the  old  thought 
whicli  had  been  so  fruitful  of  comfort  to  other  prophets 
and  psalmists.  The  periods  of  suffering  and  struggle 
which  seemed  so  long  were  but  as  moments  in  the  life- 
time of  the  Eternal  (verse  10),  and  the  thought  of  that 
eternity  brought  with  it  the  hope  that  the  purposes  of 
love  whicli  had  been  declared  so  clearly  should  one  day 
be  fidfilled.  The  last  words  of  this  lamentation  are 
those  Avhich  have  risen  so  often  from  broken  and  con- 
trite hearts:  "Turn  thou  us,  O  Lord,  and  we  shall  be 
turned.  Kenew  our  days  as  of  old"  (ver.  21).  That 
which  had  begun  with  wailing  and  weeping  ends  (f«l- 
lowing  iMvald's  and  ^Nlichaelis's  translation)  with  the 
question  of  hope  :  '•  Wilt  thou  utterly  reject  us  ?  Wilt 
thou  be  very  wroth  against  usV" 

VII.  General  Character. — 1.  It  is  well  to  be  reminded 
bj"  the  above  survey  that  we  have  before  us,  not  a  book 
in  five  chapters,  but  five  separate  poems,  each  complete 
iu  itself,  each  having  a  distinct  subject,  yet  brought  at 
the  same  time  under  a  plan  which  includes  them  all. 
It  is  clear,  before  entering  on  any  other  characteristics, 
tliat  \ve  find,  in  fuU  predominance,  that  strong  personal 
emotion  which  mingled  itself,  in  greater  or  less  measure, 
with  the  whole  prophetic  work  of  Jeremiah.  There  is 
here  no  "  word  of  Jehovah,"  no  direct  message  to  a  sin- 
ful people.  Tlie  man  speaks  out  of  the  fulness  of  his 
heart,  and,  though  a  higher  Spirit  than  his  own  helps 
him  to  give  utterance  to  his  sorrows,  it  is  yet  the  lan- 
guage of  a  sufferer  rather  than  of  a  teacher.  There  is 
this  measure  of  truth  in  the  technical  classification 
whicli  placed  the  Lamentations  among  the  Hagiogra- 
pha  of  the  Hebrew  Canon,  in  the  feeling  which  led  the 
K.il)binic  writers  (J\\mc\\i,  Prwf.in  Psalm.)  to  say  that 
tliey  and  the  other  books  of  that  group  were  written  in- 
deed by  the  help  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  not  with  the 
special  gift  of  prophecy. 

2.  Other  differences  between  the  two  books  that  bear 
the  prophet's  name  grew  out  of  this.  Here  there  is 
more  attention  to  form,  more  elaboration.  The  rhytlim 
is  more  uniform  than  in  the  prophecies.  A  complicated 
alphabetic  structure  pervades  nearly  the  whole  book. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  this  acrostic  form  of  writing 
was  not  peculiar  to  Jeremiah.  Whatever  its  origin, 
whether  it  had  been  adofited  as  a  help  to  the  memory, 
and  so  fitted  especially  for  didactic  poems,  or  for  such  as 
were  to  be  sung  by  great  bodies  of  people  (Lowth,  Pnel. 
xxii),  it  had  been  a  received,  and  it  would  seem  popu- 
lar, framework  for  poems  of  very  different  characters, 


and  extending  probably  over  a  considerable  period  of 
time.  The  119th  Psalm  is  the  great  monument  which 
forces  itself  upon  our  notice ;  but  it  is  found  also  in  the 
25th,  34th,  37th,  111th,  112th,  U5th— and  in  the  singu- 
larly beautiful  fragment  appended  to  the  book  of  I'rov- 
erbs  (Prov.  xxxi,  10-31).  Traces  of  it,  as  if  the  work 
had  been  left  half  finished  (De  Wette,  Psalmen,  ad  loc), 
appear  in  the  9th  and  10th.  In  the  Lamentations  (con- 
fining ourselves  for  the  present  to  the  structure)  we 
meet  with  some  remarkable  peculiarities. 

It  has  to  be  remembered,  too,  that  in  thus  speaking 
the  writer  was  doing  what  many  must  have  looked  for 
from  him,  and  so  meeting  at  once  their  expectations 
and  their  wants.  Other  projjhets  and  poets  had  made 
themselves  the  spokesmen  of  the  nation's  feelings  on 
the  death  of  kings  and  lieroes.  The  party  that  contin- 
ued faithful  to  the  policy  and  principles  of  Josiah  re- 
membered how  the  prophet  had  lamented  over  his 
death.  The  lamentations  of  that  period  (though  they 
are  lost  to  us)  had  been  accepted  as  a  great  national 
dirge.  Was  he  to  be  silent  now  that  a  more  terrible 
calamity  had  fallen  upon  the  people?  Did  not  the  ex- 
iles in  Babylon  need  this  form  of  consolation?  Does 
not  the  appearance  of  this  book  in  their  canon  of  sacred 
writings,  after  their  return  from  exile,  indicate  that 
during  their  captivity  they  had  found  this  consolation 
in  it? 

The  choice  of  a  structure  so  artificial  as  that  which 
has  been  described  above  may  at  first  sight  appear  in- 
consistent with  the  deep,  intense  sorrow  of  which  it 
claims  to  be  the  utterance.  Some  wilder,  less  measured 
rhythm  would  seem  to  us  to  have  been  a  titter  form  of 
expression.  It  would  belong,  however,  to  a  ver}^  shal- 
low and  hasty  criticism  to  pass  this  judgment.  A  man 
true  to  the  gift  he  has  received  will  welcome  the  disci- 
pline of  self-imposed  rules  for  deep  sorrow  as  well  as  for 
other  strong  emotions.  In  proportion  as  he  is  afraid  of 
being  carried  away  by  the  strong  current  of  feeling  will 
he  be  anxious  to  make  the  laws  more  difficult,  the  dis- 
cipline more  effectual.  Something  of  this  kind  is  trace- 
able in  the  fact  that  so  many  of  the  master-minds  of 
European  literature  have  chosen — as  the  fit  vehicle  for 
their  deepest,  tenderest,  most  impassioned  thoughts — ^ 
the  complicated  structure  of  the  sonnet ;  in  Dante's  se- 
lection of  the  terza  rinia  for  his  vision  of  the  unseen 
world.  What  the  sonnet  was  to  Petrarch  and  jMiltoii, 
that  the  alphabetic  verse-S3'stem  was  to  the  writers  of 
Jeremiah's  time,  the  most  difficult  among  the  recognised 
forms  of  poetry,  and  yet  one  in  which  (assuming  the 
earlier  date  of  some  of  the  Psalms  above  referred  to) 
some  of  the  noblest  thoughts  of  that  poetry  had  been 
uttered.  We  need  not  wonder  that  he  should  have  em- 
ployed it  as  fitter  than  any  other  for  the  pur[)ose  for 
which  he  used  it.  If  these  Lamentations  were  intended 
to  assuage  the  bitterness  of  the  Babylonian  exile,  there 
was,  besides  this,  the  subsidiary  advantage  that  it  sup- 
plied the  memory  with  an  artificial  help.  Hymns  and 
poems  of  this  kind,  once  learned,  are  not  easily  forgot- 
ten, and  the  circumstances  of  the  captives  made  it  then, 
more  than  ever,  necessary  that  they  should  have  this 
help  afforded  them. 

De  Wette  maintains  {Comment,  iiher  die  Psalm,  p.  5G) 
that  this  acrostic  form  of  writing  was  the  outgrowth  of 
a  feeble  and  degenerate  age  dwelling  on  the  outer  struc- 
ture of  poetrv  when  the  soul  had  departed.  His  judg- 
ment as  to  the  origin  and  character  of  the  alpliabetic 
form  is  shared  by  Ewald  {Poet.  Biich.  i,  140).  Tliat  thia 
is  often  the  case  cannot  be  doubted;  the  119th  Psalm  is 
a  case  in  point.  It  is  hard,  however,  to  reconcile  this 
sweeping  estimate  with  the  impression  made  on  us  by 
such  Psalms  as  the  25th  and  34th;  and  Ewald  himself, 
in  his  translation  of  the  Alphabetic  Psalms  and  the  Lam- 
entations, has  shown  how  compatible  such  a  structure  is 
with  the  highest  energy  and  beauty.  With  some  of 
these,  too,  it  must  be  added,  the  assignment  of  a  later 
date  than  the  time  of  David  rests  on  the  foregone  con-» 
elusion  that  the  acrostic  structure  is  itself  a  proof  of  it 


LAMENTATIONS,  BOOK  OF        :iS        L A:\IENTATI0NS,  BOOK  OF 


(comp.  DeVitzschjCommentar  iiher  den  Psalter,  on  Psa.  ix, 
x).  De  Wette,  however,  allows,  condescendingly,  that 
the  Lainontations,  in  spite  of  their  degenerate  taste, 
"  have  Slime  merit  in  their  way."  Other  critics  have 
been  more  cntluisiastic  in  their  admiration  of  this  book. 
Dr.  Hlavney  remarks,  "  We  cannot  too  much  admire  the 
flow  of  that  full  and  graceful  pathetic  eloquence  in  which 
the  auttior  pours  out  the  effusions  of  a  patriotic  heart, 
and  piously  weeps  over  the  ruins  of  his  venerable  coun- 
try''(./i:'/Y;/ij«/(,  p.  37G).  '•  Never,"  says  an  unquestion- 
able judge  of  these  matters,  '•  was  there  a  more  rich  and 
elegant  variety  of  beautiful  images  and  adjuncts  ar- 
ranged together  within  so  small  a  compass,  nor  more 
happily  chosen  and  applied"  (Lowth,  De  Sacra  Poesi 
Ilebr.  rrwlect.  xxii).  The  poet  seizes  with  ^vonderful 
tact  those  circumstances  which  point  out  the  objects  of 
his  pity  as  the  subjects  of  sympathy,  and  founds  his  ex- 
postulations on  the  miseries  which  arc  thus  exhibited. 
11  is  book  of  Lamentations  is  an  astonishing  exhibition 
of  his  power  to  accumulate  images  of  sorrow%  The 
whole  series  of  elegies  has  but  one  object — the  expres- 
sion of  sorrow  for  the  forlorn  condition  of  his  country ; 
and  yet  he  presents  this  to  us  in  so  many  lights,  alludes 
to  it  by  so  many  figures,  that  not  only  are  his  mournful 
strains  not  felt  to  be  tedious  reiterations,  but  the  reader 
is  captivated  by  the  plaintive  melancholy  which  per- 
vades tlic  whole. 

3.  The  power  of  entering  into  the  spirit  and  meaning 
of  poems  such  as  these  depends  on  two  distinct  condi- 
tions. AVe  must  seek  to  see,  as  with  our  own  eyes,  the 
desolation,  misery,  confusion,  which  came  before  those 
of  the  iirophet.  We  must  endeavor  also  to  feel  as  he 
felt  when  he  looked  on  them.  The  last  is  the  more  dif- 
ticidt  of  the  tv.-o.  Jeremiah  was  not  merely  a  patriot- 
poet,  weeping  over  the  ruin  of  his  country.  He  was  a 
])roiihet  who  liad  seen  all  this  coming,  and  had  foretold 
it  as  inevitable.  He  had  urged  submission  to  the  Chal- 
dirans  as  the  only  mode  of  diminishing  the  terrors  of 
that  "  day  of  the  Lord."  And  now  the  Chaldwans  had 
come,  irritated  by  the  perfidy  and  rebellion  of  the  king 
and  ]irinccs  of  Judab;  and  the  actual  horrors  tliat  he 
saw.  surpassed,  though  he  had  predicted  them,  all  th.it 
he  had  been  able  to  imagine.  All  feeling  of  exultation 
in  which,  as  a  mere  prophet  of  evil,  he  might  have  in- 
dulged at  the  fulfilment  of  his  forebodings,  was  swal- 
loweil  iij)  in  deep,  overwhelming  sorrov^.  Yet  sorrow, 
not  less  than  other  emotions,  works  on  men  according 
to  their  characters,  and  a  man  with  Jeremiah's  gifts  of 
utterance  could  not  sit  down  in  the  mere  silence  and 
stu))or  of  a  hopeless  grief.  He  was  compelled  to  give 
expression  to  that  which  was  devouring  his  heart  and 
the  heart  of  his  people.  The  act  itself  was  a  relief  to 
him.  It  led  him  on  (as  has  been  seen  .above)  to  a 
calmer  and  serener  state.  It  revived  the  faith  and  hope 
which  had  been  nearly  crushed  out. 

4.  Tliore  are,  jierhaps,  few  portions  of  the  O.  T.  which 
aiipcar  to  have  done  the  work  they  were  meant  to  do 
mcirc  elfectually  than  tliis.  It  has  presented  but  scanty 
materials  for  the  systems  and  controversies  of  theology. 
It  has  suiiplied  thousands  with  the  fullest  utterance  for 
tlieir  sorrows  in  the  critical  periods  of  national  or  indi- 
vidual suffering.  We  may  well  believe  that  it  soothed 
the  weary  years  of  the  Babylonian  exile  (comp.  Zech.  i, 
(i  with  Lam.  ii,17).  When  the  Jews  returned  to  their 
own  laud,  and  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  was  remem- 
bered as  belonging  only  to  the  past,  this  was  the  book  of 
remembrance.  On  the  ninth  day  of  the  month  of  Ab 
( .July),  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  were  read,  year  by 
year,  with  fasting  and  weeping,  to  commemorate  the 
misery  out  of  which  the  people  had  been  delivered.  It 
lias  come  to  be  connected  with  the  thoughts  of  a  later 
devastation,  and  its  words  enter,  sometimes  at  least,  into 
tlio  jirayers  of  the  pilgrim  Jews  who  meet  at  the  "place 
of  wailing"  to  mourn  over  the  departed  glory  of  their 
city.  It  enters  largely  into  the  nobly-constructed  order 
of  tlie  Latin  Clnirch  for  the  services  of  Passion-week 
{Breviur.  Rom.  l''eri:i  (Juinta.    '■  In  Cocna  Domini").    If 


it  has  been  comparatively  in  the  background  in  times 
(vhen  the  study  of  Scripture  had  passed  into  casuistry 
and  spectdation,  it  has  come  forward,  once  and  again,  in 
times  of  danger  and  suffering,  as  a  messenger  of  jieace, 
comforting  men,  not  after  the  fashion  of  the  friends  of 
Job,  with  formal  moralizings,  but  by  enabling  them  to 
express  themselves,  leading  them  to  feel  that  they  might 
give  utterance  to  the  deepest  and  saddest  feelings  by 
which  they  were  overwhelmed.  It  is  striking,  as  wc 
cast  our  eye  over  the  list  of  writers  who  have  treated 
specially  this  book,  to  notice  how  many  must  have  pass- 
ed through  scenes  of  trial  not  unlike  in  kind  to  that  of 
which  the  Lamentations  speak.  The  book  remains  to 
do  its  work  for  any  future  generation  that  may  be  ex- 
posed to  analogous  calamities. 

VIII.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special 
exegetical  helps  on  the  whole  book  of  Lamentations  ex- 
clusively, to  a  few  of  the  most  important  of  which  we 
prefix  an  asterisk :  Origen,  Scholia  (Greek,  in  Oj^J.  iii, 
320) ;  Ephrem  Syrus,  Explanatio  (Syr.,  in  0}yp.  v,  105)  ; 
Jerome,  In  Lam.  (in  0pp.  YSiippos.']  xiv,  227);  Theod- 
oret,  Interpretatio  (Greek,  in  0pp.  ii,  1)  ;  Paschalius  Eat- 
bertus, /«  Threnos  (in  0pp.  p.  1307)  ;  Hugo  ii  St.A'ictor, 
A  nnotationes  (in  0pp.  i,  103)  ;  Aquinas,  Commentaria  (in 
0pp.  ii) ;  Bonaventiura,  Exjjlicatio  (in  Opp.  i,  428) ;  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  Commentarii  (in  Opp.  viii) ;  Q^^colampa- 
dius,  Enarrationes  [including  Jer.]  (Argent.  1533,  4to) ; 
Clenard,  Medifationes  (Paris,  153G,  8vo) ;  Bugenhagen, 
Adnotationes  (Vitemb.  1546,  4to) ;  Quinquaboreus,  Ad- 
notationes  (Paris,  1556,  4to);  Palladius,  Enarratio  (Vi- 
temb. 1560,  8vo) ;  Pintus,  Commentarius  [including  Isa. 
and  Jer.]  (Lugd.  1561,  etc.,  fol.)  ;  Strigel,  Commentarius 
(Lips,  et  Brem.  1564,  8vo)  ;  Selnecker,  Auslefiiinf/  (Lpz, 
1565.  4to);  QaXw'iu,  Pradectiones  [incliid.  Jer.]  (Frankft. 

1581,  8vo;  in  French,  Spires,  1584, 8 vo; "in  English,  Lon- 
don, 1587,  rimo,  etc.);  TaiUepied,  Commentarii  (Paris, 

1582,  8vo)  ;  Panigarola,  Adnotationes  (Verona,  1583; 
Rome,  1586,  8vo);  Agellus,  Catena  (Kom.  1589,  4to);  J. 
Ibn-Shoeib,  C^ZIS  b'p  (Ven.  1589,  4to);  Sam,  de  Vi- 
das,  "dl'nS  (Thessalon.  1596,  8vo) ;  Figuero,  Commenta- 
7-ia  (Lugd.  1596,  8 vo);  Makshan,  33  "jlJ^  (Cracow,  s.  a. 
[about  1600],  4to);  Alscheich,  C-^W:  C''in'l  (Venice, 
1001, 4to)  ;  Navarrette,  Commentaria  (Cordub.  1602,4to); 
Bachmeister,  Explicatio  (Rost.  1G03,  8vo) ;  Broughton, 
Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Genev.  1606,  4to;  also  in 
Worlcs,  p.  314)  ;  \  JesujMaria,  Interpretatio  (Neap.  1608, 
Col.  Agrip.  1611,  8vo);  Delrio,  Commentarius  (Lugdun. 
1608,  4to);  VoXan,  Commentarius  [including  Jer.]  (lia.-il. 

1608,  8vo) ;  A  Costa  de  Andrada,  Commentarii  (Lugd. 

1609,  8vo) ;  De  Castro,  Commentarii  [including  Jer.  and 
Bar.]  (Tar.  1009,  fol.) ;  Topsell,  Commentarius  (London, 
1613, 4to);  i^ancX'ms,  Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Lugd. 
1618,  fol.) ;  Hull,  Exposition  (Lond.  1618,  4to);  Ghisler, 
Commentarius  [includ.  Jer.]  (Lugd.  1023,  fol.)  ;  *Tarno- 
vius,  Commentarius  (Rostock,  1627,  1642;  Hamb.  1707, 
4to);  Peter  Jlartyr,  Commemtarius  (Tigur.  1029,  4to); 
Udall,  Conimenturie  (Lond.  1037,  4to) ;  De  Lcmiis,  Com- 
jM^H^f/rws  (Madrit.  1 649. fol.) ;  Tayler,  Comw!e?i/()nV [Rab- 
binical] (London.  1651, 4to) ;  Yowliir,  Commentarius  [in- 
clud. Jer.]  (Vitemb.  1672,  1699,  4to);  Hulsemann.  Com- 
mentarius [includ.  Jer.]  (Rudolph.  1690.  4to) ;  Benjamin 
Allcssandro,  ri=3  V"^^  (Venice,  1713,  4to);  C.  B.  Mi- 
chaelis,  Not<v  (in  Adnot.  phil.  exce;.  Halle,  1720,3  vols. 
4to) ;  Riedel.  Vehersetz.  (Wicn.  1761.  8vo);  Lcssing.  Ob- 
servationes  (Lipsiie,  1770,  8vo);  Biirmel,  Awm  rl.iiii(;<n 
(Weimar,  1781,  8vo);  Schleusner,  Curw  (in  Eichliorn's 
liepe/t.  pt,  xii.  Lips.  1783);  Horrcr,  Bearbeilun;/  (Halle, 
1784,  8vo) ;  Blayney,  Notes  [including  Jer.]  (Oxf.  1784, 
8vo,  etc.) ;  Lciwe  a.\vXy\o\kso\\n,  Anmerhimjen  (Berlin, 
1790, 8vo);  \\'\.\mon,Commentaire  (Par.  1790,  8vo) ;  *Pa- 
reau,  Illustratio  (L.  Bat.  1790,  8vo) ;  Libowitzer  n"^:^ 
"T":i  (Korcz.  1791,8vo) ;  ^chmirrcr,  Observatiovcs  (Tub. 
1793,  4to);  J.  H.  Michaelis,  Obserrationes  [includ.  Jer.] 
(Clotting.  1793,  8vo) ;  Gaab,  Beitrde/e  [includ.  Cant,  and 
Ecdes.]  (Tubing.  1795,  8vo);  Volborth,  Ucbersetz.  (CeUe, 


LAMFRIDUS 


219 


LAMOKMAIN 


1795,  Svo) ;  Otto,  Dissertafio  (Tiib.  1705,  4to) ;  Wetzler, 
•|1*:J  bnX  (Sklon,  1797,  8vo)  ;  Liindmark,  Dissertatio 
(Upsal.  1799,  4to) ;  Ilasselhuhn,  Dissertafiones  (Upsal. 
1S04.  4to) ;  Deresir,  Erklaruufi  [inckuling  Jer.  and  Bar.] 
(Frkft.  a.  M.  1809,  8vo)  ;  Hartmann,  Ueber.wtz.  (in  Jus- 
ti's  Blumen,  etc.,  Giess.  1809,  ii,  517  sq.)  ;  Welcker,  Uebers. 
[metrical]  (Giess.  1810,  8vo)-,  Bjorn,  Threni  [including 
Nah.]  (Havn.  1814,  8vo)  ;  *KiegIer,  Ammrkungen  (Er- 
langen,  1814,  8vo)  ;  Ja«ob-Lissa,  Ti:;;'  '^T'"?'!*  [including 
Cant.]  ( Dyrhenf.  1815-19, 4to) ;  Erdmann,  Specimen,  etc. 
(Host.  1818,  8vo) ;  Conz, K la ff Heeler  (in  Bengel's  ArcMv, 
iv  [Tiib.  1821],  p.  146  sq.)  ;  Fritz,  Exegesis  [on  chap,  i] 
(Argent.  1825,  4to) ;  *Kosenmiiller,  Scholia  (Lpz.  1827, 
8vo)i  Goldwitzer,  ^WOTerZ-.  (Sulzb.  1828,  8vo) ;  Wieden- 
feld,  Erldut.  (Elberf.  1830,  8vo)  ;  Koch,  Anmerlc.  (Menz, 
1835,  8vo);  Kalkar,  Jllustratio  (Havn.  1836,  8vo) ;  Lo- 
wenstein,  Erklanuig  [metrical]  (Frkft.  1838, 8vo) ;  Cure- 
ton,  ed.  Tanchum  Jerus.  Tli^p,  etc.  (Lend.  1843,  8vo)  ; 
Pappcnlieira,  Uehersetz.  (Bresl.  1844,  8vo) ;  Hetzel,  An- 
merk.  (Lpz.  1854,  8vo) -,  *Ncumann,  Ansler/iinrj  [includ. 
Jer.]  (Lpz.  1858,  8vo) ;  *Engelhardt,  Atisler/xng  (Lpzc. 
1867,  8vo)  ;  *Von  Gerlach,  Erkluning  (Berl.'  1868,  8vo) ; 
*ITenderson,  Commentary  [includ.  Jer.]  (London,  1851; 
Andov.  1868,  8vo).     See  Poetry,  Hebrew;  Cojijien- 

TARY. 

Lamfridus.     See  Lantfredus. 

Lami.     See  Lamy. 

Iiami,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  writer  of  note,  was  bom 
at  Santa  Croce,  Tuscany,  in  1697.  He  studied  law  at 
tlie  University  of  Pisa,  and  for  a  time  practiced  his  pro- 
fession at  Florence.  But  his  fondness  for  literature,  and 
especially  classical  and  ecclesiastical  erutUtion,  interfered 
with  his  professional  pursuits,  and  lie  became  an  author. 
He  tirst  wrote  in  defence  of  the  Nicene  Creed  concern- 
ing the  Trinity,  and  against  Leclerc  and  other  Socinian 
writers.  He  contended  that  the  Nicene  dogma  con- 
cerning the  Trinity  was  the  same  as  that  held  by  the 
early  promiUgators  of  Christianity  in  the  apostolic  times. 
His  work  is  entitled  7>e  recta  patrum  Nicenorum  Jide 
(Venice,  1730).  In  1732  he  was  made  librarian  of  the 
Kiccardi  Library,  and  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history 
in  the  Florence  Lyceum,  and  wliile  in  this  position  he 
published  De  Eruditione  Apostolorum  (1738),  a  sort  of 
continuation  of  his  former  work.  In  1740  Lami  began 
to  publish  a  literary  journal,  entitled  Navelle  Letierarie, 
wliicli  he  carried  on  till  1760,  at  first  with  the  assistance 
of  Targioni,  Gori,  and  other  learned  Tuscans  of  his  time, 
witli  whom  he  afterwards  quarrelled,  and  he  then  con- 
tinued the  work  alone.  During  his  position  as  Ubrarian 
he  made  a  selection  of  inedited  works,  or  fragments  of 
works,  from  the  manuscripts  of  the  Kiccardi  Library, 
wliich  he  published  in  a  series  entitled  Ddiciee  Erudito- 
riim  (Florence,  1736-09,  18  vols.  8vo).  He  also  edited 
the  works  of  the  learned  John  jMcursius,  in  12  vols,  folio. 
He  wrote  short  biographies  of  many  illustrious  Italians 
of  his  age,  under  the  title  oi Memorabilia  Italoriim  eru- 
ditione pnestantium  quibus  prcesens  sieciilnm  gloriatur 
(Florence,  1742-48,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  published  in  Greek 
the  letters  of  Gabriel  Severus,  archbishop  of  Philadel- 
phia, in  Asia  Minor,  and  of  other  prelates  of  the  Greek 
Church:  Gabrielis  Severi  ef  alioruni  Gmcorum  recenti- 
oruni  Epistolie  (Flor.  1754,  8\'o).  A  History  of  the  East- 
ern Church,  from  the  Council  of  Florence  to  1430,  he  left 
unfinished.  Lami  died  in  1770.  He  was  a  great  hater 
of  the  Jesuits,  and  wrote  many  satires  against  them. 
Memoirs  of  his  life  were  published  by  F'abroni  (I'lVre 
Itidiinnn,  vol.  xvi)  and  Fontanini  (Flor.  1789,  4to).  See 
E>it/l.  Ci/clop.  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Xoiir.  Biog.  Generale,  xxLx, 
21()  s(i. ;  Sax,  Onomasticon,  vi,  490. 

Lamiletiere,  TiiiioriiiLE  Brachet  de,  a  noted 
French  theologian,  was  born  about  the  j'ear  1596.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg,  and  afterwards 
practiced  law  at  Paris.  He  soon,  however,  tired  of  the 
bar,  and  devoted  himself  to  theology.  Having  become 
elder  of  the  Protestant  Church  at  Charenton,  he  took  an 


active  part  in  all  the  religious  controversies  of  the  times, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of  the  po- 
litical assembly  of  La  KocheUe  in  1690,  whither  he  had 
been  sent  by  the  Consistory  of  Paris.  He  subsequently 
went  witli  La  Cliapelliere  to  Holland,  to  ask  aid  of  the 
states-general  for  the  Protestants  of  F' ranee.  We  next 
find  him  at  the  Assembly  of  Milhau  in  1625,  and  in  1627 
at  Paris,  where  he  was  aiTested  as  an  agent  of  the  duke 
of  Rohan.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  but  his  life  was 
spared  on  account  of  the  threatening  attitude  which 
the  inhabitants  of  La  Kochelle  assumed,  in  retaliative, 
towards  the  person  of  one  of  their  prisoners,  a  relation 
of  P.  Joseph  (the  confessor  and  secret  agent  of  Kiche- 
lieu).  He  was  finally  released,  and  even  received  a  pen- 
sion from  Eichelieu  on  the  condition  of  using  every  ex- 
ertion to  reunite  the  different  Protestant  churches.  He 
now  became  the  pliant  tool  of  Richelieu,  and  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  Church  of  Charenton  in  1644  for 
not  having  partaken  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  twelve 
years.  He- finally  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  Clnirch, 
April  2, 1645.  The  remainder  of  his  life  was  employed 
in  writing  against  Protestantism.  He  died  in  1665,  de- 
spised alike  by  Protestants  and  Romanists.  His  princi- 
pal works  are.  Discours  des  vrayes  raisons pour  lesquelles 
ceux  de  la  religion  en  France  peuvetit  et  doivent  register 
par  amies  a  la  persecution  ouverte  (1622,  8v^o) ;  very 
scarce,  as  it  was  condemned  to  be  burned  bj'  the  public 
executioner : — Lettre  a  M.  Rambours  pour  la  reunion  des 
evangeliques  aux  catkoliques  (Paris,  1628,  12mo) : — T)e 
universi  orbis  Christiani  pace  et  concordia  per  curdina- 
lem  ducem  Richeliuni  constituenda  (Par.  1634, 8 vo;  transl. 
into  French,  1635, 4to): — Le  Moye^i  de  lapaix  Chretienne 
(Par.  1(>37, 8vo) : — La  Necessite  de  la  Puissance  du  Papie 
en  VEglise  (Paris,  1640,  8vo) : — Le  Catholique  reforme 
(Paris,  1642, 8 vo): — Le  Pacifique  veritable  (Paris,  1644, 
8vo) — condemned  by  the  Sorbonne ;  etc.  See  Benoit, 
Ilistoire  de  I'Edit  de  Nantes,  ii ;  De  Marolles,  Memoires  ; 
Grotius,  Kpistola  ;  Bayle,  Dictionnaire  Ilistorique ;  Tal- 
lemant,  Historiettes;  Haag,  La  France  Protestante ;  Hoe- 
fer, Xour.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  222.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lammas-day  is  the  name  of  a  festival  obsen^ed 
by  Roman  Catholics  on  the  1st  of  August,  in  memorj'  of 
the  imprisonment  of  St.  Peter,  and  otherwise  called  St. 
Peter^s  chains.  The  word  is  of  doubtful  meaning :  some 
refer  it  to  a  Saxon  term  signifying  contribution.  Brande, 
in  his  '•  Antiquities,"  says,  '•  Some  suppose  it  is  called 
Lammas-day,  quasi  Lamb-masse,  because  on  that  day  the 
tenants  that  held  lands  of  the  cathedral  church  at  York 
were  bound  by  their  tenure  to  bring  a  live  lamb  into 
the  church  at  high  mass  on  that  day."  jNIore  proljably, 
however,  is  its  derivation  from  "loaf-mass,"  it  having 
been  the  custom  of  the  Saxons  to  offer  on  this  day  (Au- 
gust 1)  an  oblation  of  loaves  made  of  new  wheat.  Like 
man}'  other  Church  festivals,  it  seems  to  have  been  ob- 
served already  in  pagan  times,  and,  like  the  1st  of  May, 
was  a  festive  day  with  the  Druids.  Vallancey,  in  his 
Collectanea  De  Rebus  llibernicis,  says  the  Druids  cele- 
brated the  1st  of  August  as  the  day  of  the  oblation  of 
grain.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Taylor,  Ancient 
Christianity,  Gen.  Suppl.  p.  92 ,  F.adie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lammermann.     See  Lamormain. 

Lanimists,  a  sect  of  Remonstrant  Baptists.  See 
Mennonitks. 

Lament,  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  di- 
vine, riourished  as  minister  of  Kirkpatrick,  Durham. 
He  died  in  1837.  This  is  all  we  know  of  his  personal 
history.  His  Sermons  were  published  at  London  from 
1760-87,  in  2  vols.  8vo  (new  edit.  1810,  3  vols.  8vo). 

Lamormain,   Guillaiime    Geinieau    de,   a 

noted  Belgian  Roman  Catholic  theologian  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  in  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg 
about  1570;  entered  the  Jesuitical  order  in  1590,  and 
then  became  professor  of  theology  and  philosophy  at 
the  University  of  Gratz.  In  1624  he  was  appointed 
confessor  of  the  emperor  of  Austria,  F'erdinand  II,  and 
over  this  thoroughly  monkish  ruler  Lamormain  is  said 


LAMORIilAIN 


220 


LAMP 


to  have  exercised  perfect  sway.  He  and  John  Wein- 
giirtner,  another  Jesuit  confessor,  Vehse  (see  below)  tells 
us,  '-constantly  kept  near  him,  and  never  let  him  (Fer- 
dinand) out  of  their  sight ;"  and  it  is  due  to  this  Jes- 
uitic influence,  no  doubt,  that  Ferdinand  became  such 
a  fanatical  adherent  of  the  Chiu-ch  of  Kome,  and  a  most 
cruel  persecutor  of  Protestantism.  See  Austria.  Of 
Lamormaiu  himself,  it  is  said  that  he  was  so  devoted  to 
the  Romisli  cause  that  he  made  upwards  of  100,000  con- 
verts to  the  Church  of  Kome.  He  died  Feb.  22,  16-18. 
He  wrote  a  life  of  Ferdinand  II,  which  abounds  in  flat- 
tering terms  to  the  emperor,  who  had  been  a  pliant  tool 
in  the  hands  of  the  crafty  Jesuit.  See  Hoefer,  Xouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  2-15;  Paquot,  Menioires  pour  ser- 
vir  a  Vhistoire  liUeraire  cks  Pays-Bus,  v,  98-100;  Yehse, 
Memoirs  of  the  Court,  A  ristocracy,  and  Diplomacy  of 
A  ustria  (transl.  by  F.  Demmler,  Lond.  1850,  2  vols.  sm. 
8vo),  i,  287  sq.,  319.     (J.  II.  W.) 

Lamormain,  Henri  de,  a  Belgian  Jesuit,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  and,  like  him,  a  native  of  Luxemburg, 
entered  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1596,  but  exerted  lit- 
tle influence  on  account  of  feeble  health.  He  died  Nov. 
26,  16-17.  He  translated  and  wrote  several  works-, 
among  them  are,  Tractatus  amoris  divini  constans,  libri 
xii  (from  the  French  of  Francisco  de  Sales,  Yienna,  1643, 
4to;  2d  edit.,  with  life  of  the  author  [Sales],  Col.  1057, 
8vo) : — De  Virtute  Panitentia,  etc.  (Vienna,  16  H,4to). — 
— Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  245. 

Iianiothe,  Pieure  Lambert  de,  a  French  Roman 
Catholic  missionary,  was  born  at  Buclierie,  in  the  dio- 
cese of  Lisieux,  Jan.  18,  1624.  After  being  for  some 
time  connected  with  the  chancellery  of  the  Parliament 
at  Rouen,  he  entered  the  Church.  His  talents  caused 
him  to  be  distinguished  among  a  number  of  priests  who 
had  formed  in  1052  the  plan  of  Christianizing  China 
and  neighboring  countries.  In  1600  he  was  consecra- 
ted bishop  of  Berytlie.  He  embarked  at  JNIarsoiUes  for 
China  November  27,  1660,  and,  passing  through  Malta, 
Antioch,  Aleppo,  Bassora,  Chalzeran,  Shiraz,  Ispahan, 
Lara,  Surate,  Masulipatam,  Tenasserim,  Yalinga,  Pram, 
and  Pikfri,  arrived  at  Jutlica,  the  capital  of  Siam,  April 
22, 1662.  Here  he  found  some  1500  Christians  of  differ- 
ent nations  and  two  churches,  the  one  administered  by 
the  Dominicans,  the  other  by  the  Jesuits.  He  was  at 
first  well  received,  but  had  subsequently  to  submit  to 
many  annoyances  from  the  archbishop  of  Goa,  who 
claimed  the  primacy  of  the  whole  lilast  Indies,  and  La- 
mothe  finally  sailed  for  Canton  in  July,  1663,  with  two 
other  missionaries.  A  severe  tempest  obliged  them, 
however,  to  return  to  Siam.  Here  they  were  exposed 
to  all  sorts  of  ill  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  Portu- 
guese, and  owed  their  safety  only  to  the  aid  of  the  Co- 
chm  Chinese.  Lamothe  sent  to  the  pope  and  to  Paris 
for  more  missionaries  and  other  assistance.  Alexander 
YII,  in  consequence,  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  apos- 
tolic vicars  over  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  .Japan,  and  other 
neighboring  countries,  which  action  freed  Lamothe  from 
the  control  of  the  archbishop  of  Goa.  He  was  now 
joined  by  Pallu  du  Pare,  l)ishop  of  Ileliopolis,  who 
reached  Siam  January  27, 1(>64,  with  other  missionaries. 
The  two  apostolic  vicars  held  a  synod,  and  Lamothe  re- 
ceived permission  from  the  king  to  establish  a  Church 
at  Siam,  which  he  intended  should  become  the  centre 
of  communication  between  the  extreme  Eastern  mis- 
sions. He  also  established  a  seminary  for  the  education 
of  native  priests  and  instructors,  a  college,  and  a  hospi- 
tal. Lamothe  died  June  15, 1679. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxix,  250  sq. 

Lamourette,  Adrien,  ahhe,  a  noted  French  eccle- 
siastic, was  born  ui  lUcartiy  in  1742.  During  the  Rev- 
olution in  France  he  became  an  auxiliary  of  ISIirabeau 
in  1789,  and  wrote  the  address  oji  the  civil  constitution 
of  the  clergy  which  that  orator  pronounced.  In  1791 
he  was  chosen,  under  tlic  new  Cliurch  regime  enacted 
by  the  Assembly  in  opijosition  to  tlie  L'onian  see,  bishop 
of  Khone-et-Loire,  and  deputed  to  the  National  Assem- 


bly, Having  resisted  the  extreme  measures  of  the  dom^ 
inant  party,  he  was  guillotined  Jan.  10, 1794.  He  pub- 
lished Pensk's  sur  la  philosojMe  et  Vincredulite  (1786, 
8vo)  : — Pensees  sur  la  philosophie  de  lafoi  (1789,  8vo)  : 
— Les  Delices  de  la  Religion  (1789,  12mo)  : — Considera- 
tions sur  resp7-it  et  les  devoiis  de  la  vie  religieuse  (1795, 
12mo) ;  etc. — Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Lamp  (properly  T^S?,  lappid',  a  flame,  Gen.  xv,  17; 
Exod.  XX, l.S,  Job  xli,  11;  Nah.ii,5,  Dan. x,6,  Isa.lxii, 
1;  Ezek.  i,  13;  lanij)-t07-cli,  J utl^.yn,16,20,  xv,4, 5;  Job 
xii,  5 ;  Zech.  xii,  0 ;  in  some  of  which  passages  it  is  ren- 
dered "  lightning,"  "brand,"  " torch," etc. ;  Gr. Aa/^7rae, 
atorch-"%/(<"or  lantern.  Acts  xx,8;  Rev.iv,5i  "loi-ch," 
John  xviii,  3 ;  Rev.  viii,  10 ,  oil-laynp,  Matt,  xxv,  1-8 ; 
also  T^3,  ncyr,  or  ^"^i,  nir,  a  light,  in  various  senses,  espe- 
cially for  domestic  purposes,  the  Gr.  \vxvoc)  is  a  term 
of  frequent  occurrence  in  a  literal  sense  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, such  a  utensil  being  often  really  meant  whore  the 
A.  Y.  gives  the  rendering  "  candle"  (q.  v.).  The  primary 
sense  of  light  (Oen.  xv,  17)  also  gives  rise  to  frequent 
metaphorical  usages,  indicating  life,  welfare,  guidance, 
as,e.  g.  2Sam.  xxi,  17;  Psa.  cxix,  105;  Prov.vi,  23;  xiii, 
9.  See  Light.  The  following  are  the  cases  in  which 
the  use  of  lamps  is  referred  to  in  the  Bible.  In  their 
illustration  we  freely  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles  in 
.Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 

1.  That  part  of  the  golden  candlestick  belonging  to 
the  tabernacle  which  bore  the  light ;  also  of  each  of  the 
ten  candlesticks  placed  by  Solomon  in  the  Temple  be- 
fore the  Holy  of  Holies  (Exod.  xxv,  37 ;  1  Kings  vii, 49; 
2  Chron.  iv,  20 ,  xiii,  11 ;  Zech.  iv,  2).     The  lamps  were 
lighted  every  evening,  and  cleansed  every  morning 
(Exod.  XXX,  7,  8 ;  Reland,  Ant.  Ilehr.  i,  v,  9,  and  vii,  8). 
It  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that  while  the  golden  can- 
dlestick, or  rather  candelabrum,  is  so  minutely  described, 
not  a  word  is  said  of  the  shape  of  the  lamps  (Exod.  xxv, 
37).     This  was  probably  because  the  socket  in  which  it 
was  to  be  inserted  necessarily  gave  it  a  somewhat  cy- 
hndrical  form  adapted  to  the  purjwse ;  for  it  is  hardly 
to  be  presumed  that  the  insecure  cup-form  usually  rep- 
resented in  engravings  would  have  been  adopted.    This 
shape  is  aptly  illustrated  by  an  instance  occurring  on 
the  Egyptian  monuments, 
Wilkinson  gives  {Ancient 
Egyptians,  v,  376)  what  he 
takes  to  be  the  represent- 
ation of  a  lamp  made  of 
glass,  with  a  hand  holding 
separately  an  erect  ■wick, 
as  if  the  bearer  were  about 
Ancient  Egyptian  Cylindrical   to  place  it  in  the  vase  pre- 
'^^P'  vious  to  its  being  lighted. 

The  lines,  he  thinks,  may  represent  the  twisted  nature 
of  the  cotton  wick,  as  they  do  the  watering  of  the  glass 
vase. 

Almost  the  only  other  fact  we  can  gather  in  this  con- 
nection is,  that  vegetable  oils  were  burnt  in  them,  and 
especially,  if  not  exclusively,  olive -oil.  This,  of  the 
finest  quality,  was  the  oil  used  in  the  seven  lamps  of  the 
tabernacle  (Exod.  xxvii,  20).  Although  the  lamp-oils 
of  the  Hebrews  were  exclusively  vegetable,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  animal  fat  was  used,  as  it  is  at  present  by  the 
Western  Asiatics,  by  being  placed  in  a  kind  of  lamp,  and 
burnt  by  means  of  a  wick  inserted  in  it.  See  Oil.  Cot- 
ton wicks  are  now  used  throughout  Asia,  but  the  He- 
brews, like  the  Egyptians,  probably  emjiloyed  the  outer 
and  coarser  libre  of  flax  (Pliny,  IJist.Nat.  xix,  1),  and 
perhaps  linen  yarn,  if  the  rabbins  are  correct  in  alleging 
that  the  linen  dresses  of  the  priests  were  unravelled 
when  old,  to  furnish  wicks  for  the  sacred  lamps. 

As  to  the  material,  the  burners  were  in  this  instance 
doubtless  of  gold,  although  metal  is  scarcely  the  best 
substance  for  a  lamp.  The  golden  candlestick  may  also 
suggest  that  lamjis  in  ordinary  use  were  placed  on 
stands,  and,  where  more  than  one  was  required,  on  stands 
with  two  or  more  branches.    The  modern  Orientals,  who 


LAMP 


221 


LAMP 


are  satisfied  with  very  little  light  in  their  rooms,  use 
stands  of  brass  or  wood,  on  whicli  to  raise  the  lamps  to 
a  sufficient  height  above  the  floor  on  which  they  sit. 
Such  stands  are  shaped  not  unlike  a  tall  candlestick, 
spreading  out  at  the  top.  Sometimes  the  lamps  are 
placed  on  brackets  against  the  wall,  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  often  upon  stools.  Doubtless  similar  contriv- 
ances were  employed  by  the  Hebrews.  The  Komans 
are  known  to  have  employed  them.    See  Candlestick. 


Bronze  Lamp  aud  Stand.    From  Pompeii. 

2.  A  torch  or  flambeau,  such  as  was  carried  by  the 
8oldiers  of  Gideon  (.Judg.  vii,  10, 20 ;  comp.  xv,  4).  From 
the  fact  that  these  were  at  first  enclosed  in  pitchers, 
from  which,  at  the  end  of  the  march,  they  were  taken 
out  and  borne  in  the  hand,  we  may  with  certainty  infer 
that  they  were  not  ordinary  lamps,  open  at  top,  from 
which  the  oil  coukl  easily  be  spilled.     See  Touch. 

3.  It  seems  that  the  Hebrews,  like  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans,  as  well  as  the  modern  Orientals,  were  ac- 
customed to  burn  lamps  overnight  in  their  chambers; 
and  this  practice  may  appear  to  give  point  to  the  ex- 
pression of"o;«/e?-  darkness,"  which  repeatedly  occurs  in 
the  New  Testament  (^\Iatt.  viii,  12,  xxii,  13);  the  force 
is  greater,  however,  when  the  contrast  implied  in  the 
term  "  outer"  is  vie'ived  with  reference  to  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  sudden  expulsion  into  the  darkness  of  night 
from  a  chamber  highly  illuminated  for  an  entertain- 
ment. This  custom  of  burning  lamps  at  night,  with  the 
effect  pr(Kluced  by  their  going  out  or  being  extinguish- 
ed, supplies  various  flgures  to  the  sacred  writers  (2  Sam. 
xxi,  17 ,  Prov.  xiii,  9 ,  xx,  20).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
keeping  up  of  a  lamp's  light  is  used  as  a  symbol  of  en- 
during and  unbroken  succession  (1  Kings  xi,36,  xv,  4, 
Psa.  cxxxii,  17).     (See  Wemyss's  Symbol.  Diet.  s.  v.) 

The  usual  form  of  these  domestic  utensils  may  prob- 
ably be  inferred  from  tlie  prevailing  shape  of  antique 


specimens  from  neighboring  nations  that  have  come 
down  to  us.  In  the  British  Museum  there  are  various 
forms  of  ancient  Egyptian  lamps,  which  were  employed 
for  lighting  the  interior  of  apartments,  some  of  terra- 
cotta and  others  of  bronze,  with  various  ornaments  in 
bas-relief. 


Common  Funus  of  Aucieut  Ejryptian  Lamps. 


Ancient  Assyrian  Lamps  in  the  British  Museum. 
1,  Bronze  from  north-west  palace,  Nimroiid.    2,  Bronze 
from  Kouyunjik.    3,  4,  Terra-cotta  from  Warka.    5,Ter- 
ra-colta  from  Kouyunjik. 


Common  Form  of  Classical  hanging  Lamp. 
4.  It  appears  from  Matt,  xxv,  ],that  the  Jews  used 
lamps  and  torches  in  their  marriage  ceremonies,  or  rath- 
er when  the  bridegroom  came  to  conduct  home  the  bride 
by  night.  This  is  still  the  custom  in  those  parts  of  the 
liast  where,  on  account  of  the  heat  of  the  day,  the  bridal 
procession  takes  place  in  the  night-time.  The  connec- 
tion of  lamps  and  torches  with  marpiage  ceremonies  of- 
ten appears  also  in  the  classical  poets  (Homer,  Iliail,  vi, 
492;  Kur'ip.  P/xritiss.  346;  Jfeika,  1027;  A'irgil,  i>%. 
viii,  29),  and,  indeed.  Hymen,  the  god  of  marriage,  was 
figured  as  bearing  a  torcli.  The  same  connection,  it 
may  be  observed,  is  stiU  preserved  in  Western  Asia,  even 


LAMP 


222 


LAMP 


•where  it  is  no  longer  usual  to  bring  home  the  bride  by 
night.  During  two.  or  tlirec.  or  more  niglits  preceding 
the  wedding,  tlie  street  or  quarter  in  which  the  bride- 
crooni  hves  is  illuminated  with  chandeliers  and  lanterns, 
or  with  laiuerns  and  small  lamps  suspended  from  cords 
drawn  across  from  the  bridegroom's  and  several  other 
houses  on  each  side  to  the  houses  ojiposite;  and  several 
tmall  silk  flags,  each  of  two  colors,  generally  red  and 


Modern  Oriental  W  eddiiig  Lantern, 
green,  are  attached  to  other  cords  (Lane,  MofhEgjipt.  i, 
201 ;  INIrs.  Poole,  Enr/Uslncoman  in  Egi/pf,  iii,  131).  A 
modern  lantern  much  used  on  these  occasions,  with  lamps 
hung  about  it  and  suspended  from  it,  is  represented  in 
tlie  preceding  cut.  The  lamps  used  separately  on  such 
occasions  are  represented  in  the  following  cut.  Figs.  1, 
3,  and  5  show  very  distinctly  the  conical  receptacle  of 


wood  will 


^inall  Oriental  hanging  Lamps. 

serves  to  protect  the  flame  from  the  wind. 
Lamps  of  this  kind  arc  sometimes 
hung  over  doors.  The  shape  in 
figure  3  is  also  that  of  a  nuich- 
used  indoor  lamp,  called  kandil 
(Lane,  Modern  Kf/i/piian.i.  chap. 
V,  p.  lol).  It  is  a  small  vessel  of 
glass,  having  a  small  tube  at  the 
liottom,  in  -which  is  stuck  a  wick 
formed  of  cotton  twisted  round  a 
piece  of  straw ;  some  water  is 
poured  inJirst,  and  then  the  oil. 

^  ,  '^^  ,  ,-.  „.    ,f  ,,..  Lamps  verv  nearlv  of  this  shape 

EiiliH-'MMl  \  lew  ol  tlie  •  ",.-■• 

irrt<jrf;':inditsieccp-  appear  on  the  Lgyptian  monu- 

ti\c!e  for  oil.  ments,  and  they  seem,  iilso,  to  be 

o''  glass  (Wilkinson,  Ancient  E(/i/ptiuns,  iii,  101 ;  v,  370). 


If  the  Egj-ptians  had  lamps  of  glass,  there  is  no  reason 
why  the  Jews  also  might  not  have  had  them,  especially 
as  this  material  is  more  proper  for  lamps  intended  to  be 
hung  uji,  and  therefore  to  cast  their  light  down  from 
above. 

The  Jews  used  lamps  in  other  festivals  besides  those 
of  marriage.  The  Eoman  satirist  (Persius,  Sat.  v,  179) 
expressly  describes  them  as  making  illuminations  at 
their  festivals  by  lamps  hung  up  and  arranged  in  an  or- 
derly manner;  and  the  scriptural  intimations,  so  far  as 
they  go,  agree  with  this  description.  If  this  custom  had 
not  been  so  general  in  the  ancient  and  modern  East,  it 
might  have  been  supposed  that  the  Jews  adopted  it  from 
the  Egyptians,  who,  according  to  Herodotus  (ii,  G"2),  had 
a  "  Feast  of  Lamps,"  which  was  celebrated  at  Sais,  and, 
indeed,  throughout  the  countr\'  at  a  certain  season  of 
the  year.  The  description  which  the  historian  gives  of 
the  lamps  employed  on  this  occasion  strictly  applies  to 
those  in  modern  use  already  described,  and  the  concur- 
rence of  both  these  sources  of  illustration  strengthens 
the  probable  analogy  of  Jewish  usage.  He  speaks  of 
them  as  "  small  vases  filled  with  salt  and  olive-oil,  in 
which  the  wick  floated,  and  burnt  during  the  whole 
night."  It  does  not,  indeed,  apiiear  of  what  materials 
these  vases  were  made,  but  we  may  reasonalily  suppose 
them  to  have  been  of  glass.  The  later  Jews  had  even 
something  like  this  feast  among  themselves.  A  '■  Feast 
of  Lamps"  was  held  everv^  year  on  the  twenty-fifth  of 
the  month  Kisleu.  See  Dkdication.  It  was  founded 
bv  Judas  IMaccabfcus,  in  celebration  of  the  restoration 
of  the  Temple  worship  (Josephus,  Anf.  xii,  7, 7\  and  has 
ever  since  been  observed  by  the  lighting  up  of  lamps  or 
candles  on  that  day  in  all  the  countries  of  their  disper- 
sion (^Maimonides,  Rosh.  Hashanah,  fol.  8).  Other  Ori- 
entals have  at  this  day  a  similar  feast,  of  which  the 
"  Feast  of  Lanterns"  among  the  Chinese  is  perhaps  the 
best  known  (Davis,  Chinese,  p.  138).     See  Lantp:kx. 

LA^IP,  a  strange  ceremony  of  the  IMaronitc  Church. 
A  wafer  of  some  size,  having  seven  pieces  of  cotton 
stuck  into  it,  is  put  into  a  flask  or  basin  of  oil ;  a  relig- 
ious serv'ice  is  then  read,  the  cotton  is  set  fire  to,  and 
the  sick  person  for  whose  recovery  the  rite  is  intended 
is  anointed  with  the  oil,  and  prayer  is  repeated  over 
him. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

LA;MPS  (their  use  in  the  Christian  Church).  Among 
the  Jews  lamps  were  freely  used  in  the  synagogue  for 
various  purposes.  In  fact,  all  the  ancient  nations  had 
them  in  their  temples;  but  how  soon  they  were  made 
use  of  by  Christians,  and  what  significance  they  had  in 
symbolism,  remains  a  matter  of  dispute  between  the 
Eomish  and  Protestant  churches.  The  Protestants  gen- 
erally hold  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  lamps  were 
used  in  the  early  Church  for  any  other  purpose  than  to 
light  np  the  dark  places  where  they  were  obliged  to 
congregate  for  worship,  while  Komanists  claim  that 
they  were  used  as  symbols.  (Compare,  on  the  Poman 
Catholic  view,  Martigny,  Diet,  des  Antiqitites  Chre- 
tiennes,  p.  151,  s.  v.  Cierges;  see  also  the  art.  Lights.) 
Several  of  the  fathers,  among  them  Chrysostom,  con- 
demn in  strong  terms  the  custom  of  setting  up  lamps  on 
days  of  festival — as  the  relic  of  some  pagan  rite.  In 
the  days  of  Jerome,  it  is  true,  lights  were  freely  used  in 
churches,  but  Pomish  theologians  forget  to  teU  tliat  the 
propriety  of  the  custom  was  much  questioned  even  then. 
In  graves  of  the  Catacombs  "lamps  were  often  placed," 
says  Walcott  (Sacred  Archeology,  s.  v.),  '"as  a  symbol 
ofthc  eternal  light  which  the  departed,  it  is  hoped,  en- 
joy—as nicniorials  of  their  shining  lights  before  men, 
and  their  future  gloiy"  (Matt,  xiii,  43).  Put  it  is  evi- 
dent that  even  this  custom  was  early  disajiprovcd  of,  fol' 
the  Council  of  EUbaris  forbade  the  faithful,  on  jiain  of 
excommunication,  lighting  wax  candles  in  the  day- 
time in  cemeteries  or  other  burial-places  of  the  martyrs 
(compare  I-Ladie,  Eccles.  Diet.  p.  367).  In  our  day  it  is 
the  custom  in  tiie  Eoman  Catholic  churches  to  keep  a 
lamp  (eternal  light)  constantly  burning  before  or  by  the 
side  of  the  tabernacle.     (J.  H.  W.) 


LAMPADARY 


223 


LAMY 


Lampadary  is  the  name  of  an  officer  in  the  East- 
ern Church  whose  (hity  it  is  to  carry  before  the  patri- 
archs in  all  processit)ns  a  lighted  candelabrum,  called 
Xa/KTrncoi'XOi',  as  a  badge  of  distinction  among  bishops. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  lampadar}^  also  to  see  that  the 
lamps  of  the  church  are  lighted,  and  to  carry  a  taper  on 
days  of  great  i)rocessions.     See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Did.  s.  v. 

Lampe,  Fkiediuch  Adoi.f,  an  eminent  German 
Frotcstaut  theologian,  was  born  at  Detmold  (Lippe- 
Dctmold)  Feb.  19, 1G83.  He  entered  the  University  of 
Franeker,  and  later  that  of  Utrecht,  to  study  theology. 
He  was  successively  pastor  at  Wees,  Duisburg,  and  Bre- 
men. In  1720  he  became  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht,  and  in  1727  removed  to  the  University  of  Bre- 
men in  the  same  capacity.  He  died  December  8,  1729. 
Lampe  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  German  theolo- 
gians of  the  Reformed  Church,  who  introduced  into  the 
(Jerman  Church  the  Coccejanian  doctrines,  and  measu- 
rably also  the  principles  of  Labadism.  Lampe's  principal 
worlds  are,  Commentarius  analj/tico-exerjeticus  Evangelii 
secundum  Jofiannem {Amsterd.  1724-25,  3  vols.  4to)  ;  this 
work  Orme  commends  as  '•  both  extensive  and  valua- 
ble." Walch  ranks  it  among  the  best  expositions  of 
the  apostle's  Gospel: — De  Ci/mbalis  veierum  Libri  tres 
(Utrecht,  1703,  r2mo)  : — Exercitationum  sacrarium  Do- 
decas,  quibus  Psalmus  xlv perpetuo  commentario  explana- 
iur  (Bremen,  1715,  4to) : — Geheimniss  des  Gnadenbundes 
(Bremen,  1723, 12mo ;  translat.  into  Dutch,  Amst.  1727, 
8vo) ;  this  work  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  his  sys- 
tem of  theology  : — Belinecifio  Thelogim  actirw  (Utrecht, 
1727,  4to):  —  Rudimenta  Theohgim  eknchticce  (Bremen, 
1729,  8vo).  Lampe  published  also  a  large  number  of 
sermons  and  devotional  treatises  in  German,  which  were 
nearly  all  translated  into  Dutch ;  he  rearranged  and  ed- 
ited an  edition  of  the  Ilistoria  Ecclesim  Refoi-mata  in 
Iluuf/arid  et  Tran.yh'ania,  attributed  to  Paul  of  De- 
brezin  (Utrecht,  1728,  4to).  Together  with  Hase,  he 
published  the  lirst  three  volumes  of  tlie  Bibliotlteca  Bre- 
iiivnsis,  for  which  he  wrote  a  number  of  theological  arti- 
cles. Other  treatises  which  he  published  in  various  pa- 
pers were  collected  and  published  by  D.  Gerdes,  togeth- 
er with  his  discourses  and  programmes  (Amsterd.  1737, 
2  vols.  4to~).  See  Schumacher,  Memoria  Lampii,  in  Mis- 
cel/anea  Duisburgensia,  vol.  ii;  Acta  Eruditorum,  ann. 
1722;  Klifkcr,  Bibl.  Eruditor.  Prcecocium;  Burmann, 
Trajectum  eruditum;  J ochei,  A llr/em.  Gel. Lexifcon;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  284;  Gbbel  (IMaximil- 
ian),  Gesch.  d.  ('hristlichen  Lebens,  vol.  ii  (see  Index). 

Lampetians  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  heretical 
sects  which,  on  pretence  of  promoting  sanctity  by  *an 
ascetic  life,  made  the  Christian  Sabbath  a  fast-day. 

There  was  also  another  sect  of  this  name  in  the  17th 
century,  the  followers  of  Lampetius,  a  Syrian  monk, 
who  pretended  that,  as  a  man  is  born  free,  a  Christian, 
in  order  to  please  God,  ought  to  do  nothing  by  necessi- 
ty ;  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  unlawfid  to  make  vows, 
even  those  of  obedience.  To  this  doctrine  he  added  the 
views  of  the  Arians,  Carpocratians,  and  other  sects.  The 
Lampetians  formed  a  branch  of  the  Mkssalians  (q.v.). 
— Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lampillas,  Fk.vscis  Xavieis,  a  Spanish  .Jesuit, 
was  born  in  (Jatalonia  in  1731.  After  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  from  Spain  in  1767  he  went  to  Genoa,  where 
he  died  in  1810.  His  principal  work  is  a  defence  of 
Spanish  literature  against  Bettinelli  and  Tiraboschi, 
^Uf/gio  storico-apologetico  della  Leteraturu  Spagnuola. 
See  Hoefer,  A'oMf.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  285. 

Laniplugh,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  prelate  of 
note  in  the  days  of  king  James  II,  was  born  in  York- 
shire in  1G15.  But  little  is  kn(jwn  of  his  early  personal 
history.  He  was  dean  of  Kochester  in  1676,  when  he 
was  promoted  to  tlie  episcopate  as  bishop  of  Exeter.  In 
this  position  he  became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  di- 
vines of  the  day,  securing,  in  particular,  the  favor  of  the 
king  by  his  partisanship,  especially  in  1688.  In  this  year, 
just  before  the  exit  of  king  James  from  the  English 


throne,  Lamplugh  called  on  the  king,  was  graciously 
received,  praisecl  for  his  loyalty,  and  awarded  with  the 
archbishopric  of  York,  which  had  been  vacant  for  more 
than  two  years  and  a  half.  William  III.  whom  Lamp- 
high,  strangely  enough,  recognised  as  the  rightful  sover- 
eign of  England,  after  the  tiight  of  James,  contirmed 
the  appointment,  hence  some  writers'  statement  that 
William  of  Orange  appointed  Lamjdugh  to  the  arch- 
bishopric. The  archbishop  died  in  1691.  See  Debary, 
History  of  the  Church  of  Enghmd,  p.  167;  ]\Iacaulay, 
Ilistorg  of  England,  ii,  382.      ( J.  H.  W.) 

Laniprouti,  Isaac,  a  Jewish  Rabbi  of  some  note 
as  an  author,  flourished  in  Ferrara  in  the  lirst  half  of 
the  18th  centur3^  He  died  about  1756.  He  commenced 
the  preparation  of  a  large  encyclopiedia  of  Rabbinism, 
of  which  he  himself  completed  twelve  volumes,  bringing 
the  work,  excellent  in  its  character,  down  to  the  letter 
Mem.  It  was  published  at  Venice  between  1750  and 
1813.     See  Jost,  Gesch.  d.  Judenth.  u.  s.  Sekten,  iii,  230. 

Lamsoii,  Alvan,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was 
born  in  1792  at  Weston,  Mass. ;  was  educated  first  at 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  and  then  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, where  he  graduated  in  1814.  He  was  immediately 
appointed  tutor  in  Bowdoin  College,  but  left  in  1816, 
and  entered  the  Divinity  School  at  Cambridge.  In  1818 
he  became  pastor  of  the  First  Church  in  Dedham,  Mass., 
where  he  officiated  for  over  forty  years.  He  died  July 
18,  1864.  He  wrote  much  for  the  Christian  Examiner, 
and  in  1857  published  a  volume  of  sermons  (Bost.  12ino). 
The  Christian  Register  says  of  him:  "Dr.  Lamson  has 
succeeded  in  uniting  the  acutest  moral  wisdom  with  the 
most  unpretending  and  childlike  modes  of  exhibiting  it. 
His  style  is  clear  as  crj'stal,  sometimes  almost  quamt  in 
its  simplicity,  and  not  without  touches  of  poetic  feeling 
as  well  as  fancy,  though  a  calm,  shrewd  judgment  char- 
acterizes all  his  opinions."  —  AUibone,  Diet,  of  Authors, 
vol.  ii;  Amei-ican  Annual  Cycloj)cEdia,  1864,  p.  612. 

Lamy  (or  Lajii),  Bernard,  an  eminent  priest  of 
the  French  Oratory,  was  born  at  Mans  in  June,  1610; 
studied  under  the  Oratorians,  joined  their  order  in  1658, 
and  completed  his  studies  at  Paris  and  at  Saumur.  He 
next  taught  belles-lettres  at  Vendome  and  JuLUy,  and 
philosophy  at  Saumiu"  and  at  Angers.  In  1676  he  was 
deprived  of  his  professorship  for  his  zealous  advocacy 
of  the  Cartesian  philosophy.  His  enemies,  the  Thom- 
ists,  even  obtained  a  lettre  de  cachet  against  him  under 
the  accusation  that  he  opposed  the  principle  of  royal 
authority.  He  was  banished  to  Grenoble,  where  cardi- 
nal Le  Camus,  who  had  established  a  seminar}^  for  the 
education  of  ecclesiastics,  and  who  held  Lamy  in  high 
estimation,  appointed  him  professor  of  divinity.  In 
1686,  his  sentence  having  been  revoked  in  its  most  es- 
sential charges,  he  was  recalled  to  Paris,  and  remained 
for  a  while  in  the  Seminary  of  St.Magloire ,  but,  having 
violated  the  rules  of  the  establishment  by  publishing 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  superior  a  work  {Lettre 
an  P.  Fourre,  de  VOratoire),  ^vhich,  besides,  was  consid- 
ered to  contain  objectionable  teachings  (viz.  as  that 
Christ  did  not  celebrate  the  Jewish  Passover  with  his 
disciples  [a  view  adopted  by  some  of  the  soundest  schol- 
ars] ;  that  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  twice,  by 
the  Sanhedrim  and  by  Herod ;  and  that  the  three  Marys 
mentioned  in  the  Gospels  are  identical),  he  was  again 
exiled,  this  time  to  Rouen.  He  died  in  the  latter  city 
Jan.  29,  1715.  Lamy  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and 
his  wf)rks  are  generally  distinguished  for  clearness  of 
thought  and  expression.  The  most  important  are.  Ap- 
paratus Biblicus  ad  intelligenda  Sacra  Biblia  (originally 
[Grenoble,  1687]  no  more  than  tallies  of  the  chief  facts 
of  Scripture,  with  rules  for  its  study,  and  compiled  sim- 
ply for  his  jiupils,  lie  subsequently  enlarged  and  pub- 
lished it  at  Lyons,  1696,  sm.  8vo,  and  it  was  in  its  day  con- 
sidered the  best  '"introduction"  to  the  Bible  extant;  an 
English  edition  was  prepared  by  R.  Bundy,  Lond.  1723, 
4to)  -.—Entretiens  sur  les  Sciences  (1684),  a  work  wliich 
was  highly  esteemed  by  J.J.Rousseau:  —  Introduction 


LAMY 


224 


LANCELLOT(T)I 


a  VEcriture  Sainie,  oil  Von  Iraife  cle  tout  ce  qui  conceme 
les  Jnifs,  etc.  (Lyons,  1709,  4to)  ■.—Harmoniii,  sive  Con- 
cordia qiiatnor  F.ranrielktarum,  cditio  novissima  (Paris, 


use,  Jer.  1,  42 ;  elsewhere  usually  "  spear"),  a  javelin  or 
ismaller  kind  of  missile  weapon,  in  distinction  from  the 
lonc-handlcd  spear  (H^jn,  chaniih'),  and  the  simple  dart 


1701, 1-Jin<>)  ■.—('oiiuiuii/iiriits  in  harmonuwi,  sioe  concor-  m^i^  she'lach).     See  Ahmor. 
cUm.  qnatuor  Krnn!jdis1m-um{V^rx^  1«99  4to)  :-/^w-        £ance,  The  Holy  (1),  is"the  name  of  a  knife  verv 

sertatio  de  Levitt  cantonbm  (Lgol.  32,  5- 1)  -.-De  taber-  ^^^^  j^^  ^j^^  ^^^^^  ,.  ^  ^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  j^^  ^^^  ^^^^j.  ^.j^^^^^j^ 

naculofaderis,  de.  sancta  cimtctle  Jerusalem  et  de  templo  ^^  j^j^^^^  ^,^^  ,     ^^.,^j^j^  (_,,^^.^^  ^^.^^    .^^^^^^    y^r-^^^ 

ejus  (Paris,  1720,  fol.).     lo  this  last-named  work  Laray  ^j^.^  ,  ,^^j^,  j^^^^^,,  ^^^^       ■         ^^  communion,  cuts  the 


is  said  to  liave  devoted  the  last  thirty  years  of  his  life 
It  was  i)uhlished  (after  his  death)  under  the  editorship 
of  pere  Desmoulins.  See  Ellies  Dupin,  Bill,  des  A  uteurs 
eccU's.  vol.  xix,  4to  ed. ;  Journal  de  tout  ce  qui  s'est  passe 
en  VUniversite  dWngers,  1G79,  4to;  F.  BouQlier,  Hist,  du 
Cartesianisme,  vol.  ii ;  B.  Haureau,  Uist.  Litter,  du  Maine, 
ii,  1 17-105,  Hook,  AVc^e*.  Bio(j.  vi,  515;  Kitto,  ^tMcaZ 
Ci/clopmlia,  ii,  779,  780.    (J.  H.  W.) 

Lamy,  Dom.  Francois,  a  French  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  was  born  at  jNIontereau,  in  the  diocese  of  Char- 
tres,  in  103(5.  He  entered  the  congregation  of  St.lMaur, 
of  tlie  Order  of  St.  Benoist,  in  1685,  and  was  in  relation 
with  some  of  the  most  important  men  of  the  time,  Fe- 
nelon  among  others.  He  died  in  1711.  Lamy  wrote 
largely  in  defence  of  Christianity,  and  agaijist  Spinoza ; 
the  most  important  of  his  works  are,  Traite  de  la  verite 
ecidente  de  la  religion  Chretienne  (1694, 12mo) : — De  la 
co?maissa7ice  de  soi-menie  (Paris,  1694—98,  6  vols.  8vo , 
augmented,  Paris,  1700),  the  ablest  and  most  celebrated 
work  of  Francois  Lamy  (comp.  the  art.  IMalebr^vnche)  : 
— Le  Nouvel  Atheisme  renverse,  ou  refutation  du  systeme 
de  Spinosa,  etc.  (Anon.,  Paris,  1696, 12mo) : — Sentiments 
de  piete  sur  la  pi-ofession  reliyieuse  (Paris,  1697,  12mo), 
which  gave  rise  to  much  controversy: — Lemons  de  la 
Sai/esse  et  de  V engagement  au  sei-vice  de  Dieu  (Par.  1703, 
12mo) : — Vincreduh  amene  a  la  religion  par  la  raison 
(Paris,  1710,  12mo) : — Traite  de  la  connaissance  et  de 
Vamour  de  Dieu  (Paris,  1712,  12mo) ;  this  work,  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  is  very  scarce.  Some  of  his  let- 
ters are  contained  in  the  Coi-respondance  de  Fenelon 
(Paris,  1827-29, 11  vols.  8vo).  See  Lc  Cerf,  Bihlioth.  des 
A  uteurs  de  la  Congreg.  de  St.Maur;  Niceron,  Memoires, 
vol.  X ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  298  sq. 

Lancaster,  Joseph,  an  English  Quaker,  was  bom 
in  London  in  1778.  He  acquired  great  distinction  as 
the  promulgator  of  the  mutual  system  of  education  first 
introduced  by  Dr.  Bell  at  INIadras,  but  afterwards  known 
both  in  England  and  America  as  the  Lancasterian  Sys- 
tem. He  is  recognised  as  having  given  an  impulse,  by 
his  ^^Titings  and  lectures,  to  the  cause  of  popular  educa- 
tion in  many  countries.  He  first  opened  a  school  for 
poor  children  in  St.  George's  Field,  and  soon  rendered 
his  method  very  popular.  For  the  characteristics  of  his 
system,  see  Watts,  Bibl.  Brit.,  and  his  works  (London, 
1854)  ;  Lotul  Quart.  Rev.  vi,  24 ;  North  A  mer.  Rev.  xviii, 
184;  Living  Age,  April,  1845;  Alhbone,  Diet,  of  British 
and  A  mer.  A  utiiors,  ii,  1052 ;  Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1365. 

Lancaster,  Lydia,  a  female  Quaker  minister, 
daughter  of  Thomas  Kawlinson,  was  born  at  Graith- 
waite,  Lancashire,  England,  in  1684.  In  the  course  of 
her  ministry  she  visited  several  times  the  greater  part 
of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  building  up  her  soci- 
ety with  great  zeal  and  efficacy.  In  1718  she  came  to 
the  United  States,  and  was  here  especially  instrumental 
in  the  extension  of  the  Quaker  cause.  She  retained  her 
zeal  and  activity  to  extreme  old  age,  laboring  almost  to 
the  close  of  her  days.  May  30, 1761.  See  Janney,  Ilist. 
of  Frinds,  iii,  296. 

Lancaster,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  minister  of  the 
Church  ot  England,  was  horn  in  England  in  1698.  Dur- 
ing a  jxirtion  of  his  ministry  he  was  rector  of  Stamford 
liivers,  but  he  is  better  known  as  a  literarj'  man  than  as 
a  pastor.  He  died  in  1775.  His  published  works  are, 
Sirmoiis  (1746)  : — Kssay  on  Delicacy  (1748,  Svo)  : — The 
Old  Sirperit,  or  ^fithodism  Triunqihant — a  I'oem  (1770, 
4to  I. — AUibone,  Diet.  Engl,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  ii,  1052. 

Lance  ("pT'S,  Iddon',  so  called  from  its  destructive 


bread,  while  reading  the  corresponding  passages  of  the 
N.  T.  Scriptures.  See  Jlartignv,  Diet,  des  A  ntiquites,  p. 
353, 

Lance,  The  Holy  (2),  was  given  by  king  Eudolph 
of  Burgundy  to  king  Henry  I  of  Germany,  as  a  present, 
tlirough  the  intluence  of  Luitprand,  bishop  of  Cremona. 
It  came  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  chief  insignia  of 
the  empire,  and  a  powerfiU  tahsman.  The  earlier  tra- 
dition represents  the  lance  as  having  been  chiefly  made 
of  the  nails  with  which  Christ  was  crucified ;  later  ac- 
counts assume  that  it  was  the  identical  lance  with  which 
the  Roman  soldier  pierced  the  Saviour's  side.  L'nder 
the  emperor  Charles  IV  this  lance  was  brought  to  Prague, 
and  in  1354  pope  Innocent  VI,  at  the  emperor's  request, 
instituted  a  special  festival,  De  lancea,  which  was  cele- 
brated in  Germany  and  Bohemia  on  the  first  octave  af- 
ter Easter.  Another  holy  lance  was  discovered  by  the 
empress  Helena,  and  kept  first  in  the  portico  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and  aft ersvards  at  Anti- 
och,  where  it  was  found  in  1093  by  a  French  priest,  Pe- 
ter Bartholomew ;  its  appearance  cheered  the  discour- 
aged Crusaders,  who  gained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the 
Saracens.  It  was  subsequently  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople, then  to  Venice,  and  afterwards  came  into  the  pos- 
session of  St.  Louis,  king  of  France.  It  was,  however, 
afterwards  taken  back  again  to  Constantinople,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  iron  of  it  was  brought  to  Rome  as  a  pres- 
ent to  pope  Innocent  VIII,  and  is  preserved  at  the  Vat- 
ican. The  genuineness  of  both  lances  has,  however, 
been  doubted  even  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
their  authenticity  was  never  officially  proclaimed. — Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  197.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lanceae  et  Clav5rum  Festum.  See  Lance, 
THE  Holy  (2). 

Lancellot(t)i  (Lancelotus),  Giovanni  Paoli 
(1),  a  noted  Italian  writer  on  canon  law,  was  born  in  Peru- 
gia in  1511,  was  professor  of  canon  law  in  the  university 
of  his  native  place,  and  died  there  in  1591.  He  is  par- 
ticularly known  as  the  author  of  Jnstitutioties  juris  ca- 
nonui,  which  are  generallj'  published  with  the  Corpus 
juris  canonici;  yet  it  was  not  ado])ted  in  the  '"editio 
Romana,"  and  therefore  Richter  omitted  it  in  his  edi- 
tion. Lancellotti  appears  to  have  for  a  long  time  con- 
templated writing  an  elementary  text-book  for  the  study 
of  canon  law,  after  the  model  of  Justinian's  Institutes 
[see  Corpus  Juris  Civilis],  for  we  find  already  in  1555 
pope  Paul  IV  encouraging  him  in  his  plans.  Two  years 
after  Lancellotti  presented  his  work  to  the  papal  censure, 
and  it  was  examined  by  a  committee  composed  of  Fabi- 
anus  Atorombonus,  Julius  Oradinus,  and  Antonins  Mas- 
sa,  all  officers  of  the  court  Delia  Rota.  They  approved 
strong!}'  of  it,  and  their  recommendation  was  printed  in 
several  editions  of  the  Commentai'ii  Insiitutionum  subse- 
quently added  by  Lancellotti  himself  to  his  liber  i.  The 
book  was  afterwards  published,  and  immediately  adopt- 
ed as  a  text-book  in  the  University  of  Cologne.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  pope  steadily  refused  his  approval, 
and  some  other  censors  raised  objections  against  it  on 
the  ground  that  it  contained  principles  opposc<l  to  the 
then  recent  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  au- 
thor, however,  was  disinclined  to  alter  the  obnoxious 
passages,  and  resolved  to  continue  to  publish  the  work 
as  a  private  enterprise,  which  he  did  towards  the  close 
of  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  August,  1563,  at  Perugia, 
dedicating  it  to  Fius  IV.  In  the  following  years  it  was 
repeatedly  rejirinted  and  commended ;  Petrus  Matthiius 
even  appended  it  to  his  edition  of  the  Coipus  juris  ca- 
nonici (Frankf.  ad  M.  1591).    Soon  after  it  was  included 


LANCELLOTTI 


225 


LANDED  ESTATE 


in  the  edition  of  the  Corpus  ji/7-is  canon.  pubHsheil  at 
Lyons,  and  continued  to  be  printed  in  that  manner,  it 
liavingf  linally  olitained  the  apjiroval  of  pope  Paul  V 
(1G05-21)  by  the  intercession  of  cardinal  Scipio  Cobel- 
lutius  and  others.  Still  the  Institutiones  were  never 
considered  as  an  official  work.  Their  value  consists 
cliietly  in  the  insight  it  affords  into  wliat  was  considered 
as  law  before  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  common 
])ractice  of  that  time.  Subsequent  editions  carefully 
indicate  the  differences  between  it  and  the  new  laws. 
(See  Caspar  Ziegler,  Kotce  ex  ipsis  antiquitaium  ecclesi- 
asticurum  fontihus  c/erfwcte,  Wittemb.  1G99,  4to;  repro- 
duced in  Thomasius's  edition,  Haloe,  1710,1717, 4to;  also 
that  of  Douiat,Yenetiis,  1750,  2  vols.  8vo).  A  French 
translation,  with  a  comparison  of  the  Romish  andGaUican 
practice,  was  published  by  Durand  de  i\Iaillane  (Lyons, 
1710, 10  vols.  12mo). — Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  187. 

Lancellotti  (or  Lancelotti),  Giovanni  Paoli 

("2),  an  Italian  author  and  priest,  was  Ijoru  at  Perugia  in 
1575,  and  died  in  Paris  in  1G40.  He  is  noted  as  the  au- 
thor of  a  successful  work  entitled  To-daij  ("  L'Hoggidi"), 
intended  to  prove  that  the  world  was  not  morally  or 
physically  worse  than  it  had  been  in  ancient  times.  He 
wrote  also  other  learned  works. 

Lancelot,  Dom.  Claude,  a  noted  French  theologian 
and  writer  of  tlie  Romish  Church,  was  born  at  Paris  in 
1G15.  In  1640  he  was  appointed  presiding  officer  of  the 
noted  school  of  Port  Royal,  and,  after  its  discontinuance 
in  1660,  he  became  instructor  of  prince  Con ti;  then  lived 
in  the  convent  St.  Cyran  until  its  destruction  in  1079. 
lie  died  at  Quimperlci  April  15, 1695.  His  works  are 
mainly  on  the  grammar  of  the  classical  and  Roman  lan- 
guages. He  also  published  historical  annotations  on  the 
Bible  of  Vitre,  and  left  in  MS.  form  memoirs  of  the  life 
of  Duverger  de  Hauranne,  of  the  St.  Cyran  convent.  See 
Sainte-Beuve,  Pc)?Y  Royal;  Vigneul  '^laxx'iWe,  Melanges, 
1, 132 ;  Niceron,  l\[ein.  pour  servir  a  I'/nstoire  des  Homines 
III.  XXXV;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gin.  xxix,  322  sq. 

Lancet. (n*?"!,  ro'mach,  from  its  piercing,  1  Kings 
xviii,  28,  elsewhere  usually  '•  spear"),  the  iron  point  or 
head  of  a  lance.  See  Arjior.  The  incisive  implements 
of  the  most  ancient  Hebrews,  as  of  other  peoples,  were 
of  stone  (Exoti.  iv,  25;  Josli.  v,  2;  compare  Abicht,  JJe 
culiis  saxeis,  Lipsiaj,  1712  ;  and  generally  Creuzer,  Com- 
ment. Heroil.  i,  22.  The  testa  samia  with  -ivhich  the 
priests  of  Cybele  emasculated  themselves  [Pliny,  xxxv, 
40],  and  the  stone  knives  of  the  Egyptian  erabalmers 
[Herod,  ii,  86],  are  parallel  cases).  The  Hebrews  used 
no  knives  at  table  (although  one  term  for  knife,  rib2X"a 
is  so  named  from  eating^,  since  the  meat  was  brought  on 
ready  cut  into  pieces,  and  the  bread  was  so  thin  as  to 
be  easily  broken  with  the  fingers.  See  Eating.  The 
same  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  East,  even  in  princely 


feasts.  See  jMeal.  Knives  were  regularly  employed 
by  mechanics  (q.  v.),  and  in  slaughtering  animals  ((Jen. 
xxii,  0, 10 ;  comp.  Judg.  xix,  29 ;  see  Philo,  0pp.  ii,  570), 
and  for  preparing  food  (Josephus,  War,  i,  33,  7;  .4;*/. 
xvii,  71,  etc.).  The  sacrificial  knife,  in  particular,  was 
called  Ti'rt'?  (Ezra  i,  9),  and  a  room  in  the  (second)  Tem- 
ple was  appropriated  to  such  cutlery  (nlS^bn^  '^'^3, 
^lishna,  Middoth,  vi,  7).  A  penknife  was  called  ^V7} 
(Jer.  xxvi,  23;  Ezek.  v,  1),  originally  in  Aram.Tjan 
IBp"?,  which  in  the  Talmud  {Chelim,  xiii,  1)  likewise 
denotes  a  razor.  The  pruning-knife  was  called  !Ti -I'D 
(Isa.  ii,  4;  xviii,  5,  etc.). — Winer,  ii,  88.     See  Knife. 

Lancet  Style.     See  English  Style. 

LANCET-WINDOW  is  an  architectural  term  for  a 
narrow  window  with  acutely-pointed  arch  head.  This 
form  was  much  used  in  England  and  Scotland  during 
tlie  early  pointed  period  of  Gothic  architecture.  Sev- 
eral lancet-windows  are  frequently  groujjed  together,  so 
as  to  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  In  Scotland,  the  lancet- 
v.indow  was,  like  many  other  features  of  Scotch  Gothic, 
retained  to  a  much  later  period  than  in  England. — 
Chambers,  Cyclopadia,  s.  v. 


Egyptian  Knives  and  Lancets.     Collected  from  vnrious 
Sciilptui-es. 

v.— P 


Laucet-w nidow      Iiom  Gl  i^^  )\\  C  ilhtdnl. 

Land  (represented  by  several  Heb.  and  Gr.  words', 
properly  "('"IX,  e'rets,  usually  rendered  "eaiili,'"  Gr.  yi/ ; 
and  ri^'IX,  adamah',  usually  the  "ground;'"  sometimes 
iTl'^,  sadeh',  elsewhere  a  ^' field,'''  Gr.  aypuQ  ;  also  xw- 
pa,  a  tract  of  land  ;  etc.).  This  word  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment often  denotes  emphatically  the  country  of  the  Is- 
raelites ,  at  other  times  some  particular  countrj'  or  dis- 
trict, as  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  land  of  Egypt,  the  land 
of  Ashur,  the  land  of  Jloab.  In  several  places  of  our 
Authorized  Version  the  phrase  "all  the  earth"  is  used, 
wlien  the  more  restricted  phrase  "the  land,"  or  "all  the 
land,"  would  be  more  proper.  See  Agkicultuke  ; 
Farm  ;  Landed  Estate. 

Landau,  Jecheskel,  a  German  Rabbi  of  note,  was 
born  about  1720.  lie  flourislied  first  as  Rabbi  of  Jam- 
pol,  Podolia,  and  later  as  cliief  Rabbi  of  Prague.  He 
died  in  1793.  While  yet  a  young  man  Landau  gave 
jjromise  of  great  ability  as  a  jiolemic,  and  he  displayed 
this  quality  to  great  advantage  in  the  Sabbatarian  con- 
troversy which  raged  between  Eibeschiitz  [see  .Jona- 
than EiBEsciiiJTz]  and  Emden.  See  (iriitz,  Cesc/i.  der 
Juden,  vol.  x,  ch.  xi,  especially  p.  409,  415,  438;  Furst, 
Biblioth.  Jud.  ii,  216  sq. 

Landed  Sstate.  It  has  been  the  custom  to  re- 
gard the  Hebrews  as  a  pastoral  people  until  they  were 
settled  in  Palestine.  In  a  great  degree  they  dmilitlesa 
were  so,  and  when  they  entered  agricultural  ICgypt,  the 
land  of  (Joshen  was  assigned  to  them  expressly  because 
that  locality  was  suited  to  their  pastoral  liabits  (Gen. 
xlvii,  4-6).  These  habits  were  substantially  maintain- 
ed ;  but  it  is  certain  that  they  became  acquainted  with 
the  Egyptian  processes  of  culture,  and  it  is  more  than 


LANDED  ESTATE 


226 


LANDED  ESTATE 


probable  that  they  raised  for  themselves  such  products 
of  the  soil  as  they  retpiired  for  their  own  use.  We  may, 
indeed,  coUcet  tliat  the  jiortion  of  their  territory  which 
lay  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Nile  was  placed  by 
them  mider  culture  (Dent,  xi,  10),  while  the  interior, 
with  the  free  pastures  of  the  desert  beyond  their  imme- 
diate territory,  sufficed  abundantly  for  their  cattle  (1 
Cliron.  vii,  21).  This  partial  attention  to  agriculture 
was  in  some  degree  a  preijaration  for  the  condition  of 
cultivators,  into  which  they  were  destined  eventually  to 
pass.  While  the  Israelites  remained  in  a  state  of  sub- 
jection in  Egypt,  the  maintenajice  of  their  condition  as 
shepherds  was  highly  instrumental  in  keeping  them  dis- 
tinct and  separate  from  the  Egyptians,  who  were  agri- 
culturists, and  had  a  strong  dislike  to  pastoral  habits 
(Gen.  xlvi,  34).  Cut  when  they  I)ecame  an  independ- 
ent and  sovereign  people,  their  separation  from  other 
nations  was  to  be  promoted  by  imhuiug  them  to  devote 
their  chief  attention  to  the  culture  of  the  soil.  A  large 
number  of  the  institutions  given  to  them  had  this  ob- 
ject of  separation  in  view.  Among  these,  those  relating 
to  agriculture — forming  the  agrarian  law  of  the  Hebrew 
people — were  of  the  first  importance.  They  might  not 
alone  have  been  sufficient  to  secure  the  end  in  view,  but 
no  others  could  have  been  etfectual  without  them ;  for, 
without  such  attention  to  agriculture  as  would  render 
them  a  self-subsisting  peo[)le,  a  greater  degree  of  inter- 
course with  the  neighboring  and  idolatrous  nations  must 
have  been  maintained  than  was  consistent  with  the  pri- 
niarv"  object  of  the  IMosaic  institutions.  The  common- 
est observation  suffices  to  show  how  much  less  than 
others  agricultural  communities  are  open  to  external  in- 
fluences, and  how  much  less  disposed  to  cultivate  inter- 
course with  strangers.     See  Husbanduy. 

It  was,  doubtless,  in  subservience  to  this  object,  and 
to  facilitate  the  change,  that  the  Israelites  were  put  in 
possession  of  a  country  already  in  a  high  state  of  culti- 
vation (Deut.vi,  11) ,  and  it  was  in  order  to  retain  them 
in  this  condition,  to  give  them  a  vital  interest  in  it,  and 
to  make  it  a  source  of  happiness  to  them,  that  a  very 
peculiar  agrarian  law  was  given  to  them.     In  stating 
this  law,  and  in  declaring  it  to  have  been  in  the  high- 
est degree  wise  and  salutary,  regard  must  be  had  to  its 
peculiar  object  with  reference  to  the  segregation  of  the 
Hebrew  people ;  for  there  are  points  in  which  this  and 
other  iVIosaic  laws  were  unsuited  to  general  use,  some 
by  the  very  circumstances  which  adapted  them  so  ad- 
mirably to  their  special  object.     When  the  Israelites 
were  numbered  just  before  their  entrance  into  the  land 
of  Canaan,  and  were  found  (exclusive  of  the  Levites) 
to  exceed  600,000  men,  the  Lord  said  to  INIoses,  "  Unto 
these  the  land  shall  be  divided  for  an  inheritance,  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  names.     To  many  thou  shalt 
give  the  more  inheritance,  and  to  the  few  thou  shalt 
give  the  less  inheritance ;  to  every  one  shall  his  inher- 
itance be  given  according  to  those  that  were  numbered 
of  him.     Notwithstanding  the  Innd  shall  be  divided  by 
lot :  according  to  the  names  of  the  tribes  of  their  fathers 
shall  they  inherit"  (Numb,  xxvi,  33-54).     This  equal 
distribution  of  the  soil  was  the  basis  of  the  agrarian  law. 
By  it  provision  was  made  for  the  support  of  600,000 
yeomen,  with  (according  to  different  calculations)  from 
sixteen  to  twenty-tive  acres  of  land  to  each.     This  land 
tliev  held  indciiendent  of  all  tenijioral  sui)eriors,  by  di- 
rect tenure  from  .Jehovah  their   Sovereign,  by  whose 
power  they  were  to  acquire  the  territory,  and  imder 
Avhose  ])rotection  they  were  to  enjoy  and  retain  it.   "  The 
land  shall  not  be  sold  forever,  for  the  land  is  mine,  saith 
the  Lord:  ye  are  strangers  and  sojourners  with  me" 
(Lev.  XXV, "_':!).     Tims  the  basis  of  the  constitution  was 
an  e(iual  agrarian  law.      lint  this  law  was  guarded  by 
other  jjrovisions  cciually  wise  and  salutary.     Tlie  ac- 
cumulation of  debt  was  jireventi'd,  first,  by  j-u-ohibiting 
every  Hebrew  from  accepting  interest  from  any  of  his 
fellow-citizens  (Lev.  xxv,35,  36)  ;  next,  by  establishing 
a  regular  discharge  of  debts  every  seventh  year ;  and, 
tinallv,  bv  ordering  that  no  lands  could  be  alienated  for- 


ever, but  must,  on  each  year  of  Jubilee,  or  every  sevjnth 
Sabbatic  year,  revert  to  the  families  which  originally 
possessed  them.  Thus,  without  absolutely  depriving  in- 
dividuals of  all  temporary  dominion  over  their  landed 
property,  it  re-established,  everj-  fiftieth  year,  that  orig- 
inal and  equal  distribution  of  it  which  was  the  founda- 
tion of  the  national  polity;  and  as  the  period  of  this  re- 
version was  fi;xed  and  regular,  all  parties  had  due  notice 
of  the  terms  oir  M'hich  they  negotiated,  so  that  there 
was  no  ground  for  jmblic  commotion  or  private  com- 
plaint.    See  .Jiiiii.KE. 

This  law,  by  which  landed  property  was  released  in 
the  year  of  Jubilee  from  all  existing  obligations,  did  not 
extend  to  houses  in  towns,  which,  if  not  redeemed  ^vitll- 
in  one  year  after  being  sold,  were  alienated  forever  (Lev. 
XV,  29, 30).  This  must  have  given  to  property  in  the 
country  a  decided  advantage  over  property  in  cities,  and 
must  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  essential  oliject  of 
all  these  regulations,  by  affording  an  inducement  to  ev- 
ery Hebrew  to  reside  on  and  cultivate  his  land.  Fur- 
ther, the  original  distribution  of  the  land  Avas  to  the 
several  tribes  according  to  their  families,  so  that  each 
tribe  was,  so  to  speak,  settled  in  the  same  county,  and 
each  family  in  the  same  barony  or  hundred.  Nor  was 
the  estate  of  any  family  in  one  tribe  permitted  to  pass 
into  another,  even  by  the  marriage  of  an  heiress  (Nimib. 
xxvii) ;  so  that  not  only  was  the  original  balance  of 
property  preserved,  but  the  closest  and  dearest  connec- 
tions of  affinity  attached  to  each  other  the  inhabitants 
of  every  vicinage.     See  Inheritance. 

It  often  happens  that  laws  in  appearance  similar  have 
in  view  entirely  diflferent  objects.  In  Europe  the  en- 
tailment of  estates  in  the  direct  line  is  designed  to  en- 
courage the  formation  of  large  properties.  In  Israel  the 
effect  was  entirely  different,  as  the  entail  extended  to 
all  the  small  estates  mto  which  the  land  was  originally 
divided,  so  that  they  could  not  legally  be  united  to  form 
a  large  property,  and  then  entailed  upon  the  descend- 
ants of  him  by  whom  the  property  was  formed.  This 
division  of  the  land  in  small  estates  among  the  people, 
who  were  to  retain  them  in  perpetuity,  was  emiiKutly 
suited  to  the  leading  objects  of  the  Hebrew  institutions. 
It  is  allowed  on  all  hands  that  such  a  condition  of  land- 
ed property  is  in  the  highest  degree  favorable  to  high 
cultivation  and  to  increase  of  population,  while  it  is 
less  favorable  to  pasturage.  The  first  two  were  objects 
which  the  law  had  in  view,  and  it  did  not  intend  to  af- 
ford undue  encouragement  to  the  pastoral  life,  while  the 
large  pastiu-es  of  the  adjacent  deserts  and  of  the  com- 
mons secured  the  country  against  such  a  scarcity  of  cat- 
tle as  the  division  of  the  land  into  small  heritages  has 
already  produced  in  France. 

For  this  land  a  kind  of  cpiit-rent  was  payable  to  the 
sovereign  Proprietor,  in  the  form  of  a  tenth  or  tithe  of 
the  produce,  which  was  assigned  to  the  priesthood.  See 
Tithes.  The  condition  of  military  service  was  also  at- 
tached to  the  land,  as  it  appears  that  every  freeholder 
(Dent.  XX,  5)  was  obliged  to  attend  at  the  general  mus- 
ter of  the  national  army,  and  to  serve  in  it,  at  his  own 
expense  (often  more  than  repaid  by  the  plunder),  as 
long  as  the  occasion  required.  In  this  direction,  there- 
fore, the  agrarian  law  operated  in  securing  a  body  of 
600,000  men,  inured  to  labor  and  industrj',  alwa}-s  as- 
sumed to  be  ready,  as  thej-  were  bound,  to  come  furward 
at  their  country's  call.  This  great  body  of  national  yeo- 
manry, every  one  of  whom  had  an  important  stake  in 
the  national  independence,  was  officered  by  its  own  he- 
reditary chiefs,  heads  of  tribes  and  families  (comp.  Exod. 
xviii  and  Numb,  xxxi,  14),  andTiinst!  have  presented  an 
insuperable  obstacle  to  treacherous  ambition  and  polit- 
ical intrigue,  and  to  evcr^'  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
Hebrew  commonwealth  and  establish  despotic  jiowcr. 
Nor  were  these  institutions  less  wisely  adapted  to  secure 
the  state  against  foreign  violence,  and  at  the  same  time 
])revent  offensive  wars  anil  remote  conquests.  For  while 
this  vast  body  of  hardy  yeomanrj'  were  always  ready  to 
defend  their  countiy,  M'hen  assailed  by  foreign  foes,  yet, 


LAXDELIX 


227 


LANE 


as  they  were  constantly  employed  in  agriculture,  attach- 
ed to  domestic  life,  and  enjoyed  at  home  the  society  of 
the  numerous  relatives  who  peopled  their  neighborhood, 
war  must  have  been  in  a  high  degree  alien  to  their  tastes 
and  habits.  ReUgion  also  took  part  in  preventing  them 
from  being  captivated  by  the  splendor  of  military  glorj'. 
On  returning  from  battle,  even  if  victorious,  in  order  to 
bring  them  back  to  more  peaceful  feelings  after  the  rage 
of  war,  the  law  required  them  to  consider  themselves  as 
polluted  by  the  slaughter,  and  unworthy  of  appearing 
in  the  camp  of  Jehovah  until  they  had  employed  an  en- 
tire day  in  the  rites  of  purification  (Numb,  xix,  13-16; 
xxxi,  19).  Besides,  the  force  was  entirely  infantry;  the 
law  forbidding  even  the  kings  to  multiply  horses  in 
their  train  (Deut.  xvii,  IG);  and  this,  with  the  ordinance 
requiring  the  attendance  of  all  the  males  three  times 
every  year  at  Jerusalem,  proved  the  intention  of  the 
legislator  to  confine  the  natives  within  the  limits  of  the 
Promised  Land,  and  rendered  long  and  distant  wars  and 
conquests  impossible  without  the  virtual  renunciation 
of  that  religion  which  was  incorporated  with  their  whole 
civil  polity,  and  which  was,  in  fact,  the  charter  liy  which 
they  held  their  property  and  enjoyed  all  their  rights 
(Graves,  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  lect.  iv,  Lowman, 
Civil  Gov.  of  the  Ileh.  ch.  iii,  iv;  Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht, 
i,  240  sq.).— Kitto. 

Landelin  and  Landoald,  two  saints  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  are  said  to  have  flourished  as 
preachers  of  the  Gospel  in  Belgium  in  the  7th  century. 
We  have  no  trustworthy  information  as  to  their  lives  and 
proceedings.  Among  the  aids  which  St.Amandiis  pro- 
cured from  Rome  in  Gul  to  help  him  in  his  missionar}' 
labors  is  mentioned  the  presbyter  Landoald,  probably  an 
Anglo-Saxon.  According  to  the  history  of  Landoald, 
written  in  the  10th  century  by  abbot  Heriger  von 
Lobbes,  Landoald  was  especially  supported  in  his  mis- 
sions by  king  Childeric  II,  who  furnished  him  with  all 
the  necessary  means.  He  is  also  said  to  have  had  Lam- 
bert of  iVIaestricht  for  a  pupil,  and  to  have  been  nine 
years  bishop  as  successor  of  St.  Amandus.  This  latter 
assertion,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  Re- 
maclus  was  the  successor  of  Amandus;  and  it  appears 
also  a  matter  of  doubt  whether  Lambert  of  Maestricht 
was  indeed  a  pupil  of  Landoald. 

Concerning  Landelin,  the  BoUandists  give,  imder  date 
of  June  15,  an  old  biography,  according  to  which  he  had 
been  a  pupil  of  Andebcrt,  bishop  of  Cambray  and  Arras, 
had  tied  from  his  tutor,  and  supported  himseh'for  a  while 
by  highway  robbery.  The  sudden  death  of  one  of  his 
band,  and  a  dream,  in  which  he  saw  his  former  compan- 
ion carried  to  hell  by  the  devil,  caused  his  conversion, 
and  he  subjected  himself  to  strict  penance  in  a  convent, 
and  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome.  Subsequently  conse- 
crated deacon  and  presbyter,  he  made  two  more  journeys 
to  Rome,  the  last  time  accompanied  by  his  pupils  Ade- 
lenus  and  Domitianus.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  the 
two  convents  of  Lobbes  and  Crepin.  According  to  the 
same  account,  Landelin  died  in  G86,  continuing  his  pen- 
ances to  the  last. — Dijrlo,  Landelin,  Apostel  d,  Deutschen 
(Augsb.  1838) ;  Wctzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi, 
335 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encykhpddie,  viii,  187.     (J.  N.  P.) 

liaud-mark  (^^2il,  gehul',  or  U^'^'Z^,  gehuluh' ,  usu- 
ally rendered  "border"  or  '"coast"),  a  boundary-line  as 
indicated  by  a  stake,  stone,  or  other  monument  (Ueut. 
xix,  14;  xxvii,  17;  Prov.  xxii, '28;  xxiii,  10;  Job  xxiv, 
2).  It  was  the  manifest  intention  of  Jehovah,  in  Ijring- 
ing  the  Hebrews  into  Canaan,  to  make  them  a  nation 
of  agriculturists.  For  this  purpose  the  land  was  divided 
by  lot  and  measurement  among  the  tribes,  families,  and 
individuals  of  the  nation.  Thus  every  citizen  had  al- 
lotted to  him  a  piece  of  ground,  which  he  was  to  culti- 
vate and  leave  to  his  descendants.  The  importance  of 
preserving  accurately  the  boundaries  of  individual  or 
family  possessions  is  very  obvious;  and,  to  prevent  mis- 
takes and  litigation,  the  fields  were  markcil  ofTby  stones 
set  up  on  the  limits,  which  could  not  be  removed  ^vitlif- 


out  incurring  the  TiTath  of  heaven.  The  custom  had 
doubtless  prevailed  long  before  (Job  xxiv,  2),  it  was  thus 
confirmed  by  express  statute  (Deut.  xix,  14-,  xxvii,  17), 
and  it  appears  to  have  been  strictly  jjerpetuated  in  later 
times  (Prov.  xxii,  28 ;  xxiii,  10).  Similar  precautious 
were  in  use  among  the  Romans,  who  had  images  or  posts, 
called  Ilermce  or  termini,  set  up  on  the  line  between  dif- 
ferent owners,  which  were  under  the  patronage  of  a 
deity  especially  designated  for  that  care  (see  Smith's 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman,  Biog.  s.  v.  Terminus).  Land- 
marks were  used  in  Greece  even  before  the  age  of  Ho- 
mer {Iliad,  xxi,  405) ;  and  they  are  still  used  in  Persia, 
and  in  various  parts  of  the  East.  Even  to  this  day  fields 
in  the  East  have  no  fences  or  hedges,  but  a  ridge,  a 
stone,  or  a  post  occasionally  marks  the  boundary;  con- 
sequently, it  is  not  very  difficult  to  encroach  on  the 
property  of  another  (see  Hackett,  Illustra.  of  Script,  p. 
1G7).     See  Hedge. 

Lando  or  Landon,  a  Roman  pontiff,  was  a  native 
of  Sabina,  but  the  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  In- 
deed, but  little  is  accessible  as  to  his  personal  history 
until  he  came  to  the  pontifical  chair  in  913.  He  held 
the  pontificate  only  about  six  months,  for  he  died  about 
April  27, 914.    See  Bower,  liistorij  of  the  Popes,  v,  89  sq. 

Landoald.     See  Lantjelin. 

Landon,  WiiiTTiNGTON,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  for  some  time  provost  of  Worces- 
ter College,  Oxford.  In  1813  he  was  appointed  dean  of 
Exeter,  and  in  1821  prebendary  of  SaUsbury.  He  died 
in  1839.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  published  in  Lon- 
don (1812,  8vo,  and  m  1835,  8vo). — AUibone,  Dictionary 
of  English  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1053. 

Landsborough,  David,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  Presbyte- 
rian minister,  was  born  at  Dalvy,  Galloway,  Scotland, 
in  1782.  He  was  pastor  of  the  parish  of  Stevenson  from 
1811  to  1843,  and  of  a  Free-Church  congregation  at  Salt- 
coats from  1843  until  his  death  in  1854.  Mr.  Landsbor- 
ough was  very  eminent  as  a  naturalist,  and  •«Tote  sev- 
eral treatises  on  botany  and  zoology.  He  also  contrib- 
uted frequently  to  Dr.  Harvey's  Psychologia  Britannica, 
and  published  papers  in  the  Annals  and  Magazine  of 
Natural  History. — Allibone,  Dictionary  of  British  and 
A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  105G. 

Landsperger,  Joiiann,  a  Carthusian  monk,  who 
obtained  distinction  by  his  voluminous  ascetic  writings, 
was  bora  in  Landsperg,  Bavaria,  ui  the  latter  part  of  the 
15th  century ;  studied  in  Cologne,  was  made  prior  of  his 
order  near  Julich,  and  died  about  1534.  On  account  of 
his  marked  and  severe  piety,  he  was  called  the  Just. 
Among  his  works,  which  were  published  in  many  edi- 
tions at  Cologne,  are,  Sermunes  capitulares  in  prtecipuis 
anni  festivitatibus :  —  Vita  Servatoris  N.LX.:  — Para- 
phrases in  dominicales  Epiistolus  et  Erangelia: — Allo- 
quiaJesu  Christiadfdtlem  animam: — Enchiridion  vita 
spirituulis  ad  perfectioneni: — I'haretra  divini  amoris. 
Landsperger  was  the  first  to  publish  the  Revelations  of 
the  Holy  Gertrude.  — Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
vi,  342. 

Landulph.     See  Patarians. 

Lane  (p/'/i'j,  so  rendered  in  Luke  xiv,  21 ;  elsewhere 
"street"),  a  narrow  passage  or  alley  in  a  city,  in  dis- 
tinction from  a  principal  thoroughfare  (jiXaTtui).  See 
Street. 

Lane,  George,  a  Methodist  minister  of  considera- 
ble note,  was  born  in  the  State  of  New  York  April  13, 
1784.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Philadelphia  Conference 
in  1805,  and  located  in  1810 ;  was  readmitted  in  1819, 
and  again  located  in  1825;  but  was  readmitted  once 
more  in  1834.  In  1836  he  was  elected  assistant  agent 
of  the  Jlethodist  Book-Concern  at  New  York.  In  this 
capacity  first,  and  later  in  that  of  principal  agent,  he 
served  until  1852,  when  he  retired  from  all  active  du- 
ties In  the  Church.  He  died  May  6, 1859.  Under  his 
prudent  management,  the  publishing  house,  then  at  200 
Mulberry  Street,  assumed  almost  gigantic  proportions, 


LANE 


228 


LANFRANC 


his  industrious  and  economical  business  habits  having 
trained  him  the  contidencc  both  of  the  Church  and  of 
the  f^eneral  jiubhc.  I'or  about  twelve  years  he  was  also 
treasurer  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  jM.  E.  Church. 
By  liis  energy  and  business  tact  this  society  was  re- 
lieved of  a  debt  of  about  sixty  thousand  dollars,  wdiich 
had  long  crippled  its  powers  of  usefulness.  Such  was 
his  earnestness  in  the  missionary  cause  that  he  was  fre- 
quently entitled  the  '•  father  of  the  Missionary  Society." 
'•As  a  preacher,  IMr.  Lane  was  thoroughly  orthodox, 
systematic,  and  earnest,  and  often  overwhelmingly  elo- 
quent ;  his  language  unstudied,  but  chaste,  correct,  sim- 
ple, and  forcible." — Peck.  Eurb/  Methodism,  p.  492  sq. ; 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer.  Pulpit,  vii. 

Lane,  John,  an  eminent  minister  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in  Virginia  about 
1789.  His  early  hfe  was  spent  in  Georgia,  and  he  was 
some  time  a  student  of  Franldin  College.  In  1814  he 
entered  the  South  Carolina  Conference;  in  1815  w^as 
sent  to  the  "  Natchez  Circuit,"  and  was  thrown  much  in 
contact  with  the  Creek  and  Cherokee  Indians,  where  his 
heroism  and  success  were  alike  conspicuous;  in  181G  he 
assisted  in  organizing  tiie  Mississippi  Conference,  then 
a  vast  and  almost  trackless  region,  now  constituting  four 
Conferences  and  part  of  a  fifth.  In  1820  he  was  dele- 
gate to  the  General  Conference  at  Baltimore,  and  pre- 
siding elder  on  the  Mississippi  District.  During  this 
year  his  father-in-law.  Rev.  Newit  Yick,  died,  and  ]\Ir. 
Lane  was  obliged  to  locate,  to  care  for  his  large  estate 
and  numerous  family.  He  remained  located  for  eleven 
years,  during  ^vhich  he  successfully  founded  the  city  of 
Yicksburg  on  his  father-in-law's  estate,  and  so  saved 
it,  and  educated  the  oqihan  children.  He  was  also  an 
extensive  merchant,  probate  judge  of  the  county,  and 
director  of  the  Railroad  Bank,  and  one  of  the  most  com- 
petent and  influential  business  men  of  the  state,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  preached  continually,  and  lillcd 
Vicksburg  station  one  year.  In  1831  he  re-entered  the 
Conference,  and  spent  most  of  his  subsequent  career  in 
the  presiding  eldership.  For  many  years  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trustees  of  Centenary  College,  and 
was  still  longer  president  of  the  Conference  Missionary 
Society.  He  died  in  1855.  He  was  a  man  of  large  ca- 
pacities and  indomitable  vigor.  His  piety  was  genial 
and  earnest,  and  his  great  delight  was  in  preaching  the 
Word  of  Life.  He  will  long  be  remembered  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  Methodism  in  the  South-west. — Summer, 
Biori.  Sketches,  p.  229 ,  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  A  merican 
I'uipit,  vii.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Laney,  Bknjamin,  D.D.,  a  prelate  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  bishop  of  Peterl)orough  from  1C50  to  16G3  ; 
was  then  transferred  to  Lincoln,  where  he  remained  un- 
til 1()67,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the  bishopric  of  Ely. 
He  died  about  1G75.  Some  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  ll)()2  and  1G75.  He  was  considered  a  very 
learned  divine,  and  of  great  acumen. — Allibone,  Diet,  of 
A  nthors,  ii,  105G. 

Ijanfranc,  the  most  noted  foreign  churchman  who 
rose  to  distinction  in  the  English  Church  of  the  ^Middle 
Ages,  was  born  of  a  senatorial  family  in  Pavia,  Italy, 
about  1005;  studied  law  in  Bologna,  but  not  without 
attention  to  other  subjects;  returned  to  Pavia,  where  he 
taught  jurisprudence,  and  also  the  liberal  arts,  -with 
great  success.  lie  soon  gave  bis  attention  exclusively  to 
the  latter,  the  liherales  disripliniv,  and  especially  to  dia- 
lectics, and,  leaving  his  own  country,  he  travelled  over 
a  large  part  of  France,  until,  induced  perhaps  bj^  the 
fame  of  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  he  settled  in  Av- 
ranches  with  some  of  his  old  iiujiils.  He  there  won 
great  distinction  as  a  teacher,  but  in  1042,  having  de- 
termined upon  a  more  private  and  contcmjilative  life, 
he  betiidk  himself  to  Kduen,  where,  in  fidlillment  of 
such  a  ])urpose,  according  to  his  hiograidier  Crispinus, 
lie  proposed  to  reside.  On  his  way  thitlier  he  was  fall- 
en upon  by  robbers,  bound  to  a  tree,  and  there,  stricken 
in  conscience  for  what  he  tlcemed  a  too  sellish  fear,  and 


for  his  unfitness  to  find  consoling  communion  with  God 
in  the  hour  of  peril,  he  made  a  vow,  should  he  escape 
with  his  life,  to  enter  a  monastery.  Delivered  from  the 
hands  of  tlie  robbers  bj'  some  passing  travellers,  he  en- 
tered the  cloister  of  Bee,  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  After 
three  years  of  cjuiet,  he  began  again,  at  the  instance  of 
llerluin,  the  abbot  of  Bee,  to  give  instruction,  and  Bee 
became  the  resort  of  students  from  every  class,  both 
clergy  and  laity,  and  from  many  lands.  Made  prior  of 
the  monasterj'  in  104G,  he  established  a  more  extensive 
and  systematic  course  of  study,  sacred  as  well  as  secular, 
unusual  attention  being  given  to  grammar  and  dialec- 
tics. In  respect  to  the  former,  Lanfranc's  inlluenee  con- 
tributed greatly  to  revive  the  general  study  of  Latin, 
and  ill  dialectics  he  is  a  forerunner  of  the  schoolmen.  Ex- 
egesis, and  patristic,  but  especially  speculative  theology, 
were  pursued.  Anselm  was  among  his  pupils  at  Bee, 
and  also  the  future  pope  Alexander  II.  During  this 
period,  about  1049,  occurred  Lanfranc's  first  dispute  with 
his  former  friend  Berengar,  then  archdeacon  at  Angers, 
on  the  subject  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  latter,  while 
defending  the  opinions  of  Scotus  Erigena,  sought  in  a 
letter  to  persuade  Lanfranc;  but  the  letter,  falling  into 
the  hands  of  others,  gave  rise  to  such  charges  of  hereti- 
cal fellowship  against  Lanfranc  that  he  was  provoked, 
in  defending  himself  at  Rome  and  Yercelli  in  1050,  to  a 
violent  attack  upon  Berengar.  The  learning  which  he 
disjilayed  in  this  controversy  greatly  increased  Lan- 
franc's fame  for  scholarship,  and  he  was  now  invited  to 
the  position  of  abbot  in  various  cloisters,  and  was  treat- 
ed with  special  favor  by  William  of  Normandy.  It  is 
related  that,  on  occasion  of  some  false  charges,  the  duke 
fell  out  with  him,  and  banished  him  from  his  dominions. 
A  lame  horse  was  given  him  for  the  journey,  and,  seated 
on  it,  he  happened  to  meet  the  duke,  who  coidd  not  help 
noticing  the  laughable  hobbling  of  tlie  animal,  when 
Lanfranc  took  occasion  to  say  to  him,  "You  must  give 
me  a  better  horse  if  you  wish  me  out  of  the  coimtry,  for 
with  this  one  I  shall  never  get  over  the  border."  The 
jest  won  the  duke's  attention,  and  an  explanation  fol- 
lo;ved,  which  established  Lanfranc  in  a  position  of  per- 
manent favor.  He  was  emphiyed  by  AMlliam  in  lOGO 
to  secure  from  the  pope  Niclmlas  II  Ubcrty  to  many  a 
near  relative,  a  princess  of  Flanders.  This  allowance 
was  obtained  on  the  condition  that  A\'illiam  should  found 
two  cloisters,  one  for  monks  and  another  for  niuis.  Over 
the  monastery  of  St.  Stephen,  at  Caen,  which  was  there- 
upon established,  Lanfranc  was  installed  in  10G3  as  ab- 
bot, Anselm  succeeding  him  in  that  capacity  at  Bee. 
Tlie  dispute  with  Berengar  meanwhile  continued.  The 
latter,  though  constrained  at  Rome  in  1059,  through 
fear,  to  recognise  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius  Ratlbertus, 
nevertheless  afterwards  sought  to  spread  his  former  sen- 
timents, and  was  bitterly  opposed  by  Lanfranc  in  his 
work.  Be  corpore  et  suv</uini'  Dam.  Jesu  Chrisii,  adv. 
Berengar  Turonen^em,  published  between  the  years  10G4 
and  10G9.  In  this  work  the  doctrine  of  transiibstantia- 
tion  is  clearly  contained.  Berengar  issued  a  reply.  Be 
sacra  cana  adv.  Laifraticiim  (an  edition  of  which  was 
published  by  Yischcr  in  Berlin  in  1834).  The  ability 
with  which  this  controversy  was  conducted  on  both  sides 
has  been  confessed.  Severe  personal  charges  are  min- 
gled with  argument,  and,  whatever  fault  may  have  been 
established  against  Berengar,  his  opponent  was  not  with- 
out blame  nor  without  prejudice  in  dealing  witli  jiatris- 
tic  authorities.  While  at  Caen,  Lanfranc  steadfastly 
refused  the  archbitihopric  of  Rouen,  but.  upon  the  ad- 
vice of  his  old  abbot  llerluin,  he  acce]ited  in  1070,  with 
much  reluctance,  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  which 
was  urged  upon  him  by  William  of  Normandy,  at  this 
time  on  the  throne  of  England.  His  task  in  the  arch- 
bishopric was  b^' no  means  light,  inasmuch  as  he  was 
obliged  not  onlv  to  contml  and  amend  the  rudeness  and 
ignorance  of  his  own  clergy,  but  to  lUfend  also  the  au- 
thority of  his  primacy  against  the  other  prelates,  espe- 
cially Thomas  of  York  and  Odo  of  Baycux  and  Kent. 
The  self-will  of  the  king  jJso  gave  him  much  trouble, 


LANG 


229 


LANG 


and  he  was  frequently  tempted  to  retrace  liis  steps  to 
the  cloister,  but  was  urged  by  pope  Alexander  II  to  con- 
tinue his  public  labors.  The  violent  disposition  of  Wil- 
liam Kufus,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1087,  was  a  fur- 
ther annoyance.  Notwithstanding  all  these  difficulties, 
he  lal)ored  perseveringly  in  tlie  erection  of  churches  and 
cloisters,  in  multiplying  correct  copies  of  the  fathers 
and  of  the  holy  Scriptures,  in  the  extension  of  learning 
and  improvement  of  manners  in  clergy  and  people,  and 
in  care  for  the  sick  and  the  poor.  "  Under  his  spiritual 
rule,"  says  a  noted  Church  historian,  "  the  Church  of 
England  received  as  strong  an  infusion  of  the  Norman 
element  as  was  forced  upon  the  political  system  of  Eng- 
land by  the  iron  hand  of  the  Conqueror."'  His  active 
and  iirudent  iiiHuence  was  also  often  employed  in  state 
affairs. 

Lanfranc's  relation,  while  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
to  the  papal  chair  forms  an  important  feature  of  his  life, 
lie  was  on  a  friendly  footing  with  Alexander  II,  his  for- 
mer pupil,  and  went  to  receive  at  his  hands  the  pallium 
of  his  office,  though  he  had  at  first  desired,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  king's  wishes,  that  it  should  be  sent  to 
him  to  England.  Gregory  YII,  greatly  displeased  with 
William's  independent  conduct,  and  his  inclination  to 
restrain  the  bishops  from  visiting  Rome,  sharply  com- 
plained to  Lanfranc  that  he  had  also  lost  his  former 
spirit  of  obedience  to  papal  authority.  Lanfranc  pro- 
tested his  continued  atfcction  for  the  Church,  and  de- 
clared that  he  had  sought  to  win  the  king  to  conformity 
in  certain  {particulars  (as  specially  in  the  matter  of  Pe- 
ter's pence),  but  said  little  concerning  his  general  rela- 
tion to  the  king,  or  that  of  the  latter  to  the  pope.  He 
seems  to  have  known  that  a  certain  degree  of  consider- 
ation, more  than  he  liked  dclinitely  to  express,  must  be 
allowed  to  the  royal  wishes.  The  pope's  command  to 
Lanfranc  to  appear  in  Itome  within  four  months  under 
threat  of  suspension  he  openly  and  without  answer  dis- 
obeyed. A  letter  of  Lanfranc  to  an  unknown  corre- 
spondent (£);.  59),  who  sought  to  gain  his  adhesion  to 
the  rival  pope,  Clement  II,  places  him  in  a  neutral  po- 
sition as  between  the  two  popes,  and  as  awaiting,  with 
the  government  of  England,  further  light  on  the  subject. 
Something  of  Lanfranc's  coldness  towards  Gregory  may 
perhaps  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  he  saw  in  this 
pope  (as  is  apparent  in  a  letter  cited  by  Gieseler)  a  pro- 
tector of  his  enemy  Berengar.  Lanfranc  died  Slay  28, 
1089,  two  years  after  the  death  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. 

Besides  his  work  against  Berengar  may  be  mentioned 
liis  Decreta  pro  urdine  Sancli  Bcnedicti:—Kpistoluru)ii, 
TAb:-r,  containing  GO  letters,  44  Avritten  by  him  and  IG 
addressed  to  him : — De  celaiida  confessione,  a  fragment 
of  an  address  in  defence  of  his  primatical  authority  ^  and 
Commentaries  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  His  biography  of 
AVilliam  the  Conqueror  has  been  lost.  The  tirst  com- 
plete edition  of  Lanfranc's  writings  was  published  by 
D'Acher\',  a  Benedictine  (Paris,  1G48,  fol.) ;  the  earliest 
edition  is  entitled  B.  Lunfranci  Opera  (Paris,  15G8,fol.) ; 
the  latest  edition  is  by  Giles  (Ox.  1844-45,  2  vols.  8vo). 

See  Milo  Crispinus,  Vita.  B.Lanfranci;  Cadmer,  Vita 
Anselmi;  Chronicon  Biccense;  Malmesbury,  Gista  Anylo- 
r«;H,  book  iii;  Acta  Sanctorum, '^Isai,  torn.  \\-,  Mohler, 
Gesamdte  Schriften,  vol.  i;  Hasse,  Anselm,  vol.  i;  Su- 
dendorf,  Berengarius  Turonensis  (Hamburg  and  Gotha, 
1850) ;  Gieseler,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  102  -,  Churton.  Karl/j  Emjlish 
Church,  p.  26G,  20!  sq.,  H02-,  Palmer,  Ch.  Hist.  p.  lOG  S(i. ; 
Milman,  Lntiii  Christiaiiitij,  iii.  4o8-440  ;  Hook,  IJrcs  of 
the.  Archbb<ho]is  of  Cant('rbunj,yo\.  ii  (18G1):  Hill,  ,!/(;- 
7iasticism  in  England,  p.  337  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-Enciihiop. 
s.  V. ;  Wetzer  u.  Weltc,  Kirchcn-Lexikon,  s.  v.    (E.  B.  O.) 

Lang,  Gsorg  Heinrich,  a  distinguished  German 
tlipiilogian,  was  born  X(jv.  28,  1740,  at  Oettingen.  He 
received  a  scientilic  education  in  his  native  town,  and 
pursued  theology  at  the  University  of  Jena.  In  17G5 
he  assumed  a  pastorate  at  Biihl.  and  in  1770  accepted  a 
call  to  Hohen-und-Niedcr-Altheim.  From  1774  to  1770 
he  fflled  the  position  of  superintendent  and  pastor  at 


Trochtelsingen,  and  in  the  latter  year  returned  to  his 
late  pastorate.  In  1789  he  became  court  preacher  and 
ecclesiastical  counsellor  to  the  reigning  princess  at  liat- 
isbon.  He  died  March  15, 180G.  Lang  exerted  no  little 
influence  in  the  progress  and  culture  of  religious  learn- 
ing. His  Dictionary  of  the  N.  T.  ( Worterbuch  des  ncuen 
Testamentes),  which  appeared  in  1778,  placed  him  in  the 
front  rank  of  writers  on  the  theory  and  historj'  of  the 
Christian  religion.  His  intense  zeal  for  the  practical  in 
later  life  directed  his  literary  activity  to  the  popular 
treatment  of  religious  truth ;  hence  appeared  Katechet- 
isches  Maffazi/i;  Nenes  Maf/azin;  Ascetische  Bibliothel; 
and  numerous  sermons  and  liturgical  writings.  In  his 
homiletical  writings  he  developed  many  new  and  happy 
ideas,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times. 
3Iany  estimable  traits  of  character  both  adorned  his  pri- 
vate life  and  enhanced  his  merits  as  a  teacher  of  relig- 
ious truth.  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,  229. 

Lang,  Joseph,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  born  in  1746 
at  Briinn.  in  Boliemia,  and  was  educated  at  his  native 
city.  The  Jesuits  then  sent  him  to  Olmiitz  to  pursue 
philosophy,  and  linally  to  the  University  of  Prague, 
where  he  completed  a  course  of  theology.  He  v.'as  or- 
dained in  1773.  In  1780  he  accepted  a  call  to  a  Catho- 
lic Church  in  Leipzic,  and  in  1783  was  chosen  court 
preacher  at  Dresden.  In  1802  he  received  the  office  of 
superintendent  of  the  Catholic  inffrmary  at  the  latter 
place.  He  died  Dec.  28, 180G.  Lang  acquired  the  rep- 
utation of  a  popular  and  eloquent  pulpit  orator.  Be- 
sides frequent  contributions  to  journals,  he  published 
several  sermons.  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutsch- 
lands, ii,  233. 

Lang,  Lorenz  Johann  Jakob,  a  German  theo- 
logian, born  in  Selb,  in  the  principality  of  Baireuth,  on 
May  10, 1731,  was  the  son  of  a  stocking-maker,  and  be- 
ing destined  by  his  father  to  follow  the  same  trade, 
he  contended  in  his  desire  for  study,  which  he  early 
manifested,  with  many  difficulties.  By  the  assistance 
of  his  pastor,  liowever,  he  acquired  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  Latin  and  Greek,  and  entered  in  1743  the 
lyceum  at  Culmbach.  Indefatigable  in  his  industry, 
he  became  thoroughly  versed  in  ]>hilosophy  and  the- 
ology', as  is  evinced  in  the  disputations  De  prcestan- 
tia  philosophice  ]Vol fiance,  and  De  pontijice  coelesti  Novi 
Te'stamenti,  after  the  defence  of  which  he  entered  the 
University  of  Erlangeu  in  1751.  After  quitting  Erlan- 
gen,  he  went  to  Baireuth  in  175G  as  tutor.  A  few 
months  later  he  became  snbrector  in  Baireuth.  In  1758 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  Oriental  languages 
and  of  the  ffne  arts  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Baireuth.  In 
17G7  he  was  appointed  court  librarian,  and  in  1789  the 
first  professor  and  inspector  of  the  alumni,  and  in  1795 
the  lirst  counsellor.  He  died  Sept.  18, 1801.  Lang  wrote 
extensively,  but  most  of  his  wTitings  are  in  the  form  of 
dissertations.  A  complete  list  is  given  by  Doring,  Ge- 
lehrte Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lang  (OF  WKLLi.;NBURo),Matthaus,  a  noted  Ger- 
man prelate  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  an  acknowl- 
edged natural  brother  of  the  emperor  ^Maximilian  I,  was 
born  in  Augsburg  in  1469,  and  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Ingolstadt.  He  was  secretary  first  to  Frederick 
HI  and  later  to  Maximilian  I.  At  the  same  time  he 
held  positions  in  the  Church.  He  was  successively  priest 
at  Augsburg  and  Constance  until  1505,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed I)ishop  of  Gurk.  Inclined  towards  the  schis- 
matics of  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  feared  on  account  of 
his  influence  over  the  emperor,  who  was  following  the 
lead  of  Lang,  the  youthful  liishop  received  the  cardinal's 
hat  from  pope  Julius  II  in  1511.  Of  course  the  conferred 
honor  made  the  trusted  adviser  of  IMaximilian  an  obe- 
dient servant  of  the  pontitT.  Lang  rested  not  until  peace 
was  restored  lietwecn  emperor  and  pope,  so  long  at  va- 
riance. Sec  Latkkan,  Couxcii.  of,  1513 ;  I'isa,  Cofx- 
cir.  of;  Julius  H.  In  1514  he  was  made  coadjutor  of 
the  archbishop  of  Salzburg,  and  Lu  1519  sole  incumbent 


LANGBAINE 


230 


LANGE 


of  that  archiepiscopal  see.  In  1518  ho  attended  the 
diet  at  Augsburg,  and  was  active  both  for  the  election 
of  Charles  V  as  king  of  Kome,  and  the  submission  of  Lu- 
ther. First  incUned  to  liberal  action  towards  those  who 
clamored  for  reform,  threatening  to  quit  the  Church  un- 
less their  wishes  were  heeded,  he  changed  front  sudden- 
ly after  he  had  gained  over  Johann  Staupitz  (q.  v.) ; 
crushed  the  revolutionarj' movements  of  the  Salzburgers 
in  152o  :  in  the  year  following  joined  the  Komish  Learjue 
(q.  V.) ;  and  in  15'25,  assisted  by  Bavaria,  suppressed  the 
peasant  insurrections.  At  tlie  Diet  of  Augsburg  in  1530 
he  openly  declared  himself  a  bitter  opponent  of  Luther. 
He  died  in  March,  1540.  A  narrative  of  cardinal  Lang's 
travels  in  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the  Tyrol  was  publish- 
ed by  his  chaplain  Bartholinus,  under  the  title  Odepor- 
icon  de  Mattkcei  cardinalis  (Vienna,  1511,  4to).  This 
work  is  now  very  rare  (comp.  Gotz,  iJresdener  Bibliotheh 
lii,  37).  Vehse  {Memoirs  of  the  Court,  A  ristocracy  and 
Dij)loinctcy  of  Austria  [transl.  by  Demmler,  Lond.  1856, 
2  vols.  sm.  8voJ,  i,  31)  thus  comments  on  his  character : 
'•Lang  was  an  exceetUngly  eloquent  and  adroit  man, 
ret  he  was  just  as  famous  for  his  elasticity  of  conscience 
as  for  cleverness.  He  surpassed  in  splendor  all  the  car- 
dinals and  archbishops  of  his  time,  and  in  this  respect 
certainly  did  not  belie  his  Cesarean  descent."  See  also 
Hansitz,  Germania  Sacra,  vol.  ii ;  DUcker,  Chronik  v. 
Salzburg;  Braun,  Gesch.  d.  B.  B.  V.  Augsburg,  vol.  iii ; 
Veith.  Bibliotheca  Avgustana,  Alphabet  v,  p.  25-1 IG; 
"\Vetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  318.  See  also  the 
article  M.vxiMiLi.v^f.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Langbaine,  Geraud,  D.D.,  .on  English  divine  and 
philologist,  was  born  at  Bartonkirke,  in  Westmoreland, 
about  1008.  He  studied  at  Blencow,  Cumberland,  then 
became  successively  a  servitor,  scholar,  and  fellow  of 
Queen's  College,  Oxford,  and  held  the  places  of  keeper 
of  archives  to  the  university  and  provost  of  his  college 
for  a  good  many  years  before  his  death,  which  happened 
in  1658.  He  was  a  studious  and  timid  man,  who  con- 
trived to  steer  through  the  political  storms  of  his  time 
without  giving  serious  offence  to  any  party.  He  edited 
Longinus,  and  published  several  works  of  his  own,  chief- 
ly on  Church  questions.  The  most  important  of  them 
are.  Episcopal  Inheritance,  etc.  (Oxford,  1641,  4to) : — A 
Reriew  of  the  Covenant  (Oxford,  1644 ;  Lond.  1661, 4to)  : 
— Qucsstiones  pro  more  solemni  in  Vesperiis  propositce 
ann.  1651  (Oxf.  1658, 4to).  He  also  worked  on  Usher's 
Chronologia  Sacra,  transl.  from  the  French  into  Eng- 
lish an  account  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (Oxford,  1638, 
fol.),  and  is  considered  the  author  of  .4  Vino  of  the  New 
Directory,  and  a  Vimlicntion  of  the  ancient  Liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England  (Oxford",  1645,  4to).  He  left  also 
some  unprintcd  collections,  including  several  catalogues 
of  MSS.,  which  have  often  been  referred  to  by  A\'arton 
and  others.  See  WooA,  Athence  Oxon.  vol.  ii;  Chaufe- 
pie,  Xouveau  Dictionnaire  Ilistorique  ;  English  Cyclopm- 
dia  ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix,  384.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Langdoii,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1722  in  Boston.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard College  in  1740,  and  was  ordained  colleague  pas- 
tor in  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  Feb.  4, 1747.  In  1774  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College,  which  position  he 
resigned  Aug.  30.  1780.  and  was  ordained,  .Ian.  18, 1781, 
pastor  at  Hampton  Falls.  He  died  in  the  last-named 
place  Nov.  29,  1707.  Langdon  published  An  impartial 
Examination  of  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman's  Letters  on  The- 
ronamlAxpusio  (1765): — .4  Summary  of  Christian  Faith 
and  Practice,  drawn  up  principally  in  Scripture  language 
(17(58): — Dudleian  Lecture  in  Ilari'ard  College  (1775): 
— Observations  on  the  Revelations  of  .Tesus  Christ  to  St. 
.John  (1791, 8vo): — Corrections  of  some  grand  Mistakes 
committed  by  Rev.  John  Cozens  Ogden  (1792): — Rehiarks 
on  the  leading  Sentiments  of  Rev.  Br.  I/opkins's  System  of 
Doctrines  in  a  iMter  to  a  Friend  (1794);  and  several 
occasional  sermons.  He  also  published,  in  company  with 
CoL  J.  Blanchard,  a  map  of  New  Hampshire  (1761).— 
Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  455. 


Lange,  Joachim,  a  noted  German  Lutheran  the- 
ologian, one  of  the  heads  of  the  so-called  Pietistic  school, 
was  born  at  Gardelegen,  in  Saxony,  Oct.  26, 1670.     He 
entered  the  University  of  Leipzic  in  1689  to  study  the- 
ology.    Here  he  became  intimate  with  H.  A.  Franke, 
and,  besides  other  subjects,  applied  himself  especially 
to  the  study  of  the  Eastern  languages.     In  1690  he  ac- 
companied Franke  to  Erfurt,  and  in  1691  to  Halle.     In 
1696  he  was  made  corector  of  Koslin,  rector  of  the  Gym- 
nasium of  Friedrichswerder,  at  Berlin,  in  1697,  and  final- 
ly professor  of  theology  at  HaUe,  Maj^  7, 1744.    His  con- 
troversies agamst  the  xjhilosopher  Christian  "Wolff,  in 
whose  banishment  from  Halle  he  was  greatly  instru- 
mental, and  against  all  philosophical  sj-stems,  whether 
atheistical,  Jewish,  or  ]\Iohammedan,  prove  him  to  have 
been  fond  of  controversy,  more  learned  than  profound, 
and  greatly  wanting  in  method.    The  part  he  played  in 
the  Pietistic  controversies  was  not  very  brilliant.     It  is 
not  certain,  but  appears  probable,  that  he  was  the  au- 
thor of  the  Orthodoxia  vapidans  (1701)  against  the  the- 
ologians of  Wittenberg  (see  G.^Xa\ch,Lehrstreiit.  inner- 
halb  d.  evang.  luth.  Kirche,  i,  844  sq.).    His  A  ntibarbanis 
orihodoxice  (1709-11),  written  in  answer  to  Schelwig's 
Synopsis  Controversiai-um  sub  pietcttis pratextu  motarum, 
is  a  good  specimen  of  his  system,  which  generally  at- 
tached itself  to  particular  points  of  a  subject  instead  of 
the  whole.     G.  Walch  (see  above)  gives  an  extensive 
list  of  his  other  works  on  this  topic.     His  controversy 
with  Christian  Wolff,  the  distinguished  pupil  of  Leib- 
nitz, is  the  most  important.     The  school  of  the  latter 
had  produced  the  Bible  of  Wertheim,  which  Lange  at.- 
tacked  in  his  Der philos.  Religionsspotter  im  eisten  Tlitile 
d.Werthheimischen  Bihebverkes  verkappt  (1736;  2d  edit. 
1736).     In  that  work  he  advanced  his  favorite  theon,', 
which  he  further  developed  in  his  later  ^^Titings  against 
Wolff  and  others,  that  their  philosophical  system  was 
purely  mechanical.     This  was  followed  by  his  Darstel- 
lung  d.  Gntndsdtze  d.  Wolffischen  Philosojihie  (Lpz.  1736, 
4to),  and  the  150  F7-agen  aus  der  neuen  mcchanischen 
P.'.ilosophie  (Halle,  1734).     He  had  already  given  some 
inklings  of  his  vie^\'s  of  this  system  in  his  Caussa  Dei 
adi-ersus  A  theismuni   et  Pseudophilosophiam,  prcesertim 
Stoiccnn.  Sjnnoz.  ad  Wolfanam  (2d  ed.  Halle,  1727, 8vo) 
(see  H.'\\'nit\ie,  Christian  Wolff's  eigene  Lcbenshesch-ei- 
bung,  Lpz.  1841,  Preface).     Some  of  Lange's  exegetical 
works  are  yet  in  use ;  such  are  Comm.  hist.-herm.  de  vita 
et  epistolis  Pauli  (Halle,  1718,  4to)  : — Mosaisches  Licht 
u.Recht  (Halle,  1732,  fol.),  a  sort  of  commentary'  on  all 
the  books  of  the  O.  T.     Also  commentaries  on  various 
other  books  of  Scripture,  published  at  different  times, 
and  collectively  under  title  Biblia  jmrenthetica  (Leipzic, 
1743, 2  vols.  fol.).    Also  Exegesis  epp.  Petri  (Halle,  1712) : 
— Joannis  (1713,  4to).     Among  his  historical  Avorks  we 
notice  Gestalt  d.  Kreuzreichs  Christi  in  seiner  Unschuld. 
(Halle,  1713.  8vo): — Erlauteiimg  d.  naiestai  Historic  d. 
evang. Kirche  v.  1689  bis  1719  (Halle,  1719,8vo).   Among 
his  doctrinal  works  the  most  important  is  his  (Economia 
salutis  evangelicce  (2d  edition,  HaUe,  1730,  8vo;  German 
translation  1738, often  reprinted), against  predestination; 
which  met  with  great  success.     Finally  he  published 
also  a  Latin  (irammar,  which  was  for  a  long  time  very 
popular,  and  went  through  a  great  many  editions;  and 
an  Autobiographie,  to  which  is  appended  a  list  of  his 
works  (Haile  and  Ljiz.  1744).     See  Ucrzog,  Real-Ency- 
klfip.  viii,  194;  Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Dtutschlands,  ii, 
251   sq.;  Kotermimd,  Gekhrten  Lexikon,  s.  v.;  Dorner, 
Doctrine  and  Person  if  Christ,  II,  ii,  369, 376.    (J.  H.  W.) 
Lange,  Johann  Michael,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian  and  phil<iliigist.  was  born  at  Etzehvangen, 
near  Sulzbach,  March  9, 1664.     He  became  successively 
pastor  of  llohenstrauss,  Halle.  Altdorf,  and  Prenzlow, 
where  he  died  Jan.  10, 1731.     He  wrote  fifty-six  differ- 
ent works  (see  the  list  in  IJotcrmund. /,f=x.  iii,  1227),  of 
which  the  princijial  are  Aphorismi  Theologici  (Altdorf, 
1087)  :—De  Falnilis  Mohamedicis  (Altdorf,  1697, 4to):— 
Exercitatio  Philologica  de  differentia  linrpice  Gi-(ecoritm 
veteris  et  nova  seu  barbaiv-G rcecee  (2d  edit.  Altd,  1702) : 


LANGEAIS 


231 


LANGLE 


— Decas  I  disputatt.  theolog.  exegeticarum  cum  positivo 
polemicarum  numero  sacro  (Altd.  1703, 4to) : — De  Alco- 
rani  prima  inter  Eu  ropceos  ediiione  A  rabica  per  Pagani- 
niim  Brixiensem,  sedjussu  Pontif.  Rom.  aholita  (Altdorf, 
1703) : — DeAlcoranoA  rabico  et  vai-iis  speciininibus  atque 
novissimis  successibus  doctorum  quoriimdam  virorum  in 
edendo  Alcorano  Arabico  (Altdorf,  170-1) ; — De  Alcorani 
versionibus  variis,  tarn  oriental,  quam  occidental,  impres- 
sis  et  civtKduaHi:  (Altdorf,  1705) : — Octo  Dissertationes  de 
Versione  N.  T.  burbaro-Grceca  (Altd.  1705) : — Institutiones 
Pastorales  i^nremb.  1707) : — Philologia  barbaro-Grceca, 
etc.  (Niircmb.  1707-8,  2  parts,  4to).  See  Zeltner,  VitcB 
Theolog.  (Altd.),  p.  4G8-488;  Will,  Lexicon,  ii,  394-405; 
Koteniumd,  Sujipl.  z.  Jocher;  Hoefer,  Nou%j.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  391.     (J,  N.  P.) 

Langeais,  Raoul  de,  a  French  prelate,  was  born  in 
the  l)eginning  of  the  11th  century.  He  was  brother  of 
Fulchredus,  abbot  of  Charroux.  Raoul  became  succes- 
sively dean  of  the  Church  of  Tours  and  bishop  of  that 
diocese  in  1072.  His  election,  however,  caused  great 
disturbances.  His  enemies  having  accused  him  of  in- 
cest before  Alexander  H,  the  latter  deposed  and  excom- 
municated him.  Kaoul  immediately  set  out  for  Kome, 
justified  himself,  and  was  restored  to  his  bishopric. 
\Vhen  Gregory  VII  succeeded  Alexander  II  the  accusa- 
tion was  taken  up  again,  but  with  like  resuh.  Still  the 
whole  Church  of  France  was  at  the  time  in  a  state  of 
comjilete  anarchy,  and  the  bishop  of  Tours  was  treated 
with  the  utmost  disrespect  by  his  clergy,  and  especially 
by  the  monks,  in  spite  of  the  evident  favor  of  the  pope. 
In  1078  he  was  accused  of  simony  before  tlic  Coimcil  of 
Poitiers,  and  vmable,  it  is  said,  to  clear  himself  other- 
wise, he  broke  up  the  council  by  main  force  (compare 
Labbe,  Condi,  x,  360 ;  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  p. 
497).  Still  Gregory  VII  merely  appointed  a  committee 
to  inquire  into  tlie  case.  How  this  committee  decided 
is  not  known,  but  all  trouble  was  at  an  end  in  1079,  for 
we  then  find  Gregory  writing  to  Raoul  inviting  him  to 
recognise  Gebuin,  archbisliop  of  Lyons,  whom  he  liad 
appointed  primate  of  Gaul,  and  about  the  same  time 
Kaoul  was  invited  to  the  Council  of  Badeaux  by  the 
legate  Amat,  who  calls  him  "  religionis  ecclesiasticos  ca- 
put honorabilius."  Shortly  afterwards  he  excommuni- 
cated Foidques  Rechin,  count  of  Anjou,  and  Gebuin  ap- 
proved his  proceedings;  but  king  Philip,  angered  at 
Langeais  for  siding  with  Gregory  VII  on  the  (question 
of  investiture,  took  the  part  of  tlie  count.  Langeais 
was  driven  from  liis  see,  and  excommunicated  by  the 
canons  of  St.  Jlartin ;  the  pope,  in  return,  excommuni- 
cated the  count  of  Anjou  and  all  his  partisans,  while 
Hughes  and  Amat,  legates  of  the  council  of  Poitiers, 
excommunicated  the  canons  of  St.  iNIartin.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  form  a  correct  judgment  of  those  events.  It  is 
likely,  however,  that  all  the  trouble  resulted  from  the 
fact  that  Langeais  had  entered  zealously  into  the  plans 
of  reformation  of  Gregory  VII,  and  therefore,  while 
praised  by  this  pope  and  his  adherents,  became  necessa- 
rily, as  a  leader  of  his  party  in  France,  an  object  of  ha- 
tred to  the  opposite  faction.  Documents  show  that  he 
was  governing  his  diocese  again  in  1084  and  1080.  The 
exact  time  of  his  death  is  not  ascertained,  but  he  must 
have  died  previous  to  the  year  1093.  See  J.  Maan, 
Sacr.  et  Metr.  eccl.  Turon.;  Gallia  Christ,  vol.  xiv,  col. 
63",  Hoefer,  Noiir.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix,  394  sq. 

Langeland  (Langland  or  Longland),  John,  a 
distinguished  prelate  of  the  Church  of  England,  was 
born  at  Henley,  England,  in  1473,  and  was  fellow  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  and  priucijial  of  IMagdalen  Hall 
in  1507.  In  1520  he  became  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
confessor  to  Henry  VIII,  whom  he  counseled  to  divorce 
queen  Catharine.  He  died  in  1547.  He  published  a 
number  of  sermons  and  theological  treatises  from  1517 
to  1540. — AUibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  A  iithors,  ii, 
1057;   Thomas,  Biogj-ajdncal  Dictionarrj,  p.  1452. 

Langbam,  Simon  of,  an  Enghsh  prelate,  was  born 
about  1310,  probably  at  Langham,  in  Rutlandshire.    In 


1335  he  entered  the  convent  of  St.  Peter,  Westmin- 
ster, of  which  he  became  abbot  in  1349,  and  showed 
great  zeal  in  the  reformation  of  monastic  abuses.  As  a 
reward  for  his  talents  Edward  HI  appointed  him  lord 
treasurer  in  1300,  and  chancellor  in  1304.  In  the  mean 
time  (1301)  he  had  been  appointed  bishop  of  Ely.  In 
1300  he  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Canterbury.  The 
principal  act  of  his  administration  was  the  deposing  of 
the  celebrated  Wychtfe  (whom  his  jjredecessor  had  ap- 
pointed head  of  Canterbury  Hall,  Oxford)  on  the  plea 
that  a  secular  priest  was  not  suitable  for  the  position. 
This  injustice  perhaps  first  suggested  to  Wyclift'e  an  in- 
quiry into  papal  abuses.  His  proceedings  on  tliat  occa- 
sion gave  great  offence  to  Edward  HI,  and  when  the 
pope,  as  a  reward,  created  Langham  cardinal  of  St.  Six- 
tus,  the  king  seized  on  his  temporalities,  as,  by  the  law, 
the  see  of  Canterbury  had  become  vacant  by  the  pro- 
motion, Langham  now  went  to  join  the  pope,  who 
loaded  him  with  favors.  He  continued  to  take  a  part 
in  the  political  affairs  of  England,  vainly  trying  to  rec- 
oncile that  country  to  France.  During  the  last  years 
of  his  life  Gregory  XI  intrusted  him  with  the  care  of 
the  papal  affairs  at  Avignon,  wlierc  he  died  July  22, 
1376.  His  body  was  taken  back  to  England,  and  buried 
at  Westminster.  See  Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra;  Moser, 
Life  of  Simon  of  Jjungham,  in  the  European  Magazine, 
1797;  Th.  Tanner,  Bihlioth.  Britannica;  Baluze,  Vitce. 
Pap.  A  ven.  vol.  i ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix, 
409 ;  Collier,  Eccles.  Hist,  (see  Index  in  vol.  vLii) ;  Nean- 
der,  Church  Hist,  v,  130. 

Iianghorne,  John,  a  minister  of  the  Church  of 
England,  was  born  in  Westmoreland,  England,  in  1735; 
obtained  a  curacy  in  London  in  1764;  in  1707  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  living  of  Blagden,  Somersetshire,  in  1777 
became  prebendary  of  Wells,  and  died  in  1779.  Lang- 
horne  published  several  works  both  in  prose  and  poetry; 
also  a  volume  of  his  Sermons,  preached  before  the  honor- 
able Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn  (3d  ed.  Lond.  1773,  2  vols, 
small  8vo).  "  His  sermons  are  short,  florid,  and  super- 
ficial." His  most  famous  work  was  his  translation  of 
Plutarch's  Lives,  on  which  his  brother  assisted.  See 
Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1705;  AUibone,  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1057. 

Langhorne,  'Williani,  j\LA.,  an  English  divine,, 
was  born  in  1721.  He  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of 
Hakinge,  and  received  the  perpetual  curacy  of  Folke- 
stone in  1754.  He  died  in  1772.  He  assisted  his  broth- 
er, John  Langhorne,  D.D.,  in  the  translation  of  a  popu- 
lar version  of  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  wrote  himself  Ser- 
mons on  practical  Subjects,  and  the  most  useful  Points  of 
Divinity  (2d  edition,  Lond.  1778,  2  vols.  r2mo): — Job,  a 
poem ;  and  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of  a  part  of  Isaiah. 
See  Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  (Phila,  1871,  8vo),  p.  1308. 

Iianigan,  John,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Irish  Roman 
Catholic  priest,  was  born  at  Cashel,  Ireland,  in  1758,  and 
received  his  scientific  and  theological  education  at  the 
Irish  College  in  Kome,  where  he  also  took  his  orders. 
Soon  after  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Hel)rew, 
divinity,  and  the  Scriptures  in  tlie  University  of  Pavia, 
In  1790  he  was  elected  to  a  similar  position  at  Jlay- 
nooth,  Ireland,  but  declined  it,  and  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment in  Dul)lin  Castle,  in  connection  with  which  he  as- 
sumed in  1799  the  duties  of  editor,  librarian,,  and  trans- 
lator for  the  Dublin  Society.  In  1821,  becoming  insane, 
lie  was  jilaced  in  an  asylum  at  Finglas,.  near  Dublin, 
where  he  died,  July  7,  1828.  Among  his  works  arc 
the  following  important  ones:  Institutionum  BUdicarum 
pars  prima  (Pavire,  1794,  8vo)  :  —  Protestant's  Apology 
for  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (1809,  8vo)  :>— Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  Ireland  to  the  \^th  Century  (Dublin,.  1822, 
4  vols.  8vo;  1829,  4  vols.  8vo),  a  work  much  valued  for 
its  extensive  learnuig,  deep  research,  and  critical  acu- 
men. See  New  Amer.  Cyclop,  x,  304;  AUibone,  Diet, 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1058, 

Langle,  Jean  Maximilian  de,  a  French  Protes- 
tant writer,  was  burn  at  Evreux  in  1590,  and  was  made 


LANGRES 


232 


LANGTON 


pastor  at  Rouen  in  1G15.  He  died  there  in  1074.  Be- 
sides a  dissertation  in  defence  of  Cliarles  I  of  Ens^land, 
he  wrote  Les  jo^es  inenarrahlcs  et  fjlorieuses  de  I'dme 
Jidele,  represeiilee,^  en  quinze  Sermons  sur  le  huiti'eme 
chap,  de  VEpitre  de  Saint  Paid  aux  Romains  (Saumur, 
1G(J9,  8vo) ;  and  Sermons  sur  divers  textes  de  Vecritui-e. 
— Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  414. 

Langres,  Synod  of.     From  the  acts  of  the  Concil- 
ium 'I'lillense  of  June,  859,  it  appears  that  another  {Con- 
ciliiim  Liiif/oiiense)  had  a  sliort  time  before  been  lield  at 
Langres  by  the  bishops  of  Charles  the  Young,  king  of 
Provence,  nephew  of  Charles  the  Bald,  and  son  of  Lo- 
thair  I,  to  whom  Langres  belonged  as  part  of  Burgundy. 
We  find  sixteen  canones  adopted  at  Langres  still  extant. 
These  were  read  again  in  the  Synod  of  Toid  (Savon- 
nieres),  and  incorporated  in  the  acts  of  that  synod's  ses- 
sion held  in  the  early  part  of  June,  850.     The  canones 
refer  partly  to  political  and  canonical  points,  partly  to 
dogmas.     The  assembled  clergy  availed  themselves  of 
the  opportunity  afforded  them  by  the  synod  to  obtain 
from  the  princes  Charles  the  Bald,  Lothair  II,andCharles 
the  Young  the  convocation  of  yearly  provincial  synods, 
and  two  yearly  general  synods  (can.  7).     An  attempt 
was  also  made  to  take  the  election  of  bishops  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  laity,  wherever  these  stiU  retained  this 
right,  and  to  leave  it  exclusively  with  the  clergy,  under 
the  plea  that  the  metropolitan  and  bishops  of  the  dio- 
cese were  alone  able  to  judge  of  the  qualifications  of 
candidates  (can.  8).     Great  opposition  was  also  mani- 
fested against  the  independence  of  convents  from  the 
episcopacy,  the  interest  of  discipline  requiring  that  such 
institutions  should  be  visited  by  the  bishops  (can.  9). 
Tlicy  only  maintained  the  right  of  the  convents  to  ap- 
point their  superiors  themselves  (can.  9  and  12).    Much 
was  also  done  in  regard  to  tlie  building  of  churches,  the 
administration  of  Church  property,  etc.  (can.  13) ;  the 
cstaLlishing  of  schools  (can.  10),  and  the  restoration  of 
h()spitalia,xieregj-inoi-um  videlicet,  et  aliorum  pro  remedio 
animarum  receptacula  (can.  14).     The  intervention  of 
the  temporal  power  was  invoked  against  roptores,  adul- 
teri  rel  rapaces,  which  latter  were  to  be  also  jiunished  b}' 
the  Church  with  the  full  severity  of  her  discipline.    But 
tlie  most  important  of  the  decrees  adopted  by  this  synod 
are  those  which  refer  to  the  dogma  of  predestination. 
It  is  in  this  Synod  of  Langres  that  the  bishops  of  Prov- 
ence appear  to  have  prepared  the  whole  matter,  so  as 
to  have  it  ready  to  be  submitted  to  the  Synod  of  Toul 
for  the  three  Carolinian  kingdoms  (Neustria,  Lorraine, 
and  I'rovence).    King  Charles  was  himself  present,  with 
a  view  to  prevent  the  proceedings  becoming  a  basis 
for  the  decrees  of  tlie  future  Synod  of  Toul.     In  the 
king«lom  of  Charles  the  Bald  the  semi-Pelagian  views 
of  ilincmar  on  that  dogma  were  most  generally  held, 
whilst  in  the  ancient  provinces  of  Lothair  I  the  Augus- 
tinian  views  were  still  ofiiciallv  retained.    As  the  coming 


0pp.  cd.  Sirm.  i,  2."1 ).  Its  inefficiency  was  subsequently 
made  evident  in  the  proceedings  of  the  ConcUiinn  Tul- 
lense  J  ajxid  Sapuiiurias.  See  Mansi,  xv,  5o7 ;  llar- 
douin,  V,  481 ;  Gieselcr,  Kirchengesch.  4th  edit,  ii,  1, 137  ; 
Gfrorer,  K.-G.  iii,  2,  881  ;  Herzog,  Real-  Encyklop.  viii, 
19G.     (J.N.  P.) 

Langton,  Stephen,  one  of  the  greatest  prelates  of 
the  early  English  Church,  celebrated  alike  in  ecclesias- 
tical and  secular  history,  was  born  in  the  earlier  half  of 
the  12tli  century,  according  to  one  account  in  Lincoln- 
shire, according  to  another  in  Devonshire,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  was  the  fel- 
low-student and  associate  of  Innocent  III.     Immediate- 
ly after  the  com])letion  of  his  studies  he  was  appointed 
teacher  in  the  university,  and,  by  successive  advances, 
finally  rose  to  the  office  of  its  chancellor.     On  his  visit 
to  Kome  about  the  year  120G,  pope  Innocent  III  hon- 
ored him  with  the  purple  by  the  title  of  Cardintd  of  St. 
Chnjsogonus ;  and  when,  by  the  rejection  for  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury  of  the  claims  both  of  Beglnald, 
the  subprior  of  Christchurch,  whom  his  brother  monks, 
without  consultation  of  the  king,  had  in  the  first  in- 
stance appointed  to  succeed  the  last  archbishop,  Hubert, 
and  of  John  de  Gray,  bishop  of  Norwich,  whom  they 
had  afterwards   substituted  in  deference  to  the  com- 
mands of  king  John,  another  choice  had  to  be  made, 
Innocent  III  favored  his  old  school-associate  rather  than 
the  appointment  of  John  de  Gray,  and  Langton  was 
consequently  elected  by  the  English  monks  who  were 
then  at  Kome,  and  was  consecrated  by  Innocent  at  Yi- 
terbo  June  27,  1207.     John's  determined  resistance  to 
this  nomination  gave  rise  to  the  contest  between  him 
and  the  pontiff  which  had  such  important  results.     See 
Innocent  III;  John,  king  of  England.     The  conse- 
quence, in  so  far  as  Langton  was  concerned,  was,  that  he 
was  kept  out  of  his  see  for  about  six  years ;  till  at  last, 
after  the  negotiation  concluded  by  the  legate  Pandulf, 
John  and  the  cardinal  met  at  Winchester  in  July,  1213, 
and  the  latter  was  fidly  acknowledged  as  archbishop. 
In  the  close  union,  however,  that  now  followed  between 
John  and  Innocent,  Langton,  finding  his  own  interests 
and  those  of  the  clergy  in  general,  in  so  far  as  they  were 
opposed  to  those  of  the  king,  disregarded  by  the  pope, 
joined  the  cause  of  the  English  barons,  among  wliom 
the  eminence  of  his  station  and  the  ascendency  of  his 
talents  soon  gave  him  a  high  intluence,  and  in  whose 
councils  he  at  once  took  a  prominent  part.    At  the  meet- 
ing of  the  heads  of  the  revolters  and  the  king  atKunny- 
mede  he  was  present,  and  it  was  through  his  efforts  that 
the  charter  of  Henry  I  was  renewed.     Among  the  sub- 
scribing witnesses  to  the  Magna  Charta  his  name  stands 
first;  and  from  henceforth  we  find  him  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  the  national  liberties,  which  he  had  just  joined, 
without  swerving  throughout  the  rest  of  the  contest,  a 
course  by  which  he  greatly  offended  the  pope.     Indeed, 


SvnodofToul  was  intended  to' settle  all  disputes  between  '  so  sincerely  devoted  to  tlie  interests  of  his  native  coun 


the  two  kingdoms  in  regard  to  political  and  religious 
([uestions,  the  preparatory  Sjniod  of  Langres  had  either 
to  recall  the  Augustinian  resolutions  of  the  Synod  of 
Yalencc,  or  to  alter  them  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
might  no  longer  give  offence.  They  could  not  agree  to 
do  the  former,  and  the  six  canones  of  Yalencc  wcreen- 
dorscil-,  but  the  expressions  against  the  Synod  of  Kiersy, 


try  was  Stephen  Langton  that  he  hesitated  not  to  act 
not  only  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  his  friend, 
the  lioman  pontilT,  but  he  even  refused  to  comply  with 
his  demand  to  publish  the  document  containing  the  an- 
nouncement of  excommunication  of  the  barons  who  had 
rebelled  against  the  king,  a  punishment  which  Innocent 
sought  to  inllict  in  order  to  please  John,  whose  warm 


hich  offended  Ilincmar   and  his   followers   (capitula    partisan  he  had  become  after  1213.     Langton  did  not 


(piatuor  (piic  a  concilio  fratruin  nostrorum  mnuis  pros- 
])ecte  suscepta  sunt  propter  inutilitatem  vel  ctiam  nox- 
ietatem  et  crrorem  contrarium  veritati  [a  pio  auditu 


waver  even  when  threatened  witli  expulsion  from  the 
archiepiscopal  see;  he  was  suspended  in  1215,  but  was 
restored  in  the  year  following  (in  February),  and  was  in 


fidelium  penitus  cxplodimus])  were  omitted  from  the  I  his  place  in  1218  on  tlie  accession  of  Henry  III.  From 
fourth  canon.  That  this  was  but  a  half-way  and  ineffi-  '  this  time  forward  Langton  busied  himself  chitlly  with 
cient  measure  had  alreadv  been  suffitientlv"  established    the  affairs  of  the  Cluirch,  instituted  many  reforms,  caused 


by  Hincniar  himself  in  his  work  on  predestination,  cap. 
30:  if  the  canons  of  Yalence  were  retained.it  shoidd  be 
done  openlv,  and  they  should  be -courageously.defended, 
and  then  the  protestation  against  the  four  principles  of 
Kiersy  could  not  be  considered  omitted ;  but  if  these 
were  omitted,  then  it  v.ould  be  consistent  to  drop  the 
resolutions  of  the  Council  of  Yalence  (comp.  Ilincmari 


the  translation  of  Bccket's  relics  into  a  magnificent 
shrine  of  gold,  set  w-ith  precious  stones,  and  introduced 
into  England  the  mendicant  orders.  He  attended  the 
Latcran  Council  convened  at  Eome  in  1215,  He  died 
July  9,1228. 

Langton  is  generally  considered  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious men  of  the  age  in  which  he  Uved.     Both  as 


LANGUAGE 


233 


LANIADO 


an  ecclesiastic  and  a  writer  he  has  exerted  great  in- 
fluence. Unfortunately,  however,  his  writings,  which 
displaj'ed  great  learning  and  ability,  are  hardly  accessi- 
ble. They  have  hitherto  found  no  editor,  nor  has  any 
one,  as  far  as  we  are  aware,  ever  taken  the  trouble  to 
ascertain  how  much  the  commentaries  of  Langton  differ 
from  the  works  of  that  class  by  medi.Bval  Church  writ- 
ers. A  few  of  his  theological  tracts  have  been  printed, 
and  lists  of  all  the  productions  known  as  his  are  given 
by  Cave  and  by  Tanner.  Tlie  principal  are,  De  Beiw- 
dictionibus  : — De  Maledictionibus : — Summa  TheologicB  : 
— Summa  ch  diversis : — Repetitiones  leciionum: — Doai- 
menta  Clericorum: — De  sacerdiiiihiis  Deiim  nescientibus : 
—De  vera  Poenifentia: — De  Sim'dltndiidbus : — Adam  ubi 
.es;  and  more  particularly  his  Commentarij  (on  a  large 
portion  of  the  O.Test,).  Dean  Hook  (in  his  Lives  of  the 
Archbishops  of  Co  nterbiay,  vol  ii  [18l)l],ch.  xii)  gives 
references  to  libraries  where  some  of  Langton's  writings 
are  still  preserved-,  and  we  may  add  that  the  library  of 
Canterbury  Cathedral  contains  his  j]forals  on  Joshua, 
Judges,  Kuth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Tobit,  Esther,  Ezra,  Mac- 
cabees, Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  the  lesser  proph- 
ets (comp.  Todd  [H.  J.],  Cataloyue  [Lond.  1802],  p.  Ill 
sq.).  See  Fabricius,  Bill.  Med.  yEvi ;  Tanner,  Biblioth, 
Britannico-Hibern. ;  Oudin,  Comment,  de  Script.  Eccles. 
vol.  ii ;  Cave,  Script,  eccles.  Hist.  Litterar.  vol.  ii ;  Ciaco- 
nius,  VitcR  Pontific.  et  Cardin.  vol.  ii-,  Godwin,  De  Prce- 
sulibus  AnrjUm  Commentni'ius ;  Eiifflish  Ci/clop.;  Hook, 
Eccles.  Biography,  vi,  538  sq. ;  Milman,  Latin  Chrktian- 
ili/.  V,  25  sq. ;  Inett,  Hist,  of  English  Church,  vol.  iii  (see 
Index) ;  Cliurton,  Earhj  Engl.  Ch.  p.  355-,  Collier,  Eccl. 
Hist,  (see  Index  in  vol.  viii)-,  Hume,  llist.  of  England, 
vol.  i,  ch.  xi-,  and  the  authorities  already  cited  in  the 
articles  Innocent  III,  and  John,  king  of  England. 
(J.H.W.) 

Language  ("Vj?  [Chald.  "'i'bjjfony^K,-  nsb,  ?/». 
An  indication  of  the  manner  in  which  man  m.ay  have 
been  led  to  the  formation  of  a  vocabulary  is  thought  to 
be  given  in  (ien.  ii,  19.  But  it  is  evident  from  the 
whole  scriptural  account  of  creation  that  speech  was  co- 
eval with  the  formation  of  our  first  parents.  At  a  later 
date  the  origin  of  the  various  languages  on  the  earth 
(see  Van  den  Ilonert,  De  lingua  primreva,  L.  B.  1738)  is 
ai)parcntly  given  in  connection  with  the  building  of  the 
tower  of  Babel  (comp.  Kiimer,  De  Ungnar.  in  extruenda 
turri  Bubgl.  o/7«,Yiteb.  1782)  and  the  dispersion  of  men 
((jJen.  xi);  but  it  is  probable  that  the  diversities  of  hu- 
man speech  have  rather  resulted  from  than  caused  the 
gradual  divergence  of  mankind  from  a  common  centre 
(Ulod.  Siculus,  i,  8  ;  comp.  Jerusalem,  Fortges.  Betracht. 
Brschvv.  1773,  p.  263  sq. ;  Eichhorn,  Diversitatis  linguar. 
ex  iradit.  Seinit.  origines,  Getting.  1788  ;  Abbt,  Vermisch. 
/Sf/!/-*/?.  vi,9Gsq.).  See  Tongues,  Confusion  of.  The 
later  Jews  inferred  from  Gen.  x  that  there  were  gener- 
ally on  earth  seventy  (nations  and)  languages  (compare 
Wagenseil,  Sota,  p.  099;  Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  754, 
1031,  1089:  see  a  list  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Megill. 
fol.  71,  ch.  ii).  Individual  tongues  are  only  mentioned 
incidentally  in  the  Bible,  as  follows:  the  Canaanitvih 
(■|;"33  TiSb,  Isa.xix,  18),the67/aA7fP««  (D"''^b3  "Vrb, 
Dan.  i,4),  the  Arainwiin  (r'^'O'nX,  familiar  to  the  Assyr- 
ians [2  Kings  xviii,  20],  the  IMagians  [Dan.  ii,  4],  and 
the  Persian  olKcials  [Ezra  iv,  7]  ),  the  Jewish  (':^'^1'l^i^.^ 
i.  e.  Hebrew;  2  Kings  xviii,  2G  ;  Neh.  xiii,  24;  compare 
Esther  viii,  9;  Josephus,  Apion,  ii,  2),  the  Ashdodite 
(ni-li-rrx,  Neh.  xiii,  24) ;  in  the  N.  T.  the  Hebrew,  i. 
e.  Sgro-Vhiddee  (Ejipatc,  'Eftnn'iari,  Acts  xxii,  2,  etc.), 
the  Greek  (I'l'EWtjviKii.'EWiituari,  John  xix,  20;  Acts 
xxi,  37;  Rev.  ix,  11),  rhe  Latin  (Poj/tahri,  John  xix, 
20;  Luke  xxiii,  38),  and  the  Lycaonian  {i\.vKnori<jTi, 
Acts  xiv,  11).  It  is  remarkai)le  that,  in  all  the  inter- 
course of  the  Hebrews  with  foreign  nations,  mention  is 
very  rarely  made  of  an  interpreter  ((ien.  xiii,  23) ;  but 
the  passages  in  2  Kings  xviii,  2(>;  Isa.  xxxvi,  11.  prove 
that  the  common  Jews  of  the  interior  at  least  did  not 
understand  the  Aramaean  dialect.     That  the  Jews  of 


later  times,  especially  the  bigoted  citizens  of  Palestine, 
despised  heathen  languages,  is  notorious  (Josephus,  ,1  nt. 
XX,  11,  2);  that  they  made  use  of  the  Greek,  how-ever, 
is  evident  from  the  Talmud  {Sota,  ix,  14-,  comp.  Juda- 
im,  iv,  (),  where  Homer  is  mentioned),  to  say  nothing  of 
theN.  T. — Winer,  ii, 498.  See  Hellenist.  The  ques- 
tion as  to  the  common  language  of  Palestine  in  the  time 
of  our  Lord  and  his  apostles  has  been  keenly  discussed 
by  learned  writers  with  very  opposite  conclusions.  On 
the  one  hand,  Du  Pin  {Dissert,  ii).  Mill  {N.  T.  p.  8),  Mi- 
chaelis  {Lttrud.  iii).  Marsh  Qibid.  notes),  Weber  {Unter- 
such.  iib.  d.  Ev.  der  Hebraer,  Tlib.  1806),  Kniniil  {Com- 
ment, i,  18),  Olshausen  {Echtheit  der  Evang.  Kiinigsberg, 
1823,  p.  21  sq.),  and  especially  De  Bossi  {Delia  lingua 
propria  di  Cristo,  Parma,  1772),  and  Pfaniikuche  (in 
Eichhorn's  A  llgem.  Bibliothek,  viii,  365  sq.)  contend  for 
the  exclusive  prevalence  of  the  Aramaean  or  Syro-Chal- 
dee  at  the  time  and  in  the  region  in  question.  On  the 
other  hand,  Cappell  (Observatt.in  N.  T.  p.  110),  Basnage 
{Annul,  ad  an.  64),  ]\Iasch  {Von  der  Grumbprache  3fat- 
tha'i),  Lardncr  (Su|)plement  to  Credibility,  etc.,  i.  c.  5), 
Waheus  {(^'ommentarius,  p.  1),  and  more  particularly 
Vossius  {De  Oraculis  Sibyll.  Oxon.  1860,  p.  88  sq.),  and 
Diodati  {De  Christo  Greece  loquente.  Neap.  1767,  London, 
1843),  insist  that  the  Greek  alone  was  then  and  there 
spoken.  Between  these  extremes  Simon  {Hist.  Crit.  du 
N.  T.  Rotterd.  1689,  c.  6,  p.  56),  Fabricy  {litres  prind- 
tifs  de  la  Revelation,  Rome,  1773,  i,  116),  Ernesti  {Neuste 
f'heol.  Bibliothek,  i  [  1771  ],  269  sq.).  Hug  {Einleit.  in  d.  .V. 
T.  Tiib.  1826,  ii,  30  sq.),  Binterim  {De  ling.  origi7iali  N. 
T.  non  Latina,  Dusseld.  1820,  p.  146  sq.),  Wiseman  {Ho- 
rm  Syriaca,  Rom.  1828,  i,  69  sq.),  and  the  mass  of  later 
writers,  as  Credner  {Einleit.  in  d.  N.  Test.  Halle,  1836), 
Bleek  {id.  Berl.  1862),  and  (though  with  more  reserve) 
Roberts  {Language  of  Palestine.  London,  1859)  hold  the 
more  reasonable  vie>v  that  both  languages  were  concur- 
rently used,  the  Aramaean  probably  as  the  vernacular  at 
home  and  among  natives,  and  the  CJreek  in  promiscuous 
and  public  circles.  For  additional  literature  on  this 
question,  see  Fabricius,  Biblioth.  Grojca,  iv,  760 ;  Bibli- 
cal Repository,  1831,  p.  317  sq.,  530  sq. ;  and  the  mono- 
graphs cited  by  Yolbeding,  Imlex  Programmatum,  p.  18. 
On  the  Greek  of  the  N.  T.,  see  New  Testament.  On 
the  tongues  cognate  with  the  Hebrew,  see  Shejiitic 
Languages. 

Languet  de  Gergy,  Jean  Joseph,  a  distinguish- 
ed French  prelate,  noted  for  his  opposition  to  the  Jan- 
senists,  was  born  at  Dijon  August  25, 1677.  A  compa- 
triot and  friend  of  Bossuet,he  was  influenced  to  dedicate 
himself  early  to  the  service  of  the  Church.  After  having 
filled  various  minor  positions,  he  became  bisho])  of  Sois- 
sons  in  1715;  later  (in  1730)  he  was  promoted  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Sens,  where,  by  his  zeal  and  nltramon- 
tane  opinions,  he  brought  upon  himself  several  contro- 
versies with  the  Jansenists,  and  by  his  exti-eme  course 
made  himself  very  unpopular.  In  1721  the  French  Acad- 
emy honored  him  with  membershi)).  He  died  May  3, 
1753.  Languet  wrote  very  extensively.  A  complete 
list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  441.  The  most  important  of  his  writings  are 
Menioire  pour  Vevvque  de  Soissons  contre  les  religieuses 
du  Val  de  Grace  et  les  benedictines  de  Saint-CorneUle  de 
Compiegne  (Paris,  1726,  fol.) : — Opera  omnia  pro  defen- 
sione  Constitutionis  Unigenitus  et  udversus  ab  ea  apiielan- 
tes  successive  edita ;  in  LMtinam  linguam  conversa  a  va- 
riif  doctoribus  et  ab  auctore  recognita  et  emendata  (Sens, 
1752, 2  vols,  folio).— Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Generale,  xxix, 
441  sq. 

Laniado  (or  Lanado),  Abraham  ben-Isaac,  an 
Italian  rabbi  and  commentator,  flourished  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  16th  and  the  first  half  of  the  17th  century. 
He  wrote  a  v,-ork  on  the  mysteries  of  the  ]VIosaic  law, 
entitled  Cni3S  "S-C,  The  Shield  of  Abraham,  ^vhich 
consists  of  seventeen  treatises  and  discourses  on  circum- 
cision, marriage,  almsgiving,  confession  of  sins,  repent- 
ance, and  mourning  for  the  dead.  It  was  printed  in 
Venice  in  1603,  and  is  very  highly  esteemed  by  the 


LANIADO 


234 


LANTERN 


Jews :— A  commentary  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  entitled 
r,D2n  m"Ip3,  S/uds  ofSUver,  which  was  edited  by  Mo- 
ses Laniado,  with  the  Hebrew  text,  the  Commentary  of 
Rashi,  the  Chaldoc  Taraphrase,  with  a  Spanish  transla- 
tion by  tlie  editor,  printed  in  Hebrew  characters  (Yen- 
ice,  101'.) ).  He  also  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  a  commentary  on  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  Esther,  which  have  not  as  yet  been  pub- 
lished.—Kitto,  Bibl  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Laniado,  Samuel  ben-Abkahaji,  another  Ital- 
ian rabbi  of  note,  flourished  at  Aleppo  about  1580.  He 
wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  entitled  "^^3 
m^cn,  Dditjliiful  Vessel,  which  was  first  published  in 
Venice  in  1594-1595.  He  explains  the  Pentateuch  ac- 
cording to  the  Sabbatic  Lessons  [sec  Hapiitarah]  in  the 
Midrashic  manner: — A  commentary  on  Joshua,  Judges, 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  entitled  np"'  "'h^,  Precions  Vessel, 
which  was  first  published  in  Venice  in  1C03,  and  ex- 
cerpts of  it  are  printed  in  Erankfiirter's  Rabhhdc  Bible 
(q.  v.).  It  consists  chiefly  of  extracts  from  the  exposi- 
tions of  Rashi,  Aben-Ezra,  Ralbag,  etc. :— A  commentary 
on  Isaiah,  called  IS  il53,.l  Vessel  of  Pure  Gold  (Venice, 
1657).  It  is  a  very  lengthy  commentary,  and,  like  the 
former,  is  chiefly  made  up  from  the  expositions  of  Rashi, 
Aben-Ezra,  Ralbag,  etc.  See  Furst,  Biblioth.  JJebroica, 
ii,  222 ;  Steinschneider,  Catalogus  Libr.  Hehr.  in  Bibli- 
otheca  Bodleiana,  col.  2433 ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lanka,  the  ancient  name  of  the  capital  of  Ceylon,  is 
celebrated  in  Hindu  mythology  as  the  chief  city  of  the 
giant  Ravana  (q.  \.\  who,  by  carrying  off  Sita,  the  wife 
of  Rama,  caused  the  conquest  of  Ceylon  by  the  latter 
personage,  who  is  considered  as  an  incarnation  of  the 
god  Vishnu. — Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lanneau,  Bazile  E.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  at  Cliarleston,  South  Carolina,  jMarch  22, 1830.  and 
was  educated  at  Charleston  College,  where  he  graduated 
in  1848.  He  completed  a  course  of  theology  at  Colum- 
bia Seminary,  S.  C,  in  1851,  and  was  immediately  ap- 
pointed tutor  of  Hebrew  in  the  same  institution.  In 
1854  he  was  ordained,  and  made  pastor  of  a  Church  at 
Lake  City,  Florida;  from  1856  to  1858  he  was  editor  of 
the  Southern  Presbyterian,  at  Charleston,  and  then  re- 
turned to  Lake  City.  In  October,  1859,  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  ancient  languages  in  "Oakland  College, 
Miss.,  which  position  he  held  until  his  death,  July  12, 
1860.  Lanneau's  linguistic  acquirements  were  very  ex- 
tensive. •'  He  was  not  only  a  scholar,  but  an  accurate 
and  well-read  divine.  His  style  as  a  writer  was  chaste 
and  clear." — Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Inianac,  1861,  p.  95. 

Lanneau,  John  Francis,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  burn  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  August  14, 
1809 ;  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  class  of  1829,  and 
studied  theology  at  the  theological  seminaries  of  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  and  Columbia,  S.  C.  He  was  ordained  in  1833, 
and  labored  three  years  for  the  cause  of  foreign  mis- 
sions; then  went  as  a  missionary  to  Jerusalem.  In  1846 
he  returned  to  America,  and  was  called  to  jMarietta,  Ga. 
In  1855  he  became  pastor  at  Salem,  Ya.,  and  in  1861  re- 
turned to  Marietta,  Avhere  he  died,  Oct.  7,  1867.  Mr. 
Lanneau  is  re[)resented  as  an  able  minister,  and  always 
eminently  influential  and  acceptable  both  as  a  preacher 
ami  a  citizen. — Wilson,  F'resb.  Ilist.  A  hnancic,  1868,  p.  340. 

Lannis,  Jacob  W.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was  bom 
in  I'.ah  imore  Co.,  Maryland,  July  8, 1826 ;  received  a  col- 
legiate education  at  Muskingum  College,  Ohio,  and  at 
Jefferson  CoDege,  Pa.,  where  he  graduated  in  1852.  He 
studied  theology  at  Alleghany  City  Theological  Semi- 
nary, and  afterwards  with  Dr.  Edwards,  of  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.  In  1856  he  was  ordained  and  installed  as  pastor 
of  a  Church  at  Waveland,  Ind.  Jn  1858  he  removed  to 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  and  died  there  Aug.  9,  lB59.  INIr. 
Lannis  was  very  successful  in  his  brief  ministry. — Wil- 
son, Presb.  Hist.  Almanac,  ISGl,  p.  95. 

Lansing,  Nicholas,  a  minister  of  the  (Dutch)  Re- 


formed Church,  was  born  at  Albany  in  1748.  He  stud- 
ied theology  under  Dr.  Westerlo,  of  tliat  city,  and  was 
licensed  to  preach  bj'  a  general  meeting  of  ministers 
and  elders  in  1780.  Among  the  Dutch  clergymen  of 
the  last  two  generations,  this  venerable  man  held  a  rep- 
utation for  piety  and  individuality  of  character  that  re- 
minds us  of  Rowland  Hill,  James  Patterson,  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  a  few  others  of  similar  mould.  ISIany  curious 
and  interesting  stories  are  told  of  his  unique  and  godly 
life,  and  of  his  holy  ministry.  He  was,  while  young, 
captain  of  a  small  sailing  vessel  that  ran  between  Al- 
bany and  New  York,  and  was  converted  to  Christ  while 
in  this  calling.  Immediately  he  consecrated  himself  to 
the  ministry,  although  his  health  was  so  feeble  that  his 
physician  said  he  would  not  live  to  enter  the  pulpit. 
But  God  spared  him  to  ser\-e  in  his  sanctuary  fifty-five 
years.  He  preached  regularly  until  the  second  Sabbath 
before  his  death,  at  the  great  age  of  eighty-seven.  "  He 
spent  much  time  day  and  night  in  his  study,  fasting 
much  and  being  much  in  prayer.  He  usually  spent 
much  of  the  night,  and  sometimes  the  whole  night,  in 
praying.  His  clothing  always  gave  way  first  upon  the 
knees."  His  preaching,  which  was  in  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage, Avas  remarkable  for  its  scriptural  character,  spir- 
ituality, and  utter  fearlessness.  Striking  anecdotes  are 
told,  and  many  of  his  peculiar  expressions  are  yet  cur- 
rent, illustrative  of  tliese  features  of  his  ministry-.  On 
one  occasion,  in  a  meeting  of  classis,  when  called  upon  a 
second  time  by  the  president  to  make  a  brief  statement 
of  the  condition  of  his  Church,  the  old  man  rose  sud- 
denly and  said,  "Mr.  President,  Tappanl  Tappan!  aU 
Tappan  is  dead,  and  I'm  dead  too."  He  sat  down  and 
said  no  more  initil  he  was  asked  to  pray,  and  then  jjour- 
ed  out  his  soul  in  such  strains  of"  power  with  God"  that 
all  who  heard  him  felt  that  whatever  might  be  the  state 
of  his  people,  he,  at  least,  was  not  '■^dead"  yet.  He  ob- 
served family  worship  three  times  daily  during  a  part 
of  bis  life.  A  great  revival  of  religion  followed  one  of 
his  most  bold  and  characteristic  sermons  in  a  neighbor- 
ing place,  where  people  were  given  up  to  worldliness 
and  sin.  During  his  last  service  he  sat  in  the  pulpit,  as 
his  feebleness  obliged  him  to  do  frequently  in  his  later 
years.     Like  Baxter,  he  could  have  said 

"I  preached  as  if  I  ne'er  should  preach  again, 
And  as  a  dying  man  to  dyiug  men." 

Referring  to  the  strain  of  his  ministry  among  them,  he 
said  to  his  people,  "  I  have  never  preached  to  you  '  Do 
and  live,'  but '  Live  and  do.'  "  That  week  he  was  seized 
with  his  last  illness,  during  which  he  was  constantly  en- 
gaged in  prayer,  and  in  speaking  for  Christ  to  those 
who  were  with  him.  His  last  entl  was  peace.  Mr.  Lan- 
sing was  settled  first  in  the  united  chiu-ches  of  what  are 
now  Greenbush,  Linlithgo,  and  Taghkanic,  near  Albany, 
during  1781-4,  and  afterwards  at  Tappan  and  Clarks- 
town,  in  Rockland  County,  N.Y.,  1784-1830,  and  Tap- 
pan  alone  1830-35.  His  home  and  church  in  the  latter 
place  Avere  near  the  spot  on  which  major  Andre  was 
hung  in  the  Revolutionaiy  War.  See  Corv.in,  Manual 
of  the  Reformed  Church,  p.  134  sq.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Lantern  {<pavoc,  so  called  for  its  shinivrj)  occurs 
only  in  John  xviii,  3,  where  the  party  of  men  which 
went  out  of  Jerusalem  to  apprehend  Jesus  in  the  garden 
of  Gethsemanc  is  described  as  being  provided  "with  lan- 
terns and  torches :"  it  there  probably  denotes  any  kind 
of  covered  light,  in  distinction  from  a  simple  taper  or 
common  house-light,  as  well  as  from  a  flamVieau  (conip. 
Athena;us,  xv,  58;  Philosen.  Gloss.).  Lanterns  were 
much  employed  by  the  Romans  in  military  operations ; 
two  of  bronze  have  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Her- 
cidaneum  and  Pompeii.  They  are  cylindrical,  with 
translucent  horn  sides,  the  lamp  within  being  furnished 
with  an  extinguisher  {iim.\t\\,Lict.  of  Class.  Ant.\).b()S). 
In  the  article  Lamp  it  has  been  shown  that  the  Jewish 
lantern,  or,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  lamp-frame,  was  similar 
to  that  now  in  use  among  the  Orientals.  As  the  streets 
of  Eastern  towns  are  not  lighted  at  night,  and  never 


LANTERN 


235 


LANTERNS,  FEAST  OF 


Ancient  Roman  Lantern.  (On  the  left  is  a  separate  view 
of  one  of  the  corner-pieces ;  on  the  right  is  the  extin- 
guisher.) 


Modern  Oriental  Lantern, 
were  so,  lanterns  are  used  to  an  extent  not  known  among 
lis.     Siicii,  doubtless,  was  also  Ibrmerly  the  case ;  and  it 
is  therefore  remarkable  that  in  but  a  single  instance  the 


r\ 


Ancient  Egyptian  Lantern. 
Egyptian  monuments  offer  any  trace  of  the 
use  of  a  lantern.     In  this  case  it  seems  to 
be  borne  by  the  night-watch,  or  civic  guard, 
and  is  sha]icd  like  those  in  com- 
mon use  among  ourselves  (Wil- 
kinson, ,1  nc.  Eff.  ii.  72\     A  simi- 
lar lantern  is  at  this  day  used  in 
Persia,  and  perhaps  does  not  ma- 
terially differ  from  those  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.     More  com- 
mon at  present  in  Western  Asia 
is  a  large  folding  lantern  of  wax- 
ed cloth  strained  over  rings  of 
Ordinary  Eastern  Lan-  wire,  with  a  top  and  bottom  of 
terns.  tinned  copper.  It  is  usually  about 


Q 


h 


two  feet  long  by  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  is  carried 
by  servants  before  their  masters,  who  often  pay  visits  to 
their  friends  at  or  after  supper-time.  In  many  Eastern 
towns  the  municipal  law  forbids  any  one  to  be  in  the 
streets  after  nightfall  without  a  lantern. — Kitto. 

Lantern,  in  Italian  or  modern  architecture,  a  small 
structure  on  the  top  of  a  dome,  or  in  other  similar  situ- 
ations, for  the  purpose  of  admitting  light,  promoting 
ventilation,  or  lor  ornament.  In  Gothic  architecture 
the  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  louvres  on  the  roofs  of 
halls,  etc.,  but  it  usually  signiiies  a  tower  which  has  the 
whole  height,  or  a  considerable  portion  of  the  interior, 
open  to  view  from  the  ground,  and  is  lighted  by  an  up- 
per tier  of  windows:  lantern-towers  of  this  kind  are 
common  over  the  centre  of  cross  churches.  The  same 
name  is  also  given  to  the  light  open  erections  often 
placed  on  the  tops  of  towers ;  these  sometimes  have 
spires  rising  from  them,  but  in  such  cases  they  are  less 
perforated  with  windows,  Lantei-nes  des  Moris  occur 
only  in  the  church-yards  on  the  Continent ;  they  were 
simply  pillars,  with  a  place  for  a  light  on  the  top  simi- 
lar to  small  light-houses,  and  it  is  not  improbable  that 
something  of  the  kind  M-as  adopted  in  the  early  Koman 
cemeteries,  and  so  has  given  origin  to  some  of  the  Irish 
round  towers,  which  may  well  have  been  used,  at  least 
in  some  instances,  for  this  purpose. — Parker,  Glossary  of 
Architecture,  s.v. 


St  Ilt'eu'^,  \oik 
Lanterns,  Feast  of,  is  a  Chinese  festival,  observed 
in  the  evening  of  the  15th  day  of  January  by  every 
Chinese  of  respectability,  who  illiuninates,  with  a  great 
number  of  wax  candles,  a  large  lantem,  displaying  more 
or  less  splendor,  according  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
owner.  Some  of  them  are  valued  at  several  thousand 
dollars,  on  account  of  the  decorations  bestowed  on  them, 
and  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  diameter.  The 
Chinese  ascribe  the  rise  of  this  festival  to  a  sad  acci- 
dent which  happened  in  the  family  of  a  certain  man- 
darin, whose  daughter,  as  she  was  walking  one  evening 
on  the  bank  of  a  river,  fell  in  and  was  drowned.  Her 
father,  in  order  to  find  her,  embarked  on  board  a  vessel, 
carrying  with  him  a  great  number  of  lantenis.  The 
whole  night  was  spent  in  search  of  her,  Init  to  no  pur- 
pose. However,  this  ceremony  is  annually  kept  up  in 
memory  of  the  mandarin's  daughter.  In  some  respects 
this  festival  resembles  that  obser\-ed  by  the  ancients  in 


LANTFREDUS 


236 


LAODICEA 


honor  of  Cores,  when  her  votaries  ran  up  and  down  the 
streets  witli  lighted  torches  in  their  hands,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  liurry  and  contusion  of  the  goddess  when  in 
quest  of  her  daughter  Proserpine.  Otliers  ascribe  the 
rise  of  this  Chinese  festival  to  an  extravagant  project 
of  one  of  tlieir  emperors,  wlio  shut  himself  up  with  his 
concubines  in  a  magniticent  palace,  Avhich  he  illumi- 
nated with  a  great  number  of  splendid  lanterns.  The 
Chinese,  scandalized  at  his  behavior,  demolished  his 
palace,  and  hung  the  lanterns  all  over  the  city.  But, 
however  uncertain  its  origin,  it  seems  pretty  detinitely 
established  that  the  lantern-festival  was  observed  as 
early  as  A.D.  700  (comp.  ^^'illiams,  Middle  Kingdom,  ii. 
82).' 

One  jieculiar  custom  of  this  feast  is  the  grant  of 
greater  license  to  manned  women,  who  on  other  even- 
ings, by  Chinese  custom,  are  obliged  to  confine  them- 
selves to  their  homes.  The  goddess  called  Mother  (q. 
V.)  is  worshipped  by  them  at  this  time,  particularly  by 
married  but  childless  women,  "  expecting  or  desiring,  as 
a  consequence  of  such  devotional  acts  to  '  Mother,'  to 
have  male  offspring."  See  Broughton,  BibUot^eca  Hist. 
Sarni,  ii.-i;  Doolittle, /S'oc!«^  Z(/e  of  the  Chinese  (New 
York,  1.S67.  2  vols.  12mo),  ii.  34  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lantfredus  or  Lamfridus,  a  disciple  of  bishop 
Ethelnold  of  Winchester,  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  lOfh  century.  He  is  known  onlj^  by  his  life  of  St. 
Swithun.  which  is  very  interesting,  as  it  affords  fine  fa- 
cilities for  studying  the  manners  and  history  of  his  time. 
"His  style  is  very  inflated,  and  it  is  rendered  obscure  by 
the  ado])tion  of  numerous  words  formed  from  the  Greek 
language."  The  editions  of  Lantfredus  are  those  of  Hen- 
rv  Wharton,  A»f/li(i  Sarra,  i  (Lond.  1691,  folio),  322: — 
Ldntfndi  ej>i.'ito/ii  /mm/issti  Histori(s  de  Miraculis  Swi- 
1hiid,Art(i  Sancloruin,  Jidii,  i  (Antwerp,  1719, fol.), 328- 
3;37  : — iSirilhuni  Vita  et  Miracula,  per  Lamfridmn  Mo- 
nachitm  Winton.  See  Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliofp:  ii,  1767. 
Laodice'a  [strictly  Laodici'a]  (AaociKfio,  jiis- 
tice  o/'tae  people),  the  name  of  several  cities  in  Syria 
and  Asia  ]Minor.  but  one  of  which,  usually  called  Luodl- 
ceii  (III  Li/niin  (from  its  proximity  to  the  river  Lycus\ 
is  named  in  Scripture.  It  lay  on  the  confines  of  I'hrygia 
and  Lydia.  about  forty  miles  east  of  Ephesus,  and  is  that 
one  of  the  '•  seven  churches  in  Asia"  to  which  John  was 
commissioned  to  deliver  the  awful  warning  contamed  in 
Kcv.  iii.  U-19.  The  fulfilment  of  this  waming  is  to  be 
sought  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church  which 
existed  in  that  city,  and  not  in  the  stone  and  mortar  of 
the  city  itself;  for  it  is  not  the  city,  but  '■  the  Church  of 
the  Laodiceans,"  which  is  denounced.  It  is  true,  how- 
over,  that  the  eventual  fate  of  that  Church  must  have 
been  involved  in  that  of  the  city.  (See  an  account  of 
the  synod  at  Laodicea,  in  Phrj-gia,  A.D.  350-389,  in 
"S'on  Drey's  Theol.  Quart(d.schr.  1824,  p.  3  sq.) 

Laodicea  was  the  capital  of  Greater  Phrygia  (Strabo, 
xii,  p.  .')7();  Pliny,  v,  29;  or  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  accord- 
ing to  the  subscription  of  1  Tim.),  and  a  ver\'  consider- 
able city  (Strabo,  p.  578)  at  the  time  it  was  named  in 
the  New  Testament;  but  the  violence  of  earthquakes, 
to  which  this  district  has  always  been  liable,  demolished, 
some  ages  after,  a  great  part  of  the  city,  destroyed  many 
of  tlie  inhabitants,  and  eventually  obliged  tlie  remainder 
to  aliandon  tlie  s]iot  altogctlier.  The  town  was  origin- 
ally called  Diii.y/olis.  and  afterwards  Ithixi.t  (Pliny,  v, 
29  I;  but  Laodicea,  the  building  of  which  is  ascribed  to 
Autiochus  Theos,  in  honor  of  his  wife  Laodice,  was 
l)r(.bal>ly  founded  on  the  old  site.  It  was  not  far  west 
from  Coloss;v,  and  only  six  miles  to  the  west  of  Hierap- 
olis  (/tin.  Ant.  p.  337;  Tab.  Pait.;  Strabo.  xiii,  p.  629). 
At  first  Laodicea  was  not  a  jilace  of  much  importance, 
but  if  soon  ac(iuired  a  high  degree  of  prosperity.  It 
suffered  greatly  during  the  :\Iithridatic  war  (Appian, 
Bell.  Mith.  20;  Strabo,  xii,  p.  578),  but  quickly  recover- 
ed under  tlie  dominion  of  Pome;  and  towanls  the  end 
of  the  republic  and  under  the  first  emperors,  Laodicea 
became  one  of  the  most  imiiorfant  and  flourishing  com- 
mercial cities  of  Asia  Jlinor,  in  which  large   money 


transactions  and  an  extensive  trade  in  wood  were  car- 
ried on   (Cicero,  ad  Fam.  ii,  17;  iii,  5;  Strabo,  xii,  p. 
577 ;  compare  Vitruv.  viii,  3).     The  place  often  suffered 
from  earthquakes,  especially  from  the  great  shock  in  the 
reign  of  Tiberius,  in  which  it  was  completeh'  destroyed ; 
but  the  inhabitants  restored  it  from  their  own  means 
(Tacit.  A  nn.  xiv,  27).     The  wealth  of  the  citizens  crea- 
ted among  them  a  taste  for  the  arts  of  the  Greeks,  as  is 
manifest  from  the  ruins;  and  that  it  did  not  remain  be- 
hind-hand in  science  and  literature  is  attested  by  the 
names  of  the  sceptics  Antiochus  and  Theiodas,  the  suc- 
cessors of  yEnesidemus  (Diog.  Laert.  ix,  11,  §  106;  12,  § 
116),  as  well  as  by  the  existence  of  a  great  medical 
school  (Strabo,  xii,  p.  580).     During  the  Poman  period 
Laodicea  was  the  chief  city  of  a  Poman  conventus  (Cic- 
ero, ad  Fam.  iii,  7;  ix,  25;  xiii,  54,  67;  xv,  4;  ad  Att. 
V,  15,  16,  20,  21 ;  vi.  1,  2,  3,  7;  in  Verr.  i,  30\     Jlany 
of  its  inhabitants  were  Jews,  and  it  was  probably  owing 
to  this  circumstance  that  at  a  very  early  period  it  be- 
came one  of  the  chief  scats  of  Christianity  [we  have 
good  reason  for  believing  that  when,  in  writing  from 
Pome  to  the  Christians  of  Colossa?,  Paul  sent  a  greeting 
to  those  of  Laodicea,  he  had  not  personally  visited  either 
jilace.     But  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xviii,  19-xix,  41)  must  inevitably  have  resulted 
in  flic  formation  of  churches  in  the  neighboring  cities, 
especially  where  .Jews  were  settled.     See  LAodiceans, 
Epistle  to  the],  and  the  see  of  a  bishop  (Coloss.  ii,  1 ; 
iv,  15  sq.;  Pev.  i,  11 ;  iii,  14  sq. ;  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  10, 
20 ;  Hierocl.  p.  665).     The  Byzantine  writers  often  men- 
tion it,  especially  in  the  time  of  the  Comneni ;  and  it 
was  fortified  by  the  emperor  Manuel  (Nicef.  Chon.  .1  nn. 
p.  9,  81).     During  the  invasion  of  the  Turks  and  Mon- 
g<ils  the  city  was  much  exposed  to  ravages,  and  fell  into 
decay;  but  the  existing  remains  stiU  attest  its  former 
greatness  (see  Smith's  Diet,  of  Gr.  and  Rom.  Geo(j.  s.  v. 
Laodiceia).     Smith,  in  his  Journey  to  the  Seven  Chvrch- 
es  (1671),  was  the  first  to  describe  the  site  of  Laodicea. 
He  was  follo>ved  by  Chandler.  Cockerell,  and  Pococke ; 
raid  the  locality  has.  within  the  present  century-,  been 
visited  by  ^Mr,  Hartley,  Mr.  Arundell,  Col.  Leake,  and 
^Ir.  Hamilton. 

'•Laodicea  is  now  a  deserted  place,  called  by  the 
Turks  Esli-hissar  ("Old  Castle"),  a  Turkish  ^vord  equiv- 
alent to  Paled-lastro,  which  the  Greeks  so  frequently 
apply  to  ancient  sites.  From  its  ruins,  Laodicea  seems 
to  have  been  situated  upon  six  or  seven  hills,  taking  up 
a  large  extent  of  ground.  To  the  north  and  north-east 
runs  the  river  Lycus,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  distant ; 
but  nearer  it  is  watered  by  two  small  streams,  the  Aso- 
pus  and  Cajirus,  the  one  to  the  west,  and  the  other  to 
the  south-east,  both  passing  into  the  Lj-cus,  which  last 
flows  into  the  ]Ma?ander  (Smith,  p.  85).  Laodicea  pre- 
serves great  remains  of  its  importance  as  the  residence 
of  the  Poman  governors  of  Asia  under  the  emperors, 
namely,  a  stadium,  in  uncommon  preservation,  three 
theatres,  one  of  which  is  450  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
ruins  of  several  other  buildings  (Antiq.  of  Ionia,  pt.  ii, 
p.  32  ;  Chandler's  Asia  Minor,  c.  67).  Col.  Leake  says, 
"  There  are  few  ancient  sites  more  likely  than  Laodicea 
to  preserve  many  curious  remains  of  aiifiijuity  licncath 
the  surface  of  the  soil;  its  opulence,  and  the  eartlujuakcs 
to  which  it  was  subject,  rcrfdering  it  probable  that  val- 
ualile  works  of  art  were  often  there  buried  beneath  the 
ruins  of  the  public  and  private  edilices  (Cicero,  Kpist.  ad 
.■\mic.\\,  17;  iii,  5;  v,  20;  Tacitus,  y1  ?.»«/.  xiv,  27).  A 
similar  remark,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  perhaps,  wiU 
apply  to  the  other  cities  of  the  vale  of  the  Jhcander,  as 
well  as  to  some  of  those  situated  to  the  north  of  3Iount 
Tmolus;  for  Strabo  (p.  579.  628,  630)  informs  us  that 
Pldladelphia.  Sardis.  and  jMagnesia  of  Sipyluij,  were, 
not  less  than  Laodicea  and  the  cities  of  tlie  M;\>ander  as 
far  as  Apamcia  at  the  sources  of  that  river,  subject  to 
the  same  dreadful  calamity  (Geoffraphy  of  Asia  Minor, 
p.  2.")3)"  (Kitto).  "  Nothing,"  says  Mr.  Hamilton  (Re- 
nearchett  in  Asia  Minor,  i,  515),  "  can  exceed  the  elosola- 
tion  and  melancholy  appearance  of  the  site  of  Laodicea; 


LAODICEA,  COUXCIL  OF  237         LAODICEA,  COUNCIL  OF 


the  lay  persons  present  shall  give  it 
to  each  other;  and  that  ended,  the 
administration  of  the  holy  eucha- 
rist  shall  proceed.  None  except  the 
priests  shall  be  permitted  to  ap- 
l)roach  the  altar  in  order  to  commu- 
nicate. 20.  A  deacon  not  to  sit  in 
the  presence  of  a  priest  without  per- 
mission of  the  latter.  The  same  con- 
duct is  enjoined  on  subdeacons  and 
all  inferior  clergy  towards  the  dea- 
con. 21,  22,  The  subdeacon  not  to 
Undertake  any  of  the  functions  of 
the  deacon,  nor  touch  the  sacred  ves- 
sels, nor  wear  a  stole.  23.  Forbids 
the  same  to  chanters  and  readers. 


Copper  Coin  ("meihillion")  of  Laodicea  in  Phrjgin,  with  Head  of  Commodus,  2-i-  No  one  of  the  clergy,  or  of  the 
Triumphal  Figure,  and  name  of  xVsiarcli.  order  of  ascetics,  to  enter  a  tavern. 


25.  Forbids  the  subdeacon  to  give 
no  ])icturesquc  features  in  the  nature  of  the  ground  on  |  the  consecrated  bread  and  to  bless  the  cup.  C2.  Pro- 
wliich  it  stands  relieve  the  dull  uniformity  of  its  undu-  j  hibits  persons  not  appointed  thereto  by  a  bishop  from 


lating  and  barren  hills;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  its 
gray  and  widely-scattered  ruins  possess  no  architectural 
merit  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  traveller.  Yet  it  is 
impossible  to  view  them  without  interest  when  we  con- 
sider what  Laodicea  once  was,  and  how  it  is  connected 
with  the  early  history  of  Christianity."  See  also  Fel- 
lows, Journal  written  in  Asia  Minor,  p.  251  sq. ;  Arun- 
dell,  SeLX'ji  Churches,  p.  85  sq.;  Schubert,  Reisen,  i,  282; 
S.  Stosch,  Syntagma  dissert.  7  de  sept,  urbibus  A  sice  in 
Apoc.  p.  105  sq. ;  also  in  Van  Hoven,  0/ium  literar.  iii,  p. 
52;  Mannert,VI,  iii,  129  sq. ;  Schultess,  in  the  N.theol. 
Annal.  1818,  ii,  177  sq.  See  Asia,  Seven  Churches  of. 
LAODICEA,  Council  ok  (Concilium  Laodicenuni), 
an  imi)ortant  council  held  at  Laodicea,  in  Phyrgia,  in 
the  4th  century.  The  year  in  which  this  council  con- 
vened is  disputed.  Baronius  and  Binius  assign  the  year 
314;  Pagi,  303;  Hardouin  places  it  as  late  as  372,  and 
others  even  in  899.  Hefele  thinks  that  it  must  have 
had  its  session  between  343  (the  Council  of  Antioch) 
and  381,  rather  in  the  second  than  in  the  first  half  of 
the  4th  century.  Beveridge  adduces  some  probabl'  rea- 
sons for  supposing  it  to  have  been  held  in  305.    Thirty 


meddling  with  exorcisms.  27.  Forbids  the  carrying 
away  of  any  portion  of  the  agapoe.  28.  Forbids  the  cel- 
ebration of  the  agapa;,  or  love-feasts,  in  churches.  29. 
Forbids  Christians  observing  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  30. 
Forbids  Christian  men,  especially  the  clergy,  from  bath- 
ing with  women.  31.  Forbids  giving  daughters  in  mar- 
riage to  heretics.  32.  Forbids  receiving  the  eulogire  of 
heretics.  33.  Forbids  all  Catholics  praj'ing  with  here- 
tics and  schismatics.  34.  Anathematizes  those  who  go 
after  the  false  martyrs  of  heretics.  35.  Forbids  Chris- 
tian persons  leaving  their  church  in  order  to  attend 
private  conventicles  in  which  angels  were  invoked,  and 
anathematizes  those  who  are  guilty  of'this  idolatry. 
30.  Forbids  the  clergy  dealing  in  magic,  and  directs  that 
all  who  wear  phylacteries  be  cast  out  of  the  Church. 
37.  Forbids  fasting  with  .lews  or  heretics.  38.  Forbids 
receiving  unleavened  bread  from  Jews.  39.  Forbids 
feasting  with  heathen  persons.  40.  Orders  all  bishops  to 
attend  the  synods  to  \vhich  they  are  summoned,  unless 
prevented  by  illness.  41, 42.  Forbids  clergymen  leaving 
the  diocese  to  travel  abroad  without  the  bishop's  per- 
mission and  the  canonical  letters.     43.  Forbids  the  por- 


two  bishops  were  present,  from  different  provinces  of  ;  ter  of  the  church  leaving  the  gate  for  a  moment,  even 
Asia,  and  sixty  canons  were  published,  which  were  ac-  in  order  to  pray.  44.  Forbids  women  entering  mto  the 
cepted  by  the  other  churches.  1.  Permits  the  adminis-  altar.  45.  Forbids  receiving  those  who  do  not  present 
tration  of  communion  to  persons  who  have  married  a  sec- I  themselves  for  the  Easter  baptism  before  the  second 
ond  time,  after  their  remaining  a  while  in  retreat,  fasting  week  in  Lent.  40.  Orders  that  all  catechumens  to  be 
and  praying.  2.  Directs  holy  communion  to  be  given  i  baptized  shall  know  the  Creed  by  heart,  and  shall  repeat 
to  those  who  have  completed  their  penance.  3.  Forbids  ;  it  before  the  bishop  or  priest  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  week, 
to  raise  neojihytes  to  the  sacertlotal  order.     4.  Forbids  ^  47.  Those  who  have  been  baptized  in  sickness,  if  thev 


usury  among  the  clergy.  5.  Ordination  not  to  be  ad- 
ministered in  the  presence  of  those  who  are  in  the  rank 
of  hearers.     0.  No  heretics  to  enter  within  the  church. 


recover,  must  learn  the  Creed.  48.  Orders  that  those 
who  have  been  baptized  shall  be  anointed  with  the  holy 
chrism,  and  partake  of  the  kingdom  of  God.     49.  For- 


7.  Any  Novatians,  Photinians,  or  Quartodecimani  who  bills  celebrating  the  holy  eucharist  during  Lent  on  any 
arc  to  be  received  into  the  Church  must  first  abjure  ev-  days  but  Saturdavs  and  Sundays.  50.  Forbids  eating 
ery  heresy,  be  instructed  in  the  true  faith,  and  anointed  i  anything  on  the  I'hursday  in  the  last  week  of  Lent,  or 
with  the  holy  chrism.  8.  All  Cataiihrygians  or  Monta-  j  during  the  whole  of  Lent  anything  except  dry  food.  51. 
nists  to  be  instructed  and  baptized  before  being  received  '  Forbids  celebrating  the  festivals  of  the  martyrs  during 
into  the  Church.     9.  Excommunicates  the  faithful  who  ;  Lent;  orders  remembrance  of  them  on  Saturdays  and 


go  to  the  places  of  worship  or  burial-grounds  of  here- 
tics. 10.  Forbids  the  faithful  to  give  their  children  in 
marriage  to  heretics.  11.  Forbids  the  ordination  of 
priestesses  {■iTp((j3vTici(;)  (see  below).  12.  Bishops  to 
be  appointed  by  the  metropolitan  and  his  provincials. 
13,  Priests  not  to  be  elected  l)y  the  people.  14.  Conse- 
crated eleniLMits  not  to  be  sent  into  other  parishes  at 
I^aster  by  way  of  eulogi;e.  15.  Only  those  chanters 
named  in  the  Church  roll  shall  ascend  the  pulpit  and 
chant.  10.  The  Gospels  to  be  read,  as  well  as  the  other 
books  of  Scripture,  on  Saturday.  17.  A  lesson  shall  be 
read  between  each  psalm.  18.  The  same  prayer  to  be 
repeated  at  nones  as  at  vespers.  19.  After  the  bishop's 
sermon  the  prayers  for  the  catechiunens  shall  be  said 
separately,  then  those  for  the  penitents,  and,  lastly,  those 
of  the  faithful;  after  which  the  kiss  of  peace  shall  be 
given,  and  after  the  priests  have  given  it  to  the  bishop, 


Sundays.  62.  Forbids  celebrating  marriages  and  birth- 
day feasts  during  Lent.  53.  ICnjoins  proper  behavior  at 
marriage  festivals,  and  forbids  all  dancing.  54.  Forbids 
the  clergy  attending  the  shows  and  dances  given  at  wed- 
dings. 55.  None  of  the  clergy  or  laity  to  club  together 
for  drinking- parties.  50.  Forbids  the  priests  taking 
their  seats  in  the  sanctuary  before  the  bishop  enters, 
except  he  be  ill  or  absent,  57.  Directs  that  bishops 
shall  not  be  placed  in  small  towns  or  villages,  but  sim- 
ply visitors,  who  shall  act  under  the  direction  of  the 
bishop  in  the  city.  58.  Forbids  both  bishops  and  priests 
celebrating  the  holy  eucharist  in  private  houses.  59. 
Forbids  singing  uninspired  hymns,  etc.,  in  church,  and 
reading  the  uncanonicr.l  books.  00.  Declares  which  are 
the  canonical  books  of  Scripture.  In  this  list  the  Apoc- 
ri-pha  and  the  book  of  Kevelation  are  omitted.  See 
Canon  of  Scriptuke.     Of  particular  interest  among 


LAODICEAN 


238 


LAOS 


the  decisions  of  this  council  is  canon  1 1 ,  forbiddint;  the 
employment  of  women  as  jireachers.  Ilefele  holds  that 
the  canon  has  hardly  been  properly  translated,  and  that 
the  desire  of  the  council  was  simply  to  forbid  stipeiior 
iliucuiit'.iseg  in  the  C'hurcli.  But  for  a  detailed  discussion 
we  must  refer  to  Ilefele,  Concilienijeschichte,  i,  731  sq. 
The  difficulty  as  to  the  meaning  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  canons  were  written  in  (ireek,  and  the  question 
hini;os  on  the  mtanimj  intended  for  TrpscylivTiceg  and 
TrpoKii^ill^in'cn. 

Laodice'an  (AaociKivi;'),  an  inhabitant  of  the  city 
of  Laodicea,  in  Phrygia  (^Coloss.  iv,  IG;  Kev.  iii,  14), 
from  which  passages  it  appears  that  a  Christian  Church 
was  established  there  bv  the  apostles.     See  below. 

LAODICE  ANS,  EPISTLE  TO  THE.  "  In  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (Colos.  iv,  IG), 
the  ajiostle,  after  sending  to  the  Cf)lossians  the  saluta- 
tions of  himself  and  others  who  were  with  him,  enjoins 
the  Colossians  to  send  this  epistle  to  the  Laodiceans, 
and  that  they  likewise  should  read  the  one  from  Laodi- 
cea {t))v  tK  AaoScKEiac).  It  is  disputed  whether  by 
these  concluding  words  Paul  intends  an  epistle  from 
him  to  the  Laodiceans  or  one  from  the  Laodiceans  to 
him.  The  use  of  the  preposition  t/c  favors  the  latter 
conclusion,  and  this  has  been  strongly  urged  by  Thcod- 
oret,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Philastrius,  (Ecumenius,  Cal- 
vin, Ueza,  Storr,  and  a  multitude  of  other  interj^reters. 
Winer,  however,  clearly  shows  that  the  preposition  here 
may  be  under  the  law  of  attraction,  and  that  the  full 
force  of  the  passage  may  be  thus  given :  '  that  written 
to  the  Laodiceans,  and  to  be  brought  J'lom  Laodicea  to 
you'  (G rammaiik  d.  Neutestamentl.  Sprachidioms,  p.  43-i, 
Lpz.  MoQ).  It  must  be  allowed  that  such  an  interjire- 
tation  of  the  apostle's  words  is  in  itself  more  probable 
than  the  other;  for,  supposing  him  to  refer  to  a  letter 
from  the  Laodiceans  to  him,  the  questions  arise,  How 
were  the  Colossians  to  procure  this  unless  he  himself 
sent  it  to  them?  And  of  what  use  would  such  a  docu- 
ment be  to  them?  To  this  latter  (luestion  it  has  been 
replied  that  probably  the  letter  from  the  Laodiceans 
contained  some  statements  which  inthienced  the  apostle 
in  writing  to  the  Colossians,  and  which  refpiired  to  be 
known  before  his  letter  in  rejjly  could  be  perfectly  un- 
derstood. But  this  is  said  without  the  slightest  shadow 
of  reason  from  the  epistle  before  us ;  and  it  is  opposed 
by  the  fact  that  the  Laodicean  epistle  was  to  be  used  by 
the  Colossians  after  they  had  read  that  to  themselves 
(iirai'  afayvio(y'bij,K.  t.  A.)-  It  seems,  upon  the  whole, 
most  likely  that  the  apostle  in  this  passage  refers  to  an 
epistle  sent  by  him  to  the  Church  in  Laodicea  some  time 
before  that  to  the  Church  at  Colossa;"  (Kitto).  The 
suggestion  of  Grotius  (after  IMarcion)  that  it  is  identical 
with  the  canonical  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  has  sub- 
stantially been  adopted  by  ISIill  and  Wetstein,  and  many 
modern  critics :  see,  especially,  Holzhausen,  Der  Bnf 
an  die  Kphesen  (Hannover,  183-1) ;  Baur,  Pauliis  (2d  ed. 
Lpz.  18GG-7),  ii,  47  sq. ;  Riibiger,  De  Cliristolot/ia  Pauli- 
na (Breslau,  1852),  p.  48 ;  Bleek,  Einleiiumj  in  das  N.  T. 
(2d  ed.  Berlin,  1866),  p.  454  sq. ;  Hausrath,  Der  Ajwstel 
Paidu.i  (Heidelb.  1865),  p.  2;  Volkmar,  Commentar  ziir 
Off'e/ih.  Jo/i.  (Ziirich,  1862),  p.  6G ;  Kiene,  in  the  Shid.  v. 
Krit.  18G9,  p.  323  sq. ;  Klostermann,  in  the  Jdhrh.fur 
deittschc  Theol.  1870,  p.  160  sq. ;  Hitzig,  Zur  Kritik  Paii- 
linisrhen  Brife  (Lpz.  1870),  p.  27.  The  only  supposi- 
tion that  seems  to  meet  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
case  is  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  although  not 
exactly  encyclical,  was  designed  (as  indeed  its  character 
evinces)  for  general  circulation;  and  that  Paul,  after 
having  dispatched  this,  addressed  a  special  ejustle  to 
the  Colossians  on  occasion  of  writing  to  Philemon,  and 
recommends  the  perusal  of  that  to  the  Ephesians,  which 
would  l)y  that  time  reach  them  by  way  of  Laodi"cea. 
This  explains  the  doubtfid  reacUng  iv  'E^fdi/j,  flnd  the 
absence  of  personal  salutation  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Ephesians.  and  at  the  same  time  the  allusion  to  a  letter 
from  Laodicea;  while  it  obviates  the  objectionable  hy- 
pothesis of  the  loss  of  an  inspireil  epistle,  to  which  par- 


ticular attention  had  thus  been  called,  and  which  was 
therefore  the  more  likely  to  have  been  preserved.  See 
Epiiksians,  Ei'isTLE  TO.  Wicselcr's  theory  (^Apoit, 
ZeiUdter,  p.  450)  is  that  the  Epistle  to  Philemon  is 
meant;  and  the  tradition  in  the  Apostolical  Constitu- 
tions that  he  was  bishop  of  this  see  is  adduced  in  confir- 
mation. But  this  is  utterly  at  variance  Mith  the  evi- 
dently personal  nature  of  the  epistle.  See  Philemox, 
Epistle  to.  Others  think  that  the  apostle  refers  to 
an  epistle  now  lost,  as  Jerome  and  Theodoret  seem  to 
mention  such  a  letter,  and  it  was  also  referred  to  at  the 
second  general  Council  of  Nicaja.  But  these  allusions 
are  too  vague  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion.  The  apoc- 
ryphal epistle,  now  extant,  and  claiming  to  be  that  re- 
ferred to  by  Paul,  entitled  Ejnstola  ad  Laodicenses,  is 
admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  a  late  and  clumsy  forgery. 
It  exists  only  in  Latin  IMSS.,  from  which  a  Greek  ver- 
sion was  made  by  Hutten  (in  Fabricius,  Cod.  Apiocr.  N. 
T.  i,  873  sq.).  It  is  evidently  a  cento  from  the  Galatians 
and  Ephesians.  A  fuU  accoimt  of  it  may  be  found  iu 
Jones  {On  the  Canon,  ii,  31-49),  The  Latin  text  is  given 
by  Auger  (lU  inf.),  and  an  English  version  by  Eadie 
{Comment,  on  Colos.\  We  may  remark  in  this  connec- 
tion that  the  subscription  at  the  end  of  the  First  Epistle 
to  Timothy  (typcKp)]  cnrb  AaoCuctiac,  tjtkj  'kjtI  f^iTj-po- 
TToXtt;  f^pvyiag  rj/c  no/canorr/f)  is  of  no  authority ;  but 
it  is  worth  mentioning,  as  showing  the  importance  of 
Laodicea.  On  the  general  subject  of  the  Laodicean 
epistle,  see  Michaehs,  Introd.  iv,  124;  Hug,  Introd.  ii, 
436;  Steiger,  Cofo«se?-fer.  ad  loc. ;  Heinrichs,  ad  loc. ;  Ea- 
phel.  ad  loc;  and  especially  Credner,  Geschiclite  d.N.T. 
Kanon  (ed.YoIkmar,  Berlin,  18G0),  p.  300,  313;  Auger, 
Uth.  d.  Laodicenerhrief  (Lpz.  1843) ;  Sartori,  Uth.  d.  La- 
odicenerhrief  (Llibeck,  1863) ;  Conybeare  and  Howson, 
Life  and  Epistles  of  St. Paul,  ii,  395  sq. ;  Huth,  Ep.  ex 
Laodicea  in EncycUca  ad  Ephesios  adserrata  (Erlangen, 
1751) ;  and  other  monographs  cited  by  Yolbediiig,  Index 
Proejrammatum,  p.  85.     See  Paul. 

Laos,  the  name  of  the  mountain  tribes  in  Farther 
India  who  inhabit  the  country  between  China,  Assam, 
Burmah,  Siam,  and  Tonquin,  and  are  dependent  upon 
Siam.  Like  the  Shaus  of  Burmah,  they  belong  to  the 
race  of  the  Thai,  which  extends  through  the  Ahom  as 
far  as  Assam.  The  Laos  and  their  descendants,  scat- 
tered through  the  northern  provinces  of  Siam  and  their 
own  countr}',  are  estimated  at  two  to  three  millions. 
The  Laos  are  divided  into  two  subdivisions.  The 
western  tribes  tattoo  themselves  like  the  Burmese  and 
the  Shaus,  and  are  on  that  account  called  Luo-pimj- 
dam,  or  black-bellied  Laos ;  the  eastern  tribes,  which  do 
not  tattoo  themselves,  are  called  Luo-jimif/-l/tao,  or 
white-bellied  Laos.  The  western  Laos  form  the  princi- 
palities of  Labong  (founded  in  574  after  Christ),  Lam- 
phtui.  Lagong,  iNIyang  Preh,  iNIyang  Nan,Chiengrai.  and 
Cliicnginai  or  /imniay.  The  last-named  was  I'ormerly 
an  indepeutlent  kingtlom,  which  frequently  carried  on 
wars  with  Pegu.  Of  the  principalities  of  the  eastern  or 
white  Laos,Viengkhan  has  been  almost  wholly  (1828), 
and  jMyang  Phuen  for  the  greater  part,  destroyed  by 
the  Siamese;  Myang  Lomb  ])ays  a  tribute  to  Siam,  and 
^lyang  Luang  I'hrabang,  which  was  formerly  governed 
I)y  three  kings,  is  dependent  not  only  upon  Siam,  but 
upon  Cochin  China.  As  the  Laos  have  no  maritime 
coast,  they  have  for  a  long  time  remained  unknown  to 
the  Europeans.  Chiengmai  was  for  the  tirst  time  vis- 
ited by  the  London  merchant,  Palph  Fitch,  who  arrived 
there  in  158()  from  Pegu.  Alter  the  occupation  of  Maul- 
main  in  1820  by  tireat  Britain,  new  expeditions  were 
sent  out,  and  tlie  meeting  with  Chinese  caravans  sug- 
gested the  tirst  idea  of  an  overland  road  to  Yunnan. 
The  lirst  European  who  visited  the  eastern  Laos  was 
Wusthof,  an  agent  of -a  Dutch  establishment  in  Cam- 
bodia, who  in  1641,  amid  the  greatest  difficulties,  sailed 
up  the  jMekhong.  The  Laos  possess  several  alphabets 
which  are  derived  from  the  Cambodian  form  of  the  Pali. 
The  name  of  Free  Laos  is  usuallv  given  to  the  moun- 
tain tribes  of  the  Kadeh.     Between  the  language  of  the 


LAO-TZU 


239 


LAO-TZU 


Laos  and  that  of  the  Siamese  there  is  only  a  dialectic 
difference,  which  has  chietiy  been  caused  by  the  fact 
that  the  savage  mountaineers  neglect  or  misapply  the 
rules  of  accentuation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Laos 
surpass  the  Siamese  in  musical  taste.  The  religion 
of  the  Laos  is  Buddhism,  which,  however,  they  do  not 
hold  so  strictly  as  the  Siamese.  The  first  Christian 
mission  among  the  Laos  was  commenced  in  1867  at 
Chiengmai  (on  the  river  Quee  Ping,  500  miles  north  of 
Eankok),  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  first  missionary,  Mr.  M'Gil- 
livray,  was  welcomed  on  his  arrival  at  Chiengmai  both 
by  the  people  and  by  the  princes,  who  had  provided  a 
native  house  for  him  until  he  was  able  to  build  one  more 
suitable  to  his  wants  and  tastes.  In  1800  the  missiona- 
ries were  even  presented  by  the  king  with  a  beautiful 
lot,  but  subsequently  a  spirit  of  opposition  and  persecu- 
tion manifested  itself.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  I\Lay,  1871,  no  congrega- 
tion had  yet  been  organized.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Lao-tzu  (formerly  written  Lao-tse),  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  men  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  the  author 
of  the  Tao-te-kinr/,  and  founder  of  the  religious  sect 
known  as  Taoists  (or  Tauists),  was  born  in  the  king- 
dom of  Tsu  B.C.  604.  His  family  name  was  Le,  or  Plum  ; 
in  his  youth  he  himself  was  called  Urh,  or  Ear,  a  name 
given  him  on  account  of  the  size  of  his  ears.  When  he 
came  to  be  known  as  a  philosopher  he  was  honorably 
caMcd  Pe-ijanr/.  and  was  surnamcd  Lao-tzu  (old  boy),  or 
Lao-kun-tzii  (old  prince).  Tradition  asserts  that  his  fa- 
ther was  a  poor  peasant,  who  remained  a  bachelor  until 
he  was  seventy  j'ears  old,  and  then  married  a  woman  of 
forty.  Lao-tzu  was  probably  a  great  student  in  early 
life,  and  when  yet  a  youth  was  promoted  to  an  office 
connected  with  the  treasury  or  the  museum  under  the 
Chow  dynasty.  While  in  the  service  at  the  court  of 
Chow  he  visited  the  western  parts  of  China,  and  there 
probably  became  acquainted  with  the  rites  and  religion 
of  Full,  or  Buddha.  The  duration  of  Lao-tzu's  service 
at  the  court  is  entirely  uncertain.  When  the  Chow  dy- 
nasty was  hastening  to  its  fall,  and  the  whole  country 
torn  up  into  petty  states  warring  with  each  other,  and 
anarcliy  every  where  prevailing,  La(j-tzu  retired  into 
obscurity.  For  this  course  he  has  been  often  and  se- 
verely censured ;  but  when  we  consider  that  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  government  was  too  great  for  him  to  over- 
come, it  does  not  appear  that  he  was  to  blame  for  retiring 
with  pure  hands  from  his  connection  with  it.  There  is  no 
trustworthy  account  of  the  time  or  manner  of  his  death, 
but  some  writers  have  assigned  the  date  of  B.C.  523  to 
that  event.  Szu  Ma-chien,  in  relating  his  retirement 
from  the  government,  sim]jly  says,  '•  He  then  went  away, 
and  no  one  knows  his  end."  His  life  seems  to  have 
been  that  of  a  contemplative  philosopher — far  more  oc- 
cupied with  thoughts  of  the  invisible  and  the  mj'steri- 
ous  than  with  sublunary  things.  He  became  so  cele- 
brated as  a  philosojiher  that  Confucius  went  to  see  him, 
and  left  him  decjjly  imjiressed  with  his  extraordinary 
character,  and  evidently  regarded  Lao-tzu  as  something 
wonderful — divine;  yet,  while  all  agree  that  Confucius 
was  almost  carried  away  by  his  admiration  of  Lao-tzu, 
the  latter  has  been  accused  of  jealousy  and  spite  against 
Confucius.  His  writings,  however,  give  no  color  to  the 
charge ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  Confucius  himself  would 
have  always  spoken  of  Lao-tzu  in  such  high  terms  of 
este«m  and  admiration,  and  even  quoted  the  opinions 
of  his  rival  as  sufficient  answers  to  the  tiueries  of  his  dis- 
ciples, had  he  not  received  kind  treatment  and  atten- 
tions at  the  hands  of  Lao-tzu,  the  advocate  of  a  doctrine 
that  "  man  is  to  be  rendered  immortal  through  the  con- 
templation of  God,  the  repression  of  the  passions,  and 
the  perfect  tranquillity  of  the  soul,"  the  author  of  "  a 
moral  code  inculcating  all  the  great  princi|)les  found 
in  other  religions  :  charity,  benevolence,  virtue,  and  the 
free-will,  moral  agency,  and  responsibility  of  man." 

Lao-tzu  has  at  different  periods  enjoyed  the  patron- 
age of  the  Chinese  government,  there  being,  indeed,  a 


constant  struggle  for  ascendency  between  his  supporters 
and  those  of  Confucius  during  several  centuries  at  the 
beginning  of  our  era.  Emperors  have  paid  homage  to 
him  in  his  temple,  and  one  of  them  wrote  a  commentary 
on  his  book.  When  we  turn  aside  from  definite  history 
and  give  our  attention  to  legends,  there  is  no  end  to  the 
mysteries  thrown  around  his  birth  and  being.  His  fol- 
lowers have  transferred  him  from  the  ranks  of  ordinary 
mortals  into  an  incarnation  of  deity,  and  have  clothed 
his  philosophic  treatise  with  the  authority  of  a  sacred 
book,  being  jirobably  moved  to  this  course  by  a  desire  to 
make  their  founder  equal  to  Sakyamuni  (see  Gauta- 
ma), and  to  give  enhanced  importance  to  his  works. 
He  is  represented  as  an  eternal  and  self-existing  being, 
incarnated  at  various  times  upon  the  earth.  One  ac- 
count represents  him  as  having  been  conceived  by  the 
inriuence  of  a  meteor,  anil  after  being  carried  in  the 
womb  for  seventy-two  (another  author  says  eightj'-one) 
years,  at  last  delivering  himself  by  bursting  a  jiassage 
under  his  nK)ther's  left  arm.  From  having  gray  hairs 
at  birtli,  and  looking  generally  like  an  old  man,  he  was 
called  Lao-tzu — i.  e.  the  old  bo;/.  He  is  reported  to  have 
had  the  gift  of  speech  at  birth.  It  is  also  said  that,  as 
soon  as  he  was  born,  he  mounted  nine  paces  in  the  air, 
each  step  producing  a  lotus-fiower,  and,  while  poised 
there,  |iointed  with  his  left  hand  to  heaven  and  with  his 
right  hand  to  earth,  saying,  "  Heaven  above — earth  be- 
neath— only  Tao  is  honorable."  The  eighty-one  chap- 
ters of  the  Tao-tc-kinr;  are  said  to  have  been  obtained 
from  him  by  Ym-hsi,  the  keeper  of  the  Han-ku  Pass, 
through  which  he  was  leaving  the  country  on  his  re- 
tirement from  office. 

The  Tao-te-hini)  seems  to  have  recei\-ed  its  present 
name  about  B.C.  160.  Before  that,  it  was  known  as  the 
teachings  of  Hwang  and  Lao — i.e.  the  emperor  Hwang 
(B.C.  2600)  and  Lao-tzu ;  also  as  the  Book  of  Lao-tzu. 
There  is  much  uncertainty  and  confusion  in  regard  to 
the  text.  Some  editors,  having  in  view  the  tradition 
that  Lao-tzu  -(VTote  a  book  of  5000  characters,  have  cut 
down  those  in  excess  of  that  number  without  much  re- 
gard for  the  sense  of  the  author.  Others  have  added 
characters  to  explain  the  meaning,  thus  incorporating 
their  commentary  into  the  text.  The  occasional  sup- 
pression of  a  negative  particle,  by  some  editors,  gives  an 
exactly  opposite  meaning  to  a  sentence  from  that  of 
other  editions.  To  ascertain  the  true  text  is  in  many 
instances  impossible.  The  style  is  exceedmgly  terse 
and  concise,  without  any  pretension  to  grace  or  elegance. 
The  work  is  fidl  of  short  sentences,  often  enigmatical  or 
paradoxical,  and  without  apparent  connection.  (Juite 
probably  the  book  is  composed  of  notes  for  philosophical 
discourses,  which  Avere  expanded  and  explained  by  Lao- 
tzu  while  orally  instructing  his  disciples.  As  contribu- 
ting to  the  obscurity  of  the  style,  we  must  consider  that 
the  topics  discussed  are  exceedingly  abstruse,  and  that 
Lao-tzu  labored  under  the  cUsadvantage  of  writing  in 
the  infancy  of  literary  language  in  China,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  use  a  very  imperfect  medium  for  communica- 
ting his  thoughts. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  and  much  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  what  Lao-tzu  really  intended  by  Tao. 
The  word  means  a  [lath,  a  road ;  the  way  or  means  of 
doing  a  thing;  a  course  ;  reason,  doctrine,  principle,  etc. 
Lao-tzu  sf)metimes  uses  it  in  its  ordinary'  senses,  l)ut  it 
is  evident  that  in  general  he  uses  it  in  a  transcendental 
sense,  which  can  only  be  ascertained  by  a  carefid  study 
of  his  writings.  Tao  is  something  which  existed  be- 
fore heaven  and  earth,  and  even  before  deity.  It  has 
no  name,  and  never  had  one.  It  can  not  be  ai>]irehend- 
ed  by  the  bodily  senses  ;  it  is  profound  and  mysterious ; 
it  is  calm,  void,  solitary,  and  unchanging  ;  yet,  in  opera- 
tion, it  revolves  through  the  universe,  acting  ever^,-'- 
where,  but  acting  mysteriously,  spontaneously,  and 
without  effort.  It  contains  matter,  and  lias  an  inherent 
power  of  production ;  and  although  itself  formless,  yet 
comprehends  all  possible  forms.  It  is  the  ultimate  cause 
of  the  universe,  and  is  the  model  or  rule  for  all  creatures, 


LAO-TZU 


240 


LAO-TZU 


but  chiefly  for  man.  It  represents  also  that  ideal  state 
of  perfeetidn  iu  which  all  things  acted  liarnionionsly 
and  spontaneously,  good  and  evil  being  then  uidinown, 
and  tiie  return  to  -which  constitutes  the  sKininum  bo- 
v)iM  of  existence.  French  and  English  writers  gen- 
erally have  translated  Tuo  by  "  Reason,"  some  adding 
'■or  Logos."  There  are  some  striking  similarities  be- 
tween Tao  and  Loijos;  and  in  aU  the  translations  of  the 
Scriptures  into  Chinese  the  Lo(jos  of  John  is  rendered 
by  Tao.  Julien,  decidedly  dissenting  from  the  common 
translation  of  2'«o,  adopts  "Voie"  or  "  Waj'"  —  giving 
just  cause  for  his  dissent  in  the  fact  that  Lao-tzu  repre- 
sents Tao  as  devoid  of  thought,  judgment,  and  intelli- 
gence. Julien's  "Way,"  however,  is  also  objected  to, 
as  implying  a  way-maker  antecedent  to  it,  while  Tao 
was  before  all  other  existences.  The  '•  Nature"  of  mod- 
ern specidators  probably  answers  more  nearly  than  any- 
thing else  to  7'ao,  although  it  will  by  no  means  answer 
all  the  conditions  of  the  use  of  Tao  by  Lao-tzu. 

Doctrines. — (1.)  The  teachings  of  Lao-tzu  on  specu- 
lative physics  may  be  summarized  as  follows  :  All  exist- 
ing creatures  and  things  have  sprimg  from  an  eternal, 
all-producing,  self-sustaining  unity  called  Tao,  which, 
although  regarded  as  a  potential  existence,  is  also  dis- 
tinctly denominated  non-existence,  Lao-tzu  considering 
it  equivalent  to  the  primeval  Nothing  or  Chaos.  jVfr. 
Watters  (see  below)  thus  combines  these  apparently  con- 
tradictory views  :  "  Though  void,  shapeless,  and  imma- 
terial, it  yet  contains  the  potentiality  of  all  substance 
and  shape,  and  from  itself  produces  the  universe,  diffus- 
ing itself  over  all  space.  It  is  said  to  have  generated 
the  world,  and  is  frequently  spoken  of  as  its  mother — 
*  the  dark  primeval  mother,  teeming  with  dreamy  be- 
ings.' All  things  that  exist  submit  to  it  as  their  chief, 
but  it  shows  no  lordship  over  them.  All  the  operations 
of  Nature  (Tao)  occur  without  any  show  of  effort  or  vi- 
olence— spontaneously  and  unerringly.  Though  there 
is  nothing  done  in  the  universe  -which  Nature  does  not 
do,  though  all  things  depend  upon  it  f-r  their  origin  and 
subsistence,  yet  in  no  case  is  Nature  tisibl//  acting.  It 
is  in  its  own  deep  self  a  unit — the  smallest  possible 
quantity,  j-et  it  prevails  over  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
universe,  operating  unspent  but  unseen."  Lao-tzu's  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  universe  is,  "  Tao  begot  1, 1 
begot  2,  2  begot  3,  and  3  begot  the  material  universe  ;" 
■which  has  been  explained  by  commentators  that  Tao 
generated  the  Passive  Element  in  the  composition  of 
things,  this  produced  the  Active  Element,  and  this 
the  harmonious  agreement  of  the  two  elements,  which 
brought  about  the  production  of  all  things.  The  next 
thing  to  Tao  is  heaven — i.  e.  the  material  heaven  above 
us.  This  is  pure  and  clear,  and  if  it  should  lose  its  puri- 
ty would  be  in  danger  of  destruction.  The  earth  is  at 
rest,  the  heavens  always  revolving  over  it,  producing 
the  various  seasons,  vivifying,  nourishing,  killing  all 
things.  Tlien  come  the  "myriad  things"  —  all  ani- 
mate and  inanimate  existences,  that  spring  from  Tao — 
which,  although  in  itself  impalpable,  bodies  itself  forth 
in  these  olyccts,  and  thus  liecomcs  subject  to  human  ob- 
servation. This  manifestation  of  Tao  in  each  object 
constitutes  its  Te.  Te  is  generally  translated  "Virtue," 
but  this  rendering  is  inadequate.  It  seems  frequently 
to  refer  to  the  specific  nature  of  the  olyect  spoken  of, 
whicli  is  derived  from  Universal  Nature  (Tao).  Follow- 
ing the  popular  ideas  of  his  country,  Lao-tzu  speaks  of 
five  colors,  live  sounds,  and  live  tastes,  and  regards  all 
things  as  arranged  in  a  sj'stem  of  dualism — e.  g.  a  wood- 
en vessel,  in  the  case  of  which  solidity  gives  the  object, 
and  hollnwness  the  utility.  In  representing  pure  exist- 
ence <'is  identical  with  non-existence,  he  anticipated  He- 
gel, of  our  own  century,  who  says, "  Scyn  und  Nichts  ist 
dasselbe"  —  Being  and  Non-being  are  the  samO.  He 
agrees  with  those  modern  phikisophers  whp  maintain 
that  God  made  all  things  out  of  himself,  but  differs  from 
them  in  never  introducing  personality  into  his  concep- 
tion, and  consequently  excluding  will  and  design  from 
the  primordial  existence. 


(2.)  In  politics  he  assigns  the  original  choice  of  a 
sovereign  to  the  people,  and  holds  that  he  whom  the 
people  elect  is  the  elect  of  heaven.  He  conceives  of  the 
sovereign  as  rather  the  model  and  instructor  than  the 
judge  and  ruler  of  the  people.  He  compares  the  ruling 
of  a  kingdom  to  the  cooking  of  a  small  fish,  which  is 
easily  spoiled  by  too  much  cooldng.  The  first  duty  of 
the  ruler  is  to  rectify  himself.  This  done,  it  will  be 
easy  for  him  to  regulate  his  kingdom.  He  speaks  in 
strong  terms  against  military  oppression,  and  has  a  poor 
opinion  of  fire-arms.  He  opposes  capital  punishment 
and  excessive  taxation.  He  thinks  the  people  should 
be  ke|)t  ignorant — the  ruler  shoidd  empty  their  minds 
and  till  their  stomachs;  weaken  their  wills  and  strength- 
en their  bones.  The  intercourse  of  different  states  with 
each  other  should  be  regulated  by  courtesy  and  forbear- 
ance. , 

(3.)  Ill  ethics,  Lao-tzu  held  that  in  the  beginning 
virtue  and  vice  were  unknown  terms.  Man,  without 
effort,  constantly  lived  according  to  Tao.  In  the  next 
stage,  man  —  though  in  the  main  virtuous — was  occa- 
sionally sliding  into  vice,  and  was  unable  to  retain  the 
stability  of  unconscious  goodness.  Then  came  a  period 
of  filial  piety  and  integrity;  and,  finally,  the  days  of 
craft,  and  ciuniing,  and  insincerity.  He  makes  no  ex- 
press statement  as  to  the  moral  condition  of  human 
beings  at  birth,  but  it  may  be  inferred  from  some  ex- 
pressions that  he  regards  the  spirit  as  coming  pure  and 
perfect  from  the  great  Mother,  but  susceptible  of  bad 
influences,  which  lead  it  astray.  With  him,  Tao  is  the 
standard  of  virtue,  the  guide  and  model  of  the  universe. 
To  meet  the  desire  of  men  for  something  more  tangible, 
he  refers  to  heaven,  earth,  and  the  sages  of  olden  times, 
but  nowliere  to  a  personal  god,  and  there  is  no  clear  ev- 
idence of  his  belief  in  such  a  being.  The  virtues  which 
distinguish  the  perfect  man  are  freedom  from  ostenta- 
tion, humility,  continence,  moderation,  gravity,  and 
kindness.  Much  and  fine  talking  are  to  be  avoided. 
He  assigns  a  low  place  to  learning,  which,  he  says,  adds  to 
the  evil  of  existence ;  and,  if  we  were  to  put  awaj^  learn- 
ing, we  would  be  exempt  from  anxiety.  There  is  one 
passage  that  seems  to  refer  to  a  future  life,  but  it  is  very 
obscure ;  and  the  only  future  Lao-tzu  appears  to  antici- 
pate is  absorption  into  Tao.  IMost  minds  will  see  little 
difference  between  absorption  into  non-existence  and 
annihilation.  At  chap,  xvi  of  his  Tao-fe-linij,  wlicre  he 
refers  to  this  sidiject,  he  says,  "When  things  have  lux- 
uriated for  a  while,  each  returns  home  to  its  origin,  (ic- 
ing home  to  the  origin  is  called  stillness.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  reversion  to  destiny.  This  reversion  to  destiny  is 
called  eternity.  He  who  knows  (this)  eternity  is  called 
bright.  He  who  does  not  know  this  eternity  wildly 
works  his  own  misery.  He  who  knows  eternity  is  mag- 
nanimous. Being  magnanimous,  he  is  cathohc.  Being 
catholic,  he  is  a  king.  Being  a  king,  he  is  heaven.  Be- 
ing heaven,  he  is  Tau.  Being  Tau,  he  is  entkuing. 
Though  his  body  perish,  he  is  in  no  danger."  Ar.d 
again,  at  chap,  xxviii,  "He  who  knows  the  light,  and  at 
tlie  same  time  keeps  the  shade,  will  be  the  whole  world's 
model.  Being  the  whole  world's  model,  eternal  virtue 
will  not  miss  liim,  and  he  will  return  home  to  tlie  abso- 
lute." Tlie  attainment,  then,  of  this  state  of  absolute 
v,icuit\'  he  looks  upon  as  tlie  chief  good,  and  warns  such 
as  have  attained  to  it  to  keep  themselves  perfectly  still, 
and  to  avoid  ambition.  And,  in  alluding  to  the  fact 
that  emptiness  or  non-existence  is  superior  to  existence, 
he  says  that  the  former  may  be  said  to  correspond  to 
use,  tile  latter  to  gain.  "Tau  is  empty."  "  Tlie  space 
between  heaven  and  earth  may  be  compared  to  a  bel- 
lows; though  empty,  it  never  collapses,  and  the  more 
it  is  exercised  the  more  it  brings  forth."  To  enforce 
this  theory  he  dr.aws  an  illustration  from  common  life, 
and  says,  "Thirty  spokes  unite  in  one  nave,  and  by 
that  part  wliich  is  non-existent  (i.  e.  the  hole  in  the 
centre  of  it)  it  is  usefid  for  a  carriage-wheel.  Earth  is 
moulded  into  vessels,  and  by  tlicir  liollowness  thej'  are 
useful  as  vessels.     Doors  and  windows  are  cut  out  ia 


LAP 


241 


LAPLACE 


order  to  make  a  house,  and  by  its  hollowness  it  is  useful 
as  a  house." 

Since  the  2d  century  A.D.  the  Taoists  have  greatly 
spread  in  China,  Japan,  Cochin-China,  Touquin,  and 
among  the  Indo-Chinese  nations.  In  our  day  they  are 
especially  popular  with  the  common  people,  and  in  some 
parts  of  China  their  influence  rivals  that  of  the  Buddh- 
ists. They  have,  however,  greatly  corrupted  the  teach- 
ings of  their  founder;  the  worship  of  original  Taoism 
has  been  degraded  into  the  lowest  idolatry,  while  its 
priests  are  jugglers  and  necromancers,  among  whom 
scarcely  a  trace  of  the  pure  spirit  of  Lao-tzu  can  be 
found.  See  J.  P.  A.  Kemusat,  Memoire  su?-  la  Vie  et  les 
Opinions  de  Lao-tseu  (1820) ;  John  Chalmers,  The  Sjjec- 
ulations  on  Metaphysics,  Poiit;i,  and  Moralih/  of  the  old 
Philoso2>her  Lau-tsze,  with  an  Introduction  (Lond.  1869, 
8vo) ;  the  valuable  articles  of  T.  Walters  in  the  Chinese 
EeconIer,vol.i  (1868);  Pauthier, /.re  Chine  (Paris,  1837, 
2  vols.  8vo),  p.  110-120  ;  Stanislas  JuUen,  Le  Licre  des 
Recompenses  (Paris,  1848,  8vo) ;  Neumann,  Lehrsaal  des 
Mittelreichs  (INIunich,  1856, 8  vo) ;  Legge,  Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius  (Lond.  1867,  8to),  ch.  v ;  Loomis,  Co7i- 
fucius  and  the  Chinese  Classics,  p.  278  sq.;  Pall  Mall 
Gazette  (London),  Sept.  3, 1869,  p.  11  sq.  See  also  arti- 
cles on  Lao-tzu  in  Chambers,  Cyclop. ;  Thomas,  Biogr. 
Diet. ;  and  Brockhaus,  Conversations-Lex.     (S.  L.  B.) 

Lap  Cl?3,  2  Kings  iv,  39,  a  f/arment,  as  elsewhere ; 
p^^n,  Prov.  xvi,  33,  the  bosom,  as  elsewhere ;  "iSn,  Neh. 
V,  13,  the  armful,  as  ia  Isa.  xlix,  22),  the  fold  of  the 
raiment  in  which  Orientals  are  accustomed  to  carry  ar- 
ticles in  lieu  of  pockets.  Instead  of  thcfbula  or  clasp 
that  was  used  by  the  Romans,  the  Arabs  join  together 
with  thread,  or  with  a  wooden  bodkin,  the  two  top  cor- 
ners of  their  upper  garment;  and,  after  having  placed 
them  first  over  one  of  their  shoulders,  they  then  fold  the 
rest  of  it  about  their  bodies.  The  outer  fold  serves  them 
frequently  instead  of  an  apron,  in  which  they  carry 
herbs,  loaves,  corn,  and  other  articles,  and  may  illustrate 
several  allusions  made  to  it  in  Scripture :  thus  one  of 
the  sons  of  the  prophets  went  out  into  the  field  to  gather 
herbs,  and  found  a  wild  vine,  and  gathered  thereof  wUd 
gourds  his  lap  full  (2  Kings  iv,  39).  The  Psalmist  of- 
fers up  his  prayers  that  Jehovah  would  "  render  unto 
his  neighbors  sevenfold  into  their  bosom  their  reproach" 
(Psa.  xix,  12).  The  same  allusion  occurs  in  our  Lord's 
direction, "  Give,  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you,  good 
measure,  pressed  down  and  shaken  together,  and  run- 
ning over,  shall  men  give  into  your  bosom"  (Luke  vi, 
38).     See  Bosom  ;  DiiESS. 

Lapide.     See  Steen, 

Lapithae  {Xa-Ki^ai),  in  mythical  geography,  a  peo- 
ple of  Thessaly,  chiefly  known  to  us  from  their  fabled 
contests  with  the  Centaurs.  The  battle  between  the 
Centaurs  and  the  Lapithie  has  been  minutely  described 
by  Hcsiod  and  Ovid. — Brande  and  Cox,  ii,  317. 

Laphria  (Aa^p/n),  a  surname  of  Artemis  or  Diana 
among  the  Calydonians,  from  which  tlie  worship  of  the 
goddess  was  introduced  at  Naupactus  and  Patrre,  in 
Achaia.  At  the  latter  place  it  was  not  established  till 
the  time  of  Augustus,  but  it  became  the  occasion  of  a 
great  annual  festival  (Pausanias,  iv,  31,  §  6 ;  vii,  18,  §  6, 
etc. ;  Schol.  ad  Eurip.  Orest.  1087).  The  name  Laphria 
was  traced  back  to  a  hero,  Laplirius,  son  of  Castalius, 
who  was  said  to  have  instituted  her  worship  at  Calydon. 
Laphria  was  also  a  surname  of  Athene  or  IMinerva  (Ly- 
cophron,  356).— Smith,  Diet,  of  Greeh  and  Roman  Bi- 
oyraphy  and  Mythohxjy,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lapides  Judaici  {Jewish  Stones).  In  the  chalky 
beds  which  surround  in  some  parts  the  summit  of  Mount 
Carmcl  are  found  numerous  hollow  stones,  lined  in  the 
inside  with  a  variety  of  sparry  matter,  which,  from  some 
distant  resemblance,  are  supposed  by  the  natives  to  be 
petrified  olives,  melons,  peaches,  and  other  fruit.  These 
are  considered  not  only  as  curiosities,  Ijut  as  antidotes 
against  several  diseases.  Those  Avhich  bear  some  re- 
V.-Q 


semblance  to  the  olive  have  been  designated  Lapides 
Judaici,  otherwise  "  Elijah's  Melons,"  and  are  supersti- 
tiously  regarded  as  an  infallible  remedy  for  stone  and 
gravel  when  dissolved  in  the  juice  of  lemons.  Those 
supposed  petrified  fruits  are,  however,  as  Dr.  Shaw  states, 
only  so  many  different-sized  flint-stones,  beautified  with- 
in by  sparry  and  stalagmitical  knobs,  which  are  fanci- 
fully taken  for  seeds  and  kernels.     See  Caksiel. 

Lap'idoth  (Hebrew  Laj^jndoth',  r:*,~l'^^b,  torches; 
Sept.  Aa0(t')ai3),  the  husband  of  Deborah  the  prophetess 
(Judg.  iv,  4).  lie  may  have  resided  with  her  at  the 
time  of  her  public  services  as  female  judge  (ver.  5),  or 
more  probably  he  was  deceased,  and  she  is  named  as  his 
widow.  B.C.  ante  1409.  Prom  the  fact  that  the  name 
is  in  the  form  of  a  fem.  plur.,  some  have  talcen  it  to  mean 
her  place  of  residence  (r'lIJN,  woman  of,  being  under- 
stood before  it),  but  without  probabUity  (Bertheau,  ad 
loc).  By  others  the  term  lappidoth  has  been  under- 
stood to  denote  merely  her  character  (q.  d.  "  woman  of 
splendors,"  i.  e.  noble,  brilliant),  or  even  her  occupation 
merely  (q.  d.  lump-trimmer) ;  but  all  these  are  equally 
nugatory  suppositions.     See  Deborah. 

La  Pilonniere,  Francois  de,  an  eminent  French 
writer,  was  born  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century. 
After  remaining  for  some  time  a  member  of  the  Order 
of  the  Jesuits,  he  was  converted  to  Protestantism,  and 
on  this  account  was  obliged  to  flee  the  country.  He 
took  refuge  first  in  Holland,  then  in  England,  where  he 
was  w-elcomed  by  bishop  Hoadly.  The  precise  time  of 
his  death  is  not  ascertained.  He  wrote  VAtheisme  de- 
couvertpar  le  P.  IIardouin,Jesuite,  dans  les  ecrits  de  tons 
les  Peres  de  VErjlise  et  des  philosophes  modeimes  (1715, 
8vo ;  and  in  St.  Hyacinthe,  Memoires  Litteraires,  1716) : 
— UAbus  des  Confessions  de  Foi  (1716,  8vo): — An  An- 
swer to  the  R.  D.  Snape's  A  ccusation,  containing  an  ac- 
count of  his  behavior  and  suffeiing  amongst  the  Jesuits 
(Lond.  1717, 8vo ;  transl.  into  Latin  in  1718) :  it  is  a  sort 
of  autobiography: — Defense  des  Principes  de  la  Tole- 
rance (London,  1718, 8  vo)  : — Further  Account  of  himself 
(Lond.  1729, 8 vo).  He  translated  also  into  French  Pope's 
Essay  on  Criticism  (1717) ;  Plato's  Republic  (1725, 8vo)  ; 
Burnet's  Bistoire  des  dernieres  Revolutions  d'Angleterre 
(La  Haye,  1725, 2  vols.  4to;  London,  3  vols.  12mo;  latest 
edit.  La  Haye,  1735) ;  antl  some  works  of  bishop  Bau- 
ger  and  of  Steele.  See  Adelung,  Suppl.  z.  Jocher ;  H  aag, 
La  France  Protestante ;  Iloefer,  Kouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxix,  527,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lapis  (the  stoi2e'),  a  surname  of  Jupiter  at  Rome,  as 
is  evident  from  the  expression  "Jovem  Lapidem"  (Cice- 
ro, ad  Fam.  vii,  12  ;  Gellius,  i,  21  ;  Polybius,  iii,  26).  It 
was  formerly  believed  that  Jupiter  Lapis  was  a  stone 
statue  of  the  god,  or  originally  a  rude  stone  serving  as 
a  symbol,  around  which  people  assembled  for  the  pur- 
pose of  worshipping  Jupiter.  But  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  pebble  or  flint-stone  was  regard- 
edTis  a  symbol  of  lightning,  and  that  therefore,  in  some 
representations  of  Jupiter,  he  held  a  stone  in  his  hand 
instead  of  the  thunderbolt  (Arnobius,  adv.  Gent,  iv,  25). 
Such  a  stone  ("  lapis  Capitolinus,"  August.  De  Civ.  Dei, 
ii,  29)  was  even  set  up  as  a  symbolic  representation  of 
the  god  himself  (Scrv.rtfi.fi'n.viii, 641).  When  a  treaty 
was  to  be  concluded,  the  sacred  symbols  of  Jupiter  were 
taken  from  his  temple,  viz.  his  sceptre,  the  pebble  and 
grass  from  the  district  of  the  temple,  for  the  purpose  of 
swearing  by  them  ("per  Jovem  Lapidem  jurare,"  Livy, 
i,  24;  XXX,  43).  A  pebble  or  flint-stone  was  also  used 
by  the  Romans  in  killing  the  animal  when  an  oath  was 
to  be  accompanied  by  a  sacrifice,  and  this  custom  was 
probably  a  remnant  of  very  early  times,  when  metal  in- 
struments were  not  yet  used  for  such  purposes. — Smith, 
Diet.  Greek  and  Rom.  Biog.  ami  Mythol.  s.  v. 

Laplace  (Plac.eis),  Josue  de,  a  distinguished 
French  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  in  Brittany 
about  the  year  1605.  After  completing  his  studies  in 
the  University  of  Saumur,  he  taught  philosophy  for  a 


LAPLACE 


242 


LAPLAND 


while,  and  in  IG'25  was  appointed  pastor  of  the  Church 
at  Nantes.  He  left  this  situation  in  1633,  to  hecome 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Sauinim 
Here,  with  L.  Cappel  and  Moses  Amj^raut,  he  gave  a 
new  impulse  to  theological  studies.  Laplace,  attacking 
the  Calvinistic  dogma  of  the  imputation  of  original  sin 
to  all  the  descendants  of  Adam,  endeavored  to  show  its 
incompatibility  with  the  divine  raerc}''  and  justice.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  original  sin  is  only  indirectly  imputed 
to  man,  and  he  has  to  answer  only  for  his  own  individ- 
ual sins.  The  orthodox  party  in  the  Calvinistic  Church 
strongly  opposed  this  doctrine,  and,  on  the  motion  of 
Garissoles,  the  national  Synoil  of  Charenton  (in  1644) 
formally  condemned  it,  without,  however,  naming  the 
author.  The  schools  of  Sedan,  Cieneva,  and  Holland  de- 
nounced it  also  as  impious  and  heretical.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  obtained  the  approbation  of  all  moderate  peo- 
ple. A  large  number  of  provincial  synods  thought  the 
national  synod  had  been  too  hasty  in  condemning  a  doc- 
trine before  taking  time  to  thoroughly  investigate  and 
discuss  it;  they  refused  to  submit  to  the  verdict  until 
another  national  synod  should  decide.  Lajilace,  for  fear 
of  increasing  the  difficulties,  patiently  submitted  to  the 
repeated  attacks  of  Desmarets,  liivet,  and  other  ortho- 
dox theologians.  He  only  answered  them  after  waiting 
vainly  for  ten  years  for  the  convocation  of  the  synod 
which  was  to  decide.  He  died  at  Saumur  Aug.  17, 1665. 
His  works  are,  Discoins  en  forme  de  dialoffue  entre  un 
pere  et  sonjils,  etc.  (Quevilly,  1629,  8vo) ;  often  reprint- 
ed, also  under  title  Entretitns  d'un  pere  et  de  sonjils  siir 
le  changement  de  religion  (Saumur,  1682, 12mo;  translat. 
into  German,  Basle,  1665,  8vo) : — Examen  des  Raisom 
pour  et  contre  le  scta'ijice  de  la  Messe  (Saumur,  1639, 
8vo) : — Suite  de  VExamen,  etc.  (Saumur,  1643,  8vo) : — 
De  locis  Zacharim  xi,  18 ;  xii,  10 ;  Malachia  Hi,  1  (Sau- 
mur, 1G50,  4to) : — Exjiosition  et  Pm-aphrase  du  Cantique 
des  Cantiques  (Saumur,  1656, 8vo)  : — Explication  ft/pique 
de  VhiMoire  de  Joseph  (transl.  from  the  Latin  of  Laplace 
by  Riisel.  Saumur,  1658, 8vo)  : — De  argumeniis  qiiibiis  ef- 
Jicitur  Christum  prius  Juisse  quam  in  utero  heatce  Vir- 
ginis  secundum  carnem  conciperetur  (Saumur,  1649, 4to) : 
— De  Testimoniis  et  A  rgumentis  ex  Veteri  Testament o  ijeii- 
tis,  quihus  probatur  Dominum  nostrum  Jesum-Christum 
esse  Deum,j)radiium  essentia  divina  (Saumur,  1651, 4to)  : 
— Catechesis  pro  conversione  Judworam  (Saumur,  4to)  : 
— Theses  Theologicce  de  statu  hominis  lapsi  ante  gixUiam 
(Saumur,  1640, 4to) :  this  is  the  work  whose  doctrines 
were  condemned  by  the  Sjaiod  of  Charenton  in  1644: — 
De  ImputationejJrimijKccati  A  dami  (Saumur,  1655, 4to)  : 
a  defence  of  his  opinions: — Opuscula  nonnuUa  (Saumur, 
1656, 8vo)  : — Syntagma  Thesium  theologicamm  (Saumur, 
1660, 3  pts.  4to;  4th  part,  1664).  A  complete  collection 
of  Laplace's  works  was  published  under  the  style  Opera 
Omnia  (Franeker,  1699,  and  Aubincit,  1702,  2  vols.  4to). 
See  Mosheim,  Ecclesiastical  History,  iii,  404;  Aymon, 
Synodes  des  Eglises  Reformees  de  France,  ii,  680 ;  Weis- 
mann,  I/istoria  Eccles.  stec.  xvii,p.919;  Haag,La  France 
Protestante;  T.  Colani,  Rei-ue  de  Theologie,  Oct.  1855; 
Bartholmess,  Disconrs  sur  la  vie  et  le  caract'ere  de  J.de 
La  Place,  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  Vliistoire  du 
Protestantisme  Fran^ais  (1853) ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biogra- 
phy, viii,  97 ;  Hoefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Gcnerale,  xxix,  529 ; 
Ilerzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xi,  755  sq.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon  de,  a  noted  French  phi- 
losopher, one  of  the  greatest  astronomers  and  mathema- 
ticians of  any  age  or  country,  born  at  lieaumont-en- 
Auge  (Calvados),  in  France,  IMarch  23,  1740,  of  humble 
parentage,  and  ajijiointed  professor  of  mathematics  in 
the  military  school  at  Paris  in  17G8,  and  membre-.id- 
joint  of  the  Ac-idemy  of  Sciences  in  1773,  tirst  made  a 
reputation  for  himself  by  liis  Exposition  du  Sysfhne  du 
Monde,  which  he  published  in  1796,  and  which -was 
.simply  an  outline  for  popular  use  of  his  greater  treatise, 
La  Mecanique  celeste,  ol'  which  the  first  two  Volumes 
were  sent  forth  in  1798,  the  third  in  1802,  the  fourth  in 
1805,  and  the  liftli  in  1M25,  ;iiul  still  later  (1827)  a  post- 
humous supplement  (for  a  full  synopsis  of  the  contents 


of  this  great  work  on  mathematical  astronomy,  see 
Penny  Cyclop,  xiii,  326  sq.),  a  book  which  wiU  doubt- 
less preserve  his  memory  to  the  latest  posterity.  He 
also  wrote  Theorie  Analytique  sur  les  Prohahilites  (1812), 
and  Essui  Philosophique  sur  les  Prohahilites  (1814).  He 
died  IMay  5,  1827.  His  last  words  were,  "Ce  que  nous 
connaissons  est  peu  de  chose ;  ce  que  nous  ignorans,  est 
immense."  "The  author  of  the  Mecanique  Celeste,  to 
use  a  common  synonyrae  for  Laplace,  must  be  an  object 
of  the  admiration  of  posterity  as  long  as  any  record  of 
the  18th  century  exists.  F'or  many  years  he  was  the 
head,  though  not  the  hand  of  European  astronomy; 
and  most  of  the  labors  of  observation  were  made  in  di- 
rections pointed  out  by  him,  or  for  the  furtherance  of 
his  discoveries  in  the  consequences  of  the  law  of  gravi- 
tation. It  is  sometimes  stated  by  English  writers  that 
Laplace  was  an  atheist.  We  have  attentively  exam- 
ined every  passage  which  has  been  brought  in  proof 
of  this  assertion,  and  we  can  find  nothing  which  makes 
cither  for  or  agauist  such  a  supposition An  at- 
tempt to  explain  how  the  solar  system  might  possi- 
bly have  arisen  from  the  cooling  of  a  mass  of  fluid  or 
vapor  is  called  atheistical  because  it  attempts  to  ascend 
one  step  in  the  chain  of  causes;  the  Principia  of  New- 
ton was  designated  by  the  same  term,  and  for  a  similar 
reason.  What  Laplace's  opinions  were  we  do  not  know ; 
and  it  is  not  fair  that  a  writer  who,  at  a  time  of  perfect 
license  on  such  matters,  has  studiously  avoided  entering 
on  the  subject,  should  be  stated  as  of  one  opinion  or  the 
other  upon  the  authority  of  a  fe\v'  passages  of  which  it 
can  only  be  said  (as  it  could  equally  be  said  of  most 
mathematical  works)  that  they  might  have  been  writ- 
ten by  a  person  of  any  religious  or  political  sentiments 
whatever"  (Penny  Cyclop,  xiii,  325-328).  See  Thomas, 
Biographical  Dictionary,  p.  1372 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog, 
Genercde,  xxix,  531  sq. 

La  Placette,  Jeax,  a  distinguished  French  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  moralist,  was  born  at  Pontac,  in 
Beam,  Jan.  19,  1639,  and  studied  theology  at  the  Prot- 
estant Academy  of  Montauban.  Appointed  pastor  of  Or- 
thez  in  1660,  he  removed  in  the  same  capacity  to  Nai  in 
1664,  and  remained  there  until  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  refusing  several  pressing  invitations 
from  the  important  congregation  of  Charenton.  At  the 
revocation  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Holland,  from 
whence  he  afterwards  went  to  Prussia.  In  1686  he  final- 
ly accepted  tlie  office  of  pastor  to  the  French  Church  at 
Copenhagen,  which  he  held  until  1711.  He  then  re- 
signed and  retired  to  Utrecht,  where  he  died  April  25, 
1718.  His  principal  works  are,  Traite  des  Bonnes  Q\unxs 
en  general  (Amst.  1709, 12mo)  : — Traite  de  la  Restitution, 
etc.  (Amst,  1696, 12mo): — La  mart  desjustes,ou  la  ma^ 
niere  de  hien  mourir  (La  Haye,  1729, 12mo)  : — Traite  de 
VAumone  (Amsterd.  1699, 12mo)  : — Diveis  traiies  sur  les 
matiires  de  Conscience  (Amst.  1697, 12mo)  : — The  Death 
of  the  Righteous,  etc.,  translated  by  Thomas  Fenton,  M.A. 
(Lond.  1725, 2  vols.  12mo) : — Ti-aite  de  lafoi  divine  (Poter. 
1716,  3  vols.  12mo): — La  communion  devote,  ou  la  ma- 
niere  de  participer  saintement  et  utilement  a  VEucharistiQ 
(Amsterd.  6'"*  edit.  1706, 12mo) : — La  morale  Chretienne 
(d)regee,  etc.  (Amst,  2d  ed.  1701,  r2mo): — Essais  de  mo- 
rale (Amst.  1716, 4  vols.  r2mo) : — Kouveetu  essais  de  mo- 
rale  (La  Haye,  1715,2  vols.  12mo) : — The  incurahle  Scep- 
ticism of  the  Church  of  Rome  (Gibson's  Presei-vative, 
xvi.  176) ;  etc.  See  Vie  de  La  Placette,  by  Carrier  de  St. 
Philippe,  in  Avis  sur  la  maniere  de prtcher ;  Niceron, 
Memoires,  vol.  ii ;  Europe  Savante,  vol.  xviii ;  Nouvelles 
Litteraires,  July,  1718,  Haag,  La  France  Protestante; 
(iuerard.  La,  France  Litteraire  ;  Sayons,  I/ist.  de  la  lit- 
ter. Fran^aise  a  Vetranger,  ii,  211-220;  Hoefer,  A'owi'. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  .549;  Darling,  Cyclopauia  Bihlio- 
graphica,  ii,  1767.     (J,  N.  P.) 

Laplaud  (native  Sameanda'),  a  territor}^  in  the 
noriliernmost  part  of  Europe,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  Finland  and  the 
Swedish  province  of  Norrland,  on  the  east  by  the  White 
Sea,  and  on  the  west  by  Norway,    The  winter  is  verj-  long 


LAPLAND 


243 


LAPSE 


and  severe ;  the  summer  lasts  only  nine  weeks,  but  is,  in 
consequence  of  the  very  long  days,  almost  as  liot  as  in 
Italy,  and,  owing  to  the  innumerable  mosquitoes,  most 
oppressive  for  both  man  and  beast.  Only  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Swedish  Lapland  is  the  soil  capable  of  culti- 
vation ;  the  corn  is  sown  towards  the  close  of  Slay,  and 
reaped  in  the  middle  of  August,  but  is  frequently  spoiled 
by  night-frosts.  Tlie  territory  is  but  very  thinly  set- 
tled, and  only  a  part  of  it  is  now  occupied  by  the  people 
to  which  it  owes  its  name,  the  southern  and  better  por- 
tions having  been  gradually  encroached  upon  by  Nor- 
wegians, Swedes,  and  Finlanders,  till  the  Laplanders 
l)roper  have  in  a  great  measure  been  cooped  up  within 
the  Arctic  Circle.  The  territory  is  politically  divided 
into  tliree  parts :  1.  Norwegian  Lapland  or  Finnmark, 
containing  27,315.70  square  miles  and  13,008  inhabitants, 
all  Laplanders,  or,  as  they  are  here  called,  Finnar.  2. 
Swedish  Lapland,  containing  49,035.17  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  27,443  inhabitants,  of  whom  only 
5685  are  Laplanders,  and  all  the  remainder  S^vedish  col- 
onists, whose  number  has  steadily  increased  since  17G0, 
when  the  first  two  Swedish  families  settled  in  the  coun- 
try. 3.  Russian  Lapland,  which  partly  belongs  to  Fin- 
land and  partly  to  the  government  of  Archangel,  and 
embraces  Eastern  Lapland,  with  the  peninsula  of  Kola, 
also  called  the  Lapland  peninsula.  The  number  of  Lap- 
landers in  Russian  Lapland  had  in  1852  been  reduced  to 
2290.  The  native  inhabitants,  Laplanders  or  Laps,  call 
themselves  Sami  or  Saraelads,  and  consider  Lapland  and 
Laplanders  as  terms  of  abuse.  Tliey  are  either  Fjell- 
Lappar-Finner,  mountain  Laplanders,  who  lead  a  no- 
madic life,  and  pasture  large  reindeer  herds;  or  Skogs- 
La])par,  forest  Laplanders,  chiefly  occujiiod  with  hunting 
and  fishing,  leaving  their  herds  of  reindeer  in  charge  of 
the  preceding  class;  or  Soe-Finner,  sea  or  shore  Lap- 
landers, who,  too  poor  to  possess  such  herds,  have  been 
obliged  to  fix  their  residence  upon  the  coast,  and  subsist 
chiefly  by  fishing;  or  Sockne  Lappar,  parish  Lappars,  who 
hire  themselves  out  as  servants,  chiefly  for  tending  the 
reindeer.  They  are  good-natured,  honest,  superstitious, 
and  patriotic,  and,  with  the  exception  of  an  inclination 
to  drinikenness,  they  show  neither  great  vices  nor  great 
virtues.  The  origin  of  the  Laplanders  is  not  yet  fully 
cleared  up,  as  their  physical  characteristics  point  partly 
to  the  Mongolian  and  partly  to  the  Caucasian  race.  The 
prevailing  opinion,  however,  is,  that  they  are  only  a  va- 
riety of  Tchude  or  Finns.  The  Christianization  of  the 
Laplanders  did  not  begin  until,  in  1275,  a  part  of  their 
territory  was  annexed  to  Sweden.  For  several  centu- 
ries, however,  no  re.sidts  were  obtained  except  the  in- 
troduction of  Christian  baptism  and  Ciiristian  marriage. 
The  Norwegian  part  of  Lapland  belonged  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Nidaros  (Dronthcim) ;  the  Swedish  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Upsala.  Gustavus  I,  of  Sweden,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  IGth  century,  established  the  first  Lap- 
pish school  in  the  town  of  Pikea.  Charles  IX  and  Chris- 
tina made  great  efforts  for  bringing  them  over  to  the 
Lutheran  Church,  while  in  Norwegian  Finnark  king 
Christian  IV,  of  Denmark  (about  1(500),  extirpated  the 
remnants  of  paganism  by  force.  The  Christianization 
of  this  part  of  Lapland  was  completed  by  the  zeal  of 
bishop  Eric  Bredahl,  of  Drontheitn  (1643  "to  1672\  and 
his  successors.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
Isaac  Olsen,  a  poor  man,  during  fourteen  years,  labored 
among  the  Laplanders  for  their  Christianization,  and 
king  Frederick  IV,  of  Denmark,  in  1715  and  1717,  for 
the  same  purpose,  established  theological  seminaries  in 
Copenhagen  and  Drontheim.  In  1730  king  Christian 
VI  issued  an  order  that  every  Laplander,  before  the 
nineteenth  year  of  his  age,  must  receive  confirmation, 
from  which  time  the  parents  began  to  bestow  greater 
care  upon  the  education  of  their  children.  The  govern- 
ment appointed  travelling  teachers,  and  also  several  res- 
ident clergymen,  who  at  first  found  their  progress  great- 
ly delayed  by  the  difficulty  of  mastering  the  Lappish 
language.  The  kings  of  Sweden  since  Frederick  I 
U748)  worked  with  great  zeal,  but  little  success,  for 


the  entire  conversion  of  the  Laplanders.  In  the  treaty 
of  Friedrichshaven  Sweden  had  to  cede  its  Lappish 
territory  to  Russia,  but  in  1814,  in  the  treaty  of  Kiel, 
it  received  another  portion  from  Norway.  The  most 
zealous  missionary  wlio  has  labored  among  the  Lap- 
landers was  pastor  Stockfleth  (bom  in  1787),  who  joined 
them  in  their  nomadic  Ufe,  and  preached  to  them  in 
their  own  language,  wliich  it  cost  him  great  eflbrts  to 
learn.  At  present  divine  sendee  is  held  in  the  Lajjpish, 
Swedish,  and  Finnish  languages.  During  the  summer 
months  the  Laplanders,  who  during  this  time  are  mov- 
ing with  their  reindeer  further  into  the  mountains,  are 
visited  by  clergymen  of  Southern  Lapland.  The  Lap- 
landers show  great  docility  for  the  reception  of  the 
Christian  doctrine,  but  their  Christianity  is  stOl  mixed 
up  with  many  superstitious  views  and  pagan  customs. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  established  in  1855  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  North  Pole,  which  embraces 
Lapland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Greenland,  and  the  north- 
ernmost part  of  America.  The  apostolic  prefect  resides 
at  Tromsoe,  tlie  capital  of  Finnmark;  another  Lapland- 
ish  station  has  been  established  at  Altengard.  See  Wig- 
gers,  Kirchl.  Stulistik,  ii,  421  sq.;  Neher,  Kirchl,  Statis- 
tik,  ii,  406  sq.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Lapping  (Pi?^,  to  lick  up  like  a  dog,  1  Kings  xxi, 
19,  etc.)  of  water  by  "  putting  their  hand  to  their  mouth." 
spoken  of  as  a  test  in  reference  to  Gideon's  men  (Judg. 
vii,  5,  G),  is  still  in  the  East  supposed  to  distinguish 
those  who  evince  an  alacrity  and  readiness  which  fits 
them  in  a  peculiar  manner  for  any  active  service  in 
which  they  are  to  be  engaged.  See  Gideon.  Among 
the  Arabs,  lapping  with  their  hands  is  a  common  and 
very  expeditious  way  of  taking  in  liquids.  "  The  dog 
drinks  by  shaping  the  end  of  his  long,  thin  tongue  into 
the  form  of  a  spoon,  which  it  rapidly  introduces  and 
withdraws  from  the  water,  throwing  each  time  a  spoon- 
ful of  the  fluid  into  his  mouth.  The  tongue  of  man  is 
not  adapted  to  this  use ;  and  it  is  physically  impossible 
for  a  man,  therefore,  to  lap  literally  as  a  dog  laps.  The 
true  explanation,  probably,  is  that  these  men,  instead  of 
kneeling  down  to  take  a  long  draught,  or  successive 
draughts  from  the  water,  employed  their  hand  as  the 
dog  employs  his  tongue — that  is,  forming  it  into  a  hol- 
low spoon,  and  dipping  water  with  it  from  the  stream. 
Practice  gives  a  peculiar  tact  in  this  mode  of  drinking; 
and  the  interchange  of  the  hand  between  the  water  and 
the  month  is  so  rapidly  managed  as  to  be  comparable  to 
that  of  the  dog's  tongue  in  similar  circumstances.  Be- 
sides, the  water  is  not  usually  sucked  out  of  the  hand 
into  the  mouth,  but  b)^  a  peculiar  knack  is  jerked  into 
the  mouth  before  the  hand  is  brought  close  to  it,  so  that 
the  hand  is  approaching  ^vith  a  fresh  supply  almost  be- 
fore the  preceding  has  been  swallowed :  this  is  another 
resemblance  to  the  action  of  a  dog's  tongue.  On  com- 
ing to  water,  a  person  who  wishes  to  drink  cannot  stop 
the  whole  party  to  wait  for  him  when  travelling  in  car- 
avans, and  therefore,  if  on  foot,  any  delay  would  oblige 
him  to  unusual  exertion  in  order  to  overtake  his  party. 
He  therefore  drinks  in  the  manner  described,  and  has 
satisfied  his  thirst  in  much  less  time  than  one  who,  hav- 
ing more  leisure,  or  being  disposed  to  more  deliberate 
enjoyment,  looks  out  for  a  place  where  he  may  kneel  or 
lie  down  to  bring  his  mouth  in  contact  with  the  water, 
and  imbibe  long  and  slow  tlraughts  of  it"  (Kitto,  Picto- 
rial Bible,  ad  loc). 

Lapse  is  a  term  used  in  English  ecclesiastical  law 
to  denote  the  failure  to  exercise  the  right  of  presenting 
or  collating  a  vacant  ecclesiastical  benefice  within  the 
lawful  period.  On  such  occasions,  if  the  bishop  be  the 
patron,  the  right  devolves  or  lapses  to  the  archbishop, 
and  if  tlie  archbishop  omits  to  take  advantage  thereof, 
to  the  king.  So  also  if  any  person,  other  than  the  bish- 
op, be  patron,  on  his  neglecting  to  present,  the  right 
lapses  in  the  first  place  to  the  bishop,  on  the  bishop's 
neglect  to  the  archbishop,  and  from  him  to  the  king. 
The  patron,  the  bishop,  and  the  archbishop  are  several- 
ly and  successively  allowed  the  full  period  of  six  calen- 


LAPSE 


244 


LAPSI 


dar  months,  exclusive  of  the  day  on  wliich  the  benefice 
becomes  void;  and  if  the  bishop  be  liimself  the  patron, 
he  must  collate  to  the  benefice  within  the  period  of  the 
first  six  months  after  the  vacancy,  as  he  is  not  entitled 
to  six  months  in  his  character  of  patron,  and  six  months 
more  in  his  character  of  bishop.      When  the  patron's 
six  months  have  expired,  his  ri<;ht  of  presentation  is 
not  absolutely  destroyed  by  the  lapse  which  then  takes 
place,  but  the  bishop  acquires  merely  a  kind  of  concur- 
rent right  with  him ;  for,  although  the  bishop  may  col- 
late immediately  after  the  lapse,  yet,  so  long  as  he  suffers 
the  benefice  to  continue  vacant,  he  cannot  refuse  to  in- 
stitute a  person  presented  by  the  patron ;  and,  in  like 
manner,  when  the  bishop's  six  months  have  expired, 
the  patron  may  present  at  any  time  before  the  archbish- 
op has  tilled  up  the  vacancy.    By  these  means  provision 
is  made  against  the  improper  duration  of  vacancies  m 
the  Church ;  for  when  the  benefice  has  continued  vacant 
for  six  months,  the  patronage  for  that  turn  becomes  an 
object  of  competition  between  the  original  patron  and 
the  bishop  or  archbishop,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  nomi- 
nee of  that  party  which  presents  first  being  entitled  to 
the  benefice.     But  when  the  right  to  present  has  passed 
the  bishop  and  the  archbishop,  and  through  their  neg- 
lect has  actually  lapsed  to  the  crown,  a  different  rule  pre- 
vails, arising  from  an  old  maxim  of  Enghsh  law,  that  the 
king's  rights  shall  never  be  barred  or  destroyed  by  delay 
on  his  part.    Xiillum  tempus  occurrit  refji.   When,  there- 
fore, the  lapse  to  the  king  has  actually  occurred,  the 
right  of  presentation  for  that  turn  is  absolutely  vested 
in  him  ;  and  if  the  patron  presents  while  the  benefice 
continues  vacant,  the  king  may  present  at  any  time  af- 
terAvards  before  another  vacancy  occurs,  and  may  turn 
out  the  patron's  nominee.     But  if  the  patron's  nominee 
is  instituted  and  inducted,  and  dies  incumbent,  or  if,  af- 
ter his  induction,  he  is  deprived  by  sentence  of  the  eccle- 
siastical courts,  or  resigns  bona  fide,  and  not  with  intent 
to  defeat  the  kmg's  right  to  present,  before  the  king  has 
exercised  tliat  right,  it  is  then  held  that  his  right  is  de- 
stroyed ;  for  he  was  only  entitled  to  the  presentation  for 
one  turn,  and  his  having  permitted  the  patron  to  present 
for  that  turn  will  not  entitle  him  to  any  other.     When 
the  vacancy  is  occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  incum- 
bent, or  by  his  cession,  which  is  his  own  voluntary  act, 
being  the  acceptance  of  a  second  benefice  incompatible 
with  the  one  which  he  already  h(jlds,  the  ])atron  is 
bound  to  take  notice  of  the  vacancy,  without  its  being 
notified  to  him  by  the  bishop,  and  his  six  months  are 
calculated  from  the  time  at  which  the  vacancy  actually 
occurs.     But  when  the  incumbent  is  deprived  by  sen- 
tence of  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  when  he  resigns, 
such  resignation  being  necessarily  made  into  the  hands 
of  the  bishop,  it  is  held  that,  as  neither  his  deprivation 
nor  resignation  can  be  complete  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  bishop,  the  bishop  ought  to  notify  the  vacancy  to 
the  jiatron,  and  that  the  patron's  six  months  are  to  be 
calculated  from  the  time  at  which  such  notice  is  given. 
And  in  like  manner,  if  the  patron  presents  in  due  time, 
and  th('  bishop  refuses  to  institute  the  person  so  present- 
ed on  the  ground  of  his  insuflicienoy,  the  bishop  ought, 
if  the  patron  be  a  layman,  to  give  notice  of  his  refusal, 
and  initil  he  does  so  no  lapse  can  take  jHace  ;  but  if  the 
patron  be  a  spiritual  person,  it  aj)pears  from  the  old  law- 
ijooks  that  no  notice  is  necessary,  because  the  spiritual 
person  is  presumed  to  be  a  competent  judge  of  the  mor- 
als and  abilities  of  the  person  whom  he  has  selected  for 
the  appointment.     If,  on  account  of  some  such  neglect 
or  omission  on  the  part  of  the  bishop,  the  benefice  does 
not  lapse  to  him,  it  cannot  lapse  t(i  the  archbishop  or  to 
the  king;  for  it  is  a  rule  that  a  lapse  cannot  take  place 
per  saltum,  that  is,  by  leaping  over  or  leaving  out  the 
intermediate  steps.    This  rule  protects  the  patron's-right 
from  being  ever  injured  by  the  improjier  refusal  of  the 
bishop  to  institute  liis  nominee;  for  the  bishop'  can  take 
no  advantage  of  that  which  is  occasioned  liv  his  own 
wrongful  act,  neither  can  the  archbishop  or  the  king, 
for  the  reason  alleged  above.     This  right  of  lapse  ap- 


pears to  have  been  first  established  about  the  time  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  II,  and  to  be  coeval  with  the  prac- 
tice of  institution.  Previously  to  that  period  the  in- 
cumbent's title  was  complete,  upon  his  appointment  by 
the  patron,  without  his  being  instituted  by  the  bishop. 
But  the  Church  of  Home,  always  anxious  to  render  the 
clergy  independent  of  the  laity,  strongly  opposed  this 
custom  (pravaiii  consuetudinem,  as  Pope  Alexander  III, 
in  a  letter  to  Thomas  a  Becket,  designates  it),  and  in- 
sisted that  the  right  of  appointing  to  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices belanged  exclusively  to  the  bishops.  This  intro- 
duced the  ceremony  of  institution  (q.  v.).  It  is,  however, 
contended  by  some  that  institution  is  as  ancient  as  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  England ;  but  Black- 
stone  (ii,33)  maintains  that  it  was  introduced  at  the  time 
stated  above.  After  that  period  the  bishop  alone  had 
the  power  of  conferring  the  legal  title  to  the  vacant 
church,  which  he  did  by  institution :  but  he  was  stiU 
bound  to  institute  the  person  presented  to  him  for  that 
purpose  by  the  patron,  provided  the  patron  presented 
some  one.  But  how  long  was  the  bishop  to  wait  to  see 
whether  it  was  the  patron's  intention  to  exercise  his 
right  of  presentation '?  The  law  declared  that  he  shor.ld 
wait  a  reasonable  time;  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the 
interest  of  the  patron  and  the  convenience  of  the  pub- 
lic, it  has  settled  that  time  to  be  six  months. — Eadie, 
Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.  See  Jus  Dkvolutum. 
Lapsed.     See  Lapsi. 

Xiapsi,  in  the  more  extended  meaning  of  the  word, 
'•  t/ie  J'aHen,''  especially  those  who  were  excluded  from 
communion  with  the  Church  on  account  of  having  com- 
mitted one  of  the  jKCcata  niortalia.  In  a  more  restrict- 
ed sense,  it  was  used  to  denote  such  as  had  "  fallen 
away,"  i.  e.  committed  the  peccatum  mortale  of  denying 
their  faith.  It  was  natural  that  these  should  be  lirst 
designated  by  the  expression  of  "  lapsi,"  as  heretics 
were  very  numerous  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church, 
and  the  question  of  their  reintegration  into  the  Church 
was  one  of  considerable  importance.  As,  after  the  close 
of  the  persecutions,  there  were  no  longer  any  "lapsi"  in 
that  sense  of  the  word,  it  came  to  be  applied  as  synony- 
mous -Kiih  p)anitentes  or  hareiici,  though  only  occasion- 
ally.   Compare  Henschel,  Glossarium,  s.  v. 

The  '•  lapsi"  were  especially  numerous  when  persecu- 
tion assumed  the  regular  and  systematic  form  it  obtained 
in  Roman  law  muler  Nerva  and  Trajan.  Persistence  in 
the  profession  of  Christianity  was  alone  considered  a 
crime  against  the  state.  Yet  Trajan  granted  full  for- 
giveness to  the  Christians  who  consented  to  offer  up  in- 
cense before  his  statues  and  those  of  the  gods.  During 
the  Decian  persecution  the  form  of  abjuration  became 
even  more  simple.  Those  who  shrank  from  offering  up 
sacrifices  were  supposed  to  have  done  so  by  the  authori- 
ties. Indeed,  in  many  instances  certificates  were  given 
by  magistrates  that  the  law  had  actually  been  comiJied 
with.  Such  mild  measures  made  it  easy  for  many  to 
recant.  Cyprian  informs  us  that  large  numbers  eagerly 
recanted  in  Carthage  even  before  the  persecution  broke 
out;  and  Tertullian  (IJc  fufja  in  perscc.  c.  13)  relates 
with  righteous  indignation  that  whole  congregations, 
with  the  clergy  at  their  head,  would  at  times  resort  to 
dishonorable  bribes  in  order  to  avert  persecution.  But, 
after  the  end  of  the  persecution,  many  tried  to  unite 
again  with  the  Church.  The  question  now  arose  wheth- 
er the  Church  could  again  receive  them  as  members, 
and  on  what  conditions;  and  also,  who  had  the  power 
to  decide  that  (luestion?  In  the  first  ages  such  peni- 
tents were,  upon  their  confessions,  readmitted  by  impo- 
sition  of  hands.  Confessors  had  the  privilege  of  issuing 
letters  of  peace  (libelli  pacis)  to  the  lapsed,  which  fa- 
cilitated their  early  reception  to  communion.  But  such 
penitents  were  ineligible  for  holy  orders,  and,  if  already 
ordained,  they  were  deposed,  not  being  allowed  to  re- 
sume their  clerical  functions,  but  suffered  only  to  remain 
in  lay  communion.  By  degrees  these  admissions  were 
made  still  easier,  and  therefore  became  a  matter  of  se- 
rious consideration  by  the  Coiuicil  of  Aiicyra  (q.  v.),  and 


LAPWING 


245 


LAPWING 


resulted  in  the  revival  of  the  old  Montanist  controversy 
as  to  the  purity  and  holiness  of  the  Church,  besides  pro- 
voking another  as  to  the  extent  of  episcopal  powers. 
On  the  controversies  and  schisms  which  were  thus  pro- 
voked in  the  African  Church,  see  the  articles  Cypkian; 
Decius;  Felicissimus  ;  Maktyks  and  CoNFESsoiiS; 
NovATi.VN;  NovATUS.  (Compare  also  Schaff,  Ch.Hist. 
vol.  i,  §  114  and  115.)  Epiphanius  asserts  that  Mele- 
tius  revived  the  struggle  against  the  laxity  of  Church 
discipline ;  yet  this  assertion  is  not  fully  substantiated ; 
the  question  of  authority  was  already  the  foremost  in 
these  discussions.  See  Meletius.  This  was  still  more 
the  case  in  the  controversy  with  the  Donatists  (q.  v.). 

The  only  other  points  to  be  noticed  are  some  deci- 
sions of  the  councils  which  gradually  elaborated  each  of 
the  principles  tinally  established.  Thus  seven  canones 
(1-8)  of  the  Synod  of  Ancyra  determine  the  penance  to 
be  performedby  the  lapsi.  It  distinguished  between 
those  who  cheerfLilly  partook  of  the  repast  which  fol- 
lowed the  sacrifices  offered  to  idols,  those  who  partook 
of  it  reluctantly  and  with  tears,  and  those  who  ate  none 
of  it.  These  latter  were  punished  with  two  years  of 
penance,  the  others  more  severely.  Priests  who  had  sac- 
rificed to  idols  lost  their  ecclesiastical  character.  The 
Synod  of  Nicrea  was  still  more  lenient.  Those  against 
whom  it  was  most  severe  were  persons  who  had  recanted 
without  being  threatened  in  their  lives  or  fortunes ;  yet 
even  those,  while  declared  to  be  "  unworthy  of  the  pity 
of  the  Church,"  were  also  readmitted.  Naturally,  as 
persecution  decreased,  the  Church  became  less  stringent, 
as  it  had  no  longer  to  fear  desertions.  Even  before  that 
the  practice  of  the  Eastern  Church  had  become  very 
lenient.  See  Tertullian,  De  pudicitia ;  De  poenitentia  ; 
Cyprian,  Be  lapsis ;  epistolm ;  epp.  canonicce  Dionysii 
Akxaiulrini,  c.  2G2 ;  Mansi,  Acta  Condi.  (Ancyr.  1-8; 
Nicffiu.  10-13 ;  11  Carthag.  3 ;  111  Carthag.  27 ;  Agath. 
15) ;  Jacobi  Sirmondi  llis/oria  pwnitentiiE  puhl.  (1(550); 
Joh.  Morini  Comni.  histor.  de  disciplina  in  administratione 
sacr.  panit.  lo  primis  smculis  (ICjI);  Klee,  Die  Beichte, 
eiiie  hist.  hrit.  Untersuchnng  (1828) ;  Krause,  Diss,  de 
lapsis  priince  ecclesia ;  Riddle,  Chi-istian  Antiq.  p.  624 
sq. ;  Siegel,  Christlich-Kirchliche  Alterthilmer,  i,  290  sq. ; 
Schriickh,  Kirchengesch.  iv,  215,  282  sq. ;  v,  59,  313,  382  ; 
Herzog,  Real-Enajklop.  viii,  200 ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Hist,  and 
Doct.  Theolof/ij,  p.  395.     See  Apostasy.     (J'.  H.  W.) 

Lapwing,  in  our  version,  is  used  for  rS'^2*11  (du- 
kiphatk',  perhaps  from  Tl^'^,  the  Arabic  for  cocli.;  and 
i<S^3,  head,  i.  e.  topknot),  a  w'ord  which,  occurring  as 
the  name  of  an  unclean  bird  only  in  Lev.  xi,  19  and 
Deut.  xiv,  18,  affords  no  internal  or  collateral  evidence 
to  establish  the  propriety  of  the  translation.  It  has 
been  surmised  to  mean  "double-crest,"  which  is  suffi- 
ciently correct  when  applied  to  the  hnopne,  but  less  so 
when  applied  to  the  lapwing  {'l'argnm,(lal/iis  montanits), 
or  tlie  cock  of  the  woods,  Tetrao  uror/cdliis,  for  which 
bird  Bochart  produces  a  more  direct  etymology ;  and  he 
might  have  appealed  to  the  fiict  that  the  Attagan  visits 
Syria  in  winter,  exclusive  of  at  least  two  species  of  Pte- 
rocles,  or  sand-grouse,  which  probably  remain  all  the 
year.  But  these  names  were  anciently,  as  weU  as  in 
modern  times,  so  often  confounded  that  the  Greek  writ- 
ers even  used  the  terra  Gallinacea  to  denote  the  hoopoe; 
for  Hesychius  explains  tTroxp  in  ^Eschylus  by  the  Greek 
appellations  of  "  moor-cock"  and  •  mountain-cock"  (see 
Bochart,  s.  v.  Dukiphath) ;  and  in  modern  languages 
similar  mistakes  respecting  this  bird  are  abundant.  JEs- 
chylus  speaks  of  the  hoopoe  by  name,  and  expressly 
calls  it  the  biirl  of  the  rorks  (Fragm.  291,  quoted  by 
Aristotle,  //.  A .  ix,*49).  /Elian  (.V.  A .  iii,  2G)  says  that 
these  birds  biuld  their  nests  in  loftg  rocks.  Aristotle's 
words  are  to  the  same  effect,  for  he  writes,  "  Now  some 
animals  are  found  in  the  mountains,  as  the  hoopoe,  for 
instance"  (II.  A.  i,  1).  When  the  two  lawsuit-wearied 
citizens  of  Athens,  Euclpidcs  and  Pisthetajrus,  in  the 
comedy  of  the  Birds  of  Aristophanes  (20,  54),  are  on 
their  search  for  the  home  of  Epops,  king  of  birds,  their 


ornithological  conductors  lead  them  through  a  wild,  des- 
ert tract  terminated  bij  mountains  and  rocks,  in  which  is 
situated  the  royal  aviary  of  Epops.  The  Septuagint 
and  ViUgate  agree  with  the  Arabian  interpreters  in 
translating  the  Hebrew  term  by  iiroip  and  itpi(pu  ;  and, 
as  the  Syrian  name  is  kikuphah,  and  the  Egyptian  ku- 
kiiphak,  both  apparently  of  the  same  origin  as  dukiphath, 
the  propriety  of  substituting  hoopoe  for  lapwing  in  our 
version  appears  sufficiently  established.  The  ^^•ord  hoo- 
poe is  evidently  onomatopoetic,  being  derived  from  the 
voice  of  the  bird,  which  resembles  the  words  ''  hoop, 
hoop,"  softly  but  rapidly  uttered.  "  It  utters  at  times  a 
sound  closely  resembling  the  word  hoop,  hoop,  hoop,  but 
breathed  out  so  softly,  but  rapidly,  as  to  remind  the 
hearer  of  the  note  of  the  dove"  (Yarrell,  Brit.  Birds,  ii, 
17G).  The  (iermans  call  the  bird  Ein  IIoup,  the  French, 
La  Iluppe,  which  is  particularly  api)ropriate,  as  it  refers 
both  to  the  crest  and  note  of  the  bird.  In  Sweden  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  Ildr-Fogel,  the  army-bird,  because, 
from  its  ominous  cry,  frequently  heard  in  the  wilds  of 
the  forest,  while  the  bird  itself  moves  off  as  any  one  ap- 
proaches, the  common  people  have  supposed  that  sea- 
sons of  scarcity  and  war  are  impending  (Lloyd's  Scand. 
Advent,  ii,  321). 

The  hoopoe  is  not  uncommon  in  Palestine  at  this  day 
(Forskiil,  Descr.  Anim.  pref.  p.  7 ,  Eussel,  Aleppo,  ii,  81 ; 
\{'6it,  Nachr.  v.  Marokko,  p.  297;  compare  Jerome,  ad 
Zech.  V,  9 ;  Bechstein,  Naturgesch.  ii,  547),  and  was  from 
remote  ages  a  bird  of  mystery.  INIany  and  strange  are 
the  stories  which  are  told  of  the  hoopoe  in  ancient  Ori- 
ental fable,  and  some  of  these  stories  are  by  no  means  to 
its  credit.  It  seems  to  have  been  always  regarded,  both 
bj-  Arabians  and  Greeks,  with  a  superstitious  reverence 
—a  circumstance  which  it  owes,  no  doubt,  partly  to  its 
crest  (Aristoph.  Birds,  94;  compare  Ovid,  Met.  vi,  C72), 
which  certainly  gives  it  a  most  imposing  appearance, 
partly  to  the  length  of  its  beak,  and  partly,  also,  to  ita 
habits.  "  If  any  one  anointed  himself  with  its  blood, 
and  then  fell  asleep,  he  would  see  dcsmons  sufi  ..ating 
him" — "  if  its  liver  were  eaten  with  rue,  the  eater's  wits 
would  be  sharpened,  and  pleasing  memories  be  excited" 
— are  superstitions  held  respecting  this  bird.  One  more 
fable  narrated  of  the  hoopoe  is  given,  because  its  origin 
can  be  traced  to  a  pecidiar  habit  of  the  bird.  The 
Arabs  say  that  the  hoopoe  is  a  betrayer  of  secrets ;  that 
it  is  able,  moreover,  to  point  out  hidden  wells  and  foun- 
tains under  ground.  Now  the  hoopoe,  on  settling  upon 
the  ground,  has  a  strange  and  portentous-looking  habit 
of  bending  the  head  downwards  till  the  point  of  the 
beak  touches  the  ground,  raising  and  depressing  its 
crest  at  the  same  time.  Hence,  with  much  probability, 
arose  the  Arabic  fable.  These  stories,  absurd  as  they 
are,  are  here  mentioned  because  it  was  perhaps  in  a 
great  measure  owing,  not  only  to  tiie  uncleanly  habits 
of  the  bird,  but  also  to  the  superstitious  feeling  with 
which  the  hoopoe  was  regarded  by  the  Egyptians  and 
heathen  generally,  that  it  was  forbidden  as  food  to  the 
Israelites,  whose  affections  Jehovah  wished  to  wean 
from  the  land  of  their  bondage,  to  which,  as  we  know, 
they  fondly  clung.  The  summit  of  the  augural  rod  is 
said  to  have  been  carved  in  the  form  of  a  hoopoe's  head ; 
and  one  of  the  kind  is  still  used  by  Indian  gosseins,  and 
even  Armenian  bishops,  attention  being  no  doubt  drawn 
to  the  bird  by  its  peculiarly  arranged  bars  upon  a  deli- 
cate vinous  fawn  color,  and  further  embellished  with  a 
beautiful  fan-shaped  crest  of  the  same  color.  The  hoo- 
poe is  a  bird  of  the  slender-billed  tribe,  allied  to  the 
creepers  {Certhiad(e),  about  as  large  as  a  pigeon,  but 
rather  more  slender.  Tlie  general  hue  is  a  delicate  red- 
dish buff,  but  the  back,  wings,  and  tall  are  beautifully 
marked  with  broad  alternate  bands  of  black  and  white : 
the  feathers  of  the  crest,  which  can  be  raised  or  dropped 
at  pleasure,  arc  terminateil  by  a  white  space  tijiped  with 
lilack.  In  Egyjit  tliese  birds  are  numerous  (Sonnini, 
Travels,  i,  204)",  forming  probably  two  species,  the  one 
permanently  resident  about  human  habitations,  the  other 
migratory,  and  the  same  that  visits  Europe.     The  lat- 


LAPWING 


246 


LARDNER 


Hoopoe  {Upupa  Epopn). 


ter  wades  in  the  mud  when  the  Nile  has  subsided,  and 
seeks  lor  worms  and  insects;  and  the  former  is  known 
to  rear  its  young  so  much  immersed  in  the  shards  and 
fragments  of  beetles,  etc.,  as  to  cause  a  disagreeable 
smell  about  its  nest,  which  is  always  in  holes  or  in  hol- 
low trees.  Though  an  unclean  bird  in  the  Hebrew  law, 
the  common  migratory  hoopoe  is  eaten  in  Egypt,  and 
sometimes  also  in  Italy;  but  the  stationary  species  is 
considered  inedible.  See  jNIacgillivray's  British  Birds, 
iii,  43;  Yarrell,  i>72V.  B.  ii,  178,  '2d  ed.;  Lloyd's  Scandi- 
navian Adrentures,  ii,  S'2l.  The  chief  grounds  for  all 
the  filthy  habits  which  have  been  ascribed  to  this  much- 
maligned  bird  are  to  be  found  in  the  fiict  that  it  resorts 
to  dunghills,  etc.,  in  search  of  the  worms  and  insects 
which  it  finds  there.  A  writer  in  Ibis,  i,  49,  says,  "We 
found  the  hoopoe  a  very  good  bird  to  eat."  Tristram 
says  of  the  hoopoe  {Ibis,  i,  27) :  "  The  Arabs  have  a  su- 
perstitious reverence  for  this  bird,  which  they  believe  to 
possess  marvellous  medicinal  qualities,  and  call  it  '  the 
Doctor.'  Its  head  is  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  aU 
charms,  and  in  the  practice  of  witchcraft."  —  Kitto; 
Smith;  Fairbairn.  See  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  iii,  107  sq. ; 
Rosenmiiller,  Alterth.  IV,  ii,  326;  Oedmann,  Samml.  v, 
66  sq. ;  Sommer,  Bibl.  A  bhandl.  i,  254  sq. ;  Penni/  Ci/clo- 
pcediu,  s.  V.  Upupidie;  Wood,  Bible  Animals,  p.  392. 

Dr.  Thomson,  however,  dissents  from  the  common 
view  above  that  the  Hebrew  dukiphath  is  the  ordinary 
hed-hood  or  hoopoe,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  ''  is  a 
small  bird,  (/ood  to  eat,  comparatively  rare,  and  there- 
fore not  likely  to  have  been  mentioned  at  all  by  Moses, 
and  still  less  to  have  been  classed  Avith  the  unclean." 
He  proposes  the  English  pewit,  called  by  the  natives 
now  and  bu-teet.  "The  bird  appears  in  Palestine  only 
in  the  depth  of  winter.  It  then  disperses  over  the 
mountains,  and  remains  until  early  spring,  when  it  en- 
tirely disappears.     It  roosts  on  the  ground  wherever 


The  rewit. 


night  overtakes  it.  It  utters  a  loud  scream  when  about 
to  fly,  which  sounds  like  the  last  of  the  above  names. 
It  is  regarded  as  an  unclean  bird  by  the  Arabs.  The 
upper  part  of  the  body  and  wings  are  of  a  dull  slate-col- 
or, the  under  parts  of  both  are  white.  It  has  a  topknot 
on  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  pointing  backward  like 
a  horn,  and  when  running  about  on  the  ground  it  close- 
ly resembles  a  young  hare"  {Land  and  Bool;  i,  104). 

Lardner,  Dionysius,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish writer  on  i)hysical  science,  was  born  in  Dublin  April 
3,  1793,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  natural  ]ihiloso- 
phy  and  astronomy  in  University  College,  London,  in 
1828.  In  1830  he  projected  a  sort  of  Encyclopa?dia,  con- 
sisting of  original  treatises  on  history,  science,  econom- 
ics, etc.,  by  the  most  eminent  authors,  and  134  volumes 
were  accordingly  published,  under  the  general  name  of 
Lurdiier's  Cyclopwdia,  between  1830  and  1844.  Some 
of  these  volumes  were  from  his  own  pen.  A  second  is- 
sue of  this  work  was  begun  in  1853.  He  has  published 
various  scientific  works,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  his  "  hand-books"  of  various  branches  of  natural  phi- 
losophy (1854-50).  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  Museum 
of  Science  and  Art,  an  excellent  popular  exposition  of 
the  physical  sciences,  with  their  applications.  He  died 
in  Paris  April  29,  1859. — Chambers,  Cyclojmdia,  s.  v. 

Lardner,  Nathaniel,  D.D.,  a  very  noted  English 
theologian  and  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  of 
Arian  tendency,  was  born  in  Hawkshurst,  in  Kent,  in 
1684.  In  early  life  he  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Joshua  Old- 
field,  a  minister  of  eminence  in  that  denomination,  but, 
like  many  of  the  Dissenters  of  his  time,  he  preferred  to 
go  abroad  to  prosecute  his  studies.  He  spent  more  than 
three  years  at  the  University  of  Utrecht,  where  he  stud- 
ied under  Gra?vius  and  Burmann,  and  was  then  some  time 
at  the  University  of  Leyden.  He  returned  to  England 
in  1703,  and  continued  to  prosecute  his  theological  stud- 
ies with  a  view  to  the  ministry,  which  he  entered  at  the 
age  of  twenty-five.  He  began  preaching  at  Stoke-New- 
ington  in  1709,  but,  owing  to  his  want  of  power  to  mod- 
ulate his  voice,  soon  became  private  chaplain  and  tutor 
in  the  family  of  lady  Treby.  In  1724  he  was  appointed 
lecturer  at  the  Old  .Jewry,  where  he  delivered  in  outline 
his  work.  The  Credibilifi/  of  the  Gospel  Histoi-ij  (London, 
1727-43,  5  vols.  8vo),  generallj-  acknowledged  as  consti- 
tuting the  most  unanswerable  defence  of  Christianity  to 
our  own  day.  "  The  work  is  unequalled  for  the  extent 
and  accuracy  of  its  investigations.  Kecent  rtscarehee 
supplement  it,  but  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  ever  su- 
persede it"  (W.  J.  Cox  in  Kitto).  Sir  James  IMackin- 
tosh,  in  his  remarks  on  Paley  (in  the  View  of  the  Pi-og- 
7-ess  ff  Ethical  Philosophi/\  rather  discredits  its  general 
usefulness  as  an  apologetical  work,  because  it  "soon  wea- 
ries out  the  greater  part  of  readers,"  though  there  are 
many  eminent  English  critics  who  think  otherwise  (com- 
pare Allibone,  Diet.  ofEnr/l.  and  A  m.  A  uthors, 
ii,  1060).  But  even  sir  J.  JIackintosh  concedes 
that  with  the  scholar  it  has  power :  "  The  few 
who  are  more  patient  have  almost  always  been 
gradually  won  over  to  feel  pleasure  in  a  dis- 
jilay  of  knowledge,  probity,  charity,  and  meek- 
ness inimatched  by  an  avowed  advocate  in  a 
case  deeply  interesting  his  warmest  feelings" 
( compare  also  Leland,  Deistical  Writers').  In 
1 729  he  was  unexpectedly  called  to  the  Church 
ill  Crutchwl  Friars,  which  position  he  accept- 
ed and  held  for  about  twenty-two  years.  He 
died  at  his  native  place  in  17(!8,  having  de- 
voted his  long  life  to  the  prosecution  of  theo- 
logical inquiry,  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  any 
other  subject.  As  a  supplement  to  The  Cred- 
ibiliti/,  Lardner  wrote  History  of  the  Apostles 
and  KiHtngelists,  writers  of  the  N.  Test.  ( 1 756- 
57.  again  1760,  3  vols.  8vo;  also  in  vol.  ii  of 
bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts).  Dr. 
Lardner  likewise  wrote  many  other  treatises, 
in  which  his  store  of  learning  is  brought  to 
bear  on  questions  important  in  Christian  the- 


LARES 


247 


LARNED 


ology.  The  most  remarkable  of  these,  his  minor  publi- 
cations, are  his  Letter  on  the  Lor/os  (1759),  in  which  it  dis- 
tinctly appears  that  he  was  of  the  Unitarian  or  Socinian 
scliool;  and  History  of  the  Heretics  of  the  first  two  Centu- 
ries after  Christ  (published  alter  his  decease  [1780, 4to], 
with  "additions  by  John  Hogg).  The  best  edition  of  Lard- 
ner's  works  is  that  by  Dr.  Andrew  Kippis  (Lond.  1788, 
11  vols.  8vo);  but  it  is  no  mean  proof  of  the  estimation 
in  which  they  are  held,  that,  large  as  the  collection  is, 
they  were  reprinted  entire  as  late  as  1838  (Lond.  10  vols. 
8vo",  a  very  handsome  edition).  His  writings,  now  more 
than  a  century  old,  are  still  regarded  as  "  a  bulwark  on 
the  side  of  truth,"  so  much  so  that  not  only  ministers 
and  students  of  theology  of  our  day  can  ill  afford  to  be 
without  them,  but  every  intelligent  layman  who  seeks 
to  do  his  duty  in  the  Church,  of  which  he  is  a  part, 
sliould  possess  and  study  them.  "  In  the  applause  of 
Dr.  Lardner,"  says  T.  H.  Home  {Bibl.  Bib.  p.  368),  "  aU 
parties  of  Christians  are  united,  regarding  him  as  the 
champion  of  their  common  and  holy  faith.  Seeker,  Por- 
teus,  Watson,  Tomline,  Jortin,  Hay,  and  Paley,  of  the 
Anglican  Church ;  Doddridge,  Kippis,  and  Priestley, 
among  the  Dissenters^  and  all  foreign  Protestant  Bibli- 
cal critics  have  rendered  public  homage  to  his  learning, 
his  fairness,  and  his  great  merits  as  a  Christian  apolo- 
gist. The  candid  of  the  literati  of  the  Romish  com- 
munion have  extolled  his  labors;  and  even  ISIorgan  and 
(iibbon,  professed  unbelievers,  have  awarded  to  him  the 
meed  of  faithfulness  and  impartiality.  By  collecting  a 
mass  of  scattered  evidences  in  favor  of  the  authenticity 
of  the  evangelical  history,  he  established  a  bulwark  on 
the  side  of  truth  which  infidelity  has  never  presumed  to 
attack."  See  Dr.  Kippis,  Life  of  Lardner,  in  vol.  i  of 
the  works  of  the  latter ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m. 
Authors,  ii,  lOGO;  English  Cijclop.  s.  v.;  Farrar,  Critical 
Hist,  of  Free  Thoufjht,  p.  4G8 ;  Domer,  Person  of  Christ, 
ii,pt.  iii,  App.  p.  407. 

Lares,  in  connection  with  the  Manks  and  the  Pe- 
NATKS,  were  tutelary  spirits,  genii,  or  deities  of  the  an- 
cient Romans.  The  derivation  of  the  names  is  not  per- 
haps quite  certain,  but  the  lirst  is  generally  considered 
the  plural  of  lar,  an  Etruscan  word  signifying  "  lord"  or 
"hero;"  the  second  is  supposed  to  mean  "the  good  or 
benevolent  ones;"  and  the  third  is  connected  with  jk- 
nus, "  the  innermost  part  of  a  house  or  sanctuary."  The 
Lares,  Manes,  and  Penates  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
regarded  as  essentially  different  beings,  for  the  names 
are  frequently  used  either  interchangeably  or  in  such  a 
conjunction  as  almost  implies  identity.  Yet  some  have 
thought  that  a  distinction  is  discernible,  and  have  look- 
ed upon  the  Lares  as  earthly,  the  Manes  as  infernal, 
and  the  Penates  as  heavenly  protectors — a  notion  which 
has  probably  originated  in  the  fact  that  jManes  is  a  gen- 
eral name  for  the  souls  of  the  departed,  those  who  in- 
habit the  lower  world;  while  among  the  Penates  are 
included  such  great  deities  as  Jupiter,  Juno,  Vesta,  etc. 
Hence  we  may  perhaps  infer  that  the  jNIanes  were  just 
the  Lares  viewed  as  departed  spirits,  and  that  the  Pe- 
nates embraced  not  only  the  Lares,  but  all  spirits,  wheth- 
er dajmons  or  deities,  who  exercised  a  "special  provi- 
dence" over  families,  cities,  etc.  Of  the  former,  IManes, 
we  know  almost  nothing  distinctively.  An  annual  fes- 
tival was  lield  in  their  honor  on  the  19th  of  February, 
called  Feralia  or  Parentalia,  of  the  latter,  Penates,  we 
are  in  nearly  equal  ignorance,  but  of  the  Lares  we  have 
a  somewhat  detailed  account.  They  were,  like  the  Pe- 
nates, divided  into  two  classes  —  Lares  domestici  and 
Lares  jjubUci.  The  former  were  the  souls  of  virtuous 
ancestors  set  free  from  the  realm  of  shades  by  the  Ache- 
rontic  rites,  and  exalted  to  the  rank  of  protectors  of 
their  descendants.  They  were,  in  short,  household  gods, 
and  their  worship  was  really  a  worship  of  ancestors. 
The  first  of  the  Lares  in  point  of  honor  was  the  Larfa- 
miliark,  the  founder  of  the  house,  the  family  Lar,  who 
accompanied  it  iu  all  its  changes  of  residence.  The 
Lares  puhlici  had  a  wider  sphere  of  influence,  and  re- 
ceived particular  names  from  the  places  over  which  they 


ruled.  Thus  we  read  oi  Lares  compitales  (the  Lares  of 
cross-roads).  Lares  vicorum  (the  Lares  of  streets),  the 
Lares  rurales  (the  rural  Lares),  Lares  viales  (the  Lares 
of  the  highways).  Lares  permarini  (the  Lares  of  the 
sea),  and  the  Lares  cnhiculi  (the  Lares  of  the  bedcham- 
ber). The  images  of  these  guardian  spirits  or  deities 
were  placed  (at  least  in  large  houses)  in  small  shrines 
or  compartments  called  cediculce  or  lararia.  They  were 
worshipped  every  day :  whenever  a  Roman  family  sat 
down  to  meals,  a  portion  of  the  food  was  presented  to 
them;  but  particular  honors  were  paid  to  them  on  the 
calends,  nones,  and  ides  of  the  month ;  and  at  festive 
gatherings  the  lararia  were  thrown  open,  and  the  im- 
ages of  the  household  gods  were  adorned  with  garlands. 
— Chambers,  s.  v.  See  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Classical 
liioiiraphy  and  Mijthology,  s.  v. 

Larned,  Sylvester,  an  American  Presbyterian 
minister,  born  in  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Aug.  31,  1796,  was 
educated  at  Lenox  Academy  and  Middlebury  College, 
studied  theology  in  Princeton  Seminary,  and  was  or- 
dained in  July,  1817.  His  earliest  efforts  at  preaching 
showed  rare  gifts  of  eloquence,  and  his  first  sermons, 
delivered  in  New  York  city,  attracted  large  crowds,  and 
melted  whole  audiences  to  tears.  President  Davis,  of 
Middlebury  College,  remarked  of  him  that  in  his  com- 
position and  eloquence  he  was  not  surpassed  by  any 
j'outh  whom  he  had  ever  known ;  and  John  Quincy 
Adams  declared  that  he  had  never  heard  his  equal  in 
the  pulpit.  To  his  wonderful  gift  of  oratorj^  Larned 
added  the  strength  of  a  dignified  and  commanding  pres- 
ence, a  voice  fnU  of  melody  and  pathos,  thorough  and 
sjinpathetic  appreciation  of  his  theme,  and  an  unj-ield- 
ing  devotion  to  his  calling.  He  had  the  unusual  power 
of  winning  his  audience  with  the  utterance  of  almost 
his  first  sentence.  His  very  look  was  eloquent.  Larned 
was  solicited  to  take  the  first  stations,  with  the  largest 
salaries ;  but,  desiring  to  give  his  energies  to  build  up 
the  Church  where  it  was  weak,  he  went  to  New  Orleans, 
and  soon  organized  a  church,  the  First  Presbyterian, 
over  which  he  became  pastor.  He  labored  there  with 
the  greatest  success,  creating  deep  impressions  upon  the 
popular  mind  until  his  death,  Aug.  20,  1820.  Seldom, 
if  ever,  has  the  death  of  one  so  young  caused  such  wide- 
spread sorrow.  His  Life  and  Sermo7)s  were  published 
by  Rev.  R.  R.  Giurley  (Ncav  York,  1844,  12mo).  —  AUi- 
bone.  Diet  of  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  iithors,  ii,  1060 ;  Water- 
bury,  Sketches  of  Eloquent  Preacheis,  p.  33  sq. ;  New  Eng- 
lander,  v,  70  sq. 

Larned,"William  Augustus,  a  noted  American 
Congregational  theologian  and  professor,  was  born  in 
Thompson  County,  Conn.,  June  23, 1806.  His  ancestors 
had  li\'cd  in  that  county  for  four  generations,  the  first 
of  the  family  having  come  over  in  John  Winthrop's  col- 
ony in  1630.  Provided  with  suitable  opportunities  for 
obtaining  an  education  by  his  father,  a  lawyer  of  con- 
siderable ability  and  renown,  young  Larned  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  with  honor  when  about  twenty 
years  of  age.  Although  religiously  trained  he  was 
somewhat  sceptical  in  his  youth,  but,  under  the  preach- 
ing of  Dr.  Fitch  while  in  college,  he  was  powerfuUy  im- 
pressed, and  in  the  great  revival  that  occurred  soon  after 
his  graduation  he  resolved  to  be  a  follower  of  Christ. 
After  teaching  five  years,  first  at  Salisburj',  N.  C,  and 
then  ff>r  three  years  as  tutor  in  Yale  College,  he  entered 
upon  his  theological  studies,  and  was  ordained  in  1834 
liastor  of  the  Second  Congregational  Church,  Millbury, 
JIass.,  but  was  compelled  to  reUnqulsh  this  chii.rge  iu 
the  following  year  on  account  of  impaired  health.  From 
1835  to  1889  he  was  associated,  at  their  request,  with 
Rev.  N.  S.  Beman,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  Mr.  Kirk,  in  instruct- 
ing theological  students  in  Troy,  N.  Y.  Soon  after  fin- 
ishing his  labors  in  Troy  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  English  literature  in  Yale  College,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  tilled  with  honor  and  usefulness  till  his 
death,  Feb.  3,  1862.  Prof.  Larned's  literary  labors  were 
mostly  confined  to  the  New  Englamler,  of  wliich  he  was 
editor  for  two  years,  and  to  which  he  contributed  twon- 


LAROCHE 


248 


LAROMIGUIERE 


ty-seven  different  articles  on  a  variety  of  topics.  As 
the  pastor  of  a  church,  as  the  successor  of  Dr.  Goodrich 
in  the  professor's  chair,  and  as  a  literarj'  man,  lie  acquit- 
ted himself  with  fidelity  and  success.  He  was  a  man 
simple  and  unpretending  in  his  tastes  and  habits,  of 
great  purity  of  character,  and  of  strong  faith  in  Christ 
as  his  Saviour.  See  New  Englander,  18G2,  April,  art.  ix ; 
Appleton,  Xew  Am.  Cyclop,  vol.  x,  s.  v. ;  Conrjreg.  Q,uaii. 
18G3 ;  Dr.  Theodore  Woolsey,  Funeral  Discourse  com- 
memorative of  Rec.  W.  A.  Larned  (New  Haven,  18G2, 
8vo).     (;H.A.B.) 

Laroche,  Alaix  de,  also  called  Alanus  de  Rupe, 
a  French  Koman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  in  Brit- 
tany about  the  year  1428.  While  yet  quite  young  he 
joined  the  Dominicans,  studied  philosophy  and  tlieology 
at  I'aris,  and  was  sent  to  the  Netherlands  in  1459.  Af- 
ter lecturing  for  a  while  in  the  convents  of  Lille  and 
Douai,  he  became  professor  of  theology  at  Gand  in  14G8, 
and  at  Rostock  in  1470.  He  died  at  ZwoU  Sept.  8, 1475. 
Full  of  zeal,  but  very  deficient  in  knowledge,  Laroche 
labored  ceaselessly  to  propagate  the  use  of  the  rosary ; 
he  w'as  the  first  to  preach  on  this  practice,  introducing 
in  his  sermons  marvellous  stories  which  he  mostly  in- 
vented himself.  His  works  were  published  more  than 
a  century  after  his  death,  under  the  title  Beatus  Alanus 
de  Rape  redivivus,  de  Psalterio,  seu  Rosario  ChrisH  et  Ma- 
rice,  tractafus,  in  V partes  distributns  (Friburg,  1619,  4to ; 
Col.  1624;  Naples,  1630).  See  Trithemius,  Z^e  Script. 
Eccles.  c.  850;  Choquet,  Script.  Belrj.  Ord.  Prcedicat.  p. 
202-218;  Echard,  Script.  Ord.  Prcedicat. ;  Paqnot,  Me- 
moires,  etc.,  iii,  144-150 ;  Hoefer,  Noiiv.  Biog.  Geninde, 
xxix,  G22.     See  Rosarv.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Larochefoucauld,  Francois,  Drc  de,  a  noted 
French  philosophical  writer,  the  descendant  of  an  old 
French  family  of  great  celebrity,  was  born  in  1G13.  He 
early  enjoyed  the  fiivor  and  confidence  of  the  court,  but 
involved  himself  in  intrigues  against  cardmal  Richelieu, 
and  in  the  tumults  of  the  Fronde,  and  was  obliged  to 
retire  into  private  life.  Ever  attached  to  literary  pur- 
suits, he  cultivated  the  society  of  the  most  eminent  lit- 
erary persons  of  his  time,  Boileau,  Racine,  and  Moliere, 
and  composed  his  famous  Memoires  (Cologne,  1G62 ; 
Amsterdam,  1723,  etc.),  in  which  he  gives  a  simple  but 
masterly  historic  account  of  the  political  events  of  his 
time.  In  16G5  he  published  Reflexions  ou  Sentences  et 
Maximes  Morcdes,  a  work  containing  360  detached 
thoughts,  of  which,  perhaps,  the  most  widely  celebrated 
is  his  definition  of  hj-pocrisy,  as  "the  homage  which 
vice  renders  to  virtue."  The  book  is  regarded  as  a 
model  of  French  prose,  and  exhibits  much  acuteness  of 
observation,  and  a  clear  perception  of  the  prevalent  cor- 
TU])tion  and  hypocrisy  of  his  time.  Larochefoucauld 
died  Marcli  17,  1680.  His  (Eui-res  Completes  were  edit- 
ed by  Depping  (Par.  1818),  and  his  writings  have  l)cen 
commented  on  by  a  host  of  critics  of  the  most  different 
schools,  as  Voltaire,  Viuet,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Victor  Cou- 
sin. See  Suard,  Notice  sur  La  Rochefoucanld;  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Etmh's  sur  La  Rochefoucauld,  in  his  Portraits 
des  Femmes ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gmerale,  xxix,  G34  sq. 
— Chambers,  Cgclopceclia,  s.  v. 

Laromiguiere,  Pierre,  a  distinguished  French 
metaphysician,  was  born  at  Livignac-le-Haut.  Aveyron, 
Nov.  3, 175G.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  Villefranche, 
and  became  successively  jirofcssor  of  i)hil()sophy  at  Car- 
cassonne, Tarbes  and  La  FK-clie,  and  Toulouse.  "^  In  1790 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  became  professor  of  the 
normal  school.  In  1812  he  confined  himself  to  his  office 
of  librarian  of  the  university,  still  retaining,  however, 
the  title  of  jjrofessor  of  the  faculty  of  philosophy.  He 
died  at  Paris  Aug.  12,  1«37.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  miscellaneous  pieces,  his  chief  reputation  as  a  phi- 
losopher rests  ou  his  Le^on.t  de  Philosophie  (3d  ed.  Paris, 
1826,  3  vols.  12mo).  He  had  been'educated  a  zealous 
pui)il  of  Condillac,  but  there  were,  as  Cousin  expresses 
it,  two  men  in  Laromiguiere.  the  ancient  an<l  the  mod- 
ern ;  the  disciple  and  the  adversary  of  Condillac. 


iMromiguiere's  Philosophy. — (1.)  Classification  of  the 
Faculties. — "  These  powers  and  capacities  he  separates 
into  two  great  classes— those  of  the  understanding  and 
those  of  the  wUl.  The  faculties  of  the  understanding  he 
reduces  to  these  three  :  1.  Attention;  2.  Comparison ;  3. 
Reasoning.  Of  these  three,  attention  is  the  fundamental 
principle  from  which  the  other  two  proceed ;  and  of  these 
two,  again,  the  phenomena  usually  denoted  by  the  words 
memory,  judgment,  imagination,  etc.,  arc  simply  modi- 
fications. Since,  however,  these  three  generic  powers,  in 
their  last  analysis,  are  all  included  in  the  first,  the  whole 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  understanding  may  be  said  to 
spring  from  the  one  great  fundamental  faculty  of  attention. 
If  we  now  turn  to  the  tcill,  we  find,  according  to  M.  Laro-  > 
miguiere,  a  comi)lete  parallel  existing  between  its  phe- 
nomena and  those  we  have  just  been  considering.  The 
foundation  of  all  voluntary  action  in  man  is  desii-e;  and 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  already  seen  the  two 
latter  faculties  of  the  luiderstanding  spring  from  the 
first,  so  now  we  see  springing  from  desire,  as  the  basis, 
the  two  corresponding  phenomena  of  preference  and  lib- 
erty. These  three  powers,  then,  being  established,  all 
the  subordinate  powers  of  the  will  are  without  difficulty 
reducible  to  them,  so  that,  at  length,  we  have  the  com- 
plete man  viewed  in  two  different  aspects — in  the  one 
as  an  intellectual,  in  the  otlier  as  a  voluntary  being,  the 
chief  facts  of  his  intellectual  exactly  corresponding  to 
those  of  his  voluntary  existence.  Lastly,  to  bring  the 
whole  system  to  a  state  of  complete  unity,  our  author 
shows  that  desire  itself  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  peculiar 
form  of  attention ;  that  the  fundamental  principle,  there- 
fore, of  our  intellectual  and  voluntary  life  is  the  same ; 
that  the  power  of  attention,  broadly  viewed  (being,  in 
fact,  but  another  expression  for  the  natural  activity  of 
the  human  mind),  is  the  point  from  which  the  whole 
originally  proceeds.  Now  the  contrast  between  this 
psychology  and  that  of  Condillac  is  sufficiently  striking, 
the  one  being  indeed,  in  a  measure,  directlj'  opposite  to 
the  other.  The  one  lays  at  the  foundation  of  our  whole 
intellectual  and  active  life  a  faculty  ])urc\y  passice  in  its 
nature,  and  regards  all  phenomena  as  simply  transfor- 
mations of  it;  the  other  assumes  a  primitive  power,  the 
very  essence  of  which  is  actiriti/,  and  makes  all  our  other 
powers  more  or  less  share  in  this  essence." 

(2.)  Origin  of  our  Ideas. — "  Here,  in  order  to  swerve 
as  little  as  possible  in  appearance  from  the  philosophy 
of  Condillac,  he  makes  the  whole  matericd  of  our  knowl- 
edge come  from  out  sensibility.  Condillac  had  derived 
all  our  ideas  from  sensation  in  its  ordinary'  and  contract- 
ed sense;  Locke  had  derived  them  from  sensation  and 
reflection,  thus  taking  in  the  active  as  well  as  the  pass- 
ive element  to  account  for  the  iihenoniena  of  the  case ; 
M.  Laromiguiere,  however,  explains  his  meaning  of  the 
word  sensibility  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  the  foun- 
dation stiU  broader  than  that  of  Locke  himself.  Sensi- 
bility, he  shows,  is  of  four  kinds :  1.  That  produced  by 
the  action  of  external  things  upon  the  mind — this  is 
sensation  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word ;  2.  that  ]iro- 
duced  by  the  action  of  our  faculties  upon  each  other — 
this  is  equivalent  to  Locke's  reflection ;  3.  that  which  is 
produced  by  the  recurrence  and  comparison  of  several 
ideas  together,  giving  us  the  perception  of  relations  ; 
and,  4.  that  which  is  produced  by  the  contemplation  of 
human  actions,  as  right  or  wrong,  which  is  the  nn'ral 
faculty.  In  this  theory  it  appears  at  once  evident  tliat 
there  is  a  secret  revolt  from  the  doctrines  of  sensational- 
ism. The  activity  of  the  human  mind  was  again  vin- 
dicated, the  majesty  of  reason  restored,  and,  what  was 
still  more  important,  the  moral  faculty  was  again  raised 
from  its  ruins  to  sway  its  sceptre  over  human  actions 
and  purposes.  i\I.  Laromiguiere,  the  ideologist,  will  al- 
ways be  viewed  as  the  day-star  of  French  eclecticijim" 
(Morell,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy,  p.  631  s(j.). 

Laromiguiere's  works  were  published,  in  the  7th  edi- 
tion, as  (Eueres  de  Laromiguiere,  at  Paris,  in  18G2.  See 
Cousin,  Fragments philosophirjues  (1838),  ii,  468;  Dami- 
ron,  Essai  sur  I'JIistoire  de  la  Philosophie  en  France  au 


LAROS 


249 


LA  SALLE 


xix"'^  siecle  (1828) ;  Daunou,  Notice  sur  la  Vie  et  les 
Ecrits  lie  Laromiyuiere  (1839) ;  Valette,  Laromigui'ere 
et  VEclectisme  (iS-t'i) ;  Saphary,  IJEcole  ecL'ctique  et 
VEcole  Eran^aise  (1844) ;  Perrard,  Loffiqne  clussique 
d'apres  les  principes  de  Laromiguiere  (1844);  C.  Mallet, 
Mem.  sur  Laromiguiere,  in  the  Compte  rendu  de  VA  ca- 
demie  des  Sciences  morales  et  poUtiques  (1847),  vol.  iii; 
Tissot,  Appreciations  des  Lemons  de  I'hilosophie  de  Laro- 
viiguiere  (1855)  ;  jMignet,  Notice  historique  sur  la  Vie  et 
les  Ecrits  de  M.  Laromiguiere  (185()) ;  Taine,  IjCS  Philo- 
sopkes  Eraiifais  du  xix'"'  siecle  (1857) ;  Iloefer,  Nouv, 
Biog,  Generale,  xxix,  GG9. 

Laros,  John  Jacob,  a  minister  of  the  German  Re- 
formed Churcli,  of  Hut,aienot  descent,  was  born  in  Le- 
high Co.,  Pa.,  in  Feb.  1755.  lie  was  three  years  a  sol- 
dier in  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  fought  in  the  battle 
of  Trenton.  Afterwards  he  went  to  North  Carolina, 
where  he  taught  scliool.  He  studied  theology  private- 
ly, and  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1795.  He  preached 
seven  years  in  North  Carolina,  when  he  removed  to 
Ohio,  and  there  continued  the  good  work.  He  was  not 
ordained,  however,  till  18"20.  He  died  Nov.  17,  1844, 
having  accomplished  an  important  work  in  Ohio  as  a 
pioneer  of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  Mr.  Laros 
wrote  much.  He  left  behind  in  I\IS.  treatises  on  The 
Decrees  of  God  and  lieproba/ioii,  and  The  Evidences  of 
saving  Eaith.  These  are  in  (Jerman — ably  conceived, 
well  conducted,  and  written  in  a  beautiful  style.  He  left 
also  a  number  of  poems  of  considerable  merit.  Without 
mucli  learning,  he  was  decidedly  a  genius,  but,  what  is 
better,  he  left  behind  him  the  record  of  a  long,  laborious, 
and  useful  life. 

Larroque,  Daniel,  a  French  theologian  and  writer, 
was  born  at  A'itni  near  IGGO.  He  studied  theology, 
and  was  about  to  enter  the  ministry,  when  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  drove  him  to  London.  After 
preaching  in  the  capital  of  England  for  several  months, 
he  Vv'ent  to  Copenhagen  as  minister  to  Huguenot  refu- 
gees. In  1G90  he  returned  to  France,  and  became  a  Ro- 
man Catholic ;  but  he  failed  to  meet  with  success  among 
the  Romanists,  and  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to  stndj', 
and  kept  in  close  retirement  from  the  world.  He  died 
at  Paris  Sept.  5, 1731.  A  list  of  liis  writings,  which  are 
not  of  particular  interest,  is  given  in  Hocfcr,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxix,  G97-699. 

Larroque,  Matthieu  de,  a  distinguished  French 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Lairac,  near  Agen,  in 
1G19.  He  studied  theology  at  jNIontauban,  and  in  1G43 
became  pastor  of  the  Church  at  Poujoh.  The  next  year 
he  went  in  the  same  capacity  to  Yitre,  where  he,  re- 
mained twenty-six  years.  In  1GG9  he  was  proposed  as 
minister  to  the  Church  of  Charenton,  but  the  govern- 
n>ent  opposed  his  nomination ;  similar  reasons  prevent- 
ed his  accepting  a  call  as  pastor  and  professor  to  Sau- 
mur.  He  shortly  after  went  to  Rouen,  where  he  died, 
Jan.  31, 1G84.  Larroque  was  a  man  of  eminent  natural 
talents,  extensive  learning,  and  great  activity.  He  wrote 
a  large  number  of  works,  mostly  polemical,  the  principal 
of  which  are,  Histoire  de  VEurharistie  (Amst.  1G69,  4to; 
2d  ed.  1G71, 8vo) ;  a  very  scholarly  work,  by  far  his  best, 
and  of  itself  enough  to  make  his  name  immortal: — Dis- 
sertalio  duplex  de  Photino  hwretico  et  de  Liberia ponfifice 
Romano  (Geneva,  1670,  8vo)  : — Obsei-vationes  in  Igna- 
tianas  Pearsonii  vindicias  et  in  annotationes  Bereregii  in 
Canones  Apostolorum  (Rouen,  1G74,  8vo) :  a  defence  of 
Daille's  work  on  the  epistles  of  Ignatius  against  Pear- 
son and  Beveridge ;  Reponse  aii  livre  de  ](/.  Veveque  de 
Meini.r,  De  la.  Communion  sons  les  deux  esp'eces  (Rotter- 
dam, 1G83,  ]2mo)  -.—Nouveau  Trai/e  de  la  Regale  (Rot- 
terdam, 1G85, 12mo),  in  defence  of  the  king's  right  to  ap- 
point ministers  to  the  vacant  churches  in  France  : — Ad- 
versarionim  sacronim.  Libri  iii  (Leydcn,  1G88,  8vo'),  be- 
ing part  of  an  ecclesiastical  history  which  he  left  in- 
com])lete.  Sec  Nouvelles  de  la  Hepnhliqne  des  Letlres, 
March,  1G84,  art.  5:  Bny]e,JJir/ionnaire  Ilisiorique;  Ni- 
ceron,J/e»wire«,vol.xxi;  Histoire  des  Ouvrages  des  Sa- 


vants, April,  IG88;  Haag,  Za  France  Protestante ;  Hoe- 
fer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  G97.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Larue,  Charles  de,  a  French  Jesuit  and  celebrated 
preacher,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1G43 ;  joined  the  order  in 
1GS9,  became  soon  after  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  at 
once  attracted  the  attention  of  Louis  XIV  by  his  talents 
as  a  preacher  and  poet.  He  was  for  a  while  sent  as  a 
missionarj^  among  the  Protestants  of  the  Cevennes,  but 
soon  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  rhetoric  in  the  college  Louis-le-Grand.  He  was  also 
chosen  confessor  of  the  dauphincss,  and  of  the  duke  of 
Berri.  He  died  at  Paris  May  27,  1725.  Larue  wrote 
Idgllia  (Rouen,  1GG9,  12mo),  reprinted  under  the  title 
Carminuni  Libri  iv  (Gth  ed.  Paris,  1754),  which  contains, 
among  a  number  of  profane  pieces,  a  Greek  ode  in  honor 
of  the  immaculate  conception  (1G70)  : — P.Virgilii  Ma- 
ronis  Opera,  interpi-etatione  et  notis,  ad  usum  Ddphini 
(Paris,  1G75,  4to,  often  reprinted)  : — Sermons  (in  Jligne, 
Collection  des  Orateurs  Sacres)  :  these  are  celebrated  as 
models  of  pathos,  as  well  as  for  vehemence  of  style  and 
grace  of  diction : — Panegyriqites  des  Saints,  etc.  (Paris, 
1740,2  vols.  12mo) ;  and  a  number  of  theatrical  pieces, 
etc.  See  Mercure  de  France,  June,  1725 ;  Baillet,  Juge- 
ments  des  Savants;  Journal  des  Savants,  1695, 1706, 1712, 
1738,  and  1740;  Diet,  des  Predicateurs ;  Le  hong,  Bibl. 
Historique;  Moreri, Dictionnaire  Hist,  is.;  Bibl. des  ecri- 
vains  de  la  Comjiagnie  de  .Jesus,  p.  658-665 ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  700. 

Lasae'a  (Aao-a/a,  derivation  unknown),  a  place  men- 
tioned only  in  Acts  xxvii,  8,  as  a  city  lying  near  the 
Fair  Havens,  in  the  island  of  Crete.  Other  MSS.  have 
Alassa  ("AXaffrrn),  and  some  (with  the  Vulgate)  Tha- 
lussa  {QaXaaaa),  which  latter  Beza  adopted  (see  Kui- 
iKi\,Comment.  ad  loc),  and  Cramer  mentions  coins  of  a 
Cretan  town  by  this  latter  name  (Ancient  Greece,  iii, 
374) ;  but  neither  of  these  readings  is  to  be  preferred. 
It  is  likely  that  during  the  stay  at  the  adjoining  port 
the  passengers  on  Paul's  ship  visited  Lasasa  (Conybeare 
and  Howson's  Life  and  Epist.  of  St.  Paul,  ii,  320,  n.).  It 
is  probably  the  same  r.s  the  Lisia  of  the  Peutinger  Ta- 
bles, sixteen  miles  east  of  Gortyna  (see  Hock,  A"/-e/ff,  i, 
412,439).  In  the  month  of  January,  1856,  a  yachting 
party  made  inquiries  at  Fair  Havens,  and  were  told  that 
the  name  Lasaja  was  stiU  given  to  some  ruins  in  the 
neighborhood.  It  lies  about  the  middle  of  the  southern 
coast  of  Crete,  some  five  miles  east  of  Fair  Havens,  and 
close  to  Cape  Leonda.  Mr.  Brown  thus  describes  the 
ruins:  "Inside  the  cape,  to  the  eastward,  the  beach  is 
lined  with  masses  of  masonry.  These  were  formed  of 
small  stones  cemented  together  with  mortar  so  lirmly 
that  even  where  the  sea  had  undermined  them  huge 
fragments  lay  on  the  sand.  This  sea-wall  extended  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  along  the  beach  from  one  rocky  face 
to  another,  and  was  evidently  intended  for  the  defence 
of  the  cit)'.  Above  we  found  the  ruins  of  two  temples. 
The  steps  which  led  up  to  one  remain,  though  in  a 
shattered  state.  Many  shafts,  and  a  few  capitals  of  Gre- 
cian pillars,  all  of  marble,  lie  scattered  about,  and  a  gully 
worn  by  a  torrent  lays  bare  the  substructions  down  to 
the  rock.  To  the  east  a  conical  rocky  hill  is  girdled  by 
a  wall,  and  on  a  platform  between  this  hill  and  the  sea 
the  pillars  of  another  edifice  lie  level  vi'ith  the  ground" 
(Smith's  Voyage  and  Shipirreck  of  St. Paul,  Apjicnd.  i,  p. 
2G0, 3d  edit.,  where  a  plan  is  given).  Captain  Spratt,  R. 
N.,  had  previously  observed  some  remains  which  jirob- 
ably  represent  the  harbor  of  LasKa  (see  p.  80,  82,  245), 
It  ought  to  be  noticed  that  in  the  Lescrizione  ddV  Isola 
di  Caudia,  a  Venetian  IVIS.  of  the  16th  century,  as  jjub- 
lished  by  Mr.  E.  Falkener  in  the  Museum  of  Classical 
Antiquities,  Sept.  1852  (p.  287),  a  place  called  Lapsca, 
with  a  "  temple  in  ruins,"  and  ''  other  vestiges  near  the 
harbor,"  is  mentioned  as  being  close  to  Fair  Havens. 

La  Salle,  Jeax  Baptist  ve,  a  French  priest,  found- 
er of  the  Order  of  Jirethrcu  (f  the  Christian  Schools,  was 
l)orn  at  Rlicims  April  30,  1G51.  In  1G70  he  went  to 
Paris  to  complete  his  education  at  the  Seminary  of  St. 


LAS  CASAS 


250 


LASITIUS 


Sulpice.  He  was  made  canon  of  Rhoims,  and  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1G71.  Struck  with  tlie  ignorance  of  the 
poorer  classes  with  regard  to  religion,  he  resolved  to  es- 
tablish a  congregation  whose  chief  object  shoidd  be  to 
teach  and  elevate  them.  In  1G79  he  began  teachinp-  in 
two  parishes  of  Kheims,  but  was  subjected  to  many  an- 
noyances from  the  secular  teachers,  and  even  censured 
by  some  of  the  clergy.  He  nevertheless  continued  his 
labors,  gave  all  his  means  to  the  poor,  and  finally  suc- 
ceeded. A  house  which  he  had  bought  at  Rouen,  Saint- 
Yon,  became  the  head-quarters  of  his  order,  and  when  he 
died,  April  7, 1719,  the  13rethren  of  the  Christian  Schools 
were  established  at  Paris,  Rouen,  Rheims,  and  other 
principal  cities  of  France.  Its  institution  was  approved 
by  Benedict  XIII  in  1725.  The  Brethren  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools  take  the  three  vows  of  chastity,  poverty, 
and  obedience,  but  they  are  not  perpetual.  La  Salle 
did  not  wish  any  priest  to  be  ever  received  among  them. 
Their  dress  consists  of  a  black  robe  resembling  a  cas- 
sock, with  a  small  collar  or  ^vlute  bands,  black  stockings, 
and  coarse  shoes,  a  black  cloak  of  the  same  material  as 
the  dress,  with  wide  hanging  sleeves,  and  a  broad-brim- 
med black  felt  hat,  looped  up  on  three  sides.  Their 
order  became  widely  disseminated,  and  they  are  now 
scattered  nearly  through  the  whole  world.  In  1854 
they  counted  over  7000  members,  employed  in  France, 
Algeria,  the  United  States,  Itah",  etc.  Pope  Gregory 
XVI  placed  La  Salle  among  the  blessed,  and  he  was 
canonized  by  Pius  IX.  La  Salle  wrote  a  number  of 
tooks  for  the  education  of  children,  many  of  which  are 
still  in  use ;  among  them  we  notice  Les  Devoirs  du  Chre- 
tien envers  Dieu,  et  les  nioijeiis  de  pouvoir  Men  s'en  acquit- 
ter: — Les  Regies  de  la  Biensmnce  et  de  la  cicilite  Chre- 
tienne: — Instructions  et  Piie res  pour  la  Sainie  Messe: — 
Comluite  des  Ecoles  Chreliennes : — Les  dome  Vertus  d'un 
bon  Maitre.  He  is  also  considered  the  author  of  Me- 
(litciiiiins  sur  les  Eoaiujiles  de  tous  les  THmanches  et  sur 
les  principnles  Fetes  de  VA  nnee,  of  which  a  new  edition 
was  iiublished  in  1858  (Versailles,  8vo).  See  abbe  Car- 
ron.  Vie  de  J.-B.  de  La  Salle;  (Jarreau,  Vie  de  J.-Bapt. 
de  La  Salle ;  L'A  mi  de  FEnfance,  ou  Vie  de  J.-B.  de  La 
Salle ;  Le  veritable  A  mi  de  VEit/ance,  ou  A  hrerje  de  la  Vie 
cl  des  Vertus  du  venerable  Serviteur  de  Dieu  J.-B.  de  la 
Salle;  abbe  Tresvaux,  Vie  des  Saints;  Hoefer,  Kour. 
Bioff.  Oener.  xxix,  724.     (,I.  N.  P.) 

Las  Casas.     See  Casas. 

La'sha  (Heb.  Le'sha,  "'^h.Jissure,  in  pause  "d^; 
Scjit.  AamuYulg.  Lesa).  a  place  mentioned  last  in  de- 
fining the  border  of  the  Canaanites  ((ien.  x,  19),  and 
apparently  situated  east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  According 
to  Jerome  (Qumst.  in  Gen.),  Jonathan  (where  "'il'lbp  is 
doubtless  an  erroneous  transcrii>tion  for  ''Tilbp).  and  the 
Jems.  Targum,  it  was  the  spot  afterwards  known  as 
Callirr/ioe,  famous  for  its  warm  springs,  just  beyond 
Jordan  (Josephus,  ^m^  vii,  6,  5;  \Var,i,  33,  5;  compare 
Ptolemy,  v,  IG,  9),  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  where  Machaerus  lay  (Pliny,  v,  15).  These  springs 
were  visited  by  Irby  and  jNLangles  {Travels,  p.  4G7  sq.) ; 
they  lie  north  of  the  Anion  (Kosenmiiller,  Alterth.  II, 
i,  218).  Sehwarz  says  that  ruins  as  well  as  the  hot 
springs  are  still  found  at  the  mouth  of  ivadtj  Zurka 
{['(destine,  p.  228).  Bochart  {Geoep:  Sacr.  iv,  37)  less 
correctly  identifies  the  name  with  the  Arabic  Lusa 
(Rebuid,  PuLrst.  p.  871).  Lieut.  Lynch  visited  the  out- 
let of  tluse  springs  tlirough  the  wady  Zurka,  which  he 
describes  as  a  rajjid  stream  twelve  feet  wide  and  ten 
inches  deep,  with  a  temperature  of  9P,  having  a  slight 
sulphurous  taste.  The  bed  is  a  chasm  122  feet  wide, 
worn  through  perpendicular  cliffs,  and  fringed  with 
canes,  tamarisks,  and  the  castor-bean  {Narrative  of  the 
U.  S.  Expedition  to  the  Jordan,  p.  370).  Irby  and  Man- 
gles found  several  warm  sidpliiir  springs  discharging 
themselves  into  the  stream  at  various  points,  being,  no 
doubt,  tliose  visited  by  llcrod  iu  liis  last  sickness.  See 
CAi.i.iKijiioii.  The  place  is  apparently  also  the  Zii- 
RETH-SHAHAR  (q.  V.)  of  Josh.  xiii,  19- 


Lash'aron  [many  Lasha'ron]  (Heb.  Lashsharon', 
"I'l'ni'b,  signif.  unknown;  Sept.  Aiaapuv,  but  almost  all 
copies  omit ;  Vulg.  Saron,  but  iu  the  Benedictine  text 
Lassaron),  one  of  the  Canaanitish  towns  whose  kings 
were  killed  by  Joshua  (Josh,  xii,  18).  "Some  differ- 
ence of  opinion  has  been  expressed  as  to  whether  the 
first  syllable  is  an  integral  part  of  the  name  or  the  He- 
brew preposition  with  the  art.  implied  (see  Keil,  Josiia, 
ad  loc).  But  there  seems  to  be  no  warrant  for  suppos- 
ing the  existence  of  a  particle  before  this  one  name, 
which  certainly  does  not  exist  before  either  of  the  other 
thirty  names  in  the  list.  Such,  at  least, is  the  conclusion 
of  Bochart  {Hieroz.  i,  ch.  31),  Reland  {Palcesf.  871),  and 
others,  a  conclusion  supported  by  the  reading  of  the 
Targum,  and  the  Arabic  Version,  and  also  by  Jerome,  if 
the  Benedictine  text  can  be  relied  on.  The  ojjposite 
conclusion  of  the  Vulgate,  given  above,  is  adopted  by 
Gesenius  {Thesaurus,  p.  642,  b),  but  not  on  very  clear 
grounds,  his  chief  argument  being  apparently  that,  as 
the  name  of  a  town,  Sharon  woidd  not  require  the  arti- 
cle affixed,  which,  as  that  of  a  district,  it  always  bears. 
The  name  has  vanished  from  both  the  Vat.  and  Alex. 
MSS.  of  the  Sept.,  unless  a  trace  exists  in  the  '0<peKrrj- 
crapcoK  of  the  Vat."  (Smith).  Masius  supposes  Lasha- 
ron  to  be  the  place  mentioned  in  Acts  ix,  35,  where  the 
reading  of  some  MSS.  is  'Aaadpwva  instead  of  'S.apwi'a  ; 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  such  a  view.  From 
the  fact  that  in  Joshua  it  is  named  between  Aphek  and 
Madon,  a  writer  in  Fairbairn's  Dictionary  argues  ibr  a 
position  at  the  modern  Saruneh,  south-east  of  Tiberias 
(Robinson,  Bibl.  Res.  iii,  Appendix,  p.  131) ;  but  the  rea- 
soning is  wholly  inconclusive,  and  the  location  utterly 
out  of  the  question.  Lasharon  was  possibly  the  same 
place  with  the  Lasha  of  Gen.  x,  19. 

Lashers.     See  Kiilystie. 

Lasitius,  John,  a  noted  Polish  Protestant  ecclesi- 
astical writer,  often  mistaken,  formerly,  for  the  cele- 
brated John  a  Lasco,  fiourislied  in  the  second  half  of  the 
IGth  centnr}-.  He  Avas  born  of  a  noble  family  about 
1534,  and,  as  was  the  custom  of  his  day,  was  early  sent 
abroad  to  pursue  a  course  of  studies  at  the  high-schools 
of  Basle,  Borne,  Geneva,  and  Strasburg.  After  quit- 
ting the  university  he  taught  for  a  short  time  in  a  pri- 
vate family  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  noble  fatnilies 
of  Poland,  .Tohn  Krotowsky,  an  ardent  follower  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren.  (.)f  a  restless  nature,  and  greatly 
addicted  to  study,  he  soon  took  up  his  wandering-staff 
again,  and  roamed  nearly  over  all  Europe,  bringing  up, 
most  generally,  at  some  place  noted  for  its  university. 
First  we  meet  him  in  Paris,  next  in  Basle,  next  iu  Ge- 
neva, and  next  in  Heidelberg,  etc.,  until,  in  15G7,  he 
brings  up  again  in  Paris,  and  holds  a  disputation  on  the 
Trinity  with  the  Romish  theologian  Genebrard  {Chro- 
noloff.  lib.  iv,  a.  a.  1582,  p.  786).  After  1575  Lasitius 
seems  to  have  settled  in  his  native  country,  but  frequent- 
ly, even  after  this  date,  he  went  abroad,  not  for  liis  own 
gratification,  however,  but  in  the  interests  of  the  State 
and  the  Church.  He  early  became  an  admirer  of  the 
jMoravians,  and  is  by  many  (e.  g.  Gieseler,  Kirchencjesch, 
ii,  4.  p.  4G0)  supposed  to  have  joined  their  communion ; 
but,  however  uncertain  his  membership,  certain  it  is 
that  Lasitius  greatly  favored  tiie  Moravians,  and  that 
he  was  engaged  on  a  history  of  them.  He  was  one  of 
the  most  energetic  and  indefatigable  workers  among  the 
Poles  for  the  union  of  all  his  Protestant  brethren  into 
one  common  bond,  and  in  1570  finally  saw  his  efforts 
crowned  with  success  at  the  Synod  of  Sendomir.  See 
Poland.  He  died  July  12,  1599.  His  history  of  the 
Moravians  Lasitius  enlarged  after  the  union  of  the  Prot- 
estants, but  it  was  never  published  entire.  In  1649 
Amos  Comenius  published  an  outline  of  the  larger  one 
under  the  title  Johannis  Lasitii,  nobilis  Poloni,  historiee 
de  oriffine  et  rebus  ffeslis  Eratrnm  Bohemicorum  liber  oc- 
tavits,  qui  est  de  moribus  et  institutis  eorum.  Ob  preFseii- 
tem  7-erum  statum  seorsim  editus.  Adduniur  tamen  reli- 
quorum  vii  libi-orum  argumenta  et particularia  qucedam 


LASIUS 


251 


LASKO 


excerpta  (1649,  8vo ;  Amst.  IGGO,  8vo).  For  criticisms 
of  this  work,  see  Gindely,  Gesch.  d.  bOhnmchen  Brilder, 
ii,  90 ;  Wagenmann,  in  Herzog,  Real-JLiict/ldojiddie,  xix, 
776.  His  other  works  are.  Chides  Dantiscanorum  (Frkf. 
1578,  8vo) :  —  Historia  de  inr/ressu  Polonorum  in  Wula- 
chiam  anno  1572  (Frankf.  1578,  8vo)  -.-De  Russorum  et 
Moscovitarum  et  Tartarorum  reiif/ione,  etc.  (Speier,  1582, 
8vo) : — De  Bits  Samnt/itarum  ceterorumque  ^Sarmutarum 
etfalsorum  Chrislinnnriim,  item  de  relir/ione  Armeniorum 
et  de  initio  refjimims  Stq^hani  Bathorii  ojmscula  (Basle, 
1615,  4to)  : — Pro  Volano  et  puriore  reliyione  defensori- 
busque  ejus  adcersus  Antonium  Possevinum  S.J.  scrip- 
turn  apologeticum  (Wilna,  1584, 4to).  See  Lukaszewicz, 
Gesch.  d.  reform.  Kirchen  in  Litthauen,  ii,  182  sq. ;  Gin- 
dely, Geschichte  d.  bohmischen  Brlider,  ii,  90  ;  and  by  the 
same  author,  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  d.  buhmisch.  Briider, 
in  Pontes  rerum  Aiisfriacarum  (Vienna,  1859),  p.  379; 
Dieckhoff,  Gesch.  d.  Waldemer  im  AHttelulter,  \).  172,  357 ; 
liegenvolscius  (Wengerski),  Hist.  eccl.  Slavon.  iii,  452 ; 
Bayle,  Hist.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Jticher,  Gelehrten  Lex.  ii,  2283; 
and  especially  the  excellent  article  by  Wagenmann  in 
Herzog,  Real-Encijkiop.  xix,  770-777.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Lasius,  Christophonis,  a  Protestant  theologian, 
prominent  as  a  preacher  of  the  synergistic  school,  and 
opponent  of  Flacius,  was  born  at  Strasburg  about  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century.  He  was  in  high  favor 
with  Jlelancthon  in  1531,  and  by  the  latter  recommend- 
ed to  Bucer.  The  part  he  took  in  the  synergistic  Me- 
lancthonian  controversy,  and  his  activity  against  the 
Flacian,  rendered  his  life  comparatively  a  wandering 
one.  In  1537  he  became  rector  of  Giirhtz,  and  in  1543 
pastor  at  Greussen.  On  account  of  his  jMelancthonian 
proclivities  he  was  deposed  in  1545 ;  was  then  made  pas- 
tor of  Spandau,  and  when  driven  away  from  that  place 
became  superintendent  of  Lauingen,  which  he  was  also 
obliged  to  leave.  After  remaining  for  a  time  in  Augs- 
burg he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  Cottbus,  but 
was  here  likewise  subject  to  many  annoyances,  and  tinal- 
ly  died  at  Senftenberg  in  1572.  His  works  are  espe- 
cially bitter  against  the  doctrine  of  the  passivity  of  man 
ill  repentance,  and  do  not  in  tlie  least  compliment  the 
Lutherans  of  his  day  and  generation.  The  principal 
are,  Pundament  tcahrer  Bekehrum/  wider  d.facianische 
Klotzbusse  (Francf.ad  0. 1568)  -.—Guldenes  Kleinod{K\i- 
remb.  1556) : — Grundfeste  d.  reinen  eranr/elischen  Wahr- 
heit  (Wittemb.  1568)."— Herzog,  i?«/^ Awry Wo;j.  viii,203  ; 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  353. 

Lasius,  Hermann  Jacob,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  Nov.  15, 1751,  at  Greifswald,  Prussia.  He  en- 
tered the  university  of  his  native  place  in  1733,  and 
studied  theology,  philosophy,  mathematics,  and  philol- 
ogy. In  1738  he  went  to  Jena,  and  in  1740  to  Halle, 
with  the  intention  of  lecturing  at  the  universities;  at  the 
latter  he  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  Failing  health 
soon  obliged  him  to  leave  for  his  native  city,  and  he  re- 
opened his  lectures  there.  In  1745  he  became  subrec- 
tor,  and  in  1749  rector  of  the  public  school.  In  1764  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Rostock  as  professor  of  (Jreek  litera- 
ture at  the  university,  where  he  continued  laboring  un- 
til 1793.  He  died  Aug.  4, 1803.  Lasius  spent  a  great 
deal  of  his  time  in  the  study  of  theology.  The  few 
books  he  wrote  are  valuable,  and  generally  esteemed. 
The  most  noted  of  his  dissertations  are  J)e  individuo 
finito  (Jenre,  1739,  4to) : — De  bonarum  malarumqne  ac- 
tionum  effectibus  natitrcdibus  post  hone  ritam  ( Hal:i?, 
1740,  4to)  : — Diss,  qua  justa  diri/id  imjiiilcilio  iictionum 
nostrurum  liberarum  vindicatur  ((Jryphisw.  1741,  4to) : — 
De  legihus  et  panis  conventionalibus,  in  (jenere  ( Hala?, 
1740,  4to).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Lasius,  Lorenz  Otto,  a  German  theologian,  born 
Dec.  31, 1675,  at  Riiden,  in  Brunswick,  was  early  distin- 
guished for  his  knowledge  of  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew. He  attended  the  universities  of  Heidelberg  and 
Halle,  and  became  successively  in  1702  subrector  in  Salz- 
wedel ;  in  1705,  deacon ;  and  in  1709,  pastor  at  ZiebeUe, 


near  Muskaii;  then  assessor  of  the  Consistory;  in  1717, 
doctor  of  theology ;  and  died  Sept.  20, 1750.  Among  his 
numerous  books  are  Die  PrilJ'ung  seiner  selbst  (Lauban, 
1710,  8vo,  and  often): — Versuch  die  hebrdische,  (jiiech- 
ische,  luteinische,  J'runzOsische  und  italienische  Sjirache 
ohne  Grammaiik  zu  erlernen  (Budissin,  1717,  8vo,  and 
often)  : — Pulingemsiu  moriulium,  oder  Betrachiungen  der 
Wiedergeburt  (Crossen,  1736,  8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte 
Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Laskary,  Anpreas,  a  learned  and  pious  Roman 
Catholic  prelate,  was  bishop  of  Posen  from  1414-1426. 
He  was  a  niembet  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  and 
often  preached  to  the  assembled  clergy.  On  his  return 
home  he  sought  cloister  life,  but  was  restrained  by  the 
pope,  and  subsequently  by  his  active  intiuence  secured 
such  marked  prosperity  for  an  episcopal  village  in  Maso- 
wine  that  it  was  called  after  his  name,  Laskarzewo. — 
Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  s.  v. 

Lasko  (Polish  Laski,  Latin  Lascus),  John  a  (1), 
a  very  celebrated  Roman  Catholic  prelate  of  the  Church 
of  Poland,  was  born  in  the  early  part  of  the  year  1466. 
He  was  at  lirst  provost  at  Skalbimierz,  then  at  Poscn, 
and  was  afterwards  chosen  by  Andreas  Roza,  of  Borys- 
zewice,  archbishop  of  Gnesen,  as  his  coadjutor.  Dur- 
ing the  reigns  of  Casimir  IV,  John  Albrecht,  and  Alex- 
ander, he  resided  at  court  as  archchanceUor,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  archbishop  of  Gnesen  (in  1510)  I,asko  suc- 
ceeded him  in  that  eminent  position.  In  1513  he  was 
sent  to  the  fifth  general  council  of  Lateran,  t(>gcther 
with  Stanislaus  Ostrorog,  and  in  the  presence  of  pope 
Leo  X  implored  the  Christian  princes  there  present  to 
assist  Poland  and  Hungary  against  the  attacks  of  the 
Turks  and  Tartars.  In  this  council  Lasko  obtained  for 
himself  and  all  succeeding  archbishops  of  Gnesen  the 
title  of  legatus  nutus  sedis  apostolica.  He  died  IMay  19, 
1531.  He  wrote  Relutio  de  erroribus  Moschorum.J'acia 
in  concilio  Lateranensi  a  Joanne  LMsko.  His  activity 
as  archbishop  is  manifest  in  the  number  of  provincial 
synods  over  which  he  presided:  1.  at  Gnesen,  in  .1506; 
2.  at  Petrikau,  in  1510;  3.  same,  1511 ;  4.  Lenczyc,  1523 ; 
5.  same,  1527  ;  6.  Petrikau,  1530.  He  was  a  decided  op- 
ponent of  the  Reformation  and  its  propagation  in  Po- 
land, as  is  evinced  by  his  canons  and  decretals  (comp.Con- 
stitutiones  synodorum  metropolitans  eccksice  Gnesnensis, 
Cracov.  1630).  He  wrote  also  Sanctiones  ecclesiasticcB 
tarn  ex  jjontijicum  decretis  quam  in  consiiiutionibus  syno- 
dorum  provincia;  inj)rimis  auteni  statuta  in  diversis  pro- 
vincialibus  synodis  a  se  sancita  (Cracov.  1525,4to).  Las- 
co  gained  great  reputation  by  his  collection  of  the  laws 
of  the  countr_y,  made  by  order  of  king  Alexander  of  Po^ 
land,  under  the  title  Commune  Polonice  regni pririkgium 
constitutionum  et  indultuum  (Cracov.  1506).  See  Da- 
malewicz,  T'lVcB  archicjnscoporum  Gnesnensium,  p.  278; 
Herzog,  Real-Encgllop.  viii,  203 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kir- 
chen-Lexikon,  s.  v.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Lasko,  John  a  (2),  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  tlie  Polish  reformers,  was  born  at  Warsaw  in  the  early 
part  of  1499,  of  one  of  the  noblest  famihes  of  Poland, 
which,  during  the  16th  century  especially,  furnished 
many  men  illustrious  in  the  Church,  in  the  council,  and 
the  camp.  We  know  little  of  John  a  Lasko's  early  edu- 
cation, but  it  was  jirobably  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  his  uncle  (see  the  preceding  article),  who  would 
naturally  intend  him  lor  the  priesthood.  While  he  was 
yet  a  youtli,  the  (ierman  Reformation  commenced,  and 
evidently  attracted  a  large  share  of  his  attention.  The 
archbishoji,  however,  was  its  strenuous  opponent,  and 
young  Lasko,  at  the  University  of  Cracow,  where  Lu- 
ther's writings  were  publicly  bought  and  sold,  may  have 
contented  himself  with  accepting  the  current  religious 
sentiments  of  his  countrymen,  which  by  no  means  ac- 
corded with  the  highest  standards  of  Roman  Catliolic 
orthodoxy.  At  the  age  of  twenty-five  he  set  fortli  on 
his  travels.  It  was  his  ]iurpose  to  visit  the  courts  and 
universities  of  other  lands.  Passing  by  Wittenberg, 
with  its  Luther  and  Melancthon,  he  directed  his  course 


LASKO 


252 


LASKO 


to  Louvalii,  where  he  seems  to  have  been  repelled  by 
the  ignorance  and  bigotry  of  the  priesthood,  and  thence 
passed  to  Ziirich,  where  he  met  and  conferred  with 
Zwingle,  and  was  by  him  influenced  to  take  a  decided 
stand  f(jr  tlie  reformatory  movement.  From  Zurich  lie 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  honorably  received,  and  en- 
tered into  a  correspondence  with  the  sister  of  the  king, 
the  fiimous  Margaret  of  Navarre,  already  favorably  dis- 
posed to  the  cause  of  reform.  Thence  he  directed  his 
course  to  Basle,  attracted  thither  by  the  fame  of  Eras- 
mus, who  extended  to  him  a  cordial  welcome,  and  did 
not  disdain  to  accept  his  hospitable  gifts.  Tlie  veteran 
scholar  admired  and  praised  his  young  friend,  and  Lasko 
seems  to  have  reciprocated  his  confidence  and  affection. 
Both  occupied  the  same  dwelling,  and  for  some  month* 
the  expense  of  the  household  was  met  from  Lasko's 
purse.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  at  this  very  jimcture  the 
break  between  Luther  and  Erasmus  took  place  may  not 
have  been  without  its  effect  in  repelling  Lasko  from  too 
close  association  with  the  German  reformer.  In  Octo- 
ber, 1525,  Lasko  was  recalled  to  Poland,  doubtless  with  a 
view  to  be  engaged  in  state  employ,  or  as  an  ambassa- 
dor to  France  or  Spain.  However  this  may  be,  he  prob- 
ably passed  through  Italy  previous  to  his  return,  and 
there  formed  some  acquaintanceships,  not  without  influ- 
ence in  later  years.  Not  long  after  his  return  he  fell  in 
with  the  writings  of  Melancthon,  with  whom  he  subse- 
quently corresponded,  and  we  may  reasonably  conclude 
that  by  his  counsel,  or  with  his  sanction,  Polish  youth 
■were  sent  abroad  to  complete  their  studies  at  Witten- 
berg. A  marked  change  by  this  time  is  manifest  in  his 
views  and  feelings.  Erasmus,  in  his  correspondence, 
was  not  slow  to  note  this.  It  was  due  partly,  no  doubt, 
to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  German  reformers,  and 
parth',  also,  to  the  ripening  of  his  own  Christian  expe- 
rience. We  hear  him  declaring  that  he  owed  every- 
thing to  the  mercy  of  God.  No  foresight  of  his  own, 
no  world  -  wisdom,  could  have  saved  him  from  ruin. 
There  was  more  of  Luther  than  of  Er;  imus  in  such  soul- 
humbling  confessions.  The  <leath  of  his  uncle,  the  arch- 
bishop (1531),  who  was  resolutely  opposed  to  the  cause  of 
reform,  removed  a  certain  measure  of  restraint  which  had 
checked  young  Lasko's  freedom  of  action,  if  not  specula- 
tion. No  outward  manifestation  of  any  radical  change 
of  sentiment  had  hitherto  been  apparent.  He  was  suc- 
cessively nominated  canon  of  Gnesen,  custos  of  Plock, 
and  dean  of  Gnesen  and  Lencicz.  In  accepting  these 
dignities  he  still  cherished  the  hope  inspired  by  Eras- 
mus that  reform  might  take  place  within  the  Church 
itself,  and  to  this  end  he  was  induced,  in  a  cautious 
manner,  to  present  the  Polish  monarch  with  suggestions 
as  to  the  necessity  of  measures  directed  to  that  object 
(Krasinski's  Ref.  in  Poland,  i,  248).  In  153G  he  received 
the  royal  nomination  of  bishop  of  Cujavia,  and  the  most 
inviting  prospects  of  ecclesiastical  promotion  opened  be- 
fore him.  But  already  his  hope  that  the  Church  of 
Komc  would  reform  herself  had  died  out.  He  opened 
his  heart  to  the  king,  and  freely  confessed  the  views  and 
convictions  which  forbade  his  acceptance  of  the  prof- 
fered promotion,  ^\'ith  the  royal  permission,  and  pro- 
vided witli  commendatory  letters,  he  chose  temporarily 
to  withdraw  from  his  native  land.  He  directed  his 
course  to  the  Netherlands.  At  Antwerp  he  was  sought 
out  and  his  acquaintance  cultivated  by  the  most  respect- 
able citizens.  Tiic  royal  letters  alone  would  have  open- 
ed all  doors  to  him.  liut  his  (inal  decision  to  withdraw 
entirely  from  the  Itomau  CalhoHc  Church  was  hastened 
in  or  iM'l'ore  1540.  In  that  year  lie  married  a  woman 
of  hmnble  rank,  with<put  dowry,  whom  he  met  at  Lou- 
vain  (Krasinski  says  Mayence),  and  thus  made  his  breach 
with  Ixome  irreparable.  Instead  of  returning  to  his  na- 
tive land,  he  sought  a  retired  residence  at  Emdeti,  in 
Friesland.  Count  Enno,  who  was  anxious  to  secure  a 
reformation  of  the  (Jhurcli  in  his  principality,  proposed 
to  Lasko  the  charge  of  the  matter  as  suiierintendent. 
His  death  sus[)ended  the  negotiation, but  his  sister  Anna, 
who  succeeded  him,  renewed  the  proposal.     After  much 


hesitation,  Lasko  was  induced  in  1543  to  accept  the 
charge,  and  in  the  following  year  was  nominated  super- 
intendent of  all  the  churches  of  Friesland.  He  had  al- 
ready declined  the  invitation  to  return  to  Poland,  where 
he  was  assured  that  his  marriage  should  not  stand  in 
the  way  of  the  bestowment  of  a  bishopric.  He  longed, 
indeed,  to  return,  but  onl}'  that  he  might  labor  as  an 
evangelist,  unencumbered  with  any  connection  with 
Rome.  He  accepted  his  present  post — as  he  did  others 
to  which  he  was  subsequently  called — with  the  express 
proviso  that  if  duty  and  the  prospect  of  useful  service 
called  him  back  to  his  native  land  he  might  be  free  to 
go.  He  made  it  also  a  condition  of  his  acceptance  that 
no  obligation  should  be  imposed  upon  him  in  his  office 
inconsistent  with  the  word  and  will  of  God.  In  neigh- 
boring lands  his  proceedings  were  jealously  watched. 
The  duke  of  East  Courland,  who  had  married  a  daugh- 
ter of  Maximilian,  as  well  as  the  duke  of  Brabant,  felt 
that  his  influence  and  innovations  threatened  their 
states.  Lasko  pushed  on  the  cause  of  reform  by  assail- 
ing the  monasteries  and  the  pictures  in  the  churches. 
A  formidable  opposition  was  provoked,  but  he  manfully 
defended  himself,  and  was  sustained  by  the  countess. 
Opposition  gradually  yielded,  and  Romish  rites  and  cer- 
emonies disappeared  from  all  the  churches.  An  im- 
proved order  of  Church  organization  and  discipline  was 
introduced  and  estabUshed,  substantially  Presbyterian. 
He  employed  the  eldership  to  enforce  discipline.  He 
sought  to  promote  pastoral  culture  and  improvement,  as 
well  as  confessional  unity  of  doctrine.  Preaching  him- 
self, he  habitually  insisted  on  the  sole  and  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  Word  of  God.  In  correspondence  with 
Melancthon,  Bucer,  Bullinger,  Pellican,  and  Hardenberg, 
he  drew  up  a  confession  of  faith,  which  yet  proved  un- 
satisfactory to  the  Lutherans,  leaning  as  it  did  to  the 
views  of  the  Swiss  and  AngUcan  reformers,  although  by 
no  means  in  full  correspondence  with  those  of  Calvin. 

Lasko's  reputation  as  the  foimder  of  the  Protestant 
Church  in  Friesland  now  spread  rapidly,  and  he  was  re- 
peatedljr  consulted  by  foreign  riders  and  divines  on 
questions  of  Church  polity  and  order.  The  duke  of 
Prussia  invited  him  to  accept  the  superintendence  of 
the  churches  of  his  dominions,  but  the  project  was  de- 
feated by  the  condition  on  which  Lasko  insisted  that 
the  Church  should  be  independent  of  the  state,  and  that 
Lutheran  rites,  kindred  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  should  be  abolished  (Krasinski,  i,  253).  During 
his  residence  at  Emden  Lasko  was  forced  to  engage  in 
controversy.  Persecuted  elsewhere,  religious  enthusi- 
asts found  shelter  in  the  Netherlands,  and  intruded  with- 
in his  sphere.  Menno  Simon  and  David  George  were 
his  principal  antagonists.  He  sought  to  convince  them 
by  argument,  but  failed.  His  constant  difficulties  and 
the  pressing  burden  of  his  duties  induced  him  to  listen 
to  an  invitation  that  reached  him  from  England.  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  to  whom  Lasko  had  been  recommended 
by  some  of  his  brother  reformers,  Peter  ]Martyr  and  Wil- 
liam Turner,  pressed  him  to  come  and  assist  in  the  task 
of  completing  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  Early  in 
Sept.  1548,  parting  from  the  countess,  who  reluctantly 
consented  to  his  withdraw.al,  Lasko  set  out  for  England. 
Three  days  betbrc  he  left  the  celebrated  interim  of  the 
emperor  was  publishe<l,  threatening  to  arrest  and  put 
back  the  cause  of  Church  reform  in  all  his  states.  Las- 
ko wrote  back  to  his  friends  in  Emden  to  abide  firm,  as- 
suring them  that  it  was  better  to  fall  into  the  hands  of 
God  than  into  those  of  men.  His  first  visit  to  England 
was  designedly  temporary.  For  six  months  he  resided 
with  Cranmer  at  Lambeth.  The  views  of  the  two  men 
were  coincident  in  doctrine,  and  apparently  not  greatly 
divergent  in  matters  of  order  and  discipline.  The  im- 
pression which  he  made  in  England  \vas  favorable,  and 
in  a  sermon  i^rcached  before  the  king  Latimer  extolled 
him  witli  high  i)raise.  Iteturuing  to  Emden,  Lasko  en- 
couraged liis  fellow-religionists  in  their  opposition  to  the 
interim,  and  incurred  the  hostility  of  those — and  among 
them  of  the  chancellor  Ter  West — who  were  disposed  to 


LASKO 


253 


LAST  DAY 


faror  a  compromise  with  the  emperor.  There  was  some 
danger  that  Lasko  himself  would  be  sacrificed  to  their 
policy.  Leaving  Eraden,  therefore,  he  resided  for  a  time 
at  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  and  at  length  directed  his 
course  back  to  England,  in  May,  looO,  to  which  he  had 
been  reinvitcd.  Here,  imder  the  protection  of  a  Prot- 
estant monarch  (Henry  VI),  refugees  from  persecution 
on  the  Continent  were  collected  in  considerable  num- 
bers. The  foreign  Protestant  congregation  in  London 
was  composed  of  French,  Germans,  and  Italians.  Of 
this,  in  all  about  3000  members,  Lasko,  by  the  king's 
nomination  (July  24,  1550),  was  made  superintendent. 
He  seems,  however,  to  have  had  supervisory  charge 
over  aU  the  other  foreign  churches  of  the  city,  while 
their  schools  were  subject  to  his  mspection.  The  wis- 
dom of  his  measures  is  attested  by  a  letter  of  Melanc- 
thon,  who  speaks  (September,  1551)  of  the  purity  of  doc- 
trine of  his  churches.  He  differed  with  Cranmer  on 
some  points,  as  in  reference  to  sacramental  doctrine  and 
the  use  of  priestly  habits,  but  his  scruples  were  respect- 
ed, and  his  intervention  secured  the  foreign  chiurches 
from  molestation.  In  London  he  introduced  the  same 
system  of  Church  order  wliich  he  had  established  at 
Emdcn.  He  brought  out  an  edition  of  liis  Catechism 
for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  and  to  this  the  authors 
of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  are  said  to  have  been  man- 
ifestly indebted.  The  English  liturgy  he  discarded. 
His  views  on  the  sacraments  may  be  inferred  from  his 
repuljlication  in  England  of  the  work  of  Bullinger,  to 
which  he  furnished  an  introduction.  This  was  followed, 
h(jwever,by  his  Brevis  et  delucida  de  Sacramentis  Eccle- 
sia  Cliristi  Traciatio  (Lond.  1552,  8vo),  in  which  he  ap- 
proximated to  the  views  of  Zwingle  and  Calvin.  On 
the  doctrines  peculiar  to  Calvin  Lasko  was  not  disposed 
to  stand.  He  uses  language  that  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate an  acceptance  of  the  belief  in  a  general  atonement. 
While  insisting  on  the  insufficiency  and  inability  of  hu- 
man effort  without  the  grace  of  God,  he  emphasizes  the 
freencss  and  rich  provisions  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It 
was  during  his  residence  in  England  that  Lasko's  wife 
died,  and  his  second  marriage  took  place.  The  death 
of  the  young  king  suddenly  wrought  an  entire  change 
in  the  prospects  of  the  exiles,  and  on  the  accession  of 
queen  Mary  they  prepared  to  return  to  the  Continent. 
On  the  17th  of  September,  1553.  the  first  band  of  them, 
more  than  170  in  number,  embarked  for  Denmark,  where 
they  had  been  assured  of  a  welcome  reception  from  a 
Protestant  monarch.  But  a  bigoted  Lutheranism  re- 
pelled them  from  the  Danish  shores.  Lasko  hastened 
back  to  Emden,  while  his  fellow  -  pilgrims,  called  by 
Westphal,  a  Lutheran  divine,  "martyrs  of  the  devil," 
and  repulsed  at  Hamburg,  Lubeck,  and  Kostock,  finally 
found  a  hospitable  reception  at  Dantzic.  At  Emden 
Lasko  found  his  position  uncomfortable.  His  vicinity 
to  Brabant  gave  occasion  for  those  who  feared  his  influ- 
ence to  intrigue  against  him.  (iustavus  Yasa  invited 
him  and  his  friends  to  Sweden,  assuring  him  of  entire 
religious  liberty.  But  he  longed  to  return  to  his  native 
land.  His  views  concerning  the  sacrament,  however, 
were  rejiresented  to  the  liing  as  objectionable,  and  it 
seemed  essential  that  he  should  first  seek  to  harmonize 
them  with  the  Augsburg  Confession.  His  opponents  in 
controversy,  Westphal  especially,  had  spoken  of  him  in 
reproachful  terms.  He  determined  to  considt  with  Me- 
lanctlion,  and  in  April,  1555,  he  left  Emden,  and  for 
many  months,  passing  from  city  to  city  in  Germany, 
and  conferring  with  leading  theologians,  he  awaited  the 
long-desired  opportunity  of  returning,  with  the  hope  of 
useful  service,  to  his  native  land.  We  find  him  at  Frank- 
fort almost  at  the  very  time  when  the  English  exiles 
had  transferred  their  altercations  with  reference  to  the 
habits  to  that  city,  and  involved  there  to  some  extent 
in  tlie  Lutheran  controversy.  He  was  complained  of  as 
a  dissenter  from  the  Augsburg  Confession,  but  in  repl}' 
he  asserted  that  he  accepted  its  very  language  in  regard 
to  Christ's  presence  in  the  sacrament.  At  Stuttgard 
(May  22, 1556)  he  entered  with  Brentz  upon  a  disputa- 


tion on  the  sacramentarian  controversy,  and  there  re- 
newed his  assertion  and  vindicated  his  views.  With 
Melancthon  he  succeeded  better.  Although  he  coidd 
not  effect  a  union  of  the  Lutherans  and  the  Keformed.  as 
he  was  exhorted  to  do  by  the  kiiig  of  Poland,  with  a 
view  to  its  happy  effect  in  his  own  states,  he  yet  secured 
the  confidence  and  friendly  offices  of  INIelancthon.  The 
latter  intrusted  him  with  a  letter  to  the  king  of  Poland, 
to  which  a  modification  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
such  as  it  was  hoped  all  Protestants  might  unite  in, 
was  added.  Lasko  now  jirepared  for  his  return  to  Po- 
land, where  the  kuig,  Sigismund  Augustus,  was  disposed 
to  welcome  him.  He  first,  however,  published  a  new 
account  of  the  foreign  churches  which  he  had  superin- 
tended in  London,  dedicating  it  to  the  king,  the  senate, 
and  the  states  of  Poland,  urging  at  the  same  time  the 
reasons  for  reformation,  and  setting  forth  the  grounds 
of  his  own  action  in  rejecting  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  of  Rome.  Such  a  vindication  of  himself  was 
called  for.  The  news  of  his  return  excited  the  appre- 
hensions, if  not  the  consternation  of  his  enemies.  In  Dec. 
1556,  after  an  absence  of  twenty  years,  he  iilanted  his 
feet  on  his  native  soil.  His  approach  had  been  preceded 
by  alarms  addressed  especially  to  the  ears  of  the  king.' 
He  was  called  a  dangerous  person,  an  outlawed  heretic, 
who  returned  to  his  country  only  to  excite  troubles  and 
commotions.  He  was  said  to  be  preparing  measures  of 
rebellion,  and  means  to  destroy  the  churches.  The  king 
was  not  alarmed.  He  received  the  reformer  in  a  friend- 
ly manner,  and  was  gratified  with  Melancthon's  letters. 
Cautious  in  his  policy,  however,  he  was  anxious,  before 
taking  bold  and  decisive  measures  of  reform,  to  secure 
Protestant  union.  Lasko  was  intrusted  with  the  super- 
intendence of  all  the  Reformed  churches  in  Little  Po- 
land. Laboring  ior  the  desired  union,  his  efforts  were 
counteracted  by  men  ivho  preferred  to  conceal  their  real 
(Socinian)  sentiments,  and  by  the  grave  difficulties 
which  he  had  to  encounter.  At  successive  annual  syn- 
ods he  exerted  himself  to  secure  a  harmony  of  the  Prot- 
estant confessions — a  result  effected  after  his  death  in 
the  celebrated  Consensus  Sendomiriensis.  In  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  of  Brzesc  he  took  an  active  part,  and 
is  said  to  have  published  many  books,  most  of  which 
are  now  irrecoverably  lost.  In  the  midst  of  his  efforts, 
and  under  the  burden  of  his  pressing  duties,  he  closed 
his  life,  Jan.  8, 1560.  During  the  last  four  years  of  his 
life  the  record  of  his  labors  is  scanty  indeed, but  his  vig- 
or, activity,  and  practical  ability  left  a  deep  and  abiding 
impress  on  the  development  of  the  Polish  Reformation. 

Literature. — The  sources  of  information  in  regard  to 
Lasko  are  at  present  quite  ample.  His  Life  (Leben  d. 
Johann  v.  Lasko),  by  Peter  Bartels  (  Elberfcld,  1860)  has 
been  concisely  and  carefully  compiled,  and  gives  a  sat- 
isfactory account  of  his  doctrinal  position,  as  well  as 
some  notice  of  his  books,  together  with  an  extended  list 
of  authorities.  Krasinski's  Hist.  Shfc/i  of  the  Beforma- 
iion  ill  Poland  (Lond.  1838,  2  vols.  8vo)  presents  an  ex- 
tended view  of  his  life  in  connection  with  the  Reforma- 
tion in  his  native  country.  In  some  respects,  hoAvever, 
the  most  valuable  work  on  the  subject  of  this  article  is 
Johannis  a  Leasee  Opera,  tain  edita  quam  inc-dita,  recen- 
suit  vitam  uuctoris  enarravit  A.Kuyper  (Amsterd.  1866, 
2  vols.  8vo).  In  over  1300  closely  printed  pages  we 
have  nearly,  if  not  quite  all  the  remains  of  Lasko  that 
cin  now  be  identified,  including  portions  of  his  corre- 
spondence, extending  from  1526  to  1559.  See  also  Ber- 
tram (.].¥.),  Griiiidlicf/er  Bericht  von  Johann  Alusco 
(1733,  3  vols.  4to) ;  Giibel.  Gesch.  des  christlichen  Ldens 
in  der  rhein-ivestph.  Kircke  (Coblenz,  1849),  i,  318-351 ; 
Neal,  Iliston/  of  the  Puritans,  i,  53  sq. ;  Hassencamp, 
Ifessische  Kiixhenf/esch.  (Marburg,  1832),  i,  §  47 :  Fischer, 
Versuch  einer  Gesch.  der  Ref.  in  Polen  ( 1856) ;  Schrockh, 
Kirchengesch.  s.  d.  Ref  ii.  688  sq.;  IMiddleton,^<;/(>?-7?ier.<:, 
ii  (see  Index)  ;  Jahrh.deutscher  Theologic.  1860,  ii,  536; 
1868,  iii,  536 ;  and  the  excellent  article  by  Gijbel,  in  Her- 
zog,  Reid-Kuri/Mop.  viii,  204  sq.      (E.  H." G.) 

Last  Day.     See  Judgjient  Day. 


LASTHENES 


254 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


Las'thenes  (AaaBivrig;  comp.  Aa-/;(«\ot.'),  an  of- 
ficer who  stood  high  in  the  favor  of  Demetrius  II  Nica- 
tor.  He  is  described  as  '•  cousin"  ((Tiiyyfi'/;f,  1  Maco.  xi, 
31)  and  "  father"  (I  Mace,  xi,  32 ;  Josephus,  .4  7it.  xiii,  3, 
9)  of  the  king.  Both  words  may  be  taken  as  titles  of 
high  nobility  (compare  Grimm  on  1  Mace,  x,  89 ;  Diod. 
xvii,  59 ;  Gesenius,  Thesaui:  s.  v.  2S,  §  4).  It  appears 
from  Josephus  {Ant.  xiii,  4,  3)  that  he  was  a  Cretan,  to 
whom  Demetrius  was  indebted  for  a  large  body  of  mer- 
cenaries (compare  1  Mace,  x,  G7),  when  he  asserted  his 
claim  to  the  Syrian  throne  against  Alexander  Balas, 
B.C.  148  or  147.  It  appears  that  Lasthenes  himself  ac- 
companied the  young  prince ;  and  when  Demetrius  was 
established  on  the  throne,  he  appointed  Lasthenes  his 
chief  minister,  with  unlimited  power.  His  arbitrary 
government,  added  to  his  persuading  Demetrius  to  dis- 
band the  regular  troops  and  only  employ  Cretans,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  alienated  the  subjects  from  the  king,  and 
caused  great  dissatisfaction  to  the  soldiers.  This  con- 
duct led  to  the  downfall  of  Demetrius,  for  it  enabled 
Tryphon  to  set  up  Antiocluis,  the  young  son  of  Alexan- 
der I3alas  (Diodotus,  Reliq.  lib.  xxxiii,  4,  ed.  Didot,  ii,  522) . 
What  became  of  Lasthenes  is  not  known.     See  Dejie- 

TRIUS. 

He  must  not  be  identified  with  the  Cnidian  instruc- 
tor of  .the  sons  of  Demetrius  I  Soter  (Justin,  xxxv,  2 ; 
comp.  Livy,  Epit.  52).  There  is  a  later  Lasthenes,  also 
a  Cretan,  who  took  a  prominent  part  against  the  Ro- 
mans in  B.C.  70-68  (Smith,  Did.  of  Biogr.  s.  v.  Las- 
thenes, No.  3).— Smith ;  Kitto. 

Last  Time.     See  Eschatology. 

Latchet  (TilT*!?,  serok',  so  called  from  lacing  and 
binding  together;  Gr.  i/tac ,  a  thong,  as  it  is  rendered  in 
Acts  xxii,  25),  the  cord  or  strap  which  fastens  an  Ori- 
ental shoe  upon  the  foot  (Isa.  v,  27;  Mark  i,  7;  Luke 
iii,  10;  John  i,  27);  provejbial  fur  anything  of  little  val- 
ue (Gen.  xiv,  23).  See  Sandal.  " Gemnins  (^Thesaur. 
s.  V.  i:W)  compares  the  Lat.  /nlum=Jilum,  and  quotes 
two  Arabic  proverbs  from  the  Hamasa  and  the  Kamus, 
ia  which  a  corresponding  word  is  similarly  employed. 
In  the  poetical  figure  in  Isa.  v,  27,  the '  latchet'  occupies 
the  same  position  with  regard  to  the  shoes  as  the  girdle 
to  the  long  flowing  Oriental  dress,  and  was  as  essential 
to  the  comfort  and  expedition  of  the  traveller.  Anoth- 
er semi-proverbial  expression  in  Luke  iii,  10  points  to 
the  same  easily-removed  article  of  clothing"  (Smith). 
'•In  Matt,  iii,  11  the  same  sentiment  is  expressed  rather 
differently,  'Whose  shoes  I  am  not  worthy  to  bear;'  in 
both  cases  the  allusion  is  to  slaves,  who  were  employed 
to  loosen  and  carry  their  master's  shoes,  the  habits  of 
Orientals  requiring  this  article  of  dress  to  be  taken  off 
before  entering  an  apartment  (Thomson,  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  pt.  i,  chap.  ix).  This  saying  of  the  Baptist,  as 
reported  by  ^Matthew,  is  repeated  by  Paul  in  his  address 
to  the  Jews  at  Antioch,  in  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii,  25).  Chry- 
sostom,  on  John  i,  27,  remarks,  To  yap  v-oSiii^ia  Xvaca 
'■'/C  'CX"'''?t'  SiaKoviaQ  tori"  (Kitto).     See  Shoe. 

Lateran,  Caivrcu  of  St.  John,  the  first  in  dignity 
of  tlic  Itoman  churches,  and  situated  in  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  the  city,  derives  its  name  from  its  occupying  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  the  splendid  palace  of  Plantiiis  La- 
teranus,  which  having  been  escheated  (A.D.66)  in  conse- 
quence of  Lateranus  being  implicated  in  the  conspiracy 
of  the  I'isos  (Tacitus),  became  im|)erial  property,  anil 
was  assigned  for  Christian  uses  by  the  emperor  Constan- 
tine.  The  jialacc,  once  destroyed  by  fire,  and  rebuilt  by 
Sixtus  V,  was  the  habitual  residence  of  the  popes  until 
after  the  return  from  Avignon,  when  they  removed  to 
the  Vatican.  It  was  once  made  a  hospital  for  orphans, 
and  is  now  oecujiled  partly  by  otHcials  of  the  chapter, 
partly  for  public  purposes.  Tlic  present  pope,  Pius  IX, 
has  converted  a  portion  of  it  inti)  a'musetun  of  Chris- 
tian archeology.  Its  ancient  magnificence  is  celebrated 
by  Juvenal.  In  the  time  of  Constantine  the  palace 
was  the  abode  of  his  second  wife,  the  empress  Fausta, 


It  has  been  the  conjecture  of  some  that  Fausta  was  a 
Christian,  and  that  the  Basilica,  or  HaO  of  Justice,  con- 
nected with  her  palace,  was  granted  by  Constantine  as  a 
])lace  of  Christian  assembly.  The  fact  seems,  however, 
well  established  that  Constantino  subsequently  bestow- 
ed the  palace  upon  pope  Sylvester,  and  it  has  ever  since 
(several  times  rebuilt,  and  modified  in  its  fhial  comple- 
tion, dating  from  the  pontificate  of  Clement  XII)  con- 
tinued a  papal  patrimony.  The  emperor  is  said  to  have 
fomided  at  the  same  time  the  adjacent  church,  which  was 
originally  dedicated  to  the  Saviour,  but  after  it  was  re- 
built by  Lucius  II  in  the  midtUe  (jf  the  12th  century,  was 
dedicated  to  St.  John,  because  of  the  baptistery  which 
Constantine  built  near  by  it.  It  bears  the  additional 
name  Basilica  Constantiniana.  The  church  has  thus 
been  naturaUj'  regarded  as  the  parish  or  cathedral  church 
of  the  popes,  and  is  distinguished  as  such  above  any 
other  in  Korae.  St.  Peter's  and  Sta. Maria  Maggiore  are 
not  to  be  compared  with  it  in  importance.  Each  of  the 
three  has  a  porta  santo.  In  reference  to  the  Lateran, 
however,  Gregory  XI,  in  his  bull  June  23, 1372,  uses  the 
following  language,  which  has  been  substantially  re- 
peated by  many  popes:  "  Sacrosanctam  Lateranensem  ec- 
clesiam,  proecipuam  sedem  nostram,  inter  omnes  alias  Ur- 
bis  et  orbis  ecclesias  ac  basilicas,  etiam  super  ecclesiam 
sen  basilicam  principis  Apostolorum  de  Urbe,  siipremum 
locum  tenere."  The  ceremony  of  taking  possession  of 
the  Lateran  Basilica  is  one  of  the  first  observed  on  the 
election  of  a  new  pope,  whose  coronation  takes  place  in 
it.  The  chapter  of  the  Lateran  has  precedence  of  that 
of  St.  Peter's.  On  the  throne  of  the  Lateran  is  written 
the  inscription,  "  Ilajc  est  Papalis  Sedes  et  Pontificalis." 
An  inscription  on  each  side  of  the  entrance  styles  it 
mother  and  mistress  of  churches.  Omnium  urhis  et  orbis 
A'cclesiarum  Mater  et  Caput.  In  accordance  ■with  its 
dignity,  therefore,  all  the  oecumenical  councils  assem- 
bled in  the  city  of  Pome  have  been  held  in  this  church, 
the  late  council  (1870),  held  at  St,  Peter's,  being  the  only 
exception.  See  Lateran  Councils.  In  the  piazza 
of  St.  John  Lateran  stands  the  celebrated  relic  called 
the  "  Scala  Santa,"  or  "  Holy  Staircase,"  reputed  to  be 
the  stairs  of  Pilate's  house  at  Jerusalem,  made  holy  by 
the  feet  of  Christ  as  he  passed  to  judgment.  See  Iler- 
zog,  Real-Encijldop.  viii,  212  ;  Stanley,  Hist.  East.  Ch.  p. 
304;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. 

Lateran  Councils,  a  general  name  for  the  eccle- 
siastical councils  that  have  been  convened  in  the  Lat- 
eran Church  at  Rome,  but  especially  five  great  councils 
held  there,  and  regarded  by  the  Roman  Catholics  as 
a'cumenical,viz.  those  of  the  years  1123,1139,1179,1215, 
and  1512-17.  We  have  room  to  notice  the  most  impor- 
tant only  of  all  these  councils,  and  that  with  reference 
to  their  principal  enactments  and  historical  connections. 

I.  The  council  of  649,  under  IVIartin  I,  condemned  the 
Monothelitic  doctrine,  or  that  of  one  vill  in  the  person 
of  Christ.  This  view  was  developed  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Monojihysite  controversy.  The  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon,  in  451,  had  affirmed  the  existence  ci{  two  natures 
in  Christ  in  one  person,  against  the  Antiochians,  the 
Nestorians,  and  Eutychians.  This  determination  of  the 
council  did  not  obtain  final  supremacy  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches  till  after  the  time  of  Justinian,  and  the 
conflict  with  it  was  continued  under  various  forms. 
From  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  tUl  that  of  Frankfort,  in 
793,  the  Church  councils  especially  sought  to  maintain 
the  tirofoldness  of  the  nature  of  Christ  asserted  at  Chal- 
cedon, with  less  regard  to  the  unity,  which  v,as  at  the 
same  time  established.  An  early  source  f(»r  the  rise  of 
Moiiothelitism  appeared  in  the  writings  of  Pseudo-Dio- 
nysius  the  Aroopagite,  which,  originating  jirobably  in 
the  4th  century,  obtained  for  many  centuries  thereafter 
great  credit  in  the  Church.  A  Neo-Platonic  mysticism 
in  these  writings  seeks  to  mediate  between  the  prevalent 
Chiu^ch  doctrine  and  Monophysitism  (or  the  doctrine  of 
one  nature  in  Christ).  The  Areopagite  is  not  an  out- 
spoken Monophj-site,  and  yet,  with  him,  the  human  in 
Christ  is  only  a  form  of  the  ilivine,  and  there  is  in  all 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


the  acts  of  Christ  but  one  mode  of  operation,  the  thean- 
dric  energy  (jUia  ^lavcpiKt)  tvipytia).  This  expression 
became  a  favorite  one  with  all  the  Monophysite  oppo- 
nents of  the  Chalcedonian  decisions. 

The  Monothelitic  controversy  proper  extends  from 
623  10  080,  at  which  latter  date  the  Synod  of  Constan- 
tinople gave  the  most  precise  definition  of  two  wills  in 
the  two  natures  of  Christ.    The  earlier  stage  of  the  con- 
troversy, extenduig  to  the  year  638,  concerns  rather  the 
question  of  one  or  two  energies  or  modes  of  working  in 
the  acts  of  Christ.    The  emperor  Heraclius,  on  occasion 
of  his  recontiuering  the  Eastern  provinces  from  the  Per- 
sians in  the  year  622,  and  there  coming  in  contact  with 
certain  Monophysite  bishops,  conceived  the  idea  of  rec- 
onciling them  to  the  Church  by  authorizing  the  expres- 
sion in  reference  to  the  acts  of  Christ  which  was  used 
by  Dionysius — the  /lia  BeavcpiKi)  tvipyiia.     Sergius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  being  consulted,  admitted 
the  propriety  of  the  expression  as  one  sanctioned  by  the 
fathers,  and  recommended  it  to  Cyrus,  bishop  of  Phasis, 
who,  being  soon  made  bishop  of  jUexandria,  set  up  a 
compromise  for  the  Monophysites  with  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  on  nine  points.     Sophronius,  a  monk  of  Al- 
exanilria,  seriously  objected  to  the  course  taken  by  Ser- 
gius, and,  on  being  made  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  became 
so  strong  an  opponent  that  Sergius  called  to  his  aid  the 
inliuence  of  Honorius,  bishop  of  Home,  who  expressed 
liimself  in  favor  of  the  view  rather  of  one  will  than  of 
one  operation,  but  advised  that  controversy  be  avoided. 
It  is  unquestionably  the  fact  that  the  expressed  views 
of  Ilonorius,  thougli  a   pojje,  were  subsequently  con- 
demned in  council.     By  occasion  of  the  more  decided 
opposition  of  Sophronius,  the  emperor  Heraclius,  under 
advice  of  Sergius,  issued  his  edict,  the  EctJiesis,  in  the 
year  038,  in  which  he  forbade  the  use  of  either  expres- 
sion, "  one  mode  of  working"  or  "  tv.'O  modes  of  work- 
ing," in  a  controversial  way,  liut  especially  prohibited 
the  latter,  since  it  is  evident  that  Christ  can  have  but 
one  will,  the  human  being  subordinate  to  the  divine. 
This  was  distinct  Monothelitism.    A  powerful  opponent 
ol  this  view  was  the  monk  IVIaximus,  whose  writings 
had  a  controlling  influence  with  the  Lateran  Council. 
He  asserts  that  for  the  work  of  redemption  a  complete- 
ness in  the  two  natures  of  Christ  is  necessary;  there 
must  be  a  complete  human  will.     The  Logos,  indeed, 
works  all  through  the  human   working   and  willing. 
There  is  a  theandric  energy  in  his  own  sense.     It  is 
rather  as  a  rpoTroc  dvTtSoffeuic,  or  what  was  subse- 
quently  called  the   comrmimcafio   idiomatum.      Maxi- 
mus  worked  with  great  zeal  against  Monothelitism  in 
Rome  and  Africa,  sending  out  thence  tracts  on  the  sub- 
ject into  the  East.     Sophronius  still  carried  on  the  con- 
troversy, as  also,  with  him,  Stephen,  bisho]i  of  Doria,  his 
pupil.     After  the  death  of  Honorius  in  638,  the  bishops 
of  Kome  were  decidedly  opposed  to  Monothelitism,  and 
INIartin  I,  who  had  zealously  contended  against  the  view 
whUe  representative  of  the  Roman  Church  at  Constan- 
tinople, became,  when  made  pojie  in  649,  the  chief  ])illar 
of  tlie  contrary  opinion.     Advocates  of  tlie  ^iew  enim- 
ciated  in  the  Ect/tesli  of  Heraclius  were  Theodore,  bish- 
op of  Phasan,  and  Pyrrhus  of  Constantinople.     In  648 
the  emperor  Constans  H,  under  the  influence  of  the  pa- 
triarch Paul,  issued  his  Ti/pe  {rinroQ  TziaTHoQ),  which, 
though  not  so  decidedly  jVIonothelitic  as  the  Ecthesis, 
condemns,  under  threat  of  the  severest  penalties,  any 
further  controversy  upon  this  suliject.     'Without  con- 
sulting the  emperor,  Martin  I  now  convoked  this  first 
Lateran  Council,  in  which  he  presided  over  about  104 
bishops  from  Italj',  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Africa.     The 
pope   sought  to   obtain   generally  recognition  for  the 
council,  and  it  was  finallj'  evert^where  received  with  the 
five  (ecumenical councils.     Five  sessions  were  held:  the 
writings  of  the  prominent  jNIonothelitcs  were  examined 
and   condemned ;    pope   ]\[artin   explained   the   proper 
meaning  of  Dionysius's   term   "  tlieandric  oiteration," 
stating  that  it  was  designed  to  signify  two  operations 
of  one  person;  the  Ecthesis  of  Heraclius  and  Type  cf 


Constans  were  condemned;  and  the  judgment  of  the 
council  pronounced  in  twenty  canons,  which  anathema- 
tize all  who  do  not  confess  m  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  two 
wLUs  and  two  operations, 

II.  The  councils  of  1105, 1112,  and  1116,  under  Pascal 
II,  concern  the  contest  about  investitures  between  the 
pope  and  the  emperor,  which  was  brought  to  a  close  in 
the  Comicil  of  1123,  called  and  presided  over  by  Calix- 
tus  II.  This  body  consisted  of  300  bishops  and  600  ab- 
bots, all  of  the  Latin  Church.  The  investitiure  (q.  v.) 
contest,  which  began  as  early  as  1054,  when,  by  mutual 
decrees  of  excommunication,  the  breach  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches  was  made  final,  arose 
from  the  claim  made  by  the  German  emperors  to  an  in- 
heritance of  rights  exercised  by  the  Greek  emperors 
concerning  the  appointment  of  candidates  to  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  and  their  investiture  with  the  right  to  hold 
Church  property  as  subjects  of  the  empire.  L'nder  the 
new  German  empire,  from  t)tho  the  Great  to  Henry  IV, 
930-1050,  the  popes  themselves  were  confirmed  in  their 
seat  by  the  emperor.  Henry  III  obtained  from  the 
Council  of  Sutrj',  which  was  held  near  Rome,  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  army,  in  1040,  the  power  of  nominating 
the  popes,  without  intervention  of  clergy  or  people.  The 
influence  of  Ilildebrand  was  now  felt — an  influence  which 
he  had  begun  to  exert  from  the  time  of  Leo  IX,  in  1048, 
and  which  secured  from  Nicolas  II,  1000,  a  decree  trans- 
ferring the  election  of  popes  to  a  conclave  of  cardinals. 
HUdebrand,  as  Gregory  YII,  maintained  a  celebrated 
contest  with  Henry  IV,  to  whom,  in  1075,  he  forbade  all 
power  of  investiture,  excommunicating  the  emperor  the 
next  year,  and  causing  him  to  do  penance  at  Canossa. 
With  his  victorious  campaign  in  Ital}^,  1080-83,  Henrj' 
drove  the  pope  into  exile  at  Salerno,  where  he  soon 
after  died.  His  immediate  successors,  however,  were 
such  as  he  had  designated  for  the  post,  and  were  the  in- 
heritors of  his  doctrines  and  plans  for  the  supremacy  of 
the  Church.  LTrban  II  sent  forth  an  encyclical  declar- 
ing his  adhesion  to  the  principles  of  Gregorj' — the  Ijic- 
tatus  Grefjorii;  and  Pascal  II  (1099-1118),  who  had  been 
one  of  Gregory's  cardinals,  showed  more  zeal  than  firm- 
ness in  the  same  course.  In  the  Lateran  Council  under 
the  pope,  1105,  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope  was 
taken  by  the  clergy,  and  a  promise  rendered  to  f.ftirm 
whatever  he  and  the  Church  in  council  should  affirm. 
The  count  De  ^Meulan  and  his  confederates  were  excom- 
municated for  having  encouraged  the  king  of  England 
in  his  conduct  concerning  investitures.  Henry  \,  who, 
in  the  rebellion  against  his  father,  was  encouraged  by 
Pascal,  would  nevertheless  yield  nothing  on  becoming, 
emperor,  1105,  in  the  matter  of  investitures,  his  exam- 
ple being  followed  in  this  respect  by  England  and  France. 
Henry  marched  into  Italy  and  imprisoned  the  pope  in 
1111,  forcing  from  him  the  concession  of  rendering  back 
to  the  emperor  the  fiefs  of  the  bishops  on  condition  that 
there  should  be  no  imperial  interference  with  the  elec- 
tions. For  his  weakness  in  this  and  m  other  points 
the  pope  was  bitterly  reproached,  and  the  council  of  1 1 1 2 
revoked  aU  these  concessions  and  excommunicated  the 
emperor.  Notwithstanding  the  rebellion  of  his  German 
subjects,  Henry  collected  an  army  and  invaded  Italy 
anew  in  1110.  The  council  convoked  the  same  year 
thereupon  renewed  the  revocation  of  the  concessions 
Pascal  had  formerly  made,  and  anathematized  the  em- 
peror. At  last,  the  German  people,  weary  of  the  con- 
flict between  State  and  Church,  brought  about  a  jicaee- 
ful  compromise  in  the  concordat  at  the  imperial  Diet  of 
Worms,  1122.  The  principles  of  this  concordat  were 
adopted  by  the  council  cf  1123.  The  terms  of  the  com- 
pact are  as  follows :  "  The  emperor  surrenders  to  God,  to 
St.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  the  Catholic  Church,  all  right 
of  investiture  by  king  and  staff".  He  grants  that  elec- 
tions and  ordinations  in  all  chiu-ches  shall  take  place 
freely  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws.  The  jiope 
agrees  that  the  election  of  German  prelates  shall  be  had 
in  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  provided  it  is  v.ithout 
violence  or  simony.     In  case  any  election  is  disputed, 


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256 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


tlie  emperor  shall  render  assistance  to  the  legal  party, 
with  the  advice  of  the  archbishop  and  the  bishops. 
The  person  elected  is  invested  with  the  imperial  fief  by 
the  royal  scejitre  pleilged  for  the  execution  of  every- 
thing required  by  law.  AVhoever  is  consecrated  shall 
also  receive  in  like  manner  his  investiture  from  other 
parts  (if  tlie  empire  within  six  months"  (Hase,  Church 
Hilton/,  p.  200 ;  Gieselcr,  Kecks,  llht.  ili,  181  sq.).  The 
pope  here  made  considerable  concessions  in  form,  but 
actually,  through  his  influence,  obtained  all  power  at 
the  elections.  The  council  of  1123  also  renewed  the 
grant  of  indulgences  promulgated  by  Urban  II  in  pro- 
motion of  the  first  crusade  in  1095,  and  decreed  the  cel- 
ibacy of  the  clergy.  Twenty-two  canons  of  discipline 
were  established. 

III.  The  council  of  1109,  under  Innocent  II,  con- 
demned the  anti-pope  Anacletus  II,  with  his  adherents, 
and  deposed  all  who  had  received  oilice  under  him.  On 
the  same  day  with  the  installation  of  Innocent  II,  in 
1130,  Peter  of  Leon,  a  cardinal,  and  grandson  of  a  rich 
Jewish  banker,  had  been  proclaimed  pope,  as  Anacletus 
II,  by  a  majority  of  the  carcUnals.  Innocent  took  ref- 
uge in  France,  where  he  was  supported  by  the  king. 
His  cause  was  Avarmly  esjioused  by  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  through  whose  influence  chiefly  Innocent  recov- 
ered his  position  in  Italy,  and  marched  into  Rome  tri- 
umphantly with  Lothaire  II  in  1136.  Anacletus  died  in 
1138,  and  a  successor  was  chosen  by  his  party  only  -with 
the  purpose  of  making  peace.  Roger  of  Sicily  had  sup- 
ported Anacletus,  anil  was  on  this  account  condemned 
in  the  council  of  1139,  though  the  origin  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  belongs  to  the  same  year,  Roger  hav- 
ing taken  Innocent  prisoner,  and  havnng  compelled  the 
pope  to  bestow  upon  him  the  investiture  of  this  king- 
dom. At  this  council  Arnold  of  Brescia  was  also  con- 
demned. This  was  a  young  clergyman  of  the  city  of 
ISrescia,  a  disciple  of  Abelard,  who,  inspired  by  the  free 
philosophical  spirit  of  his  master,  devoted  himself  to  the 
promoti.in  of  practical  reform  in  Church  and  State.  A 
marked  spirit  of  political  independence  was  manifostiiir; 
itself  about  this  time  in  Lombardy,  as  an  inheritance 
from  the  old  Roman  municipaUties  established  thcie. 
Tlie  popes,  from  the  days  of  Leo  IX,  had  themselves  in- 
spired movements  of  ecclesiastical  reform.  Pascal  II 
had  admitted  that  the  secular  power  of  the  bishops  in- 
terfered with  their  spiritual  duties.  Bernard,  though  a 
zealous  opponent  of  Arnold,  yet  writes  as  follows  in  his 
Contemplations  on  the  Papacii :  "  Who  can  mention  the 
place  where  one  of  the  apostles  ever  held  a  trial,  decided 
disputes  about  boundaries,  or  portioned  out  lands  ?"  '■  I 
read  that  the  apostles  stood  before  judgment  seats,  not 
sat  on  them."  Arnold  preached  with  great  zeal  against 
the  political  power  and  wealth  of  the  clergy.  The 
Church  ought  rather  to  rejoice,  he  said,  in  an  apostolic 
poverty.  He  was  driven  successively  from  Italy,  France, 
and  Switzerland,  but  in  1 139  was  recalled  to  Rome  by 
the  populace,  who  sought  to  revive  the  sovereignty  of 
the  state,  established  a  senate,  limited  the  pope  to  the 
exercise  of  spiritual  power  and  the  possession  of  volun- 
tary offerings,  and  invited  the  Geniian  emperor  to  make 
Rome  his  capital.  Arnold  and  his  "politicians"  at 
Rome  thus  gave  pope  Iimocent  and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors— Lucius  II,  Eugenius  III,  and  Adrian  IV — more 
trouble  than  any  political  movements  elsewhere.  This 
condemnation  at  the  council  did  not  etfcctually  cUmin- 
ish  his  power.  Wlicn,  however,  Adrian,  in  1151,  ]iut 
the  city  of  Rome  under  ban,  and  iirohibited  all  public 
worshij),  Arnold  was  abandoned  by  the  senate,  sacri- 
ficed by  Frederick  I,  and  hung  at  Rome  in  1155,  his 
body  being  burned  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  Among 
the  canons  of  the  council,  the  twenty-tliird  condemns 
the  heresy  of  the  JIanich:eans,  as  the  followers  of. Peter 
de  Bruis  were  called.  This  heresy  was  attributed  to 
the  early  Waldensians  in  France  and  elsewliefe.  arising 
partly  from  their  ascetic;  mode  of  life.  About  10(10  prel- 
ates were  present  at  this  council;  thirty  canons  of  dis- 
cipline were  published,  and  among  tliera  reaffirmations 


of  former  canons  against  simony,  marriage,  and  concu- 
binage in  the  clergy. 

IV.  The  council  of  1179,  under  Alexander  III,  num- 
bering 280,  mostly  Latin  bishops,  was  called  to  correct 
certain  abuses  which  had  arisen  during  the  long  schism 
just  brought  to  a  close- by  the  peace  of  Venice,  1177. 
Until  near  the  end  of  the  Pith  century  the  popes  were 
hard  pressed  by  the  Hohenstauften  emperors.  It  is  the 
contest  of  Ghibelline  and  Guelph.  Frederick  I  had 
taken  umbrage  at  the  use  of  the  term  '•  beneficium" 
in  a  letter  addressed  to  him  by  Adrian  IV  about  the 
rudeness  of  German  knights  to  pilgrims  visiting  Rome, 
as  if  the  pope  meant  to  imply  that  the  imperial  author- 
ity hail  been  conferred  by  him.  The  emperor  marched 
into  Italy,  and  other  letters  were  interchanged  between 
him  and  the  pope,  when,  upon  the  death  of  Adrian  in 
1159,  the  two  parties — the  hierarchic  and  the  moderate 
among  the  cardinals  —  chose  two  opposing  popes,  viz. 
Alexander  III  and  Victor  IV,  The  emperors  council, 
called  at  Pavia  in  IIGO,  recognised  the  latter.  Pascal 
III  and  Calixtus  III  followed  at  the  imperial  dictation, 
with  but  little  influence.  Alexander,  from  his  refuge 
in  France,-  enjoyed  great  popularity.  He  had  on  his 
side  the  Lombard  league.  The  cause  of  Frederick  was 
defended  by  the  lawyers  of  Bologna,  who  ascribed  to 
him  unlimited  power,  to  the  prejudice  of  the  people. 
Defeated  at  Legnano  in  117(5,  the  emperor  subscribed,  at 
the  dictation  of  Alexander,  the  peace  of  Venice,  the  pro- 
visions of  which  were  based  on  the  Concordat  of  Worms. 
The  first  and  most  important  of  the  twenty-seven  can- 
ons established  by  this  council,  which  were  mostly  dis- 
ciplinary, provides  that  henceforth  "  the  election  of  the 
popes  shall  be  confined  to  the  college  of  cardinals,  and 
tivo  thirds  of  the  votes  shall  be  required  to  make  a  law- 
ful (lection,  instead  of  a  majority  only,  as  heretofore." 
It  was  by  this  council  also  that  the  "  errors  and  impie- 
ties" of  the  Waklenses  and  Albigenses  were  declared 
heretical.  At  the  unimportant  council  of  1167,  pope  Al- 
exander excommunicated  Frederick  I. 

V.  Tlie  council  of  1215,  under  Innocent  III,  was  the 
most  important  of  all  the  Lateran  Councils.  It  is  usu- 
ally styled  the  Fourth  Lateran.  It  continued  in  session 
from  November  11  to  November  30,  having  present  71 
archbishops,  412  bishops,  800  abbots,  the  patriarclis  of 
Constantinople  and  Jerusalem,  and  the  legates  of  other 
patriarchs  and  crowned  heads.  The  pope  opened  the 
assembly  with  a  sermon  upon  St.  Luke  xxii,  15,  relating 
to  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land  and  the  reformation 
of  the  Church.  The  remarkable  power  of  Innocent  HI 
is  displaj'ed  in  his  influence  over  this  council,  which 
was  submissive  to  all  his  wishes,  and  received  the  sev- 
enty canons  proposed  by  him.  The  papal  prerogatives 
attained  their  greatest  height  in  Innocent,  whose  pon- 
tificate extended  from  1198  to  1216.  The  bull  Unam 
Sanctam  of  Boniface  VIII.  directed  against  Philip  the 
Fair  in  1302,  marks  the  limit  from  which  the  power  of 
the  popes  evidently  declined.  Innocent  HI — a  man  of 
great  personal  power,  of  marked  ability  as  a  writer  and 
orator,  bold,  crafty,  and  ever  watchful  of  affairs — had 
his  eye  on  aU  that  transpired  through  his  legates.  The 
chief  objects  which  his  pontificate,  sought  were  "the 
strengthening  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  separation 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  from  all  dependence  on  the  German 
empire,  the  liberation  of  Italy  from  all  foreign  control, 
the  exercise  of  guardianship  over  the  confederacy  of  its 
states,  the  liberation  of  the  Oriental  Church,  the  exter- 
mination of  heretics,  and  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline"  (Hase,  Church  Hist.  p.  207).  Hitherto  Eng- 
land, Ciermany,  anil  France  had  constituted  a  balance 
of  power  against  the  pope,  but  under  Innocent  the  two 
former,  as  well  as  Italy,  submitted  to  the  claims  of  the 
pseudo-Isidorean  decretals.  France  was  early  laid  un- 
der interdict  (12(10)  on  account  of  Philip  Augustus's  re- 
pudiation of  Ingelmrge  and  the  Freucli  bishops'  appro- 
val of  the  act.  while  John  of  England  was  deprived  of  his 
realm,  to  receive  it  back  (in  1 213  *  only  as  a  fief  of  Rome. 
Deciding  at  first  for  Otlio  IV,  the  Guelph,  against  the 


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257 


LATERAN  COUNCILS 


Holienstauffen  Philip,  in  Germany,  Innocent  subsequent- 
ly securetl  from  the  council  the  recognition  of  Frederick 
II,  vainly  seeking  in  this  his  German  policy  to  free  It- 
aly entirely  from  the  power  of  the  emperor.  The  famous 
seventy  constitutions  of  Innocent,  if  not  discussed  con- 
ciliariter  by  the  bishops,  or  passed  with  every  form  of 
enactment,  were  nevertheless  regarded  as  the  canons  of 
the  council,  so  recognised  by  the  Council  of  Trent  and 
by  Church  authorities  of  the  intervening  age,  and  they 
have  constituted  a  fundamental  law  for  many  well- 
known  practices  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  first  of 
these  canons  asserts  the  Catholic  faith  in  the  unity  of 
God  against  all  Manicha^an  sects.  It  also,  for  the  first 
time,  makes  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  in  the 
use  of  this  express  term,  an  article  of  faith.  '•  The  body 
and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar 
are  truly  contained  under  the  species  of  bread  and  wine, 
the  bread  being,  by  the  divine  omnipotence,  transub- 
stantiated into  his  body,  and  the  wine  into  his  blood." 
The  second  canon  condemns  the  treatise  of  Joachim,  the 
prophet  of  Calabria,  which  he  wrote  against  Peter  Lom- 
bard on  the  subject  of  the  Trinity.  The  third  canon  is 
of  great  importance,  furnishing  the  basis  for  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses,  and  for  all  severities  of  a  like 
cliaracter  on  the  part  of  the  Koraish  Cliurcli.  It "  anath- 
ematizes all  heretics  who  hold  anything  in  opposition 
to  the  preceding  exposition  of  faith,  and  enjoins  that, 
after  condemnation,  they  shall  be  delivered  over  to  the 
secular  arm ;  also  excommunicates  all  who  receive,  pro- 
tect, or  maintain  heretics,  and  threatens  with  deposition 
all  bishops  who  do  not  use  their  utmost  endeavors  to 
clear  their  dioceses  of  them"  (LawAon,  Manual  of  Coun- 
cils, p.  295).  The  fourth  canon  invites  the  Greeks  to 
unite  with  and  submit  themselves  to  the  Romish  Church. 
T\\c  fifth  canon  regulates  the  order  of  precedence  of  the 
patriarchs:  l.Rorae;  2.  Constantinople ;  S.Alexandria; 
4.  Antioch ;  5.  Jerusalem ;  and  permits  these  several  pa- 
triarchs to  give  the  pall  to  the  archbishops  of  their  de- 
pendencies, exacting  from  themselves  a  profession  of 
faith,  and  of  obedience  to  the  Roman  see,  when  they  re- 
ceive the  pall  from  the  pope.  The  sixth  to  the  twen- 
tieth, inclusive,  are  of  minor  importance  (see  Landon, 
Manual  of  Councils,  p.  29G).  The  twenty-first  canon 
enjoins  "all  the  faitbfid  of  both  sexes,  having  arrived 
at  years  of  discretion,  to  confess  all  their  sins  at  least 
once  a  year  to  their  proper  priest,  and  to  communicate 
at  Easter."  This  is  the  first  canon  known  which  orders 
sacramental  confession  generally,  and  may  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  teachings  of  the  Waldenses,  that  nei- 
ther confession  nor  satisfaction  was  necessary  in  order 
to  obtain  remission  of  sin.  From  the  words  with  which 
it  commences,  it  is  known  as  the  canon  "  Omnis  utrins- 
que  sexus,"  and  was  solemnly  reaffirmed  by  the  Council 
of  Trent.  The  canons  (given  complctclj'  by  Landon, 
Man.  of  Councils,  p.  293  sq.)  in  general  constitute  a  body 
of  full  and  severe  disciplinary  enactments.  This  council 
reaffirmed  and  extended  the  Truce  of  God  on  plenary 
indulgence  which  had  been  previously  proclaimed  in 
behalf  of  the  Eastern  Crusades,  and  fixed  the  time,  June 
1,  and  place,  Sicily,  as  a  rendezvous  for  anotlier  crusade. 
This  council  also  confirmed  Simon  do  Montfort  in 
possession  of  lands  which  the  Crusaders  had  obtained 
l)y  papal  confiscation  from  the  Waldenses,  and  decreed 
the  entire  extirpation  of  the  heresy.  The  Waldenses 
or  Albigenses  in  the  south  of  France  were  the  followers 
of  Peter  Waldo,  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Lyons,  who,  from 
religious  principle,  adopted  a  life  of  poverty.  His  fol- 
lowers were  also  called  Leonistaj  and  "  Poor  men  of  Ly- 
ons." They  were  allied  in  their  sentiments  to  the  Vau- 
dois  of  the  Piedmontese  valleys,  with  whom  they  became 
united  for  mutual  defence.  They  protested  against 
these  points  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  Church :  1. 
Transubstantiation.  2.  The  sacraments  of  confirmation, 
confession,  and  marriage.  3.  The  invocation  of  saints. 
4.  The  worship  of  images.  5.  The  temporal  power  of 
the  clergy.  A  crusade  had  been  instituted  against  them 
by  the  papal  power  in  1178.  Innocent  sought  to  win 
v.— R 


them  over  and  make  monks  of  them  by  establishing  in 
1201  the  order  of  "  Poor  Catholics."  Unsuccessful  in 
this,  he  confiscated  their  lands  to  the  feudal  lords,  and 
established  an  inquisition  among  them  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Dominic,  which  was  formally  sanctioned  by  the 
present  council.  The  warfare  against  them,  incited  and 
directed  by  tlie  monks  of  Citeaux,  was  allowed  by  Philip 
Augustus.  Count  Raymond  of  Toulouse  espoused  the 
cause  of  his  persecuted  vassals.  The  papal  legate,  Peter 
of  Castelnau,  sent  to  convert  the  Waldenses,  was  mur- 
dered by  Raymond,  whose  dominions  were  thereupon 
assaulted  in  1209  by  a  fiercer  crusade  of  so-called  "  Chris- 
tian Pilgrims,"  led  on  by  Simon  de  Montfort  and  Arnold, 
the  abbot  of  Citeaux.  The  count  of  Toulouse  submit- 
ted, but  a  bloody  warfare  was  prosecuted  against  Ray- 
mond Roger,  viscount  of  Beziers  and  Albi,  and  subse- 
quently 200  towns  and  castles  within  the  boundaries  of 
the  two  counts  were  granted  to  the  successful  Simon  de 
Montfort.  A  rebellion,  however,  against  his  power  de- 
prived him  of  all ;  but  Raymond  of  Toulouse,  who  ap- 
peared at  the  council  of  1215,  obtained  no  favor,  and  his 
territory  was  declared  to  be  alienated  from  liim  forever. 

\'L  The  council  of  1512-1517,  under  Julius  II  and 
Leo  X,  was  convened  for  the  reformation  of  abuses,  for 
the  condemnation  of  the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  attained 
its  most  important  result  in  the  abolition  of  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction.  France,  under  Louis  XII,  had  obtained 
great  military  successes  in  Italy  bj-  the  League  of  Cam- 
bray,  formed  in  1509  against  Venice.  In  the  interests 
of  F' ranee,  and  by  the  friendship  of  some  of  the  cardi- 
nals, Louis  XII  summoned  a  Church  councU  at  Pisa, 
Nov.  1511,  which  in  1512  was  moved  to  Milan,  but  was 
entirely  fruitless  of  results,  being  dissolved  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  pope's  army.  Jidius  II,  thougli  at  first  jeal- 
ous of  Venice,  had  nevertheless,  aroused  by  the  successes 
of  the  French  general,  formed  the  Holy  Alliance  with 
Venice,  Spain,  England,  and  Switzerland,  and  now,  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  drove  the  French  beyond  the 
Alps,  and  himself  summoned  a  council  at  the  Latcran 
May  10, 1512.  This  council  extended  over  twelve  ses- 
sions, until  March,  1517.  The  bishop  of  Guerk  had  ac- 
tively promoted  the  summoning  of  the  council,  and  at- 
tended as  representative  of  the  German  emperor.  All 
the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  were  at  once  annulled.. 
Julius  having  died  in  Feb.  1513,  Leo  X  presided  over 
the  sixtli  session.  At  the  eighth  session,  in  Dec.  1513, 
Louis  XII,  through  his  ambassador,  declared  his  adhe- 
sion to  this  Council  of  the  Lateran.  At  the  eleventh 
session,  in  Dec.  1516,  the  bull  was  read  which,  in  place 
of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  of  Eourges  (1438),  whereiir 
France  accepted  the  decisions  of  the  Basle  council  in  so 
far  as  they  were  consistent  with  the  liberties  of  the  Gal- 
ilean Church,  substituted  the  Concordat  agreed  upon  this 
year,  151G,  between  Leo  X  and  I'rancis  I.  Through 
hope  of  increasing  his  power  in  Italy,  Francis  largely 
sacrificed  the  liberties  of  the  Church.  Several  of  the 
articles  of  the  Pragmatic  were  retained,  but  most  of 
them  were  altered  or  abolished.  The  first  article  was 
entirely  contrary  to  the  Pragmatic,  which  had  re-estab- 
lished the  right  of  election,  while  the  Concordat  declares, 
that  the  chapters  of  the  cathedrals  in  France  shall  no 
longer  proceed  to  elect  the  bishop  in  case  of  vacancy ,^ 
but  that  the  king  shall  name  a  proper  person,  whom  the 
pope  shall  nominate  to  the  vacant  see.  The  Concor- 
dat, on  account  especially  of  this  provision,  met  with 
great  opposition  in  the  Parliament,  universities,  and  the 
Church  at  Paris.  It  was  a  great  advance  of  the  papacy- 
against  tlie  liberties  of  France  (compare  Janus,  Pope  and 
Council,  §  xxviii  and  xxix).  Neither  this  council  nor 
the  other  four,  viz.  those  of  1123, 1139, 1179,  and  1215, 
styled  oecumenical  by  the  Romish  Church,  can  be  prop- 
erly regarded  as  such. 

Some  writers  mention  as  the  sixth  Lateran  the  coun- 
cil convened  by  pope  Benedict  XIII  on  tlie  bull  Uni- 
fjenitus  [see  Jansesius],  and  for  the  pm^iose  of  general 
reform  in  the  Church  (compare  Klemm,  Cone,  a  Bened. 
XIII,\i\Lat.habitiprwhreve  examen  (1729) ;  WalchjZ'e 


LATEY 


258 


LATBIER 


concil.  Lut.  a  Bentd.  XIII  (Lips.  172G).  For  a  detailed 
account  of  the  council  at  the  Lateran  opened  Dec.  8, 
18G9,  see  QJcumknical  Coun'Cil,  and  the  article  Infal- 
libility in  vol.  iv,  especially  p.  573  sq.  See  Landon, 
Manual  of  Councils,  p. '2S7-oi)3;  Mansi,  C'o««V.  vi,  75 ;  x, 
741,707,800,891,999,1503;  xi,  117;  xiv,  1-340;  Giese- 
ler,  Cfi.  Hist,  i,  308 ;  ii,  131, 184, 195, 38« ;  ISIihnan.  Latin 
Ckrisliaiiifi/,in,297, 298  sq.,434,  iv,  140, 175  sq.,230;  v, 
211  sq. ;  Cuuniugham,  Hist.  Theol.  i,  417  sq. ;  Ranke, 
Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  i,  351 ;  ii,  200.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Latey,  Gilbert,  an  English  Quaker,  was  born  in 
England  in  1027.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active  and 
efficient  members  of  his  society  in  London.  His  labors 
were  directed  especially  to  the  relief  of  the  more  unfor- 
tunate of  his  Church.  He  died  Sept.  i5,  1705.  See 
Janney,  Eist.  of  Friends,  iii,  105, 

Lathrop,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Congregational 
minister,  was  born  October  20, 1731  (O.  S.),  at  Norwich, 
Conn. ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1754;  entered  the 
ministry  January,  1750 ;  was  ordained  pastor  in  West 
Springfield,  Mass.,  August  25,  and  labored  there  until  his 
death,  December  31, 1820.  In  1793  he  was  elected  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  in  Yale  College,  but  declined  the  posi- 
tion. He  published  A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  the  associated 
Pastors  hi  the  County  ofNeio  Haven  concerning  the  Ordi- 
nation of  the  Rec.  John  Hubbard  in  Meriden  (1770)  : — 
3Liscellaneous  Collectio?i  of  original  Pieces,  political,  mor- 
al, and  entertaining  {ViSij);  and  a  number  of  occasional 
Sermons  (Hartford,  1793,  8vo ;  1803,  8vo ;  Worcester, 
1807, 8vo).  Doctor  Lathrop  was  a  popular  preacher,  and 
his  sermons  have  long  been  highly  commented  upon 
both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe. — Sprague,  Annals 
of  the  A  merican  Pulpit,  i,  528. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  prel- 
ates of  the  Church  of  England,  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
ablest,  if  not  the  al)lest  ecclesiastic  among  the  English 
reformers  of  the  IGth  century,  called  by  Froude  {Hist, 
of  England,  i,  204 ;  comp.  ii,  101)  the  John  Knox  of  Eng- 
land, the  bearer  of  a  name  that  "  now  shines  over  two 
hemispheres,  and  will  blaze  more  and  more  till  the  last 
day,"  was  born  at  Thurcaston,  in  Leicestershire,  about 
1470.  His  father,  a  farmer  of  good  practical  judgment, 
early  discovering  in  Hugh  talents  that  would  tit  him  for 
a  literary  position  of  note,  afforded  him  all  the  advan- 
tages of  his  time  at  school,  and  at  fourteen  Hugh  was 
transferred  to  Cambridge,  where  he  was  soon  known  as 
a  sober,  hard-working  student.  At  nineteen  he  was 
elected  fellow  of  Clare  Hall,  took  his  degree  at  twenty, 
and  at  once  entered  on  tlie  study  of  theology,  having 
decided  to  devote  himself  to  the  services  of  tlie  Church. 
A  sincere  and  devout  believer  in  the  doctrines  and  rites 
of  the  Church  of  IJomc,  we  need  not  wonder  at  finding 
him,  at  this  period  of  his  life,  loud  and  freijuent  in  his 
deniniciation  of  the  would-be  reformers,  seldom  losing 
an  opportunity  of  inveighing  against  them.  •'  He  even 
held  them,"  says  Jliddleton  (Memoirs  of  the  Reformers, 
iii,  103), "in  such  horror  that  he  thought  they  were  the 
supporters  of  that  Antichrist  whose  appearance  was  to 
precede  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man,  and  conjectured 
that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand."  Nt>r  were  the 
events  of  his  day  likely  to  cool  his  mistaken  zeal.  Lu- 
ther, who  was  making  havoc  in  the  ranks  of  the  papacy, 
had  just  been  assailed  by  "  the  defender  of  the  faith"  (kiiig 
Henry  VIIIj ;  and  as  a  most  fit  subject  for  his  disserta- 
tion for  the  divinity  degree,  Latimer  could  find  no  bet- 
ter worlc  than  "  fleshing  his  maiden  sword"  in  an  attack 
upon  Mtlaiicthon— surely  no  small  task  for  a  man  not 
much  beyond  his  teens.  But  even  at  this  early  age 
Hugh  Latimer  proved  himself  quite  a  formidable  po- 
lemic, and,  what  is  even  more  noteworthy,  a  man  not 
afraid  to  speak  his  mind — a  trait  which  distinguishes 
our  subject  in  all  the  acts  of  his  life.  Immediately  after 
his  attack  on  Jlclancthon  he  came  under  the  eye  and 
tongue  of  Bilney,  the  famous  advocate  of  the  Reformed 
doctrines  in  the  iMiirlish  Church,  and  he  was  led  to  ex- 
amine more  critically  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  his 


Church.  The  result  was,  naturally  enough,  conversion 
to  the  cause  which  Bilney  so  ably  advocated.  Latimer 
was  at  this  time  about  thirty  years  of  age,  and  as  he 
was  not  a  man  accustomed  to  do  things  by  halves,  he 
became  a  zealous  advocate  for  reform,  and  preached 
manfully  and  boldly  against  the  false  doctrines  and  va- 
rious abuses  of  Romanism  ^vhich  had  crept  into  and  pol- 
luted the  Church  of  England.  Naturally  gifted  with 
great  oratorical  powers,  and  inspired  by  the  fitness  of 
the  subject  with  which  he  was  dealing,  he  soon  made 
himself  famous  as  a  preacher  at  Cambridge.  "None, 
except  the  stiff-necked  and  uncircumcised,  ever  went 
away  from  his  preaching,  it  was  said,  without  being  af- 
fected with  high  detestation  of  sin,  and  moved  to  aU 
godliness  and  virtue"  {Jewel  of  Joy  [Parker  Society  edi- 
tion], p.  224  sq.).  Such  preaching,  however,  greatly  as 
it  was  needed  by  the  times  in  which  Latimer  lived, 
could  not  meet  the  approval  of  the  servile  ecclesiastics. 
It  was  too  much  tinged  by  theological  statements  that 
"had  originally  sprouted  in  England,  and,  after  being 
translated  to  Germany,  had  been  brought  back  with  im- 
proved fibre ;"  and  Latimer  soon  found  himself  surround-^ 
ed  by  a  formidable  opposition,  daily  growing  in  strength. 
His  "  heretical  preaching,"  as  it  was  then  called,  caused 
a  remonstrance  made  to  the  diocesan  bishop  of  Ely  by 
a  gray  friar  named  Venetus,  but  really  due  to  most  of 
the  divines  of  Cambridge,  requesting  episcopal  inter- 
ference. Dr.  West,  then  the  incumbent  of  the  bishopric 
of  Ely,  naturally  a  mild  and  moderate  man,  inclined  to 
favor  Latimer  at  first,  and  only  mildly  rebuked  him. 
Here  the  matter  might  have  ended,  and  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  "  he  would  not  have  been  the  Latimer  of  the 
Reformation,  and  the  Church  of  England  woidd  not,  per- 
haps, have  been  here  to-day"  (Froude,  ii,  101),  had  not 
this  bishop,  while  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge  (1525),  unex- 
pectedly attended  one  of  Latmier's  preaching  services, 
and  had  not  his  prelatical  dignity  been  sorely  touched  on 
the  occasion.  Latimer  was  right  in  the  midst  of  his  ser- 
mon when  the  bishop  entered ;  immediately  he  abandon- 
ed his  subject,  and,  as  soon  as  the  bishop  had  been  seated, 
according  to  Strype,  addressed  the  audience  as  follows : 
"It  is  of  congruence  meet  that  a  new  auditory  being 
more  honorable,  requireth  a  new  theme,  being  a  new  ar- 
gument to  entreat  of.  Therefore  it  behoveth  me  nov\f 
to  deviate  from  mine  intended  purpose,  and  somewhat 
to  entreat  of  the  honorable  estate  of  a  bishop.  There- 
fore let  this  be  the  theme, '  Christus  existens poniifcx  fu- 
turorum  bonorum,  etc.'"  This  text,  says  a  contempo- 
rary, he  so  fruitfully  handled,  expounding  every  word, 
and  setting  forth  the  office  of  Christ  so  sincerely  as  the 
true  and  perfect  pattern  unto  all  other  bishops  that 
should  succeed  him  in  his  Church,  that  the  Inshop  then 
present  might  well  think  of  himself  that  neither  he  nor 
any  of  his  fellows  were  of  that  race,  but  rather  of  the 
fellowship  of  Caiaphas  and  Annas.  It  cannot  appear 
strange  to  any  one  that "  the  wise  and  politic  man,"  as 
the  bishop  of  Ely  was  generally  called,  thereafter  also 
went  over  to  the  enemy,  and  forbade  Latimer's  preach- 
ing within  the  diocese  over  which  he  presided.  Lati- 
mer, however,  overcame  this  obstacle  by  gaining  the 
use  of  a  pulpit  in  a  monastery  of  Austin  friars,  exempt 
from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  the  prior  of  which.  Dr. 
Barnes,  decidedly  favored  the  reformed  doctrines.  This 
daring  attitude  of  the  yoiuig  preacher  so  provoked  Dr, 
West  and  the  Cambridge  clique  that  the  bishop  made 
complaint  to  cardinal  Wt ilsey.  "  No  eye  saw  more  (juick- 
ly  than  the  cardinal's  the  (litfcrcnce  between  a  true  man 
and  an  impostor,"  and  when  he  had  heard  from  the  lips 
of  Latimer  himself  the  substance  of  the  sennons  that 
had  given  cause  to  the  complaint,  the  cardinal,  instead 
of  punishing  Latimer,  replied  to  the  accusations  by 
granting  the  offender  a  license  to  preach  in  any  church 
in  England.  "  If  the  bishop  of  Ely  cannot  abide  such 
doctrine  as  you  have  here  repeated,"  he  said,  "you  shall 
preach  it  to  his  beard,  let  him  s:iy  what  he  will"  (Lati- 
mer, R(  mains,  p.  27  sq.,  as  quoted  by  Froude,  ii,  102). 
From  this  time  forward  the  career  of  Latimer  seems 


LATIMER 


259 


LATIMER 


clearly  marked  out.  Hitlicrto  lie  had  been  quite  ortho- 
dox ill  points  of  theoretic  belief.  '■  His  mind,"  says 
Froude,  "  was  practical  rather  than  speculative,  and  he 
was  slow  in  arriving  at  conclusions  which  had  no  im- 
mediate bearing  upon  action."'  Now  he  broke  loose  al- 
together from  the  position  of  the  Cambridge  authorities, 
and  probably  became  defiant  of  them.  But  Wolsey 
(t  15;50)  feU  from  grace,  and  there  was  reason  to  fear 
that  Latimer  would  now,  at  last,  also  faU  a  prey  to  the 
malice  of  his  formidable  adversaries,  greatly  increased 
in  numbers  by  his  success  in  gaining  followers,  who  were 
drawn  towards  him  by  his  clo(juence,  his  moral  conduct, 
and  his  kindness  of  disposition,  as  well  as  by  the  mer- 
its of  his  cause.  Unexpectedly,  however,  and  quite  to 
the  chagrin  of  the  Cambridge  men,  he  found  a  fresh 
protector  in  the  king  himself.  lie  had  preached  before 
Henry  in  the  Lent  of  1530,  having  been  introduced  to 
his  royal  master  by  the  king's  physician.  Dr.  Butts ;  and 
lie  won  the  favor  of  Henry  by  his  honest,  straightfor- 
ward logic  and  his  enthusiasm.  In  this  new  position  he 
performed  his  duty  as  faithfully  as  ho  had  in  preaching 
at  Cambridge,  and  he  dared  to  speak  the  truth  in  a  place 
wliere  the  truth  is  generally  forgotten.  A  special  op- 
portunity to  speak  in  defense  of  the  Protestant  cause 
was  afforded  him  by  the  persecutions  to  which  the  truest 
men  in  Henry's  dominions  were  subjected  at  this  time 
on  account  of  their  religious  faith ;  and,  though  he  did 
not  succeed  in  staying  the  hand  of  persecution  by  this 
address  of  almost  unexampled  grandeur,  it  yet  remains 
"  to  speak  forever  for  tlie  courage  of  Latimer,  and  to 
speak  something,  too,  for  a  prince  that  could  respect  the 
nobleness  of  the  poor  yeoman's  son,  who  dared  in  such  a 
cause  to  write  to  him  as  a  man  to  a  man.  To  have 
written  at  all  in  such  a  strain  was  as  brave  a  step  as 
was  ever  deUberately  ventured.  Like  most  brave  acts, 
it  did  not  go  unrewarded;  for  IIcnr\'  remained  ever  af- 
ter, however  widely  divided  from  him  in  opinion,  yet 
his  unshaken  friend"  (Froude,  ii,  104).  Perhaps  it  may 
not  be  out  of  place  here  to  say  that  Henry  VIII  himself, 
however  nobly  he  may  have  acted  towards  Latimer  and 
the  Reformers  after  1530,  was  perhaps,  in  the  main,  in- 
cited to  his  friendly  deeds  towards  Latimer  by  the  posi- 
tion the  latter  had  taken  in  1527.  Froude  and  most  of 
the  English  historians  forget,  in  their  great  endeavor  to 
cleanse  Henry  Till  from  all  sin,  that,  however  greatly 
the  Church  of  England  has  been  l)cnefited  by  his  work, 
his  object  was  not  reform  in  the  Church,  but  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  second  papacy  and  his  own  enthronement 
as  pope,  and  that  he  was  only  led  to  take  this  step  when 
he  found  so  many  pliant  tools  to  carry  out  his  project  of 
separation  from  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon.  Of 
the  commission  appointed  by  the  LTniversity  of  Cam- 
bridge to  investigate  the  king's  rights  in  this  matter, 
Latimer  had  been  a  member,  and  had  taken  decided 
ground  in  favor  of  the  king.  This  of  itself  was  sufficient 
to  secure  the  good  offices  of  his  royal  master.  Latimer's 
record  of  course,  both  before  and  after  this  event,  clearly 
proves  that  he  was  not  a  pliant  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
king,  but  actually  believed  Henry  Till  justified  in  his 
separation  from  Catharine. 

Jlost  prominent  and  influential  at  this  time  among 
the  king's  favorites,  or  the  Anne  Boleyn  party,  as  they 
are  sometimes  termed,  as  the  advocates  of  her  cause  and 
the  justness  of  king  Henr^-'s  marriage  with  her,  was  lord 
Thomas  Cromwell  (q.  v.;  comp.  also  Froude,  History  of 
Enf/lnnd,  ii,  109  sq.).  By  Cromwell's  exertions.  Latimer, 
in  1531,  was  presented  with  the  benefice  of  West  King- 
ston, in  Wiltshire,  where  he  preached  the  reformed  doc- 
trines with  such  plainness  and  emphasis  as  to  bring 
upon  him  a  public  accusation  and  citation  before  the 
liisliop  of  London,  who  had  only  been  watching  for  an 
opportunity  to  punish  him  as  a  heretic.  The  citation 
was  issued  and  served  .January  10,  1532.  Articles  were 
drawn  up,  mainly  extracts  from  his  sermons,  in  which 
he  was  charged  with  speaking  lightly  of  the  worship  of 
the  saints,  and  with  affirming  that  there  was  no  mate- 
rial fire  of  a  purgatorial  description,  and  that,  for  his 


own  part,  he  would  rather  be  in  purgatory  than  in  the 
Lollard's  tower!  He  set  ou:  for  London  in  the  depth 
of  winter,  and  under  a  severe  fit  of  the  stone,  determined 
to  defend  the  justness  of  his  course.  He  was  submitted 
by  the  different  bishops  to  the  closest  cross-questionings, 
in  the  hope  that  he  M'oidd  commit  himself.  "They 
felt,"  says  Froude  (ii,  107),  "that  he  was  the  most  dan- 
gerous person  to  them  in  the  kingdom,  and  thev  labored 
with  unusual  patience  to  insure  his  conviction."  Lati- 
mer, however,  baffled  his  episcopal  inquisitors  with  their 
own  weapons,  and  when  they  dared  to  excommunicate 
and  to  imprison  him,  he  dared  to  appeal  to  the  king  in 
the  face  of  their  formidable  opposition,  and  was  permit- 
ted to  escape  with  a  simple  submission  to  the  archbish- 
op, instead  of  an  obligation  to  subscribe  to  a  certain  fist 
of  articles.  These  latter  were  as  follows :  "  That  there  is 
a  purgatory  to  purge  the  souls  of  the  dead  after  this  life; 
that  the  souls  in  purgatory  are  holpen  with  the  masses, 
prayers,  and  alms  of  the  living:  that  the  saints  do  pray 
as  mediators  now  for  us  in  heaven ;  that  they  are  to  be 
honored ;  that  it  is  profitable  for  Christians  to  call  upon 
the  saints  that  they  may  pray  for  us  unto  God;  that 
pilgrimages  and  oblations  done  to  the  sepulchres  and 
relics  of  saints  are  meritorious;  that  they  which  have 
vowed  perpetual  chastity  may  not  marrj',  nor  break 
their  vow,  without  the  dispensation  of  the  pope ;  that 
the  keys  of  binding  and  loosing  delivered  to  Peter  do 
still  remain  with  the  bishops  of  Kome,  his  successors,  al- 
though they  live  wickedly,  and  are  by  no  means,  nor  at 
any  time,  committed  to  laymen;  that  men  may  merit 
at  God's  liand  bj'  fasting,  prayer,  and  other  works  of 
piety ;  that  they  which  are  forbidden  of  the  bishop  to 
preach,  as  suspected  persons,  ought  to  cease  until  they 
have  purged  themselves;  that  the  fast  Avhich  is  used  in 
Lent,  and  other  fasts  prescribed  by  the  canons,  are  to  be 
observed;  that  God,  in  evcrj'  one  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, giveth  grace  to  a  man  rightly  receiving  the 
same;  that  consecrations,  sanctifyings,  and  blessings, 
by  custom  received  into  the  Church,  are  profitable;  that 
it  is  laudable  and  profitable  that  the  venerable  images 
of  the  crucifix  and  other  saints  should  be  had  in  the 
Church  as  a  remembrance,  and  to  the  honor  and  wor- 
ship of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  saints ;  that  it  is  laudable 
and  profitalile  to  deck  and  clothe  those  images,  and  to 
set  np  burning  lights  before  them  to  the  honor  of  said 
saints."  Historians  disagree  as  to  the  attitude  of  Lati- 
mer towards  the  bishops,  who  demanded  that  he  should 
sign  at  least  two  of  the  articles,  viz.  the  one  respecting 
the  observance  of  Lent,  and  that  concerning  the  crucifix 
and  the  lawfulness  of  images  in  churches.  Fox  doubts 
that  Latimer  signed  any ;  (iilpin,  in  his  memoir  of  Lat- 
imer, denies  it  outright ;  Hook  {Eccles.  Biogr.  vi,  5G2) 
says  that  the  fact  of  Ids  signing  "  is  put  beyond  all  ques- 
tion by  the  minutes  of  the  Convocation,  where  it  is 
recorded  that  in  the  month  of  March,  1532,  Latimer 
appeared,  and,  kneeling  down,  craved  forgiveness,  ac- 
knowledging that  he  had  erred  in  preaching  against  the 
aforesaid  two  articles."  Froude,  however,  holds  that 
Latimer  signed  "all  es-ccpl  two — one  apparently  on  the 
power  of  the  pope ;  the  other  I  am  unable  to  conjecture." 
(Comp.  Burnet,  Hist,  of  the  Jief.  iii,  116,  Latimer's  Re- 
mains, p.  466.) 

Rescued  from  these  perils  by  lord  Cromwell,  he  was 
by  the  latter  now  introduced  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and  by 
her  appointed  chaplain  ;  and  in  1535  he  was  honored 
with  the  bishopric  of  Worcester.  In  this  new  appoint- 
ment, which  marks  an  important  epoch  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical history  of  the  day,  Latimier  was  remarkably  zeal(  us 
in  the  discharge  of  his  office ;  he  was  active,  determined, 
and  vigilant.  "  In  writing,  frequent ;  in  ordaining, 
strict;  in  preaching,  indefatigable;  in  reproving,  severe ; 
in  exhorting,  persuasive."  In  1536,  finally,  he  was 
brought  from  the  somewhat  secluded  position  he  had 
hitherto  occupied  to  a  more  public  exhibition  by  a  sum- 
mons to  Parliament  and  Convocation,  at  the  opening  of 
which  he  preaclied  two  very  powerful  sermons,  boldly 
urging  the  necessity  of  reform.     Ever  since  1534  es- 


LATIMER 


260 


LATIMER 


trangement  between  the  pope  and  the  king  had  been 
quite  decided.  Cranmer's  decree  of  1533,  approving  the 
marriage  with  Anne  Boleyn,  had  been  declared  first  null 
and  void  by  the  pope,  and  Henry  had  been  threatened 
with  excommunication;  but,  as  he  had  ignored  the  pa- 
pal threat,  a  bull  to  this  effect  was  published  in  1534-5. 
These  proceedings  on  the  part  of  Home  left  no  other 
course  open  to  Henry  than  either  to  repent,  or  to  estab- 
lish himself  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  English  Church. 
The  Convocation  of  Canterbury,  in  1531,  had  pronounced 
orHcially  in  favor  of  constitutional  reforms,  and  an  act 
of  Parliament  in  1533  repudiated  papal  supremacy  by 
withdrawing  first  the  pajTnent  of  the  bishops'  annates 
or  first-fruits,  and  next  by  an  "  act  for  the  restraint  of 
appeals,"  which  forbade  appeals  to  Rome  on  any  pretext, 
and  asserted  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  in 
England  competent  to  decide  without  any  consultation 
of  the  papal  power,  followed  by  another  act  conferring 
on  the  English  monarch  the  right  of  episcopal  appoint- 
ment, as  well  as  another  forbidding  applications  to  the 
lioman  see  for  faculties,  dispensations,  etc.  It  was 
therefore  no  great  task  to  prevail  upon  the  convocations 
of  Canterbury  and  York,  in  1534,  to  declare  formally 
against  the  claim  of  the  Koman  see  to  exercise  any  ju- 
risdiction in  England;  and,  when  once  the  step  had 
been  taken  by  the  convocations,  both  the  universities, 
as  weU  as  the  whole  of  the  bishops,  and  an  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  clergy,  cheerfidly  followed  in  the 
same  wake,  "all  apparently  feeling  that  there  was  no 
sound  theological  reason  for  the  maintenance  of  so  bur- 
densome and  unconstitutional  a  tyranny"  (Blunt  [John 
Henry],  Key  to  Ch.  History  [modern  ],  p.  23).  "With  all 
these  initiatory  measures  secured,  Henry  had  no  reason 
any  longer  to  hesitate  on  the  decided  step  of  seizing  the 
supreme  power  over  the  English  Church,  which,  in  1531, 
the  convocations  of  Canterbury  and  York  had  consented 
to  recognise  only  with  the  definite  limitation  "as  far  as 
the  law  of  Christ  will  allow,"  and  he  began  the  work  bj' 
an  order,  in  1534,  to  omit  the  ])ope's  name  from  the  ser- 
vice-books, quickly  followed  by  t\vo  successive  acts, 
passed  by  a  servile  Parliament,  confirming  the  suprem- 
acy, and  giving  to  the  king  unlimited  power  to  repress 
all  heresies,  and  to  punish  as  high  treason  the  denial  of 
his  right  to  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  Church. 
In  order  further  to  secure  him  in  the  position  which  he 
had  assumed,  the  Convocation  of  153G,  in  which  Lati- 
mer, as  we  have  seen  above,  figured  quite  prominently, 
was  urged  to  settle  the  questions  of  doctrine  and  devo- 
tion, which  were  agitating  the  English  Church,  and,  as 
the  result  of  their  deliberations,  sent  forth  the  following 
ten  articles,  the  original  predecessors  of  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  of  Keligion.     See  Auticles. 

I.  Enjoined  belief  in  the  Holy  Bible,  the  three  creeds, 
and  the  teaching  of  the  first  four  general  councils. 

II.  Set  forth  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regeneration. 
HI.  Defined  penance  as  consisting  of  repentance,  con- 
fession, absolution,  and  amendnieut  of  life. 

IV.  Declared  fully  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence, 
without  asserting  that  of  trausubstantiation. 

V.  Explained  justiiicatiou  as  attainable  by  repeut.auee, 
faith,  and  charity,  through  the  merits  and  mission  of  our 
blessed  Lord. 

VI.  Declared  that  images  might  l)e  profitably  nsed  as 
aids  to  devotion,  but  not  worshipped  nor  nndulyhonored. 

VII.  Set  forth  the  honor  due  to  saints  as  God's  faithful 
people  who  pray  for  us. 

Vin.  Showedthat,  with  certain  limitations,  the  prayers 
of  the  saints  might  be  asked  for. 

IX.  Spoke  of  minor  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Church, 
such  as  the  use  of  holy  water,  ashes  on  Ash-Wednesday, 
palais  on  Palm-Sunday,  etc.,  and  declared  that  they  might 
he  fitly  used  to  excite  devotional  feelings,  but  not  as  if 
they  could  obtain  remission  of  sins. 

X.  Distinguished  prayers  for  the  dead  from  the  Romish 
doctrine  of  pnrgatory,  repudiating  the  latter. 

In  the  following  year  these  doctrinal  articles  were 
succeeded  by  the  Institution  of  a  Christian  Afan  (q.  v.),  a 
plain  and  authoritative  expositiou  of  Church  doctrine, 
composed  by  a  commission  of  fi)rty-six  divines,  appoint- 
ed by  the  king,  and  including  all  the  bishoi)s  as  well  as 
some  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church.  In  this  commis- 
sion all  shades  of  opinion  had  been  represented,  Cranmer 


and  Latimer,  as  well  as  Gardiner  and  Bonner,  being  of 
the  number;  but  it  was  evident  throughout  that  the 
Kelbrmers  were  in  the  majority ;  and  when,  to  all  out- 
ward aijpearances,  the  reform  movement  seemed  des- 
tined to  prove  a  success  in  England,  it  suddenly  received, 
Irom  a  quarter  where  it  was  last  looked  for,  a  blow  that 
stimned  it  almost  completely.  The  separation  between 
the  king  of  England  and  the  pope  of  Kome  having  be- 
come complete,  the  Lutherans  grew  anxious  to  effect  a 
union  with  the  English  Reformers,  and  to  this  end  three 
German  divines,  with  Burckhardt  at  their  head,  had 
come  to  England  in  1538,  to  discuss  and  amicably  settle 
all  minor  religious  differences  of  opinion.  Unfortunate- 
ly, however,  they  not  only  failed  to  bring  about  an  agree- 
ment on  sacramental  doctrine,  but  the  discussion  even 
induced  the  king  to  cling  more  tenaciously  than  ever  to 
the  belief  of  the  Romish  Church,  especially  on  transub- 
stantiation ;  and  in  1539  the  king  actually  caused  the 
passage  of"  the  bloody  act  of  the  Six  Articles,"  or  "  the 
whip  with  six  strings,"  as  the  Protestants  termed  it,  by 
which  the  denial  of  transubstantiation  was  made  pun- 
ishable ivith  death,  and  other  mediieval  dogmas  were 
enforced  by  fine  and  imprisonment  (comp.  Froude,  Hist. 
of  Eni/lund,  iii,  ch.  xvi).  From  these  six  articles  (q.  v.) 
the  reformers,  of  course,  totally  dissented;  many  of  them 
preferred  to  hold  their  peace,  and  kept  their  places. 
Latimer,  however,  was  not  one  of  these  :  accustomed  to 
speak  his  mind,  he  at  once  manifested  his  dissent  to  this 
enactment  by  his  resignation  of  the  bishopric.  Some 
historians  will  have  it  that  he  was  induced  to  resign  by 
lord  Cromwell;  the  latter,  "either  himself  deceived  or 
desiring  to  smooth  the  storm,  told  Latimer  that  the  king 
advised  his  resignation"  (Froude,  iii,  370,  foot  note). 
The  state papei-s  (i, 849), however,  state  "  that  his  majes- 
ty afterwards  denied  this,  and  pitied  Latimer's  condi- 
tion ;"  and  when  we  consider  that  Latimer  had  found  a 
tried  friend  in  Cromwell,  we  can  hardly  conclude  that 
either  he  or  the  king  had  anything  to  do  with  the  res- 
ignation, which  was  an  act  only  to  be  expected  oi'  Lati- 
mer, ever  imlependcnt  and  bold  to  speak  the  truth. 
Froude  (on  the  authority  of  Hall)  will  have  it  even 
that  Latimer,  together  with  Shaxton  (q.  v.),  were  im- 
prisoned immediately  after  their  resignation,  but  if  this 
be  true  he  can  have  been  confined  onl}-  a  brief  period,  as 
by  a  summary  declaration  of  pardon  the  bishop's  dun- 
geon doors  were  thrown  open  and  the  prisoners  were 
dismissed  a  very  .short  time  after  their  imprisonment. 

Latimer  thereafter  sought  retirement  in  the  countr3-, 
where  he  would  have  continued  to  reside  had  not  an  ac- 
cident befallen  him,  the  effects  of  which  he  thought  the 
skill  of  London  surgeons  would  alleviate.  He  arrived 
in  London  when  the  power  of  Cromwell  was  nearly  at 
an  end,  and  the  mastery  in  the  hands  of  Gardiner,  who 
no  sooner  discovered  him  in  his  privacy  than  he  pro- 
cured accusations  to  be  made  against  him  for  his  objec- 
tions to  the  Six  Articles,  and  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.  Different  causes  being  alleged  against  him,  he 
remained  a  prisoner  for  the  remaining  six  years  of  king 
Henry  YIH's  reign,  his  enemies  evidently  designing 
mainly  to  prevent  his  influence  for  the  cause  of  the  Re- 
formers in  the  capital  of  the  nation.  Upon  tlie  accession 
of  Edward  YI  Parliament  offered  to  restore  him  to  his 
see,  but  Latimer  was  firm  in  his  refusal  to  receive  it :  his 
great  age,  he  said,  made  him  desirous  of  freedom  from 
any  and  all  respcmsibility.  He  preached,  however,  fre- 
quently, and  gave  himself  up  to  all  manner  of  benevo- 
lent works.  He  was  a  decided  opponent  of  "  the  bloody 
Bonner;"  occasionally  his  advice  was  sought  for  by  the 
king,  and  he  was  continually  active  as  the  strenuous  re- 
prover of  the  vices  of  the  age;  but  the  reign  was  short, 
and  with  it  expired  Latimer's  prosperity.  In  July,  1553, 
king  Edward  died  ; .  in  September,  Mary  had  begun 
to  take  vengeance  on  the  Reformers,  and,  among  oth- 
ers, Latimer  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  Though 
he  was  at  least  eighty  years  old,  no  consideration  was 
shown  for  his  great  age,  and  he  was  sent  to  Oxford, 
March  8, 1554,  together  with  Cranmer  and  Ridley,  to  dis- 


LATIMER 


261 


LATIN 


pnte  on  the  corporal  presence.  He  had  never  been  ac- 
counted very  learned  :  he  had  not  used  Latin  much,  he 
told  them,  these  twenty  years,  and  Avas  not  able  to  dis- 
pute; but  he  would  declare  his  faith,  and  then  they 
might  do  as  they  pleased.  He  declared  that  he  thought 
the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament  to  be  only  spir- 
itual; "he  enlarged  much  against  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass,  and  lamented  that  they  had  changed  the  com- 
munion into  a  private  mass;  that  they  had  taken  the 
cup  away  from  the  people ;  and,  instead  of  service  in  a 
known  tongue,  were  bringing  the  nation  to  a  worshiji 
that  they  did  not  understand"  (Burnet,  Re furmation,  vol. 
ii).  He  was  laughed  at,  and  told  to  answer  their  argu- 
ments; he  reminded  them  that  he  was  old,  and  that  his 
memory  had  failed;  the  laughter,  however,  continued, 
and  there  was  great  disorder,  perpetual  shoutings,  taunt- 
ings,  and  reproaches.  When  he  was  asked  whether  he 
would  abjure  his  principles,  he  only  answered,  "I  thank 
God  most  heartil}'  that  he  hath  prolonged  my  life  to  tliis 
end,  that  I  may  in  this  case  glorify  God  with  this  kind 
of  death."  He  was  found  guilty  of  heresj'  and  sentenced 
to  death,  but  the  Romanists,  to  make  sure  that  no  claims 
for  the  irregularity  of  the  trial  shoidd  be  charged  upon 
them,  set  aside  the  sentence  which  had  been  passed 
at  the  first  trial,  and,  by  direction  of  cardinal  Pole,  an- 
other commission,  consistmg  of  Brookes,  bishop  of  Glou- 
cester; Ilolyman,  bishop  of  Bristol;  and  White,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  was  convened  on  the  7th  of  September,  under 
the  altar  of  St.  Mary's  Church  at  Oxford,  and  the  three 
"arch  heretics" given  a  second  hearing  and  condemned. 
Latimer  was  the  last  introduced.  He  was  now  eighty 
years  old,  "  dressed  in  an  old  threadbare  gown  of  Bristol 
frieze,  a  handkerchief  on  his  head  with  a  night-cap  over 
it,  and  over  that  again  another  cap,  with  two  broad  Haps 
buttoned  under  the  chin.  A  leather  belt  was  round  his 
waist,  to  which  a  Testament  was  attached ;  his  specta- 
cles, without  a  case,  hung  from  his  neck.  So  stood  the 
greatest  man,  perhaps,  then  living  in  the  world,  a  pris- 
oner on  his  trial,  waiting  to  be  condemned  to  dcatli  by 
men  professing  to  be  ministers  of  God.  .  .  .  Latimer's 
trial  was  the  counterpart  of  Ridley's  (see  Froude,  vi,  356 
sq.) ;  the  charge  was  the  same  (on  the  sacrament),  and 
the  result  was  the  same,  except  that  the  stronger  intel- 
lect vexed  itself  less  with  nice  distinctions.  Bread  was 
bread,  said  Latimer,  and  wine  was  wine ;  there  was  a 
change  in  the  sacrament,  it  was  tnie,  but  the  change 
was  not  in  the  nature,  but  the  dignity"  (Froude,  vi,  359 
sq.).  Every  effort  was  made  to  induce  a  recantation, 
but  Latimer,  like  Ridley,  remained  lirm,  and  sentence 
was  pronounced  ii]ion  them  as  heretics  obstinate  and  in- 
curable, and  on  the  16th  of  October,  1555,  both  Latimer 
and  Ridley  were  led  to  the  stake  and  burnt,  outside  the 
north  wall  of  the  town,  a  short  stone's  throw  from  the 
southward  corner  of  Baliol  College,  and  about  the  same 
distance  from  Brocardo  prison,  where  Cranmer  still  lin- 
gered. The  last  words  of  Latimer  were  addressed  to 
his  companion,  and  are  characteristic  of  our  subject : 
"Be  of  good  comfort,  master  Ridley,  and  play  the  man  : 
we  shall  this  day  light  such  a  candle,  by  God's  grace,  in 
England,  as  1  trust  shall  never  be  put  out."  Gunpow- 
der had  been  fastened  about  his  body  to  hasten  his 
death ;  it  took  fire  with  the  first  flame,  and  he  died  im- 
mediately. 

Latimer's  character,  which  has  been  treated  most 
beautifully  by  the  late  Rev.  E.  Thomson,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  in 
his  S/cetches,  Biographical  and  Incidental  (Cine.  1856),  p. 
42  sq.,  seems  to  us  to  present  a  combination  of  many 
noble  and  disinterested  qualities.  "  He  was  brave,  hon- 
est, devoted,  and  energetic,  homely  and  popular,  yet 
free  from  all  violence ;  a  martyr  and  hero,  yet  a  plain, 
simple-hearted,  and  unpretending  man  ;  an  earnest, 
hopeful,  and  happj^  man,  fearless,  open-hearted,  hating 
UQthing  but  baseness,  and  fearing  none  but  God — not 
throwing  away  his  life,  yet  not  counting  it  dear  when 
the  great  crisis  came  —  calmly  yieliiing  it  up  as  the 
crown  of  his  long  sacrifice  and  strugi^le.  There  may  be 
other  reformers  that  more  engage  our  admiration,  there 


is  no  one  that  more  excites  our  love"  (TuUoch,  Leaders 
of  the  Ref.  p.  322-324).  Latimer's  sermons,  character- 
ized by  humor  and  cheerfulness,  manly  sense  and  direct 
evangelical  fervor,  were  first  printed  collectively  in  1549, 
8vo,  and  in  1570,  4to;  one  of  the  best  editions,  with 
notes  and  a  memoir,  was  prepared  by  John  AVatkins, 
LL.D.  (Lond.  1824,  2  vols.  8vo).  A  complete  edition  of 
his  Works  (the  only  complete  one)  was  edited  for  the 
Parker  Society  by  the  Rev.  G.  E.  Corrie  (Cambr.  1844-5, 
4  vols.  8vo).  See  Gilpin,  Life  of  Latimer  (1755,  8vo); 
Fox,  Book  of  Martijrs ,-  Mkldleton,  Mem.  of  the  Reform- 
ers, iii,  101  sq. ;  TuUoch,  Leaders  of  the  Reformation,  p. 
245  sq. ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.vi,  551  sq. ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of 
the  Reformation  (see  Index) ;  CoUier,  Eccles.  Hist,  (see 
Index) ;  Froude,  Hist,  of  Engl.  vol.  i-vi  (see  Index  in  vol. 
xii) ;  Engl.  Ci/clop.  s.v.;  Blachcood's  Maq.  Ixix,  131  sq. ; 
Lond.  Retr.  Rev.  1822,  vi,  272  sq.     (,J.*H.  W.) 

Latimer,  William,  an  English  humanist  of  the 
15th  century,  became  in  1489  a  fellow  of  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford.     He  studied  theology  in  that  university, 
and  afterwards  Greek  at  Padua,  and  subsequently  be- 
came teacher  to  Reginald  Pole.   He  was  a  friend  of  Eras- 
mus, and  even  assisted  him  in  preparing  his  second  edi- 
I  tion  of  the  N.  T.     He  died  about  1545.     Erasmus  and 
j  Leland  both  speak  of  Latimer  in  high  terms  as  a  writer 
I  and  scholar.     Unfortunately,  however,  he  never  pub- 
lished any  of  his  writings,  and  there  remain  in  ]\IS.  form 
only  a  few  of  his  letters  to  Erasmus.     See  Hallam,  Lit. 
Hist,  of  Europe  (Lond.  1854),  i,  232,  271. 

Latin  ('Pw^uaVKoc,  Roman,  Luke  xxiii,  38 ;  'Pw/m- 
iari,  in  Roman,  John  xix,  20),  the  vernacular  language 
of  the  Romans,  although  most  of  them  in  the  time  of 
Christ  likewise  spoke  Greek.  See  the  monographs  on 
the  subject  cited  by  Yolbeding,  Index,  p.  135.    See  Lat- 

INISMS. 

LATIN,  Use  of,  in  the  Administration  of  the 
Sacrasients.  The  words  of  St.  Augustine  against  hea- 
then Rome  in  De  civitate  Dei,  xix,  7,  "  Opera  data  est, 
ut  imperiosa  civitas  non  solum  jugum  sed  etiam  linguam 
suam  domitis  gentibus  imponeret,"  may  be  justly  ap- 
plied to  modern  Christian  Rome.  By  imposing  its  lan- 
guage on  all  nations  acknowledging  its  sovereignty  it 
has  obtained  also  the  mastery  over  their  spiritual  life. 
Benedict  XIV,  indeed,  nobly  declared,  "  Ut  ornnes  ca- 
tholici  sint,  non  ut  omnes  Latini  ijant,  necessarium  est." 
But  this  principle  of  true,  ancient  catholicity  resulted 
only  in  some  useless  concessions  on  unimportant  points, 
for  Roman  Catholicism  early  found  that  it  cannot  af- 
ford to  dispense  with  the  use  of  Latin  and  adopt  the 
vulgar  tongues;  that  it  would  thereby  endanger  the 
consolidation  of  the  Church's  power — yea,  its  very  ex- 
istence. Tliat  the  Latin  language  was  originally  used 
in  the  public  worship  of  the  Romish  adherents,  in 
countries  where  Latin  was  the  popidar  language,  can- 
not be  a  matter  of  surprise  or  condemnation,  nor  that 
the  clergy  should  have  continued  to  use  it  in  Chris- 
tianizing the  nations  who  became  subjects  to  Rome, 
even  after  its  use  had  become  obsolete  in  Rome  itself. 
Of  course  there  is  everj-  reason  to  believe  that  in  the 
earliest  stages  the  ecclesiastical  language  of  the  Greek- 
speaking  Roman  Church  was  Greek,  and  continued  such 
till  the  transfer  of  the  empire  to  Byzantium  (Forbes, 
Explan.  XXXIX  A  rt.  ii,  430),  and  that,  indeed,  all  the 
early  churches  followed  the  practice  of  the  apostles,  to 
whom  the  use  of  a  foreign  language  was  repugnant 
(compare  1  Cor.  xiv,  19 ;  ibid.  IC).  and  made  use  of  their 
own  vernacular,  as  in  the  introduction  of  the  Gospel  to 
India,  Parthia.  and  other  regions.  But  the  use  of  the 
Latin  tongue  b)'  tlic  Romish  Church  was  in  its  early 
period  admissible,  when  we  consider  that  it  was  only 
the  Church  that  had  it  in  its  pov.cr,  at  a  time  when  the 
influence  of  the  infant  modern  languages  was  derogatory 
to  tlie  Latin,  to  maintain  the  ancient  language  in  com- 
parative purity,  and  to  preserve  to  us  its  most  noble  mon- 
uments. Indeed,  as  Hill  (English  Monasticism,  p.  325) 
has  well  said,  "  had  it  not  been  adopted  by  the  Church, 


LATIN 


262 


LATIN 


then,  for  some  centuries,  while  the  new  tongues  were 
gradually  developing  themselves  and  settling  into  a 
form,  the  world  would  have  been  dark  indeed;  not  a 
book,  not  a  page,  not  a  syllable  would  have  reached  us 
of  the  thought,  the  life,  or  the  events  of  that  period. 
From  the  4th  to  the  7th  century  there  woidd  have  been 
an  impenetrable  gap  in  the  annals  of  humanity — tlie 
voice  of  history  would  have  been  hushed  into  a  dead 
silence,  and  the  light  of  the  past,  which  beacons  the  fu- 
ture, woidd  have  been  extinguished  in  the  darkness  of  a 
universal  chaos."  Not  so  justifiable,  however,  -was  the 
conduct  of  the  Romish  Church  after  the  moderate  de- 
velopment of  the  modern  languages ;  and  we  see  an  in- 
clination, even  in  the  papal  chair,  to  revolutionize  eccle- 
siastical usage  in  this  respect  in  the  latter  half  of  the  9th 
century,  when  the  Slaves  became  converts  to  Christian- 
ity untler  the  labors  of  St.  Methodius,  and  introduced 
the  vernacular,  with  the  consent  and  approval  of  pope 
John  VIII  (comp.  Methodius,  Epist.  247,  to  Sfentopul- 
cher,  count  of  Moravia).  Gregory  VIII,  on  the  other 
hand,  quickly  undid  the  liberal  work  of  John  VlII,  and 
was  loud  in  his  denunciations  of  the  use  of  any  but  the 
Latin  language  in  Christian  religious  worship.  Never- 
theless, there  have  been  many  exceptions  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  Bohemian  Church  early  manifested 
a  desire  to  use  the  vernacular;  and,  although  Gregory 
VII  had  stringently  insisted  on  the  use  of  the  Latin, 
they  succeeded  at  the  Council  of  Basle  (1431)  in  the  pas- 
sage of  an  act  tolerating  the  vernaciUar  in  the  churches 
of  Bohemia. 

The  Reformation  of  the  16th  century  first  awoke  a 
general  desire  for  the  use  of  the  vernacular ,  France  and 
Germany  were  particularly  determined  to  secure  tliis 
privilege.  The  Council  of  Trent,  which  was  approached 
on  this  subject,  however,  onl}'  so  far  regarded  the  de- 
mauds  of  Catharine  de  Medicis  and  the  emperor  Ferdi- 
nand on  this  point  as  to  reaffirm  the  existing  rides  in 
the  mildest  possible  terms,  so  as  not  to  offend  them 
(Sessio  xxii,  cap.  8:  "Etsi  missa  magnam  contineat 
populi  fidelis  eruditionem,  non  tamen  expedire  visum 
est  patribus,  ut  [missa]  vulgari  lingua  passim  celebra- 
retur").  It  only  anathematizes  those  who  claim  that 
mass  is  to  be  exclusively  celebrated  in  the  vernacular: 
"  Si  quis  dixerit,  lingua  tantum  vulgari  missam  celebrari 
debere,  anathema  sit"  (/.  c.  canon  9).  Yet,  in  order  to 
appear  to  make  some  concession  to  the  requirements  of 
the  times,  the  synod  decided  (/.  c.  cap.  8),  "Ne  oves 
Christ!  esurlant,  neve  parvuli  panem  petant,  et  non  sit 
qui  frangat  eis,  mandat  S.  synodus  pastoribus  et  singulis 
curam  anlmarum  gerentibus,  ut  frequenter  inter  missa- 
rum  celebrationem  vel  per  se  vel  per  alios  ex  iis,  quaj  in 
missa  leguntur,  aliquid  exponant,  atque  inter  cetera 
sanctissimi  hujus  sacriticii  mysterium  aliquod  declarent, 
diebus  prajsertim  dominicis  et  festis,"  by  which  they 
acknowledged,  perhaps  more  than  they  intended  to  do, 
the  necessity  of  making  an  allowance  for  the  desire  of 
having  the  Scriptures  explained  in  the  vernacular.  The 
reasons  given  by  the  Council  of  Trent  for  its  determina- 
tion to  continue  the  use  of  Latin  as  the  language  of  the 
Church  (given  by  Goschl  in  his  Gfsc/iichllicke  Barsfd- 
lunr/  (/.  Cone.  V.  Trident.  1840,  part  ii,  p.  135)  are  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  That,  in  consequence  of  tlie  changes  to  which 
modern  languages  are  liable,  the  terms  of  worship  might 
be  altered,  and  also  the  ideas  connected  with  them,  thus 
giving  rise  to  heresies.  2.  If  mass  were  to  be  said  in 
the  vernacular,  then  the  greater  number  of  the  priests 
would  be  unable  to  say  mass  in  other  than  their  native 
countries,  as  they  would  bo  obliged  to  say  mass  in  a  dif- 
ferent language  in  every  country.  3.  The  holy  myster- 
ies, of  which  mass  is  the  most  important,  shoidd  not  be 
presented  to  the  masses  in  their  own  language,  as,  from 
their  inability  to  understand  their  mysterious  -import, 
occasion  might  thus  arise  for  nii)deni  heretics  to  profane 
these  mysteries  in  tlie  vernacular.  All  the'  other  rea- 
sons which  have  at  various  times  been  advanced  in  de- 
fence of  the  custom  by  I\oman  Catholic  writers  are  but 
variations  on  the  above  (comp.  Forbes,  Explanation  of 


the  Thirty-nim  Articles,  ii,  434;  Adolphus,  Compendium 
Theolof/icum,  p.  420). 

BeUarmine  (in  his  Works,  iii,  119)  attempts  to  com- 
plete and  comment  on  these  grounds.  1.  He  says  "  the 
Latin  Church  has  always  admmistered  the  sacraments 
in  Latin,  although  this  language  had  long  since  ceased 
to  be  the  common  language  of  the  people."  This  is  ad- 
mitting that  circumstances  are  changed,  but  asserting,  at 
the  same  time,  that  it  is  to  be  retained  simply  from  halj- 
it.  Bellarmine  then  attempts  to  prove  its  reasonable- 
ness. He  says :  "  There  is  no  pressing  motive  why  the 
sacraments  should  be  administered  in  the  vernacular, 
while  there  arc  many  objections  to  it ;  for  there  is  no 
necessity  that  those  who  receive  the  sacraments  shoidd 
understand  the  words  which  accompany  them ;  for  the 
words  are  addressed  either  to  the  elements,  as  in  the 
eucharist,  the  blessing  of  holy  water,  oil,  etc.,  and  these 
understand  no  language ;  or  else  they  are  addressed  to 
God,  and  he  understands  them  all;  or,  again,  they  are 
addressed  to  persons  who  are  to  be  consecrated  or  ab- 
solved, not  instructed  or  editied,  as  in  the  sacraments  of 
baptism  and  absolution ;  hence  it  is  at  best  a  matter  of 
indifterence  to  tlie  person  concerned  whether  he  under- 
stood the  words  or  not;  it  is  further  proved  that  persons 
deprived  of  reason  can  nevertheless  receive  baptism  arid 
the  sacrament  of  reconciliatio,  which  is  seen  in  the  bap- 
tism of  new-born  infants  and  the  reconciliatio  of  sick 
persons  when  in  an  unconscious  state."  Yet  Bellarmine 
himself,  perceiving  the  difficulties  of  the  position  he  had 
assumed,  adds :  "  There  are,  moreover,  hardly  such  gross- 
ly ignorant  persons  in  the  Latin  Church  as  not  to  know 
in  general,  by  the  words  which  accompany  it,  which  of 
the  sacraments  is  being  administered  to  them."  Grant- 
ing this,  we  cannot  understand,  then,  in  what  manner 
the  use  of  Latin  is  to  prevent  the  profanation  of  the  sac- 
raments as  set  forth  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  Among 
the  objections  to  the  use  of  modern  languages,  we  tind 
that  '•  the  free  intercourse  between  the  difterent  church- 
es, which  they  need  as  members  of  one  body,  is  rendered 
by  it  much  more  difficult.  I\Ioreover,  Christians  leav- 
ing their  native  country  would  thus  be  obliged  to  de- 
prive themselves  from  attending  the  divina  officia." 
This  is  taking  for  granted  that  all  Christians  under- 
stand Latin ;  for,  unless  they  do,  it  would  become  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference  to  them  whether  they  heard  mass  in 
that  or  another  foreign  language.  "  2.  The  sacraments 
should  always  be  attended  by  a  certain  majesty  and  in- 
spiring solemnity,  which  can  be  better  preserved  by  not 
using  their  usual  language.  If  it  is  granted  that  in 
public  worship  we  should  use  special  buildings,  special 
costumes,  special  forms,  etc.,  there  cannot  be  any  objec- 
tion against  the  propriety  of  using  also  a  different  lan- 
guage; not  that  Latin  is  in  itself  a  more  sacred  lan- 
guage than  another,  but  because  it  is  better  calculated 
to  produce  a  feeling  of  reverence  than  the  common 
tongue.  3.  It  is  right  that  the  sacramental  words  shoidd 
always  be  presented  to  all  the  people  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  under  the  same  form,  to  avoid  the  danger  of 
changes  and  alterations.  This  is  the  more  easily  ac- 
complished by  making  all  priests  use  the  same  lan- 
guage." Yet  this  does  not  always  avoid  the  danger,  for 
there  have  been  instances  of  priests  administering  bap- 
tism ''in  nomine  patria,  tilia  et  spiritua  sancta."  4. ''  By 
administering  the  sacraments  in  the  vernacular  a  wide 
door  would  be  opened  to  ignorance,  for  the  priests  would 
at  last  consider  themselves  fully  qualified  if  they  knew 
how  to  read.  Latin  would  be  totally  forgotten,  and  they 
would  be  unable  to  read  the  fathers  and  even  tlie  Scrip- 
tures." Here  we  see  another  instance  of  the  arroj;ance 
of  the  hierarchy,  surpassing  that  of  heathen  Home, 
which,  if  it  compelled  subjected  nations  to  adopt  ifs  lan- 
guage, did  not,  at  least,  prevent  them  from  understand- 
ing it.  Christian  Rome  seems,  indeed,  to  be  imbued 
with  the  idea  that  mankind  praise  and  value  most  what 
they  do  nof  understand. 

Towards  tlie  close  of  the  IStli  century  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  rJth,  efforts  were  again  made,  especially  in 


LATINISMS 


2G3 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


Germany,  to  have  mass  said  in  the  vernacular  (see  ISIar- 
heinecke,  Si/siem  d.  Katholicismus,  iii,  397),  but  in  vain. 
The  increase  of  uUramontanisni  rendered  all  efforts  un- 
availing. Hirscher,  in  his  Missm  genuinum  notionem 
eniere,  etc.,  tentavit  Uiisclier  (Tubing.  1821),  thus  clearly 
expressed  the  general  aspiration  (p.  t)9) :  "  Vituperamus 
igitur  hunc  externe  in  cultu  nostro  linguie  usum  pro  viri- 
bus  nostris,  atque  si  unquam  eucharistiie  celebrationi 
vitam  redire  velimus,  eliminandum  esse  atijue  proscri- 
bendum  statuimus.  Et  sane,  si  liturgia  Latina  inter  nos 
Gcrmanos  non  existeret,  nemo  profecto  popuhmi  aUqueni 
universum  lingua  uti  vel  duci  velle,  qua  Deum  adoret, 
sibi  i)enitus  ignota  admitteret  possibilitatem.  Incora- 
prehensibile  revera  istud  omnibus  debet  viileri.qui  cunc- 
ta  ad  sanre  rationis  normam  solcnt  metiri,  et  nihil  nisi 
quod  ffiditicat  atl  cultum  admittere."  Here  Hirscher 
quotes  the  v.'ords  of  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  xiv,  1-20,  and  con- 
tinues :  "  Apostolus  hoc  loco  ne  de  ordinario  quldem  lin- 
gure  exter£B  in  ecclesia  usu  sed  de  extraordinario  aliquo 
loquitur,  quem  argumentis  ex  visceribus  rei  petitis  im- 
pugnat.  Quanto  magis  igitur  principiis  suis  inhaerens 
ordinarium  ab  ipsis  mysferiorum  ministris  et  universi 
cultus  ducibus  debuit  corripere?"  He  then  goes  on  to 
prove  that  the  use  of  Latin  in  the  mass  is  in  contradic- 
tion with  the  object  of  this  part  of  worship,  which  re- 
quires "  sacerdotem  inter  ct  populnm  actionem,  cele- 
brantis  et  populi  communionem"  (p.  70-71).  These 
views,  however,  he  afterwards  withdrew,  on  being  ad- 
monished by  superior  authorities.  Komanism  cannot 
admit  any  real  communion  between  the  priest  and  the 
people  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and  Hirscher  had  in 
this  respect  gone  farther  than  his  Church  would  allow 
him.  It  is  remarkable  that  all  such  efforts  were  always 
connected  with  more  extended  theological  views,  name- 
ly, with  the  rejection  of  the  atoning  character  of  mass. 

As  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  unfolded,  so  did 
the  necessity  of  administering  the  sacraments  in  the 
vernacular.  Yet  Latin  was  not  at  once  set  aside,  and 
there  are  yet  extant  a  numljer  of  Lutheran  liturgies  of 
the  second  half  of  the  IGth  centurj-  in  which  that  lan- 
guage is  extensively  used. 

In  the  English  Church,  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Re- 
formers was  in  behalf  of  the  use  of  the  vernacular  in  re- 
ligious service,  and  the  twenty-fourth  of  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  treats  "  of  speaking  in  the  congregation  in 
such  a  tongue  as  the  people  understandeth."  The  arti- 
cle reads  thus:  "It  is  a  thing  plainly  repugnant  to  the 
Word  of  God,  and  the  custom  of  the  primitive  Church, 
to  have  public  prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the 
sacraments  in  a  tongue  not  understanded  of  the  people." 

See  Herzog,  Real-Enq/Jdopddie,  viii,  208 ;  Fuhrmann, 
Handwdrtei-huch  d.  Kircheni/e.fcJi.  n,(ilO  sq.;  SchriJckh, 
Kirchenr/escfi.  xx,  153  sq. ;  xxi,  418  sq.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Latinisms.  This  word,  which  properly  signifies 
idioms  or  phraseology  peculim-  to  the  Latin  tongue,  is  ex- 
tended by  Biblical  critics  so  as  to  include  also  the  Latin 
words  occurring  in  the  Greek  Testament.  It  is  but  rea- 
sonable to  expect  the  existence  of  Latinisms  in  the  lan- 
guage of  every  country  subdued  by  the  Romans.  See 
EoME.  The  introduction  of  their  civil  and  military 
officers,  of  settlers,  and  merchants,  would  naturally  be 
followed  b}^  an  infusion  of  Roman  terms,  etc.,  into  the 
language  of  their  new  subjects.  There  would  be  many 
new  things  made  known  to  some  of  them  for  which  they 
could  find  no  corresponding  word  in  their  own  tongues. 
The  circumstance  that  the  proceedings,  in  courts  of  law 
were,  in  ev3ry  part  of  the  Roman  empire,  conducted  in 
the  Latin  language,  would  necessarily  cause  the  intro- 
duction of  many  Roman  words  into  the  department  of 
law,  as  might  be  amply  illustrated  from  the  present  state 
of  the  juridical  language  in  ev^ery  country  once  subject 
to  the  Romans,  and  even  in  our  own.  Valerius  Maxi- 
mus  (ii,  2,  2),  indeed,  records  the  tenacity  of  the  an- 
cient Romans  for  their  language  in  their  intercourse 
•»vith  the  (jreeks,  and  their  strenuous  endeavors  to  prop- 
agate it  through  all  their  dominions.  The  Latinisms  in 
the  New  Testament  are  of  four  kinds. 


1.  L^athi  Words  in  Greelc  Characters. — The  following 
are  instances  (see  Tregelles  in  Home's  Ititrod.  iv,  15): 
'Affdapioj', "  farthing,''  from  the  Latin  assaiius  (Matt. 
X,  29).  This  word  is  used  likewise  by  Plutarch,  Diony- 
sius  of  Halicarnassus,  and  Athenajus,  as  may  be  seen  in 
Wetstein,  ad  loA  SccAssarium.  Kfjvffoc,  census  (Matt. 
xvii,  25);  Kivrvpior,  centurio  (Mark  xv,  39),  etc.;  \t- 
jHov,  legio,  "legion"  (Matt,  xxvi,  53).  Polybius  (B.C. 
150)  has  also  adopted  the  Roman  militarj'  terms  (vi,  17) 
161G.  ^TTiKovXc'iTwp,  specidator,  "  a  spy,"  from  sjjeculor, 
"  to  look  about,"  or,  as  Walil  and  Schleusner  think,  from 
spiculum,  the  weapon  carried  b}'  the  speculator.  The 
word  describes  the  emperor's  life-guards,  who,  among 
other  duties,  punished  the  condemned ;  hence  "  an  exe- 
cutioner" (Mark  vi,  27),  margin,  "one  of  his  guard" 
(comp.  Tacitus,  Hist,  i,  25  ;  Josephus,  War,  i,  33, 7  ;  Sen- 
eca, De  Ira,  i,  IG).  M  ukiWov,  from  macellum,  "  a  mar- 
ket-place for  flesh"  (1  Cor.  x,  25).  As  Corinth  was  now 
a  Roman  colony,  it  is  onlj^  consistent  to  find  tliat  the  in- 
habitants had  adopted  this  name  for  their  public  mar- 
ket, and  that  I'aul,  writing  to  them,  should  employ  it. 
Mi'Aioi',  "a  mile"  (IMatt.  v, 41).  This  word  is  also  used 
by  Polybius  (xxxiv,  11,8)  and  Strabo  (v,332), 

2.  I^atin  Senses  of  Greek  Words:  as  Kopnoc  (Rom. 
XV,  28),  "  fruit,"  where  it  seems  to  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  emolumentum,  "  gain  upon  money  lent,"  etc. ;  tTtaivoQ, 
"praise,"  in  the  juridical  sense  of  elogium,  a  testimonial 
either  of  honor  or  reproach  (1  Cor.  iv,  5). 

3.  Those  forms  of  speech  which  are  proper!}'  called 
Latinisms:  as  fSovXopii'og  -(p  uxX(ij  to  ikcivoj'  Troiiitrai, 
"  willing  to  content  the  people"  (Mark  xv,  15),  which 
corresponds  to  the  phrase  sntisfacere  alicui;  XajSiiv  to 
'iKavbif  Trapa,  "  to  take  security  of,"  satis  accipere  ah 
(Acts  xvii,  9) ;  ^oq  ipyaaiav,"  grve,  diligence,"  fZa  op- 
erain  (Luke  xii,  58) — the  phrase  7-emitiere  ad  aliumju- 
dicem  is  retained  in  Luke  xxiii,  15;  crv  <j\pei,  "see  thou 
to  that,"  tu  vide7-is  (JIatt.  xxvii,  4)  (Aricler, Heinieneut. 
Biblica,yiennx,  1813,  p.  99 ;  Michaelis,  Introd.  to  the  Neio 
Test,  by  Marsh,  Camb.  1793,  vol.  i,  pt.  i,  p.  163  sq. }. 

4.  Latin  Terminations  in  Greek,  Gentile,  and  patro- 
nymic nouns:  e.  g.  'HipwciavvQ  (Matt,  xxii,  16)  and 
XpiCTTtni'dc  (Acts  xi,  26,  etc.)  (Winer,  New  Test.  Gram. 
ed.  Andover,  1869,  p.  95). 

The  importance  of  the  Latinisms  in  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment consists  in  this,  that,  as  we  have  partly  shown  (and 
the  proof  might  be  much  extended),  they  are  to  be  found 
in  the  best  (jreek  writers  of  the  same  era.  Their  occur- 
rence, therefore,  in  the  New  Testament  adds  one  thread 
more  to  that  complication  of  probabilities  with  which 
the  Christian  history  is  attended.  Had  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment been  free  from  them,  the  objection,  though  recon- 
dite, would  have  been  strong.  At  the  same  time,  the 
subject  is  intricate,  and  admits  of  much  discussion. 
Dr.  Marsh  disputes  some  of  the  instances  adduced  by 
Michaelis  (id  sup.  p.  431  sq.).  Dresigius  even  contends 
that  there  are  no  Latinisms  in  the  New  Testament  {iJe 
Latinismis,  Lips.  1726;  and  see  his  Vindidce  Lisscrla- 
tionis  de  Latinismis).  Even  Aricler  allows  that  some 
instances  adduced  by  him  may  have  a  purely  Greek  or- 
igin. Truth,  as  usual,  lies  in  the  middle,  and  there  are, 
no  doubt,  many  irrefragable  instances  of  Latinisms, 
which  will  amply  repay  thf  attention  of  the  student. — 
Kitto,  s.  v.  See  Georgii  Jlierocrit.  de  Latinismis  Nori 
Test.  (Wittemberg,  1733) ;  Kypke,  Observat.  Sac?:  ii,  219 
(Wratisl.  1755);  Pritii  Introductio  in  Lect.  Kov.  Test. -p. 
207  sq.  ( Leipz.  1722) ;  A^'etterburg,  Be  vocibus  Ixttinis  in 
N.  T.  obriis  (Lund.  1792):  Fougberg,  Z^e  Latinismis  in 
N.  T.  (Upsal.  1798);  Kapp,Z)e  N.  T.  Latinismis  (Lipsiae, 
1726) ,  Wernsdorf,  De  Christo  Latine  loquente, p.  19 ;  Jahn, 
A  rchir.  II,  iv,  Qlearius,  De  Stylo  Nov.  Test.  p.  368  sq.; 
Inchofer,  Sacroi  Latinitatis  Ilistoria  (Prag.  1742).  See 
New  Testament. 

Latin  Versions  oi-^  the  Holy  Scriptires. — The 
extensive  use  of  the  Latin  as  a  learned  language,  and 
the  great  influence  which  the  translations  in  it  have  had 
upon  all  subsequent  versions,  render  them  highly  im- 
portant.    We  here  adopt  so  much  of  Dr.  Alexander's 


LATIX  VERSIONS 


264 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


article  in  Kitto's  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v.,  as  is  appropriate  to 
our  purposes. 

I.  Ante-llieronymian  Versions. — Tlie  early  and  ex- 
tensive diffusion  of  Christianity  amoufz;  the  Latin-speak- 
ing people  renders  it  probable  tliat  means  would  be  used 
to  supply  the  Christians  who  used  that  language  with 
versions  of  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue,  especial- 
ly those  resident  in  countries  where  the  Greek  language 
was  less  generally  known.  That  from  an  early  period 
such  means  were  used  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  the  in- 
formation which  has  reached  us  is  so  scanty,  that  we 
are  not  in  circumstances  to  arrive  at  certainty  on  many 
points  of  interest  connected  with  the  subject.  It  is  even 
matter  of  debate  whether  there  were  several  transla- 
tions, or  one  translation  variously  corrupted  or  emended. 

1.  The  lirst  writer  by  whom  reference  is  supposed  to 
be  made  to  a  Latin  version  is  Tertullian,  in  the  words 
"  Sciamus  plane  non  sic  esse  in  Grreco  authentico,  cjuo- 
modo  in  usum  exiit  per  duarum  syllabarum  aut  callidara 
aut  simplicem  eversionem,"  etc.  (/)e  JSlonorjamia,  c.  11). 
It  is  possible  that  Tertullian  has  in  view  here  a  version 
in  use  among  the  African  Christians ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  such  is  his  meaning,  for  he  may  re- 
fer merely  to  the  manner  in  which  the  passage  in  ques- 
tion had  come  to  be  usually  cited,  without  intending  to 
intimate  that  it  was  so  written  in  any  formal  version. 
The  probability  that  such  is  really  his  meaning  is  great- 
ly heightened  when  we  compare  his  language  here  with 
similar  expressions  in  other  parts  of  his  writings.  Thus, 
speaking  of  the  Logos,  he  says, "  Hanc  Grreci  Aoyov 
dicunt,  quo  vocabulo  etiam  sei-monem  appellamus.  Ide- 
oque  in  usu  est  nostrorum  per  simplicitatem  interpreta- 
tionis,  Sermonem,  dicere,  in  primordio  apud  Ueum  esse" 
(Adr.Prar.  c.  5),  where  he  seems  to  have  in  view  sim- 
ply the  colloquial  usage  of  his  Christian  compatriots 
(comp.  also  A  Jr.  Marc.  c.  4:  and  c.  9).  The  testimony 
of  Augustine  is  more  precise.  He  says  (De  Doct.  Christ. 
ii,  11) :  '"Qui  Scripturas  in  Hebmea  lingua  in  Grajcara 
verterunt  numerari  possunt,  Latini  autem  interpretes 
nuUo  modo.  U t  enim  cuiquam  primis  fidei  temporibus 
in  manus  venit  codex  Gra;cus  et  aliquantulum  facultatis 
sibi  utriusque  lingua?  Latine  videbatur,  ausus  est  inter- 
pretari."  A  few  sentences  before  he  speaks  of  the  "Lat- 
inorum  interpretum  intinita  varietas;"  and  he  proceeds 
to  give  instances  how  one  of  these  versions  elucidates 
another,  and  to  speak  of  the  defects  attaching  to  all  of 
them.  This  testimony  not  only  clearly  establishes  the 
fact  of  the  existence  of  Latin  versions  in  the  beginning 
of  the  4th  century,  but  goes  to  prove  that  these  were  nu- 
merous ;  for  that  Augustine  has  in  view  a  number  of  in- 
terpreters, and  not  merely  a  variety  of  recensions,  is  ev- 
ident from  his  statement  in  this  same  connection, "'In 
ipsis  interpretationibus  Itala  ceteris  praiferatur,  nam  est 
verborum  tenacior  cum  perspicuitate  sententire;"  and 
from  his  speaking  elsewhere  {Cont.  Fauslum,  ii,  2)  of 
"codices  aliarum  regionum."  On  the  other  hand,  the 
testimony  of  Hilary  is  in  favor  of  only  one  Latin  ver- 
sion :  "  Latina  translatio  dum  virtu  tem  dieti  ignorat 
magnam  intulit  obscuritatem,  non  discernens  ambigui 
sermonis  proprietatem"  {in  Psa.  cluiii).  On  the  same 
side  is  the  declaration  of  Jerome :  "  Si  Latinis  exempla- 
ribus  lidcs  est  adhibenda  respondebunt  Quibus?  tot  sunt 
enim  excmi)laria  pene  quot  "codices."  That  by  "  exem- 
plaria"  here  .Jerome  refers  to  what  would  now" be  called 
editions  or  recensions,  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  his 
8tatempiit,for  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  he  intends  to 
say  that  almost  every  codex  presented  a  distinct  trans- 
lation ;  and  this  is  rendered  still  more  so  by  what  follows  : 
"  Si  autem  Veritas  est  (pia-renda  de  pluribus,  cur  non  ad 
Gn-ecam  originem  revertentes  ea  qu:c  vcl  a  vitiosis  inter- 
prctibui  male  reddita,  vel  a  pr;esumpt(iribus  imjieritis 
cmendafa  perversius  vel  a  librariis  di)rinitantil)us  addita 
sunt  aut  mutata  corrigauius"  {Prwf.  in  Evuuijij.  Ad.  Da- 
mas.).  IClsewhere  {Prrrf.  in  Josnam)  lie  saj'S  also  : 
"Apud  Latinos  totexerai)laria  quot  codices  et  unusquis- 
que  pro  suo  arbitrio  vel  addidit  vel  suhtraxit  (juod  ei  vi- 
sum est ;"  where  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  bis  mean- 


ing. Jerome  frequently  uses  the  expression  communis 
or  vulf/ata  edi/io,  but  by  this  he  intends  the  Sept.,  or  the 
old  Latin  translation  of  the  Sept.  In  reference  to  the 
Latin  N.  T.  he  uses  the  expressions  Lutinus  interpres, 
Latiid  codices,  or  simply  in  Latino. 

The  statement  of  Augustine,  that  of  these  interpreta- 
tions the  Itala  was  preferred,  has  been  supposed  to  indi- 
cate decidedly  the  existence  of  several  national  Latin 
versions  known  to  him.  For  this  title  can  only  indicate 
a  translation  prepared  in  Italy,  or  used  by  the  Italian 
churches,  and  presupposes  the  existence  of  other  ver- 
sions, which  might  be  known  as  the  Africana,  the  His- 
2Kinica,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  Lf  there  was 
a  version  known  by  this  name,  it  seems  strange  that  it 
should  never  be  mentioned  again  by  Augustine  or  by 
any  one  else ;  and  further,  it  is  remarkable,  that  to  des- 
ignate an  Italian  version  he  should  use  the  word  ^'■Jtala" 
and  not  "  Jtcdica."  This  has  led  to  the  suspicion  that 
this  word  is  an  error,  and  different  conjectural  emenda- 
tions have  been  proposed.  Bentley  suggested  that  for 
itala  ....  nam  there  should  be  read  ilia  ....  qua,  a 
singularly  infelicitous  emendation,  as  Hug  has  shown 
(Inti-od.  E.  T.  p.  2G7).  As  Augustine  elsewhere  speaks 
of  "codicibus  ecclesiasticis  inteqiretationis  usitatte"  {De 
consensu  Evanej.  ii,  G6),  it  has  been  suggested  by  Potter 
that  for  Itala  should  be  read  usitata,  the  received  read- 
ing having  probably  arisen  from  the  omission,  in  the 
first  instance,  of  the  recurrent  syllable  us  between  inter- 
pretationibus and  usitata  (thus  IxxEiiPKEXATiosiBUSi- 
tata),  and  then  the  change  of  the  unmeaning  itata  into 
itala.  Of  this  emendation  many  have  approved,  and  if 
it  be  adopted,  the  testimony  of  Augustine  in  this  pas- 
sage, as  for  a  plurality  of  Latin  versions,  will  be  greatly 
enfeebled,  for  by  the  versio  usitata  he  would  doubtless 
intend  the  version  in  common  use  as  opposed  to  the  un- 
authorized interpretation  of  private  individuals.  As 
tending  to  confirm  this  view  of  his  meaning,  it  has  been 
observed  that  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  if  there 
was  an  acknowledged  rersio  Africana,  the  Christians 
in  Africa  would  be  found  preferring  to  that  a  version 
made  for  the  use  of  the  Italians.  A  new  suggestion  re- 
lating to  this  passage  has  been  offered  by  Keuss  {Gescli. 
d.  Schr.  d.  N.  7".  p.  436),  "Is  it  not  possible,"  he  asks, 
"  that  Augustine  may  refer,  in  this  passage  (written 
about  the  year  397),  to  a  work  of  Jerome,  viz.,  his  ver- 
sion of  Origen's  Hexapla,  which  Augustine,  in  one  of  his 
letters  {Ep.  xxviii,  torn,  ii,  p.  Gl)  to  Jerome  prefers  to  his 
making  a  new  translation  from  the  original?  At  any 
rate,"  he  adds, "it  is  remarkable  that  Isidore  of  Spain 
{Etymol.  vi,  5)  characterizes  the  translation  of  Jerome 
(the  last)  as  verborum  teneiciorem  et  perspicuitate  senten- 
tia  clariorem.  May  one  venture  to  suggest  that  he 
has  taken  this  phrase  from  Augustine,  regarding  him  as 
using  it  of  Jerome."  To  this,  however,  it  may  be  re- 
plied, that  whilst  it  is  not  improbable  that  Isidore  took 
the  passage  from  Augustine,  he  may  have  done  so  with- 
out regarding  Augustine's  words  as  referring  to  any 
work  of  Jerome.  That  they  do  so  refer  seems  to  us  very 
improbable. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  obtain  a  decision  for  this 
question  from  a  collation  of  the  extant  remains  of  the 
ancient  Latin  texts,  but  without  success.  Eichhom 
{Einleit.  ins.  N.  T.  iv,  387  sq.)  has  compared  several  pas- 
sages found  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Latin  fathers 
with  certain  extant  codices  of  the  early  Latin  text,  and, 
from  the  resemblance  which  these  bear  to  each  other, 
he  argues  that  they  have  all  been  taken  from  one  com- 
mon translation.  In  this  conclusion  many  scholars  have 
concurred  both  before  and  since  the  time  of  Eichhorn 
( Wetstein,  Ilody,  Semler,  Lachmann,  Tregclles,  Tischen- 
d(irf ),  but  others  have,  on  the  other  side,  pointed  to  se- 
rious differences  of  rendering,  which,  in  their  jiulgment, 
indicate  the  existence  of  distinct  translations  (JMichaelis, 
Hug,  De  Wctte,  Bleek,  etc.). 

As  the  evidence  stands,  it  seems  impossible  cither  to 
hold  to  the  existence  of  only  one  accredited  Latin  ver- 
sion before  the  time  of  Jerome,  the  corruption  of  which, 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


2G5 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


from  various  causes,  is  sufficient  to  account  for  all  the 
discrepancies  to  be  found  in  the  extant  remains,  or  to 
maintain  with  certainty  that  there  were  several  inde- 
pendent versions,  the  work  of  persons  in  different  parts 
of  the  Latin  Church.  There  is,  however,  a  third  sup- 
position which  may  be  advanced  :  There  may  at  an 
early  period,  and  probably  in  Africa,  have  been  made  a 
translation  of  the  Bible  from  the  Greek  into  Latin,  and 
this  may  have  formed  the  groundwork  of  other  transla- 
tions, intended  to  be  amended  versions  of  the  original. 
In  this  case  a  certain  fundamental  similarity  viould 
mark  all  these  translations  along  with  consiilerable  va- 
riety ;  but  this  variety  would  be  traceable,  not  to  unde- 
signed corruption,  but  to  purposed  attempts,  more  or 
less  skilfully  directed,  to  produce  a  more  adequate  ver- 
sion. This  supposition  meets  all  the  facts  of  the  case, 
and  so  far  has  high  probability  in  its  lavor.  I'roceed- 
ing  upon  it,  we  may  fiu'ther  suppose  that  these  different 
revised  or  amended  translations  might  have  their  origin 
in  different  parts  of  the  western  world ;  and  in  this  case 
the  meaning  of  Augustine's  statement  in  the  passage 
(J\inf.  Fausfum,  ii,  2)  where  he  speaks  of  "codices  ali- 
arum  regionum"  becomes  manifest.  In  this  case,  also, 
if  the  reading  Jtula  be  retained  (anil  most  critics  incline 
to  retain  it)  in  the  famous  passage  above  cited,  it  will 
indicate  the  revision  prepared  in  Italy  and  used  bj'  the 
Italian  churches,  of  which  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that 
it  Avould  be  both  more  exact  and  more  polished  than  the 
others,  and  with  which  Augustine  would  become  fa- 
miliar during  his  residence  in  Rome  and  Milan,  See 
Italic  Version. 

2.  Of  this  ancient  Latin  version  in  its  various  amend- 
ed forms,  all  of  which  it  has  become  customary  to  in- 
clude under  the  general  designation  Itala,  we  have  re- 
mains partly  in  the  citations  of  the  Latin  fathers,  part- 
ly in  the  Grajco-Latin  codices,  and  (jartly  in  special  M.SS. 
A  cojiious  collection  from  the  first  of  these  sources  (which 
yet  admits  of  being  augmented)  has  been  supplied  by 
Sahat ler,  Bibliorum  SS.Lutime  Vers,  untiqum  seu  ]'etus 
Itala,  etc.,  qucecunque  reperiri  potuerunt  (Kemis,  1743,3 
vols.  foL,  ed.  2, 1749).  For  the  Apocalypse  we  depend 
entireh'  on  this  source,  namely,  the  quotations  made  by 
Primasius.  The  GriBCO-Latin  codices  are  the  Canta- 
brulf/ian  or  Codex  Bezce,  the  Laudian,  the  Cluromontane, 
and  the  Boeinerian.  See  Maxl'SCRipts.  Of  the  known 
special  codices  containing  portions  of  the  N.T.,  the  fol- 
lowing have  been  printed  or  collated : 

1.  Cod.Vercellensifs,vir'Me\'\  apparently  by  Eusebius  the 
Martyr  in  the  4th  centni-y:  it  embraces  the  four  Gospels, 
though  with  frequent  larinuv.  It  is  mentioned  by  Mout- 
faucon  hi  his  Diariii.m  Italicttm,  p.  445;  and  it  has  been 
edited  by  Bianchinus  (Bianchiiii),  in  Evnnficiiarium  qvad- 
rvplcx  LutincD  vers,  aiitiq.  sen.  Vet.  Italiea',  etc.  (Rom.  1T4!>, 
4  vols,  fol.) ;  previously,  and  still  nmre  carefully,  by  J.  A. 
Irici,  .S'.s'.  Emngeliorii'in  Cod.  S.  Kunehii  mmm  exaratiis,  ex 
aiifdijrriplw  ad  unqtteni  exhibitu.t,  etc.  (Mediol.  1 T48, '.'  parts, 
4to).  In  this  codex  the  Gospels  are  arranjred  in  the  order 
Matthew,  John,  Luke  [Lncanus],  Mark.  As  a  specimen  of 
!he  style  of  this  code.x,  and  the  imperfect  state  in  which 
tsome  parts  of  it  are,  we  give  the  following  passage  (Joliu 
iv,  4S-52)  from  the  edition  of  Iiici: 


ait  ergo  ad  illy 

IHS  NISI  Sir: 

NA  F.T  PRODIG 
-  ■  VIDERITIS 

KOY - 

TIS  DICIT  ILLI 
REG  -  -  -  S  DME 


ET  IBAT  JAM  -  - . 
IPSO  DESCEN 
PRNTK  SERVI 

orrvRER- - 

ILI.l  ET  NVNT-- 
VERVNT  EI  -- 
CE.VTES  QVO 
NIAM  I'MLIVS 
TVVS  VIVIT 
INTER -'GA 
BAT  H".-- 


AIT--IHS-ADE 

Fll.tVS  TVVS 
VIVIT  ET  ORE 
DTDIT  HOMO 
VERBO  QVOD 
DIXIT  ILLI  IHS 


MKLIVS  HARVIT 
ET  DIXERVNT 
HERI  HORA  SEP 
TIMA  -  -  LIQVID 
ILLVM  FEBRIS. 

2.  Cod.  Veronenma,  a  MS.  of  the  4th  or  M\\  century,  in  the 
library  at  Verona,  containinc  the  Gospels,  but  with  many 
lacmire;  printed  by  Bianchini'. 

3.  Cod.  lirixionvft,  of  about  the  fith  rentuiT,  at  Brixen,  in 
the  Tyrol,  containing  the  Gospels,  with  the  exception  of 
some  parts  of  Mark;  printed  hv  Bianriiini. 

4.  Cod.Corbcijentiif!,  a  very  ancient  MS.,  from  which  Mar- 
tianay  edited  Matthew's  Gospel,  the  Epistle  of  James,  etc. 
CJPar.  16'J&).    The  gospel  appears  also  iu  Bianchiui's  work, 


atid  in  the  appendix  to  Calmet's  commentary  on  the  Apoc- 
iilyp.'-e.  Tliere  is  another  M.S.  of  the  old  Latin  text  al  Cor- 
liey,  from  which  various  readings  have  lieen  collected  on 
Matthew,  Mai  k,  and  Luke  by  Bianchini,  and  ou  ihe  four 
Gospels  (partially)  by  Sabatier. 

5.  Cod.  Colbertinus,  of  the  lltli  century,  in  the  Parisian 
library;  edited  entire  by  Sabatier. 

C.  Cod.  I'alatinns,  (if  the  5th  century,  iu  the  library  at  Vi- 
enna, containing  about  the  whole  of  Luke  and  Jolni,  and 
the  greater  part  of  ^Matthew  and  Mark;  edited  by  Tiech- 
endorf  (Leijiz.  1S4T,  4to). 

T.  Cod.Bohhienni.%  of  the  5th  century,  now  at  Turin,  for- 
merly in  the  inonasteiy  of  Bobbio,  containing  portions  of 
Matthew  and  Mark  ;  fragments  of  Acts  xxiii,  xxvii,  2S ; 
and  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  i,  1-5 ;  iii,  13-18;  iv,  1,2;  v, 
19,20;  1  Pet.  i,  1-12;  edited  by  Fleck,  iu  Anecdota  Sacra 
(Lips.  1S3T),  and  more  fully  by  Tischendorf,  iu  the  Wiener 
JahrbiicJier,  1847. 

8.  Cod.  Clarmontamis,  of  the  4th  or  5th  century,  now  in 
the  Vatican  library,  containing  the  fourGospels,"Matthe\v 
in  an  ante-hieronyraian  version  (wanting  i,  1-iii,  15;  xiv, 
33-xviii,  12),  the  other  three  according  to  the  Vulgate";  col- 
lated by  Sabatier,  edited  by  Mai,  ,S'cM;2>tor/-.  Vett.Aova  Col- 
lectio  a  Vatican,  eodd.  edita,  iii,  257  sq. 

9.  Fragments  of  Mark  and  Luke,  contained  iu  a  MS.  of 
about  the  5th  century,  belonging  to  the  imperial  library 
at  Vienna,  have  been  printed  by  Alter,  in  Paulus,  yir7«'(7oj-. 
f/'/r  Bibl.  vnd  Morrienluvd  Litter,  iii,  115-170,  and  in  Paulas, 
Memorabilien,  vii,  5S-!)C. 

10.  A  MS.  of  the  7th  centtir}',  now  at  Breslau,  contain- 
ing the  synoptic  Gospels,  with  lacunoe  and  part  of  John's 
Gospel ;  described  by  Dr.  D.  Schulz,  De  Cod.  4  Evangg.  Lih- 
lioth.  Rhedigeriance  (Bresl.  1814). 

11.  A  fragment  of  Luke  (xvii-xxi)  from  a  palimpsest  of 
the  Gth  century,  in  Cev\?ix\\,  Momimcnta  Sac.  ctProf.prce- 
sertini  Bibl.  Amlrrosianee  (Mil.  1861),  I,  i,  1-8. 

12.  Cardinal  Mai  has  given,  in  his  Spicilegium  Boma- 
nimi,  ix,  C1-8G,  various  readings  from  a  very  ancient  co- 
dex of  the  Spectdum  Aiigri.<ttini,  and  he  has  since  edited 
the  .^j^ecnhim  entire  iu  his  PP.  Xov.  Bibl. ;  comp.  Tregelles, 
p.  239. 

13, 14, 15.  In  the  monastery  of  St.  Gall  are  three  codices, 
the  tirst  of  the  4th  or  5th  century,  containing  fragments 
of  Matthew;  the  second  a  GallicMS.  of  the  7th  century, 
containing  Mark  xvi,  14-20;  tlie  third  an  Irish  MS.  of  the 
7th  or  8th  century,  containing  John  xi,  14-44. 

16.  Cod. Monacensis,  of  the  6th  century,  containing  the 
four  Gospels,  with  lacvna>;  transcribed  "by  Tischendorf. 

17.  A  fragment  containing  Matt,  xiii,  13-25,  on  purple 
vellum,  of  the  51h  century,  in  the  library  at  Dublin,  print- 
ed in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Ruyal  Irish  Acadevui,  iii,  37^ 
by  Dr.  Todd. 

IS.  Cod.  Guelferbijtamis,  of  the  Gth  century,  containing 
some  fragments  of  Rom.  xi,  15,  published  liy  Knittel  (q. 
V.)  in  17G2,  and  more  correctly  by  Tischendorf,  jljucdo?. 
Sac.  et  Prof.  p.  153. 

10.  Fragments  of  the  Pauline  epistles  discovered  by 
Schmeller  at  Munich,  and  transcribed  by  Tischendorf,  who 
has  described  them  in  the  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fiir  Christl. 
W7.s-.sc«.st/((//;  for  1857,  No.  8. 

Besides  these,  there  are  several  MSS.  known  to  exist 
chiefly  in  the  British  libraries.  Some  of  these  are  no- 
ticed in  Bentley's  Critica  Sacra,  edited  by  Ellis,  1802, 
and  in  ^\'cstwood's  Palwor/rapkia  Sacra  Picioria.  See 
also  Bctliam,  A  ntiquarian  Researches ;  Petrie,  On  the  Ec- 
clesiastical A  ntiq.  of  Ireland;  O'Connor,  liei-um  IJiljern, 
Scriptoix's. 

These  codices  pateographists  and  critics  profess  to 
be  able  to  allot  to  different  recensions  or  revisions.  Nos. 
1, 2, 4,  5,  7,  8,  9, 11, 13,  and  17  they  pronounce  to  be  Af- 
rican ;  3,  6,  12,  1(1,  Italian;  and  14,  1.5,  Irish;  though 
Tischendorf  expresses  doubt  as  to  the  African  character 
of  No.  9,  and  the  Italian  of  No.  6. 

Of  the  O.  T.  only  a  few  fragments  have  been  discov- 
ered in  special  codices.  These  have  been  printed  by 
Sabatier  (/(6.  «Y.),  by  YerceUone  (Varice  Lectiones  Vuly. 
Lat.  Bibllonim,  2  vols.,  Rom.  1860-62),  by  jNIiinter  ( J/w- 
cell.  Hofn.  1821),  by  Wone  (Lihri  Pulimpsesti,  Carlsrnhe, 
185.5),  by  Kanke  {Fragmenta  IIos.  Am.  JUich.Yicn.  1856, 
1858),  by  Fritzsche  (Liber  Judicum,  Turici,  1867),  and 
anonymously  {Biblioth.  A  shburnham.,  Lond.  1SG8).  The 
MSS.  of  the  Vulgate  preserve  the  old  Latin  version  of 
those  books  of  the  Apocrypha  which  were  not  retrans- 
lated by  Jerome,  and  the  Psalter.  Our  principal  source 
of  information,  however,  is  in  the  citations  made  bj'  the 
Latin  fathers  from  the  version  in  their  hands. 

From  these  various  sources  we  possess,  in  the  old  Lat- 
in version  of  the  O.  T..  the  Psalter,  Esther,  and  some  of 
the  apocryphal  books  entire,  the  rest  only  in  fragments; 
whilst  of  the  N.  T.  we  possess  nearly  the  whole. 

3.  The  value  of  these  remains  in  regard  to  the  criti- 


LATIN  YERSIOXS 


266 


LATIN  VERSIONS 


cism  of  the  sacred  text  is  verj'  considerable.  They  af- 
ford important  aid  in  determining  the  condition  of  the 
Greek  text  in  the  early  centuries.  This,  which  Bent- 
ley  was'  the  tirst  to  perceive,  or  at  least  to  announce, 
has  been  fully  recognised  by  Lachraann,  'I'regelles,  and 
Tischendorf,  though  they  have  not  all  followed  it  out 
with  equal  discretion  (see  Tischendorf 's  strictures,  Pro- 
leg,  in  eel.  Sept.  ef  X.  T.  p.  ciii,  ccxlii). 

Tlie  general  character  of  the  Itala  is  close,  literal  ad- 
herence to  the  original,  so  as  often  to  transgress  the 
genius  of  the  Latin  language;  its  phraseology  being 
marked  by  solecisms  and  improprieties  which  may  be 
due  to  its  having  been  originally  produced  either  in  a 
region  remote  from  the  centre  of  classical  ciUture,  or 
among  the  more  illiterate  of  the  community.  Thus 
Swrf/p  is  rendered  by  suli(turis,  cia(puptiv  by  siiperpo- 
nere  (e.g.  "quanto  ergo  supcrponit  homo  ab  ove,''Matt. 
xii,  12),  ■KpQtXmZiiv  by  prwspera re,  KorrpoKpuTopec  by 
munditenentes,  etc. ;  and  we  have  such  constructions  as 
"  stellam  quam  viderant  in  orientem"  (i\Xatt.  ii,  9) ;  "  ut 
ego  veniens  adorem  ei"  (Matt,  ii,  8) ;  "  qui  autem  audi- 
entes"  (ii,  9) ;  "  pressuris  quibus  sustinetis"  ("2  Thess.  i, 
4)  ;  "  habitavit  in  Capharnaum  maritimam"  (JIatt.  iv, 
13) ;  '•  terra  Naphthalim  viam  maris"  (iv,  15) ;  "  verbum 
audit  et  continuo  cum  gaudio  accipit  eum"  (xiii,  20) ; 
"dominantur  eorum,  principantur  eorum"  (xx,  25),  etc. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  current 
text  was  exposed  to  innumerable  corruptions,  and  that 
we  can  hardly,  from  the  specimens  that  have  come  down 
to  us,  form  ax\x  very  accurate  judgment  of  the  state  in 
which  it  was  at  first.  One  can  hardly  suppose  that  by 
any  Latin-speaking  people,  the  following  version,  which 
is  that  presented  by  the  Colbertine  IMS.  of  Col.  ii,  18, 19, 
could  have  been  accepted  as  idiomatic,  or  even  intelli- 
gible: "Nemo  vos  convincat  volens  in  humilitate  et  re- 
ligione  angelorum,  quiB  vidit  ambiUans,  sine  causa  infla- 
tus  sensu  carnis  suw,  et  non  tenens  caput  Christum,  ex 
quo  omne  corpus  connexum  et  conductione  subministra- 
tuni  et  provectum  crescit  in  increment um  Dei."  If  this 
be  (to  borrow  the  remark  of  Eichliorn,  from  whose  Ein- 
leitunrj  ins  N.  T.  iv,  354,  we  have  taken  these  specimens) 
'■verborum  tenax,"  where  is  the  '■  perspicuitas  senten- 
tiie"  of  which  Augustine  speaks  ? 

II.  Iliernnymiun  or  Vti/r/ate  Version.     See  Vltlg.vte. 

III.  Later  Latin  Versions. — Both  before  and  since  the 
invention  of  printing  attempts  have  been  made  to  pre- 
sent, through  the  medium  of  Latin,  a  more  correct  ver- 
sion of  the  original  text  than  that  found  in  the  ancient 
Latin  versions.  Of  these  we  have  space  only  for  a  bare 
catalogue.  (See  notices  of  the  authors  under  their  names 
in  this  work.) 

1.  Adam  Eston,  a  monk  of  Norwich,  and  cardinal 
(died  1397),  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  thought 
of  a  new  version ;  he  translated  the  O.  T.,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Psalter,  from  the  Hebrew;  his  work  is 
lost  (Hody,  p.  440;  Le  Long— Masch  ii,  3,  p.  432). 

'2.  (iiannozzo  ]Manetti,who  died  in  1459,  began  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  of  which  he  finished  only  the  Psalms 
and  the  N.  T. ;  this  is  lost  (Tiraboschi,  Storia  dtlla  Lett. 
Ital.  vi,  2,  p.  109  sq.). 

3.  Erasmus  translated  the  N.  Test.,  and  published  the 
translation  along  with  the  Greek  text  (Basil.  1510),  fob). 

4.  Til.  Beza  issued  his  translation  of  the  N.  T.  in  1 556 ; 
it  appeared  along  witli  the  Vulgate  version.  Four  other 
editions  Iblloweil  during  the  author's  lifetime,  and  these 
present  the  Greek  text  as  well  as  the  Vulgate  and  Be- 
za's  own  translation;  many  other  editions  have  since 
followed.  Beza  aimed  at  presenting  a  just  rendering  of 
the  original,  williout  departing  more  than  necessary 
from  the  Vulgate.  His  renderings  are  sometimes  af- 
fected by  his  theological  views. 

5.  Sanctcs  Pagninus,  a  learned  Dominican  from  Luc- 
ca, produced  a  translation  of  the-whole  Bible  ^(Lugdun. 
1528,  4to,  and  Colon.  1541,  fob).  Later  editions  of  this 
work,  with  considerable  alterations,  apjieared  :  one,  edited 
by  tlie  famous  Mich.  Servetus,  under  the  name  of  Villa- 
uo\anu3  (Lugd.  1542)  ;  another,  revised  and  edited  by 


E.  Stephen  (Paris,  1557,  2  vols,  folio;  with  a  new  title, 
1577).  This  latter  has  been  often  reprinted.  The  ver- 
sion of  Arias  Montanus,  printed  in  the  Antwerp,  I'aris, 
and  London  jjolj-glots,  is  a  revision  of  this  version. 

6.  Cardinal  Cajetan  employed  two  Hebrew  scholars, 
a  Jew  and  a  Christian,  to  supply  him  with  a  literal  ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Test.  This  they  accomplished,  and  the 
work  appeared  in  parts  (Lugd.  1639,  5  vols,  folio).  The 
N.  T.,  translated  on  the  same  principle  of  strict  literal- 
ity,  appeared  earlier  (Ven.  1530, 1.531, 2  vols,  folio). 

7.  Sebastian  Minister  added  to  his  edition  of  the  He- 
brew Scriptures  a  Latin  translation  (Basle,  1534-35,  and 
1546,  2  vols,  folio).  This  translation  is  faithful  without 
being  slavishly  literal,  and  is  executed  in  clear  and  cor- 
rect Latin.  Portions  of  it  have  been  published  sepa- 
rately. 

8.  The  Ziirich  version,  begun  by  Leo  Judse,  and  com- 
pleted by  Bibliander  and  others  (1543,  folio,  and  in  4to 
and  8vo  in  1544).  This  version  is  much  esteemed  for 
its  ease  and  fluency ;  it  is  correct,  but  somewhat  para- 
phrastic. It  has  frequently  been  reprinted ,  there  is  one 
edition  by  K.  Stephen  (Paris,  1545). 

9.  Sebastian  Castellio  produced,  in  what  he  intended 
to  be  purely  classical  Latin,  a  translation  of  the  O.  and 
N.T.  (Basil.  1551,  again  1573,  and  at  Leipzic,  1738). 

10.  The  version  of  Junius  and  TremeUius  appeared  at 
Frankfort  in  parts  between  1575  and  1579,  and  in  a  col- 
lected f  )rm  in  1579,  2  vols,  folio.  TremeUius  took  the 
principal  part  in  this  work,  his  son-in-law  Junius  rather 
assisting  him  than  sharing  the  work  w-ith  him.  Tre- 
meUius translated  the  N.  Test,  from  the  Syriac,  and  this, 
along  with  Beza's  translation,  appeared  in  an  edition  of 
Tremellius's  Bible,  published  at  London  in  1585.  The 
translation  of  Piscator  is  only  an  amended  edition  of 
that  of  TremeUius. 

11.  Thomas  Malvenda,  a  Spanish  Dominican,  engaged 
in  a  "  nova  ex  Hebraso  translatio,"  which  he  did  not  live 
to  finish.  What  he  accomplished  was  published  along 
with  his  commentaries  (Lugdun.  1650,  5  vols,  folio) ;  but 
the  extreme  barbarism  of  his  style  has  caused  his  labors 
to  pass  into  oblivion. 

12.  Cocceius  has  given  a  new  translation  of  most  of 
the  Biblical  books  in  his  commentaries.  Opera  Omnia 
(tom.  i-vi,  Amsterdam,  1701). 

13.  Sebastian  Schmid  executed  a  translation  of  the  O. 
and  N.  Test.,  which  appeared  after  his  death  (Argcntor. 
1696,  4to) ;  it  has  been  repeatedly  reprinted,  and  is  es- 
teemed for  its  scholarly  exactness,  though  in  some  cases 
its  adherence  to  the  original  is  over  close. 

14.  The  version  of  Jean  le  Clerc  (Clericus)  is  found 
along  with  his  commentaries;  it  appeared  in  portions 
from  1693  to  1731. 

15.  Charles  Fr.  Houbigant  issued  a  translation  of  the 
O.  T.  and  the  Apocrypha  along  with  liis  edition  of  the 
Hebrew  text  (Paris,  1753,  4  vols,  folio). 

10.  A  new  translation  of  the  O.  T.  was  undertaken  by 
J.  A.  Dathe;  it  ajipeared  between  1773  and  1789.  At 
one  time  much  admired,  this  version  has  of  late  ceased 
perhaps  to  receive  the  attention  to  which  it  is  entitled. 

17-19.  Versions  of  the  Gospels  by  Ch.  Wilh.  Thale- 
mann  (Berl.  1781) ;  of  the  Epistles  by  Godf.  Sigismund 
Jaspis  (LipsiiB,  1793-97,  2  vols.) ;  and  of  the  whole  N.T. 
by  H.  Godf.  Keichard  (Lips.  1799),  belong  to  the  school 
of  CasteUio. 

20.  H.  A.  Schott  and  F.Winzcr  commenced  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bil)le,  of  which  only  the  first  volume  has 
appeared,  containing  the  Pentateuch  (Alton,  et  Lipsise, 
1816).  Schott  has  also  issued  a  translation  of  the  N.  T., 
appended  to  bis  edition  of  the  (ireek  text  (Lips.  1805). 
This  has  passed  into  four  editions,  of  which  the  last 
(1839)  was  superintended  by  Baumgarten-Crusius. 

21.  RosenmiiUer  (iu  his  Scholia  in  V.  T.  Lips.  1788  sq.). 
Translations  of  the  N.  T.  have  also  been  issued  by  F. 

A.  Ad.  Nacbe  ( Lips.  1831)  and  Ad.  Goeschen  (Lips.  1832). 
See  Carpzo\-.  Crit.  Sacr.  p.  707  sc]. ;  Fritzsche,  art.  Vulga- 
ta,  in  Herzog's  Kncyk.;  Jiihle  o/erer//  Land,  p.  210,  etc. 
IV.  Literature, — Simon,  Hist.  Crit,  des  Versions  du  N. 


LATITUDINARIANS 


267 


LATITUDINARIANS 


Test.  (1G90);  Hody,  Z)e  Bibliornm  textibus  originalibus, 
versionihus  Greeds  et  Latina  \'iih/(ita,  Libri  iv  (Oxford, 
1705,  folio);  Martianay,  IJieroiii^iiii  0pp.  (Paris,  1G93); 
Bianchinus,  Vindicice  Canonis  SS.  Vuly.  Lat.  ed.  (Rome, 
1740) ;  Riegler,  Krit.  Gesch.  der  Vulguta  (Siilzb.  1820) ; 
L.  van  Ess,  Pnigmatisch-Krit.  Gesch.  der  Vulgata  (Tlib. 
1824) ;  Wiseman,  Two  Letters  on  1  John  v,  7,  reprinted 
in  liis  Essays,  vol.  i;  Diestcl,  Gesch.  d.  Alien  Test.  (Jena, 
18G9) ;  Kiirsch,  in  the Zeitschri/tfiir  d.hist.  Theol.  18G7, 
18G9, 1870.  See  also  the  Introductions  of  Eichhorn,  Mi- 
chaelis.  Hug,  De  Wette,  Hiiverniek,  Bleek,  etc. ;  David- 
son, Biblical  Criticism;  Reuss,  Gesch.  der  Ileil.  Sclrr.  X. 
T.  sec.  4rl8-457 ;  DarUng,  Ci/clopcvdiu,  p.  80.  See  Ver- 
sions. 

Latitudinarians,  a  name  given  to  those  divines 
who  in  the  17th  century  professed  indifference  to  what 
they  considered  the  small  matters  in  dispute  between 
Puritans  and  High-Churchmen,  and,  looking  at  theology 
from  a  philosophical  point  of  view,  laid  more  stress  on 
classical  philosophy  than  on  Christian  theology.  They 
attempted  to  compromise  the  differences  between  Epis- 
copalians, Presbyterians,  and  Independents.  Their  views 
vi'cre  a  residt  of  the  changes  then  going  on  in  the  relig- 
ious world,  and  of  the  influence  of  philosophy.  The  doc- 
trinal Puritans  had  already  taken  a  position  midway  be- 
tween the  school  of  Laud  and  the  fanatical  Puritans. 
Abbot,  Carltpn,  Hall,  and  others  were  the  chief  leaders 
of  that  party.  They  attached  no  importance  to  exter- 
nals, and  prized  practical  piety  far  above  all  matters  of 
form ;  and,  though  themselves  attached  to  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church,  they  allowed  others  to  differ  from 
them  as  to  the  best  form  of  ecclesiastical  government. 
In  their  theology  they  adhered  to  the  milder  Calvinism 
of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles;  but,  being  the  most  mod- 
erate, they  were  soon  overwhelmed  by  the  other  par- 
ties. As  liberal,  but  differing  from  them  in  doctrine,  we 
find  among  the  Eaton  scholars  Hales,  who,  although  an 
opponent  of  Laud's  High-Churchism,  was  in  dogmatics 
an  Arminian ;  and  Chillingworth,  who  desired  to  reduce 
Christianity  to  a  few  essential  jiractical  principles.  In 
the  midst  of  the  struggle,  and  the  rapid  changes  of  relig- 
ious views  and  systems,  the  moral  conception  of  Chris- 
tianity was  daily  gaining  ground ;  on  the  other  hand, 
theology  was  unable  to  withstand  the  inlhience  of  phi- 
losophy. The  regeneration  which  the  latter  had  expe- 
rienced at  the  hands  of  Bacon  and  Des  Cartes  obliged 
theology  to  review  its  foundations  in  the  light  of  phi- 
losophy and  science  as  well  as  of  history  (compare  Pro- 
fessor Maurice,  Moral  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy,  in 
the  Encyclop.  Metropol.  ii,  G56 ;  Stewart,  Essay  on  Met- 
aphysical Philosophy,  p.  58,  61,  notes,  and  24G,  note  O). 
Thus  Platonic  philosophjr  and  theology  were  intro- 
duced into  Cambridge  by  Cudworth  ((].  v.)  and  Henry 
More  (q.  v.).  Men  of  these  views  (among  others, 
also,  John  Smith,  Worthington,  bisliop  Wilkins,  and 
Theophilus  Gale),  and  especially  the  more  moderate 
among  them,  were  looked  down  upon  with  contempt  by 
the  more  ambitious  ones  in  (lOwcr,  and,  as  they  would 
not  follow  the  selfish  tendencies  of  the  times,  were  call- 
ed Latitude-men.  In  the  days  of  the  Commonwealth 
they  were  reproached  witli  Arminianism  and  prelatism. 
But  when  the  High-Church  party  came  again  into  pow- 
er with  tlie  Restoration,  and  its  ol<i  adversaries  tried 
to  atone  for  their  former  attacks  by  all  means  in  their 
power,  the  moderate  party  was  accused  of  want  of  loy- 
alty and  of  opposition  to  the  Church.  Whoever  refused 
to  submit  to  the  High-Church,  or  did  not  take  sides  with 
the  strict  Puritans  against  it,  were  called  Latitudinuriau. 
"  That  name,"  said  a  contemporary, ''  is  the  man  of  straw 
who,  in  order  to  have  something  to  tight  against,  has 
been  set  up  for  want  of  a  real  adversary — a  very  conven- 
ient name  wherewith  to  defame  any  one  who  we  may 
wish  to  injure."  As  the  name  came  thus  to  be  a]>plied 
to  a  number  of  persons  who  had  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  parry  which  it  (h'signated  at  first,  and  even  to 
such  as  were  totally  indifferent  in  matters  of  religion. 
the  appellation  soon  came  to  be  regarded  as  equivalent 


to  Socinian,  Deist,  and  Atheist.  As  regards  the  orig- 
inal Latitudinarians,  they  retained  the  liturgy,  rites,  and 
organization  of  the  English  Episcopal  Church.  They 
considered  a  general  liturgy  as  a  necessary  guard  against 
the  often  fanatical  prayers  of  the  Piu-itans,  and  they 
considered  the  English  liturgy  as  the  best,  on  account 
of  its  solemn  earnestness  and  its  character  of  primitive 
simplicity.  The  form  of  public  worship  they  looked 
upon  as  a  hajipy  medium  between  that  of  the  Romish 
Church  and  that  of  the  conventicles.  Ceremonies  they 
deemed  useful  for  the  purpose  of  edification,  and  episco- 
pacy they  cherished  as  the  most  correct  and  evangelical 
form  of  Church  government,  differing  both  from  what 
they  regarded  as  the  tyrannical  authority  of  Scotch 
Presbyterianism  and  from  the  anarcliy  of  the  Inde- 
pendents. In  point  of  doctrine  they  also  retained  the 
confession  of  the  English  Church,  which  they  consider- 
ed as  according  thoroughly  with  the  Scriptures.  The 
commentaries  of  the  primitive  Church  were  the  guides 
by  which  they  wished  reason  to  be  governed,  and 
reason  they  recognised  as  the  source  of  oiu-  knowledge 
of  revealed  and  natural  religion,  which  agree  on  all 
points.  The  fundamental  principles  of  true  religion  are 
freedom  of  the  will,  the  universality  of  the  redemption 
by  the  death  of  Christ,  the  sufficiency  of  divine  grace; 
and  these  find  entrance  into  the  human  heart  some- 
times by  the  testimony  of  Scripture,  sometimes  by  the 
unvarying  testimony  of  the  primitive  Church,  and  again 
by  reason  only.  In  theology,  the  oldest  views  are  al- 
ways found  to  be  the  most  reasonable.  Nothing  that  is 
false  in  philosophy  is  true  in  theology;  but  what  God 
has  united,  let  no  man  put  asunder.  Natural  sciences 
have  made  immense  jjrogress,  and  philosophy  and  the- 
ology cannot  remain  behind.  True  science  cannot  be 
put  down  any  more  than  the  light  of  the  sun  or  the  mo- 
tion of  the  ocean.  It  is  the  best  weapon  against  atheism 
and  superstition  (comp.  Smith  [John],  discourses  [ed. 
1821],  ii,  p.  19).  Thus  the  Latitudinarians  took  at  once 
fur  their  basis  science  and  toleration.  They  taught  re- 
spect for  the  Church  by  their  submission  to  it,  dd'ended 
it  by  their  learning  and  activity,  and  hoped  to  win  over 
the  Dissenters  by  their  moderation,  and  the  Presbyteri- 
ans by  their  accommodating  spirit,  thus  preventing  them 
from  anarchy.  This  is  the  character  given  to  the  Lati- 
tudinarians by  one  of  their  contemporaries  in  a  work  en- 
titled .1  brief  account  of  the  New  Sect  of  Latitudinari- 
ans (1GG2).  It  is  remarkable  how  many  ideas  of  the 
school  of  Laud  this  party  still  retained,  in  spite  of  its 
philosophical  views.  Its  broad  platform  admitted  men 
of  the  most  different  tendencies.  While  Cudworth, 
Whichcote,Worthington,  and  Wilkins  inclined  to  philo- 
sophical views,  Burnet,  Tillotson,  AMiiston,  and  Spencer 
adhered  more  to  the  Church  doctrines.  Bury,  in  The 
Kuked  Gospel  (1G90),  declared  all  Christian  doctrines,  ex- 
cept those  of  repentance  and  faith,  non-essential.  For 
this  he  was  attacked  by  Jurieu  in  his  La  Relir/ion  du 
Latitudinaire,  and  vainly  attempted  to  defend  the  or- 
thodoxy of  his  views  in  his  Lcttitudinarius  orthodoxus 
(1G97).  The  attemjits  made  by  the  Latitudinarians  in 
1G89-1G99  to  reconcile  the  Episcopalians  and  Presbyte- 
rians failed  utterly.  Latitudinarianism  was  subsequent- 
ly identified  still  more  with  indifferentism,  and  seldom 
appeared  in  theological  works.  It  is  only  in  quite  mod- 
ern times,  and  especially  under  the  influence  of  human 
theology,  that  this  tendency  has  been  brought  to  light 
again  in  the  Broad-Church  party,  which  forms  a  sort  of 
medium  between  the  Higli  and  Low  Church.  By  their 
opponents  the  Broad-C'luirchmen  are,  however,  desig- 
nated as  Latitudinarians  or  Indiflcronts.  Thev  consider 
the  differences  among  Cliristians  as  unimportant  when 
compared  with  their  essential  unity.  The  watchword 
of  the  party  is  love  and  toleration.  For  doctrines,  they 
hold  to  those  of  incarnation  and  atonement,  conversion 
by  grace  and  justification.  They  coincide  with  the  Low- 
Church  in  considering  Scripture  as  the  only  rule  of  faith, 
l)iit  taking  exceptions  hero  and  there  to  miracles,  and 
with  the  High-Church  in  believing  that  man  shall  be 


LATOMIUS 


2G8 


LATTICE 


judged  according;;  to  his  works.  In  opposition  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  invisible  Church  of  the  evangelical 
Church,  they  lay  great  stress  on  the  doctrine  of  a  visi- 
ble Cliiircli.  They  take  ■what  is  good  anywhere,  as  well 
in  the  Koinish  as  in  the  evangelical  churches.  They 
aim  at  nothing  less  than  the  accomi)lishment  of  a  relig- 
ious and  moral  reformation,  and  seek  to  occupy  in  our 
day  the  place  held  at  the  beginning  of  this  centur}'  by 
the  evangelical  party.  This  end  tlicy  strive  to  attain 
partly  by  tlieir  science  and  partly  by  their  practice,  and 
thus  tlistinguish  among  themselves  between  the  theorists 
and  anti-theorists.  They  derive  great  power  from  the 
liigh  scientific  attainments  of  many  of  their  members, 
and  try  to  advance  the  education  of  the  masses.  The 
founders  of  this  school  were  S.  T.  C(jleridge  and  Thom- 
as Arnold,  and  its  most  eminent  followers  Hare,  AVhate- 
ly,  Jlaurice,  Kingsley,  Stanley,  Alford,  Conybeare,  and 
Howson.  About  one  seventh  of  the  English  clergy'and 
a  number  of  bishops  belong  to  it.  See  Conybeare,  Church 
Pariifs;  Schaff,  Zust,  u.  Partheien  d.  enr/l.  Sfaais-Kirche 
in  Deutsch.  Zeitschrift.  1856,  No.  17;  Edward  Churton, 
The  Latitndinarians  from  1G71-1787  (Lond.  18Gl,8vo)  ; 
Amer.  Presh.  Rev.  1861,  April,  art.  vi  ;  Westminster  Rev. 
1854,  January;  Bib. Sacra,  1863, p. 865 ;  Farrar,C?iV. Hist, 
of  Free  Thought;  Ga.ss,  Doffmenf/eschich.iii  (see  Index); 
Stougliton,  Eccles.  Hist,  of  Englaiul  (since  the  Eestora- 
tion),  ii,  •26"2  sq.,  3-11  sq.,859  sq. ;  Ilerzog,  Real-Encijklop. 
viii,  215 ;  Blunt,  Diet.  Doctr.  and  Hist.  Theol.  p.  395  sq., 
and  his  Key  to  the  Knowledge  ofCh.  Hist.  (Mod.)  p.  97  sq. 
On  the  present  Broad  Church  of  England,  see  Miss  Cobbe, 
Jhoken  Lights  (London  ed.  p.  63),  and  Hurst's  History  of 
Rationalism,  Eug.  edition  (greatly  enlarged),  p.  423^38. 

Latomius,  Jacohus  {.Taques  Masson),  a  celebrated 
lioman  Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Cambron,  in 
Hainault,  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century,  and 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Paris.  In  1500  he 
became  a  resident  of  Louvain,  where  he  was  made  a 
jirofessor  of  theology.  He  died  in  1544.  A  zealous 
disciple  of  scholasticism,  he  ardently  opposed  the  Ref- 
ormation both  by  his  pen  and  his  tongue,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  an  able  controversy  with  Luther,  who  ad- 
dressed to  him  Rationis  Latomiame  confutatio  wliile  a 
resident  of  the  Wartburg  (comp.  KiJstlin,  Luther  s  The- 
ologie,  ii,  55,  366).  The  Koman  Catholics,  of  course, 
greatly  loved  Latomius,  and  he  is  spoken  of  as  •'  vlr 
multiB  eruditionis,  pietatis,  modestia?,  trium  linguarum 
peritissimus,  haereticte  pravitatis  inquisitor."  A  collec- 
tion of  his  works  was  made  by  his  nephew.  Jacobus  La- 
tomius, his  successor  at  Louvain  (died  in  1596),  and  was 
l)ublished  at  Louvain  in  1550,  in  folio,  containing,  1. 
A  r/irulorum  doctiinm  LMtheri  jwr  theologos  Lovunienses 
damnutornni  ratio  (1519  and  1521)  :— 2.  Responsio  ad 
libellum  a.  Liithero  emissum  pro  iisdem  articulis  (1521)  : 
— 3. 1)e  primatu  Pontifcis  ad  versus  Martinum  Lutherum 
(1526;  also  reprinted  in  Roccaberti  Biblioth.  max.  pon- 
iificin,  Rom.  1689,  torn,  xiii): — 4.  I)e  variis  qiimstiomim 
gcmribiis  guibus  certat  ecchsia  intus  et  foris : — b.  De 
eccli'sia  et  humanm  legis  obligatione: — 6.  De  confessione 
secrela  (1525): — 1.  Ad  helleborum  J.  CEcolampadii  re- 
sponsio : — 8.  LJbellus  de  fide  et  operibus,  de  votis  atque 
institntis  monastids  .-—9.  De  trium  linguarum  et  studii 
theologiri  ratione  dialogi  ii  (Ibl^,  ito} :— 10.  Apologia 
pro  dialogis  : — 11.  Adversiis  lihn/m  Krasmide  sarcienda 
(celisi/r  Concordia: — 12.  Cntfiitatiomun  adversus  Guil. 
Tinilidnm  libri  Hi:— 13.  De  Matrimonio  .-—14.  De  qiii- 
busdam  articulis  in  ecclesia  controversis  :—lo.  Disputa- 
tio  quodlibetica  tribus  qucestionibus  absoluta :  (1.)  Li  li- 
bellum de  ecclesia,  Phil.  Afelancthoni  inscriptum ;  (2.) 
Contra  orationem  factiosorum  in  Comitiis  Ratisbonen.'.i- 
bus  habltam  (1544,  8vo).— Ilerzog,  Real-Encyldop.  xix, 
777. 

Latria  (\«r()f(«\  the  name  gjvcn  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  the  adoration  due  to  (iod  alone  on 
account  of  his  su]irema(y,  as  distinguished  from  hyper- 
didia  ((|.  v.),  worslii])  j.aid  to  the  Virgin,  and  duliu  (q.  I 
v.),  the  worship  paid  to  saints.  j 


Latroncinium.     See  Ephesus,  Robber  Council 

OF. 

Latta,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  mmister,  was 
born  in  Ireland  in  1732;  emigrated  to  America  at  an 
early  age,  and  graduated  at  the  College  of  Philadelphia 
in  1757.  He  became  college  tutor  at  his  alma  mater, 
and  pursued  the  study  of  divinity.  He  was  licensed  in 
1758,  and  ordained  as  an  evangelist  in  1759.  Two  years 
after  he  accepted  a  call  from  the  congregation  of  Deep 
Run,  in  Bucks  Co.,  I'a.,  which  he  resigned  in  1770  for 
the  charge  of  Chestnut  Level,  in  Lancaster  County,  Pa. 
Here  he  established  a  school  of  long-continued  celebrity. 
During  the  war  he  accompanied  the  American  army  on 
their  campaign  as  a  soldier,  and  served  as  chaplain  for 
a  time.  He  vindicated  the  introduction  of  the  Psalms 
and  Hymns  of  Dr.  A\'atts,  and  labored  faithfully  in  his 
ministry  till  near  the  close  of  life.  He  died  Jan.  29, 
1801.  Latta  published  a  pamphlet  showing  that  the 
principal  subjects  of  psalmody  shoidd  be  taken  from  the 
Gospel,  8vo.  —  Sprague,  Annals,  iii,  199;  AVilson,  Presb. 
Historical  A  Imanac,  1865. 

Latta,  Samuel  A.,  a  minister  of  the  M.E.  Church 
South,  born  April  8, 1804,  in  Muskingum  Co.,  Ohio,  early 
evinced  an  aptitude  for  the  Christian  ministry,  and,  hav-- 
ing  practiced  medicine  from  1824  to  1829,  entered  thie 
•ministry  by  joining  the  Ohio  Conference,  and  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  difhcult  mission  at  St.  Clair,  JMichigan. 
In  1830  he  was  stationed  at  Cinciimati,  and  in  1831  was 
travelling  agent  for  the  American  Colonization  Society. 
In  1832  and  1833  he  occupied  the  Union  Circuit;  in 
1834,  Lebanon  station ;  in  1835  and  1836,  Hamilton  and 
Rossville  stations.  In  1837  he  was  agent  for  Augusta 
College,  Ohio,  in  behalf  of  which  institution  he  was 
very  successful.  In  1838  and  1839  he  preaclied  at  Day- 
ton, Ohio.  From  1840  till  his  death,  June  28, 1852,  he 
maintained  a  superannuated  relation.  Dr.  Latta  was 
both  an  excellent  preacher  and  a  good  physician,  but 
he  earned  his  highest  distinction  as  a  writer.  For  some 
years  he  was  editor  of  the  Methodist  Recoi-der.  He  had 
a  mind  of  uncommon  strength,  quite  versatile,  and  he 
had  improved  it  by  extensive  research  and  studj-.  '-He 
woidd  sometimes  reason  with  great  i)ower,  and  his  de- 
scriptions of  men  and  things  were  often  exceedingly 
striking  and  beautiful."  The  work  which  gained  him 
his  greatest  fame  was  The  Chain  of  Sacred  Wonders, 
published  in  1851  and  1852,  2  vols.  8vo. — Sprague,  ^1  ?J- 
nuls  of  the  American  I'uJpit,vn,lbh. 

Latter-Day  Saints.     See  Mormons. 

Lattice  stands  in  the  Auth.Yers.  for  the  following 
Hebrew  words  in  certain  passages:  1.  ^^J'i!X  {eshnah', 
so  called  from  darkening  a  room),  a  latticed  opening 
through  which  the  cool  breeze  passes,  and  which  at  the 
same  time  screens  the  inmates,  especially  females,  from 
exterior  sight  (Judg.  v,  28 ;  "  casement,"  Prov.  vii,  6). 
See  Window.  2.  C^^'^n  {charak!dm',i)iop.7iets;  Sept. 
ctKTva),  the  net-work  or  lattices  of  a  window  (Cant,  ii, 


^^r~  (■ 


kdh'.  an  intc?-u-eaving),  the  latticed 
lialustrade  before  a  win- 
dow or  balcony  (2  Kings 
i,  2 ;  elsewhere  a  net  or 
III  "  snare,"  Job  xviii,  8  ; 
"  net-work,"  etc..  aroiuid 
\  the  capitals  of  columns). 
"  The  lattice  window 
\\'  is  much  used  in  warm 
f,  Eastern    countries.      It 
if  frequently  projects  from 
the  wall  of  the  building, 
and  is  formed  of  reticu- 
lated work,  often  highly 
ornamental,  portions  of 
which  are  hinged,  so  that 
they  may  be  opened  or 
shut  at  jileasure.     The 
object  of  the  contrivance  is  to  keep  the  apartments  cool 


Lattice  Window  iu  Cairo. 


LATZEMBOCK 


269 


LAUD 


by  intercepting  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  while,  at  the 
same  time,  the  air  is  permitted  to  circulate  freely  through 

the  trellis  openings.    Through  the  lat- 

JX    tice  the  mother  of  Sisera  and  the  mys- 

>Sr-:J^J   tical  bridegroom   are   represented   as 

O   looking.     Through  tliis  Ahaziah  fell 


Lattice-work  in 
C:uro. 


and  injured  himself;  for  there  is  no 
reason  to  adopt  an  old  idea  that  he 
fell  through  a  grating  in  the  floor. 
The  words  in  these  three  texts,  how- 
ever, are  different  each  time  in  the 
original,  though  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine 
whether  they  were  entirely  interchangeable,  or  whether 
there  were  certain  differences  of  construction  indicated 
by  each  of  them"  (Fairbairn).     See  House. 

Latzembock,  Henky  de,  a  native  of  Bohemia, 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Uth  and  first  part  of  the 
loth  centuries.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  reformer  John 
Huss,  whom,  in  connection  with  two  other  friends,  he 
was  appointed  to  conduct  in  safety  to  the  Council  of 
Constance.  He  stood  very  high  in  the  favor  of  the  em- 
peror Sigismimd,  and  appealed  to  him  in  behalf  of  the 
reformer.  After  the  condemnation  and  burning  of  Huss 
lie  was  himself  suspected  of  heresy,  was  summoned  be- 
fore the  council,  and  required  to  abjure  the  doctrines  of 
his  friend  and  approve  of  his  condemnation.  With  this 
requisition  he  complied,  being  more  intent  on  his  own 
safety  and  advancement  at  court  than  anxious  for  reform. 
After  this  period  little  information  concerning  him  is 
attainable. — Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss,  i,  352- 
354,  38G ;  ii,  28,  2G0. 

Laud,  "William,  the  celebrated  archbishop  imder 
James  I  and  Charles  I,  was  born  at  Heading,  the  princi- 
pal town  of  Berkshire,  October  7,  1573,  of  humble  but 
respectable  parentage.  In  1589  he  entered  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford,  graduated  with  distinction  in  1594, 
and  proceeded  A.M.  in  1598,  when  he  was  appointed 
reader  in  grammar.  In  January,  ICOO,  he  was  ordained 
deacon,  and  priest  in  1601.  The  Calvinistic  and  Puri- 
tan tendency  was  strong  in  Oxford  at  that  time ;  but 
Laud's  immediate  instructors  and  friends  had  been  on 
the  other  side;  his  natural  instincts  inclined  him  to 
High-Church  views  and  high  ritualistic  observances; 
he  saw,  too,  that  the  court  was  on  that  side,  and  that  a 
powerful  reaction  against  the  Calvinistic  ascendency 
was  ahead)'  in  progress.  Abbot  (afterwards  jirimate) 
and  Prideaux  had  succeeded  Drs.  Holland  and  Eeynolds 
as  theological  professors  in  the  university ;  but  Laud, 
being  appointed  in  1G02  to  read  the  Maye  divinity  lec- 
ture in  St.  John's  College,  did  not  hesitate  to  attack  Ab- 
bot's doctrine  in  regard  to  the  visibility  of  the  Church. 
The  latter  had  traced  the  visible  Cluirch  do\vn,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  through  the  Borengarians,  the  Albigenses 
or  Waldensians,  the  Wickliftites,  and  the  Hussites,  to 
Luther  and  the  Reformation  ;  Laud  traced  it  boldly  and 
exclusively  through  the  Church  of  Home.  They  did 
not  see  that  exclusiveness  was  the  error  of  both  parties. 
In  ICOo  James  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  and, 
greatly  to  the  disappointment  and  disgust  of  the  Puri- 
tans, but  to  the  unbounded  satisfaction  of  Laud  and  his 
friends,  he  openly  took  sides  with  the  highest  hierar- 
chical party  in  the  English  Church,  early  adopting  as 
his  pet  motto,  "No  bishop,  no  king."  Then  followed 
the  "Millenary  petition'!  and  the  famous  conference  at 
Hampton  Court,  which  resulted  in  the  king's  proclama- 
tion of  "  imiformity  in  discipline  and  worship."  This 
year  Laud  was  chosen  proctor  for  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, and  in  the  same  year  he  was  appointed  chaplain 
to  the  earl  of  Devonshire.  In  1604  he  took  his  degree 
of  B.D.,  and  in  the  thesis  which  he  presented  on  the 
occasion  he  maintained  the  absolute  necessity  of  bap- 
tism to  salvation,  and  of  diocesan  bishops  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  true  Church.  In  tlie  fillowing  year  Laud 
committed  one  of  the  most  unfortunate,  though  oft-re- 
pented faults  of  his  life,  in  solemnizing  the  marriage  of 
hid  patron,  the  earl  of  Devonshire,  with  lady  Kich,  who, 


as  he  and  all  the  world  knew,  had  been  divorced  from 
her  former  husband,  lord  Kich,  on  account  of  adultery 
alreaily  committed  with  the  same  earl  of  Devonshire 
himself,  of  whom  Laud  was  meaaiwhUe  the  chaplain. 
The  consequence  of  tliis  affair  was  that  the  earl  was 
utterly  disgraced  at  court,  and  soon  after  died,  while 
Laud,  sharing  in  the  public  odium,  was  severely  cen- 
sured by  the  highest  dignitaries  both  in  Church  and 
state. 

In  1606  Laud  preached  a  sermon  before  the  univer- 
sity for  which  he  was  vehemently  attacked  by  the  vice- 
chancellor  as  a  papist ;  and  though  he  contrived  to  es- 
cape formal  censure  from  the  authorities,  he  acknowl- 
edged afterwards  to  Ileylin  that  such  was  the  repute  in 
which  he  was  generally  held  at  the  university  that  "  it 
was  reckoned  a  heresy  to  speak  to  him,  and  a  suspicion 
of  heresy  to  salute  him  as  he  walked  the  street."  Still, 
Laud  was  not  without  powerful  friends,  who  sympa- 
thized with  him  and  his  opinions,  and  especially  active 
among  them  was  Dr.  Neile,  then  bishop  of  Rochester. 
In  1607  he  ivas  preferred  to  the  vicarage  of  Stamford, 
received  the  advowson  of  North  Kilworth,  and  took  his 
degree  of  D.D.  In  1608  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
bishop  Neile,  exchanged  North  Kilworth  for  'West  Til- 
bury, and  preached  his  first  sermon  before  king  James 
at  Theobald's.  The  next  year  he  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Cuckstone,  whereupon  he  resigned  his  fellow- 
ship in  St.  John's  and  resided  on  his  benefice.  The  cli- 
mate of  Cuckstone  not  agreeing  with  his  health,  he  soon 
exchanged  this  benefice  for  that  of  Norton.  In  the 
mean  time  Neile,  having  been  translated  to  the  see  of 
Lichfield,  recommended  Laud  so  powerfully  to  the  king 
that  he  obtained  for  him  a  prebend's  stall  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Westminster,  the  deanery  of  which  Neile,  as 
bishop  of  Rochester,  had  held  in  commendam.  In  1611, 
after  a  violently  contested  canvass.  Laud  was  elected 
president  of  St.  John's  College,  owing  his  success  chiefly 
to  the  strenuous  efforts  of  bishop  Neile  and  of  Dr.  Buck- 
eridge.  At  the  same  time  he  became  one  of  king 
James's  chaplains,  while,  to  his  great  chagrin.  Abbot, 
upon  the  death  of  archbishop  Bancroft,  was  raised  to  the 
primacy.  Abbot  is  charged  by  Laud's  friends  as  hav- 
ing been  the  inveterate  enemy  of  the  latter,  and  the 
great  retarder  of  his  ecclesiastical  promotion.  Of  the 
"enmity,"  it  may  be  said  once  for  all  that  there  seems 
to  be  no  evidence  beyond  the  constant  repetition  of  the 
charge.  The  simple  truth  of  the  case  seems  to  be  that 
Laud  became  the  "  inveterate  enemy"  of  Abbot  because 
the  latter,  when  he  had  the  power,  refused  to  promote 
him,  and  conscientiously  discouraged  the  advancement 
of  a  man  in  whom  he  had  no  confidence.  Bishop  Neile 
now  bestowed  ujion  Laud  the  prebendary  of  Bugden, 
and  in  1615  the  archdeaconry  of  Huntingdon.  In  1616 
James  himself  bestowed  upon  him  the  deanery  of  Glou- 
cester, and  he  thus  obtained  the  prospect  of  reaching 
the  higher  prizes  he  had  in  view.  A  second  time  he 
got  into  hot  water  by  a  sermon  preached  before  the  uni- 
versity. For  this  he  was  taken  to  task  by  Dr.  Robert 
Abbot,  then  vice-chancellor,  and  brother  of  the  arcli- 
bisliop.  Abbot  now,  like  bishop  Hall  before,  charged 
him  with  tr^-ing  to  keep  on  both  sides  at  once.  In  his 
deanery  of  (iloucester  he  proceeded  to  "reform  and  set 
in  order"  according  to  his  own  ecclesiastical  notions,  or- 
dering the  communion-table  to  the  east  end  of  the  choir, 
to  stand  as  the  "  altar"  formerly  stood,  and  enjoining  a 
becoming  reverence,  i.  e.,  due  bowings  and  genuflexions, 
upon  the  clergy  and  officers  on  entering  the  church  or 
chancel,  and  proceeding  withal  in  a  most  high-handed 
manner.  Returning  to  court.  Laud  procured  directions 
for  the  "better  government"  of  the  university,  which 
contained  the  first  official  disapprobation  of  the  tenets 
of  the  Calvinists,  and  which,  being  evidently  levelled 
against  the  Puritans,  are  conceded  by  one  of  Laud's 
most  ardent  eulogists  (Lawson)  to  have  been  "not  alto- 
gether justifial)le,"  inasmuch  as  they  deprived  the  uni- 
versity of  its  independence,  and  subjected  it  completely 
to  the  control  of  the  king.     "  But,"  he  adds,  with  char- 


LAITD 


270 


LAUD 


acteristlc  fallacy  and  oiic-sidcdncss,  "  the  state  of  the 
times  rendered  such  instructions  necessarj- ;  and  the  con- 
sternation of  the  Puritan  faction,  when  they  were  made 
known  at  Oxford,  is  a  proof  of  the  wisdom  of  the  monarch 
and  his  advisers  in  thus  placing  a  timely  restraint  on 
tlic  progress  of  sectarian  partisanship  and  enthusiasm." 
James  liad  already  (1(510-12 )  re-established  episcopacy 
in  Scotland,  and  with  a  special  view  to  effect  a  more  per- 
fect uniformity  in  the  two  churches,  he  set  out  in  1G17 
to  visit  his  northern  kingdom  for  the  first  time  since  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  and  ordered  Laud  to  ac- 
company him.  The  king's  favorite  object  was  to  sub- 
stitute in  the  Scottish  Church  the  Episcopal  liturgy  in- 
stead of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  worship;  and,  though 
the  Presbyterians  prayed  that  they  might  be  preserved 
from  the  same,  Laud  and  some  of  the  royal  chaplains 
encouraged  James  to  persist  in  regarding  the  mass  of  the 
nation  as  a  set  of  "factious  enthusiasts,"  and  to  obsti- 
nately adhere  to  his  purpose  of  imposing  upon  these 
people  his  own  form  of  religion  in  the  name  of  "  the 
Church."  James  and  Laud,  with  a  little  knot  of  arch- 
bishops and  bishops  who  had  been  consecrated  to  their 
office,  not  in  Scotland,  but  at  Westminster,  were  "  the 
Church,"  and  the  Scottish  nation  was  "  the  faction" — a 
mistake  big  with  sad  and  fearful  consequences.  James 
now  propounded  the  famous  Five  Articles,  which  he 
subjected  first  to  the  assembly  called  together  at  St. 
Andrew's,  and  later  to  the  assembly  at  Perth,  where, 
through  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  the  bishops,  and 
the  shrewd  and  cunning  management  of  the  king,  the 
Five  Articles  were  confirmed.  These  articles  were  rig- 
idly enforced,  but  without  the  desired  effect.  The  Scot- 
tish "  rabble"  were  too  "  factious"  to  submit  to  a  religion 
manufactured  for  them  and  forcibly  imposed  upon  them 
by  others.  It  was  left  for  James's  successor  to  continue 
his  father's  design,  but  with  still  worse  success ;  and  it 
was  reserved  for  Laud  to  take  a  more  dominant  part  in 
the  business,  and  from  a  higher  position,  at  a  subsequent 
period.  On  his  return  through  Lincolnshire  he  was  in- 
ducted into  the  rectory  of  Ibstock,  which  he  had  taken 
in  exchange  for  Norton ;  and,  arriving  at  Oxford,  ho 
learned  with  pleasure  that  his  exertions  had  effectually 
restrained  the  "Puritan  enthusiasm"  at  Gloucester. 

In  1G20  Laud  -was  at  length  raised  to  the  episcopate, 
being  made  bishop  of  St.  David's,  in  spite  of  the  strenu- 
ous opposition  of  archbishop  Abbot,  as  his  friends  assert, 
and  tlirough  the  earnest  solicitations  of  the  duke  of 
Buckingham  and  of  the  lord -keeper  Williams,  then 
bishop  of  Lincoln,  as  is  commonly  alleged.  Before  his 
consecration  as  bishop,  Laud,  much  to  his  credit,  re- 
signed the  presidency  of  St,  John's  College,  because, 
though  such  things  were  often  winked  at,  he  could 
not  hold  it  without  a  violation  of  the  statute.  In  his 
])rimary  visitation  of  his  diocese,  he  set  things  "  in  or- 
der" according  to  his  peculiar  views  of  what  constituted 
the  essentials  of  "  the  Church's"  religion.  lie  also  built 
a  chapel  for  himself,  which  he  proceeded  to  fit  up  to  his 
own  taste  as  a  model,  and  consecrated  it  with  sundry 
extraordinary  ceremonies. 

In  1(522  Laud"s  dispute  with  the  Jesuit  Fisher  took 
place,  which  was,  perhaps,  the  most  creditable  perform- 
ance of  liis  life,  evincing  extensive  learning  and  no 
mean  ability.  Yet,  dealing  with  the  controversy  from 
the  high  Anglican  point  of  view,  it  fails  to  cover  the 
whole  Protestant  position,  and  is  now  almost  forgotten, 
biiiig  a  document  of  much  less  breadth  and  historical 
interest  tlian  some  still  older  defences  of  the  English 
Cliurch,  as,  for  example,  Jewell's  .!;«;%//. 

About  this  time  Laud  Ijecame  chaplain  to  the  duke 
of  Buckingham,  and  between  them  there  grew  up  an  in- 
timate and  lasting  friendship.  While  Buckingham  was 
absent  with  prince  Charles  in  Spain,  Laud  was  in  coftc- 
spondence  with  him,  and  seems  to^have  l)een  charged 
with  the  care  of  bis  interests  at  court  during  his  ab- 
sence; for,  observing  or  suspecting  some  movements  of 
tliu  lord-keeper  Williams  towards  uuik'nnining  the  duke 
in  the  royal  favor,  he  immediately. informed  his  patron 


in  Spain  of  the  apprehended  danger,  who  accordingly 
hastened  home  to  protect  himself.  Hence  arose  a  de- 
termined hostility  of  the  duke  towards  Williams,  and 
Williams  accused  Laud  of  ingratitude,  while  Laud,  on 
the  other  hand,  charged  him  with  duplicity  and  selfish- 
ness. Evidently  the  duke's  patronage  was  judged  of 
more  value  than  the  bishop's,  and  the  breacii  ripened 
into  a  rooted  enmity  between  the  two  churchmen. 
Laud  chose  to  consider  himself  insidted  by  Abbot  and 
Williams  because  his  name  was  not  inserted  in  the 
High  Commission.  He  complained  to  Buckingham,  who 
forthwith  procured  his  nomination.  In  1G2-4  James  died, 
and  Laud  lamented  him  with  demonstrations  of  the  ut- 
most sorrow.  On  the  first  day  of  March,  the  year  aft^r 
the  death  of  James,  Laud  received  his  appointment  to 
preach  before  Charles  at  Westminster  at  the  opening  of 
the  first  Parliament;  and  the  king,  upon  the  advice  of 
bishops  Laud  and  Andrews,  prohibited,  in  the  Convoca- 
tion which  met  at  the  same  time  with  Parliament,  the 
discussion  of  the  five  predestinarian  articles  of  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  "on  account  of  the  number  of  Calvinists  ad- 
mitted under  Abbot's  auspices  into  the  Lower  House." 
On  the  Sunday  after  the  marriage  of  Charles  and  Hen- 
rietta Maria,  Lautl  again  preached  before  the  king  and 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  king  had  summoned  this  Par- 
liament to  procure  supplies  for  the  prosecution  of  his 
wars;  but  they  chose  to  look  after  the  righting  of  their 
own  grievances  before  attending  to  the  king's  wants,  and 
proceeded  to  cite  and  condemn  a  certain  Mr.  Jlontague 
for  preaching  wliat  they  judged  heretical  and  unconsti- 
tutional doctrine.  Laud  immediately  flew  to  Jlonta- 
gue's  protection,  and,  at  his  remonstrance,  the  king  re- 
voked the  proceedings  of  Parliament,  and  prorogued 
them  to  Oxford.  Parliament  was  no  more  pliant  at 
Oxford  than  it  had  been  at  Westminster,  and  in  a  pet 
Charles  suddenly  dissolved  it. 

]\Ieanwhile  Laud  Avas  continually  rising  in  the  king's 
esteem  and  confidence,  while  Williams  was  removed 
from  his  office  of  lord-keeper  and  banished  the  court. 
Laud  was  indefatigable  in  his  labors  in  preaching  and 
purging  the  Church,  refusing  to  ordain  any  whom  he 
found  to  be  unqualified  for  the  sacred  office,  according 
to  his  view  of  the  proper  qualifications.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  king  to  supply  the  place  of  the  now  dis- 
graced Williams,  the  dean  of  Westminster,  at  the  cere- 
mony of  the  coronation.  He  here  had  ofhcial  charge 
of  the  regalia,  and  is  accused  of  having  placed  a  crucifix 
upon  the  "altar,"  and  tampered  with  the  coronation 
oath ;  but  of  this  accusation  not  much  was  ever  made. 
By  the  king's  appointment  Laud  again  preached  the 
sermon  at  the  opening  of  Parliament,  which  assembled 
immediately  after  the  coronation.  This  Parliament  like- 
wise proceeded  at  once  to  aiijioint  a  committee  on  re- 
ligion. They  also  impeached  the  duke  of  Buckingham, 
and  refused  to  do  any  other  business  until  his  case  v;as 
disposed  of.  The  king,  finding  them  resolved  on  the 
ruin  of  his  minister — and  it  is  to  be  observed  it  was  the 
House  of  Lords  and  not  the  House  of  Commons  before 
which  he  was  to  be  tried — to  save  his  favorite,  was  com- 
pelled to  dissolve  his  second  Parliament.  Uncjuestion- 
ably  Laud  was  deeply  and  anxiously  interested  in  the 
cause  of  his  |iatron,  and  ho  is  charged,  on  some  show  of 
evidence,  with  having  written  the  speech  of  Bucking- 
ham in  his  own  defence,  and  the  speech  of  the  king  in 
Buckingham's  behalf. 

In  1(526  Laud  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells  —  a  richer  bishopric  than  that  of  St.  David's. 
Both  of  Charles's  Parliaments  had  refused  to  vote 
the  subsidies  to  supply  his  [)ecuniary  wants,  and  he  re- 
solved to  collect  tlie  money  without  parliamentary 
authority.  With  this  view  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  "tuning  the  pulpits,"  and  Laud  was  his  instru- 
ment for  this  purpose.  He  was  instructed  to  prepare 
letters  to  be  issued  to  the  two  archbishops  and  their  suf- 
fragans, through  them  to  the  inferior  clergy,  and  by 
them  to  tlie  people,  persuading  them  to  pay  cheerfully 
the  taxations  necessarily  imposed  on  them.     "  The  in- 


LAUD 


2V1 


LAUD 


structions,"  as  Laud  informs  us,  "were  partly  political 
and  partly  ecclesiastical,"  and  were  to  be  published  in 
every  parish  in  the  kingdom.  Laud  engaged  in  the 
duty  witli  his  wonted  alacrity,  and  almost  immediately 
upon  receiving  the  royal  commands  he  had  the  instruc- 
tions prepared.  His  apologists  admit  that  it  is  a  difK- 
cult  matter  to  justify  these  instructions,  "because  they 
afford  a  dangerous  precedent,  whicli,  were  it  followed, 
woidd  be  attended  with  the  worst  consequences ;"  it  was 
no  less  than  undertaking  to  tax  the  people  without  the 
consent  of  their  representatives.  By  Laud's  prompt  and 
efficient  management  of  this  affair  he  was  still  further 
advanced  in  the  king's  good  opinion,  and  was  rewarded 
with  the  ajipointment  of  dean  of  the  chapel  royal,  and 
the  promise  of  the  primacy  in  the  eyeut  of  Abbot's  de- 
cea.se.  In  enforcing  Laud's  "  instructions,"  doctors  Sib- 
tliorpe  and  !Manwaring  preached  sermons  in  which  they 
maintained  the  extreme  doctrines  of  passive  obedience, 
and  \vhieh,  after  Laud's  revision,  were  published.  Ab- 
bot, too,  had  refused  to  license  Sibthorpe's  sermon,  for 
which  factious  procediure  a  commission  of  sequestration 
was  issued  against  him,  and  the  administration  of  his 
metropolitan  functions  was  put  into  the  hands  of  Laud, 
in  conjunction  with  four  other  bishops.  In  the  same 
year  Laud  was  made  a  privy  counsellor,  and,  by  the  re- 
distribution of  sundry  bishops  and  bishoprics,  arrange- 
ments were  initiated  to  make  a  vacancy  in  the  see  of 
London,  that  Laud  might  at  once  be  translated  to  that 
rich  and  pmverfid  bishopric.  Meanwhile  Charles  had 
been  compelled  by  his  necessities  to  call  a  third  Parlia- 
ment, although  it  was  well  miderstood  that  Laud  as  well 
as  Buckingham  would  be  thereby  endangered.  But,  to 
propitiate  the  popular  feeling,  several  commissions  were 
made,  and,  among  other  things.  Abbot  was  restored  to  his 
functions,  and  received  at  court.  Again  Laud  preached 
the  opening  sermon,  and  the  king  concluded  his  speech 
by  exhorting  I'arliament  to  follow  the  good  advice 
which  Laud  had  given  them.  But  the  Commons  de- 
termined to  proceed  to  business  in  their  own  way. 
They  first  drew  up  and  passed  the  famous  Petition  of 
Eight.  They  then  presented  a  remonstrance  of  griev- 
ances against  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  not  omitting 
to  mention  Laud  in  their  indictment.  They  cited  Dr. 
Manwaring  to  their  bar,  ordered  him  to  be  severe- 
ly punislied,  and  his  sermons  to  be  burnt.  The  king 
prorogued  Parliament,  ignored  the  complaints  against 
Buckingham  and  Laud,  remitted  Manwaring's  fine,  and, 
successively  giving  him  various  livings,  at  length  pro- 
moted him  to  the  deanery  of  Worcester,  and  then  to  the 
bishopric  of  St.  David's,  made  Sibthorpe  prebendary  of 
I'eterborough,  and  translated  Laud  to  the  see  of  London, 
July  15,  1G29.  On  the  death  of  Buckingham,  which 
took  place  before  the  next  meeting  of  Parliament,  the 
king  was  pleased  to  assure  Laud  that  he  intended  to  in- 
trust him  with  his  confidence  in  Buckingham's  room. 
At  the  examination  of  Felton,  the  assassin  of  Bucking- 
ham, before  the  privy  council,  the  man  .admitted  the 
deed,  l)ut  denied  tlie  privity  of  auj'  other  parties.  Laud, 
in  his  eagerness  to  improve  this  presumed  opportunity 
for  reaching  and  crushing  his  enemies,  threatened  him 
with  the  rack  if  he  would  not  disclose  his  accomplices. 
But,  upon  the  judges  being  asked  whether  Felton  could 
be  lawfully  put  to  the  rack,  tliey  returned  for  answer 
that  by  the  laws  of  England  he  could  not.  It  was  in 
this  interval,  too,  that  Laud,  "in  order  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  disturbances  whicli  arose  from  the  preaching  of  the 
abstruse  and  mystical  doctrines  of  predestination,"  as 
his  friends  aver,  "procured  a  royal  declaration  to  be  pre- 
fixed to  the  Articles,"  prohibiting  such  preaching.  Sir 
Tliomas  Wentworth,  afterwards  earl  of  Strafford,  was 
gained  over  from  the  popular  party  to  the  king's  side 
by  largesses  of  royal  favor,  and  lie  and  Laud  immedi- 
ately commenced  a  friendship  which  ever  after  remain- 
ed inviolate. 

\^'hcn  at  length  Parliament  again  assembled,  the 
Commons  opened  with  a  remonstrance  upon  the  alleged 
infractions  of  the  Petition  of  Eight,  and  then  turned 


their  attention  to  their  religious  grievances.  Excited 
to  great  exasperation  by  the  king's  declaration  which 
Laud  had  procured,  they  passed  a  solemn  vote  against 
it,  claiming,  protesting,  and  vowing  that  the  current 
and  general  exposition  of  the  articles, "  which  had  been 
established  by  act  of  Parliament,"  had  ever  been  the 
same  as  their  own.  In  the  debate,  Sir  John  Eliot  de- 
nounced some  of  the  bishops  as  neither  "orthodox  nor 
sound  in  religion.  Witness,"  said  he, "  the  two  bishops, 
Laud  and  Neile,  who  were  complained  of  at  the  last 
meeting  of  Parliament.  I  apprehend  much  fear  that, 
should  we  be  in  their  power,  we  may  be  in  danger  to 
have  our  religion  overthrown.  Some  of  them  are  mas- 
ters of  ceremonies,  and  they  labor  to  introduce  new  cer- 
emonies into  the  Church."  The  House  resumed  the 
cases  of  Montague,  Manwaring,  and  Sibthorpe,  to  all  of 
whom  the  king  had  granted  pardons  and  preferments. 
Laud  and  NeUe  were  the  grand  objects  of  attack,  being 
accused  of  having  procured  these  pardons.  "  In  Laud 
and  Neile,''  declared  Sir  John  Eliot,  "  is  centred  all  the 
danger  we  fear,"  and  he  proposed  to  petition  the  king  to 
leave  those  bishops  to  "  the  justice  of  the  House."  Oli- 
ver Cromwell,  too,  distinguished  himself  in  this  dis- 
cussion ;  the  preferment  of  IManwaring  especially  "  ex- 
cited his  wrath."  "If  these  be  the  steps  to  Church 
preferment,''  cried  the  future  Protector,  "  what  may  we 
expect'?"  At  length  the  king,  exasperated,  endeavored 
to  adjourn  the  House  by  royal  command.  This  led  to 
a  scene  of  great  excitement  and  confusion,  and  finally 
the  third  Parliament  of  Charles's  reign  was  abruptly  dis- 
solved. Parliaments  were  now  to  be  abolished,  and 
Laud  was  prime  minister.  He  must  be  held  to  all  the 
responsibility  attaching  to  such  a  position  at  such  a 
time.  He  presided  especially  over  the  affairs  of  Eng- 
land, the  duke  of  Hamilton  over  those  of  Scotland,  and 
Wentworth  over  those  of  Ireland.  In  his  ecclesiastical 
administration.  Laud's  friends  commonly  claim  for  him 
the  character  of  toleration  and  liberality,  in  the  face  of 
the  fact  that,  having  advised  with  Harsnet,  archbishop 
of  York,  he  drew  up  certain  articles  which,  under  the 
royal  authority,  were  immediately  dispatched  to  arch- 
bishop Abbot,  rec|uiring  liim  and  his  suflFragans  (in 
brief)  to  suppress  the  preaching  of  the  Puritans,  to  note 
all  absentees  from  the  prescribed  public  prayers,  and  to 
render  an  account  in  the  premises  on  the  2d  of  January 
every  year. 

Early  in  1630  Laud  was  chosen  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity' of  Oxford.  In  the  same  year  he  also  enjoyed  the 
honor  of  officiating  at  the  baptism  of  the  infant  prince,  af- 
terwards Charles  II,  although  this  distinction  belonged 
b}'  usage  to  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Laud  was 
now  in  the  full  tide  of  prosperity,  and  nothing  could 
stand  in  his  way.  Did  the  Puritans  undertake  to  buy 
up  the  impropriations  of  Church  livings,  that  they 
might  have  the  disposal  of  them  for  their  lecturers, 
Laud  had  them  punished  for  their  impertinence,  and 
their  purchases  confiscated  to  the  king.  Did  they  pre- 
sume to  preach  or  publish  their  peculiar  tenets  at  Ox- 
ford or  in  Ireland,  Laud  had  them  expelled  or  silenced. 
^V'ere  any  bishoprics  or  deaneries  vacant.  Laud  saw 
that  they  were  filled  with  the  right  sort  of  churchmen. 
He  enlarged  St.  John's  College  with  a  new  quadrangle. 
He  repaired  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  He  took  cognizance 
of  the  chapels  and  chaplains  of  English  congregations 
abroad,  and  of  the  congregations  or  churches  tjf  foreign- 
ers in  England,  and  reduced  them  all  to  conformity,  or 
placed  the  members  of  the  latter  under  the  strictest  sur- 
veillance, taking  away  the  children,  and  burdening  the 
parents  with  all  the  disadvantages  of  alienage.  He 
urged  the  Scottish  bishops,  if  they  made  any  change  in 
their  liturgy,  to  adopt  that  of  the  Church  of  England 
without  any  variation  ;  and  the  new  liturgy  which  was 
drawn  up  by  those  bishops  was  submitted  to  his  final 
revision.  On  the  king's  visit  to  Scotland,  Laud  attend- 
ed him,  was  made  a  member  of  the  Scotch  Privy  Coun- 
cil, and  ]ireached  before  the  king,  in  the  chapel  royal  in 
Holyrood  House,  on  "  the  utility  of  conformity." 


LAUD 


LAUD 


At  length,  on  the  4th  of  August,  IGo.j,  archbishop  Ab- 
bot dicil;  on  the  Otli  Laud  was  promoted  by  the  king  to 
the  jiriraacy,  and  on  the  19th  of  September  was  ibrmally 
translated  to  this,  the  long-desired  goal  of  his  ambition. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  offered  a  cardinal's  hat  by  cer- 
tain emissaries  of  the  pope,  which,  without  betraying 
either  astonishment,  or  indignation,  or  disturbance  of 
any  kind,  he  respectfully  declined  '•  till  IJome  should  be 
otherwise  than  it  then  was;"  and  before  his  enthrone- 
ment he  was  elected  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Dublin. 

In  his  metropolitan  chair  his  first  act  was  to  issue 
more  stringent  rules  for  candidates  for  ordination,  so 
as  more  effectually  to  shut  out  Puritan  preachers  and 
lecturers.  The  next  was  to  revive  and  extend  the 
king's  declaration  concerning  lawful  sports  on  Sundays. 
The  archbishop  now  proceeded  upon  his  metropolitan 
visitations,  and  he  made  thorough  work  of  it ;  for  all 
Puritanism  he  was  a  perfect  "root  and  branch"  man. 
But  one  great  business  and  burden  with  him  was  to  see 
that  the  communion-tables  Avere  placed  altar-wise,  rail- 
ed in,  and  approached  always  with  the  prescribed  bows 
and  obeisances,  it  being  assumed  that  thus,  and  thus  only, 
could  true  devotion  and  godly  reverence  be  preserved  in 
the  Church.  His  old  patron,  bishop  Williams,  he  sus- 
pended for  contumacy.  He  busied  himself  earnestly  in 
improving  the  revenues  of  the  poor  clergy  of  London 
and  the  poorer  clergy  of  Ireland.  He  procured  a  new 
charter  and  statutes  for  the  University  of  Dublin,  and 
the  adoption  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  instead  of  those 
of  Lambeth,  by  the  Irish  Church.  Indeed,  through  his 
intimacy  with  Wentworth,  the  lord  deputy,  and  his 
chancellorship  of  the  Dublin  Universit}',  he  seems,  as 
prime  minister  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  have 
had  mucli  more  control  of  the  affairs  of  the  Irish  Church 
than  her  own  primate,  Usher,  or  any  or  all  of  her  bish- 
ops and  archbishops.  Civil  appointments,  also,  were  ac- 
cumulated upon  Laud.  He  was  not  only  prime  minister, 
privy  counsellor  in  England  and  in  Scotland,  member  of 
the  courts  of  Star  Chamber  and  High  Commission,  but  he 
was  also  appointed  a  member  of  the  committee  of  trade, 
aiid  a  commissioner  of  the  Treasury,  and  placed  on  the 
foreign  committee.  He  procured  the  new  Caroline  Char- 
ter for  Oxford,  and  continued  his  munificent  gifts.  He 
took  especial  care  of  the  restoration  of  the  cathedrals 
and  of  the  Cathedral  service,  with  all  the  old  accustom- 
ed appointments  and  ceremonies. 

Laud,  like  Wolsey  when  in  favor  with  Henry  Till,  had 
reached  the  highest  pinnacle  of  his  greatness.  All  honor, 
power,  and  splendor  seemed  to  converge  towards  him. 
All  around  was  buoyant  with  success  and  glowing  with 
promise.  It  was  Laud  here,  it  was  Laud  there,  it  was  Laud 
everywhere.  He  had  three  kingdoms  well  in  hand. 
Church  and  State  lay  submissive  at  his  feet.  But  the 
scene  was  soon  to  change.  He  was  disporting  himself 
upon  the  bosom  of  a  volcano,  whose  vent-holes  he  was 
lioi)ing  to  keep  stopped  up  with  his  puny  engineering. 
The  quakings  and  rumblings  of  the  approaching  eruption 
were  already  increasing.  In  the  year  1(137, ''some  fac- 
tious and  refractory  men  had  determined  to  establish 
tlieir  enthusiasm  on  the  shores  of  America,  amid  tlie 
fcjrcsts  of  New  England."  These  disorderly  emigra- 
tions without  a  royal  license  it  was  thought  expedient 
to  restrain,  "because  of  the  manj'idle  and  obstinate  hu- 
mors whose  only  or  principal  end  was  to  live  without 
the  reach  of  authority."  Eight  ships  in  the  Thames 
were  stopped  by  an  order  of  Council,  and  no  clergyman 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  country  without  the  approba- 
tion of  tlie  archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  the  bishop 
of  London.  Among  those  intended  emigrants  Oliver 
Cromwell  is  said  to  have  been  thus  stopped.  The  sj^mp- 
toms  of  dissatisfaction  and  uneasiness  were  drawing  to- 
wards a  crisis,  and  some  prosecutions  of  this  same  year 
accelerated  the  national  calamities.  The  first  case  was 
the  trial  of  Prynne,  Bastwick,  and  Burton  in  the  Star 
Chamber.  J'rynne  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford,  and  a 
barrister  of  Lincoln's  Inn :  Bastwick  left  Cambridge  be- 


fore taking  his  degree,  and,  having  travelled  nine  years 
on  the  Continent,  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  Padua; 
Burton  was  A.]\I.  and  B.D.  at  Oxford,  and  had  been  clerk 
of  the  closet  to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  rector  of  St. 
Matthew's,  Friday  Street,  London.  Prynne,  for  his  Ilis- 
trio-Mustyx,  had  already  been  condemned  to  pay  a  fine 
of  £5000,  to  be  expelled  from  Oxford  and  from  Lincoln's 
Inn,  to  stand  in  the  pUlorj'  at  Westminster  and  at  Cheap- 
side,  and  at  each  place  to  have  an  ear  cut  off,  to  have 
his  book  burnt  before  his  face,  and  to  remain  a  prisoner 
for  life.  In  the  execution  of  the  sentence  it  is  said  that 
Prynne  had  nearly  been  suffocated  Avith  the  smoke  of 
his  book.  From  prison,  however,  the  irrepressible  Prynne, 
as  soon  as  he  could  procure  writing  materials,  continued 
audaciously,  and  with  amazing  industr}',  to  send  forth 
his  pamphlets  against  his  persecutors;  and  now  the 
doctor  Bastwick  and  the  rector  Burton  had  joined  the 
lawyer  in  the  fray.  These  pamphlets  were  no  doubt  in- 
temperate and  extravagant,  coarse  and  violent  in  their 
language;  they  were  naturally  branded  as  scurrilous 
and  seditious  by  the  other  side.  But  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered their  authors  were  persecuted  fanatics ;  and  it  is  a 
better  excuse  for  them  to  say  that  the  controversial  lan- 
guage of  the  age  was  coarse,  than  it  is  for  their  enemies 
to  say  that  the  punishments  of  the  age  were  barbarous. 
The  use  of  epithets  is  largely  a  matter  of  taste  and  fash- 
ion ;  but  humanit}'  itself,  wherever  it  exists,  is  shocked 
at  the  sight  of  torture,  and  cruelty,  and  blood.  All 
three  of  the  accused  were  condemned ;  Prynne  to  pay  a 
fine  of  £5000,  to  lose  the  remainder  of  liis  ears  in  the 
pillory,  to  be  branded  on  both  cheeks  with  the  initials 
of  slanderous  libeler,  and  to  be  immured  for  life  in  Caer- 
narvon Castle.  Bastwick  and  Burton  were  to  paj^  the 
same  fine,  were  to  lose  their  cars  in  the  pillory,  and  to 
be  imprisoned  for  life  in  separate  castles.  On  tliis  occa- 
sion. Laud,  who  was  a  member  of  the  court,  made  a  long 
speech.  As  he  had  everything  under  his  own  control, 
he  had  no  temptation  to  use  violent  language.  He  as- 
sumed an  air  of  studied  coolness  and  dignity.  Having 
descanted  upon  the  merits  of  his  own  immaculate  ad- 
ministration in  Church  and  State,  and  set  forth  in  strong 
colors  the  dangerous  and  abominable  character  of  fac- 
tious and  seditious  libeling,  he  added,"  But  because  the 
business  hath  some  reflection  upon  myself ,  I  shall  forbear 
to  censui-e  them,  and  leave  them  to  God's  mercy  and  the 
king's  justice."  That  is  to  say,  having  fully  given  his 
views,  he  would  not  cast  his  formal  vote  in  the  case,  but, 
knowing  full  well  what  the  decision,  yea,  the  "  unani- 
mous" decision  of  the  judges  would  be,  he  concludes  his 
speech  thus .  "  I  give  all  your  lordships  hearty  thanks 
for  j'our  noble  patience,  and  your  just  and  honorable 
sentence  upon  these  men,  and  your  unanimous  dislike 
of  them  and  defence  of  the  Church."  Who  can  doubt 
that  Prynne  was  riglit  in  afterwards  declaring  that  Laud 
was  "  the  cause  and  contriver  of  the  sentence  before  it 
was  given,  and  that  he  a]iproved  and  thanked  the  lords 
for  it  when  it  was  given  T  The  three  victims  under- 
went their  "  punishment''  (as  Laud's  friends  delight  to 
call  it)  with  tlie  most  astonishing  heroism.  Such  "pun- 
ishment" of  such  men,  however  ignominious  or  degrad- 
ing it  was  meant  to  be,  coidd  never  elevate  the  dignity 
or  strengthen  the  position  of  the  party  that  inflicted  it. 
The  sufferers  were  no  doubt  supported  by  the  sympa- 
thies of  an  immense  mass  of  the  people,  as  well  as  by 
their  own  courage  or  obstinacy,  their  religious  principle 
or  fanaticism.  No  wonder  that  libels  against  the  arch- 
bishop were  niultijilitMl  and  intensified,  and  that  his  vic- 
tims were  honored  with  aliundant  and  galling  demonstra- 
tions of  popular  favor.  It  was  found  necessary,  in  order 
to  remove  them  out  of  the  reach  of  tlieir  friends,  to 
transfer  them  from  the  prisons  to  which  they  had  been 
condemned  to  other  castles  in  the  Channel  Islands. 

Having  now  seen  the  leaders  of  the  "malignant  fac- 
tion" visited  with  condign  "  iiunislimcnt"  and  put  out  of 
the  way.  Laud  had  the  pleasure  of  having  his  early  pa- 
tron, bishop  Williams — against  whom  ho  seems  to  liavc 
nursed  a  rancorous  grudge,  as  though  fearing-  that  one 


LAUD 


2V3 


LAUD 


day  he  might  be  a  dangerous  rival — arraigned  before 
him  in  the  Star  Chamber,  at  first  on  the  old  charge  of 
revealing  the  king's  secrets,  and  afterwards  in  that  of 
suborning  a  witness ;  and,  having  again  delivered  him- 
self of  a  long  and  dignified  speech,  magnifying  the  enor- 
mity of  the  crime  of  subornation  of  perjurj',  especially  in 
a  clergyman  and  a  bishop,  and  at  the  same  time  protest- 
ing his  personal  friendliness,  he  graciously  and  humbly 
leaves  the  accused  to  the  tender  mercies  of  a  court  thus 
"  tuned,"  who  sentenced  him  to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000,  to 
be  imprisoned  during  the  king's  pleasure,  and  to  be  sus- 
pended from  all  his  offices,  preferments,  and  functions. 
Upon  Laud's  recommendation,  a  decree  was  passed  by 
the  Star  Chamber  in  1637  for  restraining  the  freedom 
of  the  press.  The  provisions  of  the  edict  were  sufii- 
ciently  severe.  It  limited  the  number  of  master  print- 
ers under  penalty  of  whipping;  it  forbade  the  printing 
of  books  -svithout  a  license  from  the  archbishop  or  the 
bishop  of  London,  or  their  chaplains,  or  from  the  chan- 
cellors or  vice-chancellors  of  the  universities.  It  pro- 
hibited the  sale  of  imported  books  without  a  similar  li- 
cense; it  authorized  the  Company  of  Stationers  to  seize 
on  all  such  books  as  they  found  to  be  schismatical  or  of- 
fensive, and  to  lay  them  before  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties; it  enacted  that  no  one  in  England  should  cause  to 
be  printed  any  books  in  English  beyond  tlie  seas,  or  to 
import  them  into  the  country;  and  finally  it  provided 
that  offences  against  the  decree  should  be  punished  by 
the  court  of  Star  Chamber  or  Ilicrh  Commission.     Such 


as  accessory,  but  as  prime  minister.  He  corresponded 
constantly  with  the  Scottish  bishops  as  well  as  with  the 
civil  authorities  in  Scotland.  To  him  they  made  their 
reports  and  their  excuses,  and  his  advice  and  direction 
were  required  and  sought  on  all  occasions. 

The  invasion  of  England  by  the  army  of  the  Cove- 
nanters at  length  compelled  Charles  once  more  to  sum- 
mon the  English  Legislature.  The  Long  Parliament 
met.  Then  the  bubble  burst;  then  the  flaunting  splen- 
dors of  a  luxurious  and  insolent  court  were  exchanged 
for  humiliation  and  deepening  gloom ;  then  the  vast 
machinery  of  ecclesiastical  despotism,  pushed  to  its  ut- 
most tension  of  pride  and  tyranny,  suddenly  gave  way 
with  a  crash,  and  the  accumulated  usurpations  of  royal 
prerogative  hastened  to  their  final  and  irreversible  doom. 
The  odious  courts  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  High  Com- 
mission were  abolished,  and  all  judges  were  henceforth 
made  independent  of  the  crown  ;  no  taxes,  of  whatever 
description,  were  to  be  levied  without  authority  of  Par- 
liament, and  Parliaments  were  bv  law  to  be  triennial. 
The  earl  of  Strafford,  lord  deputy  of  Ireland,  Laud's 
most  intimate  friend,  the  king's  ablest  political  adviser, 
and  the  most  skilful  commander  of  the  royal  forces 
against  the  Scotch,  was  impeached  for  high  treason. 
Laud's  own  impeachment  soon  followed,  and  he  was 
forthwith  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  was  kept 
imprisoned  three  years  (1641-5) ;  his  jurisdiction  and 
all  his  offices  and  emoluments  were  sequestered  by  the 
House  of  Peers.     Lambeth  Palace  was  made  a  state 


was  the  law  enacted — not  by  the  English  Parliament,  I  prison,  and  Leighton,  now  almost  a  maniac,  was  put  in 


but  by  the  Star  Chamber — to  protect,  not  the  English 
Protestant  Church,  but  the  Laudian  ecclesiastical  sys- 
tem against  the  "  Puritan  faction." 

The  "Short  Parliament"  of  1610  had  been  dissolved  af- 
ter a  session  of  three  weeks ;  but  as  the  Convocation  con- 
tinued to  sit,  a  set  of  new  canons  was  drawn  up  under  the 
influence  and  presidency  of  Laud,  wliich  contained  the 
famous  election  oath ;  and  the  first  of  which  proclaimed 
that  monarchy  was  of  divine  right, that  the  royal  author- 
ity was  independent,  not  only  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  but 
of  everj'  other  earthly  power,  and  that  it  cannot  be  as- 
sailed on  any  pretence  without  resistance  to  the  ordinance 
of  God.  Not  only  this  canon,  but  the  whole  body  of  them, 
were  of  the  most  arbitrarj' character,  especially  enjoining, 
under  severe  penalties,  the  ceremonies  to  which  the  arch- 
bishop was  notoriously  attached ;  and  all  this  at  a  time 
most  unwisely  chosen,  when  the  whole  condition  of  the 
empire  was  imminently  critical ;  so  that,  as  Clarendon 
remarks, "  the  season  in  which  that  synod  continued  to 
sit  was  in  so  ill  a  conjuncture  of  time  that  nothing  could 
have  been  transacted  there  of  a  popiUar  and  prevailing 
influence." 

The  archbishop  prime  minister  had  so  completely 
established  uniformity  in  England  that  he  now  had 
leisure  to  turn  his  particular  attention  to  the  reforma- 
tion of  Puritan  abuses  in  the  outlying  islands  of  Jer- 
sey and  Guernsej'.  He  claims  to  have  brought  Chilling- 
worth  back  from  the  Church  of  Rome.  If  he  did,  he 
certainly  did  not  make  that  irrefragable  defender  of  the 
religion  of  Protestants  a  disciple  of  his  own  system.  He 
urged  bishop  Hall  to  write  his  treatise  on  Episcopacy; 
but  Hall's  claims  were  not  put  high  enough  to  satisfy 
Laud,  who  was  particularly  offended  because  the  pope 
was  plainly  called  Antichrist.  The  plot  now  thickens. 
The  Scottish  troubles  growing  out  of  the  attempted  im- 
position of  the  new  canons  and  liturgy  ujion  the  Scottish 
people,  beginning  with  the  "  profane  imprecation"  of  the 
dame  Janet  Geddes,  in  St.  Giles's,  at  the  first  reading  of 
the  detested  service:  "Out,  out,  thou  false  thief;  dost 
thou  say  mass  at  my  lug?"  had  now  swollen  into  an 
irresistible  storm  of  violence  and  rebellion.  The  uproar 
of  the  "  old  woman"  in  a  church,  and  the  brickbats  of 
the  mob  around  it,  had  turned  into  a  national  conspiracy. 
Through  all  the  business  Laud  had  adroitly  managed  to 
incur  no  responsibihty  without  the  participation  or  au- 
thority of  the  king  or  the  Scottish  bishops;  neverthe- 
less, it  is  evident  he  was  mixed  up  with  it  all,  not  only 

v.— S 


charge  of  it;  Prj-nne  was  made  his  warden  in  the  Tower. 
The  bishops  were  unseated  from  the  House  of  Lords ; 
episcopacy  and  the  liturgy  were  abolished  by  act  of 
Parliament ;  and  Laud — having  seen  the  complete  tri- 
umph of  the  miserable  "  fanatical  faction"  over  which 
he  had  wielded  the  rod  of  power  and  of  punishment  so 
long,  the  utter  destruction  and  abolition  of  the  hierar- 
chy and  the  ceremonies  to  whose  aggrandizement  and 
magnificence  he  had  devoted  his  life,  and  the  annihila- 
tion of  all  his  fond  dreams  of  personal  grandeur,  and 
glory,  and  lordly  munificence — was  at  length  condemned 
by  an  ordinance  of  Parliament,  and  suffered  decapitation 
on  Tower  HiU,  meeting  his  doom  with  perfect  compos- 
ure and  quiet  dignity,  on  the  10th  of  January,  1645. 

Thus  fell  the  famous  archbishop  Laud,  perhaps  the' 
best  praised  and  most  blamed  man  that  ever  lived.  As- 
to  the  formal  legality  of  his  sentence,  it  may  be  admit- 
ted that  it  cannot  be  constitutionally  or  technically  jus- 
tified. As  to  the  specific  charges  against  him,  it  may 
be  granted  that  they  could  not,  except  constructively,, 
amount  to  treason  even  if  proved,  and  that  few  of  any 
weight  were  proved  with  such  evidence  as  would  be  sat- 
isfactory under  the  strict  rules  of  an  impartial  court  of 
justice.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  Laud  was 
tried  before  a  revolutionary  tribunal;  that,  in  such  cir- 
cumstances, moral,  not  legal  evidence  swayed  his  j  udges ; 
and  that  the  general,  known  truth  of  the  case,  not  the 
detailed  proof  of  specific  articles,  determined  the  conclu- 
sion. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  tJie  arbitrary  and  tyrannical' 
acts  of  the  administration  of  Charles  and  of  Laud, wheth- 
er in  Church  or  State,  did  not  go  beyond  the  precedents 
which  had  been  set  from  Henry  YIII  downwards ;  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  spirit  of  the  times  had 
changed,  and  it  was  the  bounden  duty  of  wise  men  in 
high  places  to  know  it,  and  act  accordingly.  A  people 
educated  under  Romish  domination  and  superstition 
might  submit  to  the  imposition  of  taxes  or  of  creeds  by 
the  sovereign  and  established  authority,  which  a  people 
educated  under  even  an  imperfect  influx  of  Protestant 
light,  and  of  its  attendant  maxims  of  personal  liberty 
and  freedom  of  thought,  could  no  longer  brook.  More- 
over, a  tyrannical  despotism  once  constitutionally  es- 
tablished can  never  be  abolished  or  got  rid  of  unless  the 
governors  either  yield  to  the  popular  demands  or  are 
illegally  put  down  b)'  revolutionary  force  and  violence. 

It  mav  be  conceded  that  Laud  was  honest  and  con- 


LAUD 


274 


LAUD 


scientious  in  defending  the  extreme  doctrines  of  the  di- 
vine right,  of  the  royal  prerogative,  and  of  passive  obe- 
dience, and  in  his  endeavors  to  suppress  the  "  Puritan 
faction"  in  Churcli  and  State ;  but,  in  a  historical  esti- 
mate of  his  career  and  character,  this  proves  nothing. 
The  constitution  of  successive  Parliaments  shows  that 
this  "  fiiction"  was  an  increasing  majority  of  the  nation  ; 
they,  too,  were  conscientious ;  I'ryinie,  Bastwick,  and 
Burton  were  conscientious — fanatically,  not  by  policy, 
conscientious;  the  parliamentary  leaders,  those  noble 
defenders  of  English  liberty,  were  conscientious ;  most 
despots,  tyrants,  and  conservatives,  as  well  as  rebels, 
revolutionists,  and  reformers,  are  conscientious.  Their 
conduct  and  character  must  be  judged  of  by  rules  inde- 
pendent of  their  well  informed  or  ill  informed  private 
consciences.  There  may  be  fault  on  both  sides :  one 
extreme  begets  another.  So  it  was  then  ;  so  it  was  af- 
terwards. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  the  charge  of  popery  against 
Laud — a  charge  from  which  he  suffered  more  severely 
than  from  any  other,  and  which  more  than  any  other 
was  the  cause  of  his  ruin — was  not  literally  true.  What 
was  substantially  true  was  thus  put  into  the  false  and 
extravagant  formula  of  the  demagogue — it  was  a  cari- 
cature. Laud  was  a  loyal  son  of  the  Church  of  England, 
"  as  by  lavv  established,"  so  long  as  the  laws  were  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  notions,  or  as  he  had  the  interpreta- 
tion and  execution  of  them  in  his  own  hands.  It  was 
not  Roman  popery,  but  Anglican  or  Laudean  popery 
which  he  would  establish.  No  doubt  he  was  more  of  a 
Papist  than  of  a  Protestant  in  the  true  sense  of  that 
word.  His  sympathies  were  more  with  Rome  than  with 
Augsburg  or  Geneva;  and  the  people,  who  are  instinc- 
tively sagacious  in  questions  of  this  kind,  did  not  fail  to 
perceive  it,  and  they  expressed  their  judgment,  as  is 
their  wont,  in  the  most  summary  and  positive  terms. 

As  to  ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  Laud's  devotion  to 
them  and  to  their  enforcement  is  certainly  not  among 
the  marks  of  his  greatness  of  mind.  The  opposition  to 
them  may  have  been  as  unreasonable  as  their  imposi- 
tion; yet  the  fact  was  they  were  generally  unpopular 
and  odious,  and  Laud,  in  his  position,  was  bound  to  have 
the  discretion  to  accommodate  himself  to  that  fact.  It 
boots  nothing  to  say  that  they  were  not  illegal;  it  is 
enough  that  they  were  both  unpopular  and  unnecessar\\ 
It  boots  nothing  to  talk  of  the  irreverence  and  slovenli- 
ness of  the  Puritan  worship ;  that  is  mostly  exaggera- 
tion; but,  at  all  events,  decency  and  reverence  could 
have  been  preserved  without  the  precision  and  multi- 
plied formalities  of  the  Laudean  ceremonial. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  Laud  was  a  munificent  pa- 
tron of  learning  and  of  the  universities,  with  whose  dig- 
nities he  was  invested;  but  it  might  not  be  altogether 
amiss  to  inquire  whence  came  all  the  funds  of  which  he 
made  all  this  lordly  distribution;  and  perliaps  we  shall 
find  that,  in  this  matter,  Laud  deserves  only  this  honor 
above  many  other  men,  that  he  honestly  paid  over  at 
least  a  portion  of  the  money  to  those  to  whom,  after  all, 
it  rightfully  belonged.  He  never  stinted  the  splendor 
or  sumptuousness  of  his  own  establisbnient,  or  the  ap- 
pointments of  his  personal  retinue.  Of  his  wealth  and 
grandeur  he  enjoyed  what  he  could.  But  let  it  remain 
to  his  credit  that  his  vanity — if  it  were  nothing  better — 
took  the  form  of  magnilicent  public  benefactions. 

As  to  intellectual  abilities.  Laud's  nnist  have  been 
consider.ahle,  or  he  could  never  have  been  the  historical 
persuuagt'  lie  was.  In  the  personal  habits  of  his  private 
life  he  was  irre|)roachable.  As  a  clergyman  he  was  in- 
defatigable and  ptmctilious  in  the  discharge  of  his  du- 
ties. He  was  always  narrow  and  bigoted  in  his  views, 
but  he  lived  in  narrow  and  bigoted  times.  How  far  his 
high  political  positions  were  compatible  with  his  eecle- 
siastical  character  may  well  lie  ddubteil,  and  his  exam- 
ple can  never  be  repeated  again  in  lOngland.  How  far 
the  corrupting  influence  of  |)olitical  plai'e,  and  of  the 
association  of  political  persons  and  of  political  life,  may 
have  contributed  to  Uovelop  and  exaggerate  his  worst 


faults — which,  after  all,  were  chiefly  those  of  adminis- 
tration— it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  he  was  a  courtier  long  before  he  was  even  a  bishop, 
and  continued  a  courtier  till  he  became  primate  of  all 
England,  and  thereafter  till  he  was  '•  translated"  from 
the  court  to  the  Tower  of  London.  If  lawn  sleeves  could 
pass  unsullied  through  the  scenes  of  such  a  life,  a  natu- 
rally ambitious  churchman  could  hardly  grow  in  grace 
in  such  an  atmosphere.  Laud's  devotional  compositions, 
in  the  form  of  private  prayers,  are  often  admirable,  and 
are  thought  to  give  a  very  favorable  insight  into  his 
interior  religious  life.  Let  us  hope  that  the  prayers 
were  sincere  and  acceptable. 

Laud's  character  may  be  considered  with  reference  to 
the  Tightness  of  his  general  purpose,  or  to  the  wisdom 
of  his  aiming  at  its  accomplishment,  or  to  the  manner 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  effect  it.  As  to  the  right  or 
wrong  of  his  general  purpose,  his  theory  and  aim, 
whether  in  Church  or  State,  but  particularly  in  the 
Church,  it  always  has  been,  and  perhaps  alwaj's  will  be, 
a  matter  of  dispute.  It  is  useless  to  discuss  it.  Any 
judgment  of  his  character  based  upon  the  assumption 
of  this  question  is  no  better  than  a  jjefitio  j)rincijni.  As 
to  the  wisdom  or  folly  of  undertaking  to  accompUsh  that 
purpose  in  those  times  and  under  those  circumstances,  it 
is  more  and  more  generall}^  admitted  that  he  made  a 
mistake  in  the  attempt.  His  friends  regard  it  as  a  ve- 
nial error,  his  enemies  reckon  the  blunder  a  crime.  As 
to  the  means  he  employed,  and,  in  general,  his  whole 
manner  and  bearing  in  seeking  his  end,  there  is  a  very 
general  verdict  against  him.  He  had  great  personal 
faults.  Prominent  among  them  were  an  overweening 
ambition,  self-sufficiency,  and  insolence.  An  aristocratic 
estimate  of  the  structure  of  society,  and  a  sovereign  con- 
tempt for  the  people  and  the  popular  will — very  natu- 
ral, but  the  more  inexcusable  in  a  man  of  his  origin  and 
profession  —  an  utter  destitution  of  the  grand  idea  of 
humanitt/,  underlie  all  the  mistakes  and  all  the  misfor- 
tunes of  his  lile. 

We  conclude  our  sketch  with  the  following  candid 
admissions  from  Le  Bas,  one  of  Laud's  most  earnest 
apologists  and  admirers.  ''  Tliat  the  administration  of 
Laud  was  in  some  respects  injurious  to  the  Church  can 
hardly  be  denied;  but  then  it  is  most  important  to  keep 
in  mind  that  the  injury  was  inflicted  not  so  much  by 
the  measures  which  he  adopted  as  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  enforced  them.  There  has  seldom,  perhaps, 
lived  a  man  who  contrived  that  his  good  should  be  so 
virulently  evil  spoken  of.  From  all  that  we  learn  of 
him,  his  manner  appears  to  have  been  singularly  ungra- 
cious and  unpopular,  and  his  temper  offensively  irascible 
and  hot.  If  we  are  to  trust  the  representations  of  him 
left  us  either  by  friend  or  foe,  he  must  have  been  one  of 
the  most  disagreeable  persons  in  the  three  kingdoms 
except  to  those  who  were  intimately  acquainted  with 
his  worth.  There  was  nothing  affable  or  engaging  in 
his  general  behavior.  His  very  integrity  was  often 
made  odious  by  wearing  an  aspect  of  austerity  and 
haughtiness.  It  would  almost  seem  as  if  prudence  had 
been  struck  out  of  his  catalogue  of  the  cardinal  virtues. 
He  was  unable,  as  Warbtirton  remarks,  to  comprehend 
one  important  truth,  with  which  liichelieu  was  so  fa- 
miliar, when  he  said  that  if  he  had  not  spent  as  much 
time  in  civilities  as  in  business  he  had  undone  his  mas- 
ter. The  consequence  of  this  ignorance,  or  of  this  dis- 
dain, of  the  ways  of  tlie  world  was  unspeakably  hurtful 
to  the  cause  which  at  all  times  was  nearest  his  heart. 
In  the  minds  of  many  who  were  ignorant  of  the  essen- 
tial excellence  of  the  man,  the  interests  of  the  Estab- 
lishment were,  by  his  demeanor,  associated  with  almost 
everything  that  is  harsh  and  repulsive.  For  a  consid- 
erable portion  of  his  life  he  was  regarded  not  only  as  the 
leader,  but,the  represent<itivc  of  the  ecclesiastical  body  ; 
and  the  impression  which  he  communicated  to  the  pub- 
lic was  too  often  that  of  unfeeling  arrogance  and  lofty 
impatience  of  control.  Whether  the  Church  could  have 
been  saved  by  any  combination,  in  the  person  of  its 


LAUDA  SIGN  SALVATOREM    275 


LAUDEMIUM 


ruler,  of  those  rare  endowments  which  secure  at  once 
both  reverence  and  attachment,  no  human  sagacity  can 
at  this  day  be  competent  to  pronounce ;  but  it  certainly 
is  not  altogether  surprising  that  this  unhappy  defect 
should,  even  in  the  minds  of  judicious  and  impartial 
men,  have  connected  his  administration  with  the  ruin 
of  the  Establishment.*  In  such  unquiet  times,  more  es- 
pecially, a  man  like  Laud  would  not  only  be  dreaded  as 
a  firm  and  conscientious  disciplinarian,  but  as  the  rigor- 
ous and  overbearing  priest;  and  the  Church  would  be 
sure  to  suffer  most  grievously  for  the  unpopularity  of 
her  governor." 

In  England,  the  parties  with  which  Laud's  life  was 
implicated  have  not  yet  passed  away,  so  that  it  is  al- 
most impossible  even  now  to  get  an  impartial  estimate 
of  the  man  from  his  own  countrymen;  but  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  the  ultimate  verdict  of  historj'  will  be 
his  final  condemnation.  The  English  monarchy  has 
gloriously  survived  the  political  princijiles  which  he  de- 
fended; bis  ecclesiastical  principles  will  ultimately  lie 
found  equally  mmecessary,  nay,  hostile,  to  the  true 
strength  and  glory  of  the  English  Church.  (D.  II.  G.) 
Laud's  writings  are  few.  Wharton  published  his  J)i- 
arij  in  1694,  and  Parker  his  Wurls  (Oxford,  1847-GOi, 
containing,  among  other  things,  his  letters  and  miscel- 
laneous papers,  many  of  them  then  published  for  the 
first  time,  and,  like  his  Diarij,  invaluable  as  contribu- 
tions to  the  personal  histor}'  of  this  noted  archbish<i]i 
and  his  associates.  See  Hume,  Hist,  of  Fjigl.  chap,  lii; 
Hallam,  Constit.  Hist,  of  Engl.  (Lond.  1854),  ii,  38,  167  ; 
Macaulay,  Essays  (1854),  i,  159  sq.,  424  sq. ;  Short,  Ch. 
Hist.  (Lond.  1840),  p.  486  sq.,  553  sq.;  Tulloch,  English 
Puritanism,  p.  45  sq. ;  Fletcher,  History  of  Indejiendenaj , 
vols,  ii,  iii,  iv ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  (see  Index) ;  Prynne, 
Heylin,  Le  Bas,  Lawson,  and  Baines,  on  the  Life  of 
Laud;  IFes^m. /?«'.  xvii,  478  sq. ;  1870,  p.  294;  London 
Afonth. Rev. cxviu, 317  sq.;  Lemd.Retrosp.Reiwn  (1827), 
49  sq.;  LUachv.  3fag.  xxv,  G19  sq. ;  xxvii,  179;  xxix, 
523;  1,806;  Lond.  Quart.  Eev.  x,  101  sq.;  North.  Ama: 
Bevieu;  1864,  606  sq. 

Lauda  Sion  Salvatorem  is  the  beginning  of 
the  renowned  sequence  of  Thomas  Aquinas  (1224-1274) 
for  Corpus -Christi  day.  It  consists  of  twelve  double 
verses,  which  are  as  follows  : 

Care  cibus,  sanguis  potns  : 
Manet  tamen  Christus  totus 

Sub  utraque  specie. 
8.  A  siimente  uon  concisns, 


1.  Lauda  Siou  salvatorem, 
Lauda  ducem  et  pastorem 

In  hyniuiset canticis:  [de, 
Qunutnm  potes,  tantum  au- 
Quia  ninjoi-  orani  laude, 

Nee  laudare  sufflcis. 

?.  Laudis  Ihema  specialis, 
Panis  vivnfe  et  vitalis 

Hodie  proponitur, 
Qnem  in  sacire  mensa  coeuoe 
Tiirbae  fratrum  duodenre 

Datum  nou  ambigitur. 

3.  Sit  laus  plena,  sit  sonora, 
Sit.jucnnda,  sit  decora, 

Mentis  jubilatio : 
Dies  enim  sollemnis  agitur 
In  qua  niensre  prima  recoli- 

Hnjus  institutio.  [tur 

4.  In  hac  mensa  novi  regis 
Novum  pascha  novre  legis 

^  Phase  vetus  terrainat. 
Vetnstatem  uovitas, 
Umbram  fuc^at  Veritas, 
Noctem  lux  eliminat. 

5.  Qnod  in  ctEiiaChristus  ges- 
Faciendum  hoc  espressit  [sit 

In  siii  memorinm. 
Docti  sacris  institntis, 
Panem,  vinuin  in  salulis 

Cousecramus  hostiam. 

6.  Di)<;ma  datur  Christianis, 
Qiiod  in  carnem  transit  i)anis 

Et  vinum  in  sanguinem. 
Quod  nou  cnpis,  quod  non  vi- 
Animosa  tirmat  fides     [des, 

Prceter  reium  ordinem. 

7.  Sub  diversis  speciebns, 
Siszuis  tiiutum  et  non  rebus, 

Latent  les  eximise. 


Non  confractus,  nou  divisiis, 

Integer  accipitnr. 
Snmit  uuus,  sumunt  mille, 
Quantum  isti, tantum  ille, 

Nee  sumptus  consumiiur. 

9.  Sumunt  boni, sumunt  raali, 
Sorte  tamen  insequali 

VitJE  vel  inteiitus. 
Mors  est  malis,  vita  bonis  : 
Vide,  paris  sumplionis 

Quam  sit  dispar  exitns. 

10.  Fracto  demum  sacramen- 
Ne  vacilles,  sed  memento  [to 
Tantum  es>e  sub  fragmeuto 

Quantum  toto  tegitur: 
Nulla  rei  tit  scissura, 
Signi  tantum  fit  fractura 
Qua  nee  status  nee  statura 

Signati  minuitur. 

11.  Ecce  panis  angelorum, 
Factus  cibus  viatorum, 
Vere  panis  tilioium, 

Ndu  miltendus  canibus. 
In  fiuuris  priPf^itrnatur, 
Quuni  Isaac  imniolatur, 
Agnus  Pascliffi  deputatur, 

Datur  manna  patribus. 

12.  Bone  pastor,  panis  veie, 
.Tesn,  nostri  miserere. 

Tu  uos  pasce,  nos  tuere, 
Tu  nos  bona  fac  videre 

In  terra  vivcutium. 
Tu  qui  cnncta  scis  et  vales. 
Qui  nos  pascis  hie  mortales  : 
'I'uoB  Ibi  commensales, 
CohiEicdes  et  sodales 

Fac  sanctorum  civluni. 


Lauda  Sion,  although  full  of  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  as  was  to  be  expected  from  its  author,  yet 
contains  no  allusion  to  the  priestly  power  "  deiim  conf- 
ce?e,"  which  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  Corpus-Christi 
day,  but  ends  with  an  inward  prayer  for  adoption  and 
participation  in  the  eternal  feast  of  grace.  A  German 
translation  was  made  of  it  by  the  monk  John  of  Salz- 
burg (1366-1396), beginning  with  the  words  Lob,  0  Syon, 
deinen  Schdpfer.  We  know  of  no  EngUsh  translation. 
See  Koch,  Geschichte  des  Kirchenliedes,  i,  45-66  ;  Daniel, 
Tkesaur.  Hymmlogicus,  ii,  97  sq.  (Lips.  1855, 5  vols.  8vo). 

Laudian  Manu- 
script (Codex  Laudia- 
NLS,  SO  called  because  pre- 
sented by  arclibishop  Laud 
in  1636  to  the  University 
of  Oxford,  now  in  the  Bod- 
leian Librarj^,  where  it  is 
numbered  35),  usually  des- 
ignated as  E  cf  the  Acts, 
.    is  a  verj'  valuable  MS.  of 
ff   the  Acts,  with  the  Greek 
5    and  Latin  in  uncial  letters 
Jl   in  parallel  columns,  the 
g    Latin   words   (which   are 
5    neither  Jerome's  nor  the 
•<    Vulgate,  but  a  closely  lit- 
£    eral   version)   always  ex- 
|.    actly  opposite  the  Greek. 

It  is  defective  at  Acts 

3  xxvi,  29-xxvii,  26.  It  is 
i  in  size  nine  inches  by  sev- 
5  en  and  a  half,  and  consists 
^  of  226  leaves  of  23-26  hues. 
•=  The  vellum  is  rather  poor, 
■g  and  the  ink  faint.  There 
^  are  no  stops,  and  few 
—  breathings.  It  was  prob- 
g  ably  written  in  the  West 
'I  during  the  sixth  century. 
*§  Readings  were  taken  from 
^  it  by  Fell  ( 1675)  and  MUl 
9,  (1707).  Hearne  publish- 
§)  ed  the  text  in  full:  Acta 
^  Apostoloj-vm  Grwco-Lati- 
aa  ncB,  Uteris  majusculis 
^  (Oxon.  1715,  8vo) ;  row 
►<  very  scarce.  See  Davidson, 
■g  Bib.  Crit.  ii,  293 :  Tregelles, 
<  in  Home's  Lntrod.  iv,  187 
2  sq. ;  Scrivener,  lntrod.  p. 
I    128.     See  Mamisckipts. 

1        Laudemium,  a  name 
^    given  to  the  sum  which 
§    heirs,  on  obtaining  their 
S    inheritance,  are  to  pay  to 
^    certain  parties.    It  was  to 
£    be  paid  for  the  recognition 
"5    and  establishment  {landa- 
=    iio')  of  the  claim,  and  even, 
S    occasionallj',  on  coming 
S    into  possession  other  than 
,£*    an  inheritance,  as,  for  in- 
stance, by  gift,  etc.    It  sub- 
sequently became  obliga- 
tory only  in  cases  of  sale, 
of  inheritance  from  collat- 
eral relations,  or  sometimes 
from    descendants,  etc. 
^J     .  J  ^*|  The  Roman  law  states  tlie 

\r       I  r  \   L^  I  amount  to  be  paid  in  the 

case  of  a  copyhold  to  be 
one  fiftieth  of  the  princi- 
pal ("  quinquagcsima  pars  pretii  vel  wstimationis  loci, qui 
transfertur,"  cap.  3,  Cod.  .Just,  de  jure  emphyteutico,  iv, 
66).     It  subsequently  increased  to  one  thirtieth,  one 


5 

4. 


LAUDS 


27G 


LAUNOI 


twentieth,  and  even  one  tenth.  This,  however,  is  named 
the  laudemium  inajus,  and  distinguislied  from  the  lau- 
clemium  minus.  See  J.  C.  H.  Schroter,  V.  d.  Lehenswcn-e, 
etc.  (Berlin,  1789);  Christ,  Analecta  de  sportula  cliente- 
lari  vulffo  de  faxajeudali  (Lips.  1757). — Herzog,  Jleul- 
EneyUopddie,  viii,  230. 

Ijauds,  Hymns  of  praise  (from  Latin  huts,  praise). 
In  some  of  the  ancient  councils  the  hallelujah  appointed 
to  be  sung  after  the  Gospel  is  termed  Luudcs.  Also  the 
name  of  the  service  which,  before  the  PJeformation,  fol- 
lowed after  the  Nocturn,  celebrated  between  12  and  3 
A.M.,  or  in  the  3d  watch.  Du  Cange  assigns  them  this 
place,  but  cites  a  passage  from  which  it  would  appear 
tliat  they  rather  belong  to  matins  in  the  following 
■watch.  The  Lauds,  Du  Cange  tells  us,  consisted,  in  the 
monastic  or  pre-reformatory  service,  of  the  last  three 
psalms.  Durand,  however,  names  five.  See  Procter, 
Common  Prayer,  p.  186  sq. —  Eden,  Thcolog.  Diet.  s.  v.; 
Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.  See  Breviauy  ;  Canonical 
Hours;  Liturgy;  Matins. 

Laufifer,  Jacob,  a  Swiss  Protestant  minister  and 
historian,  was  born  at  Zoffingen  July  25, 1688,  and  stud- 
ied theology  at  Halle  and  Utrecht.  In  1718  he  became 
professor  of  history  and  eloquence  at  Berne.  He  died 
Feb.  26,  1734.  His  works  are  not  of  special  interest  to 
theological  students,  excepting,  perhaps,  De  llostium 
tSpoliis  Deo  sacratis  et  sac?-amlis  (1717). 

Laughter  (pnif,  yfAwc,),  an  action  usually  ex- 
pressing Joy  (Gen.  xxi,  6;  Psa.  cxxvi,  2;  Eccles.  iii,  4; 
Luke  vi,  21);  sometimes  mockery  (Gen.  xviii,  13;  Ec- 
cles. ii,  2 ;  James  iv,  9) ;  and  occasionally  conscious  se- 
curity (Job  V,  22).  'When  used  concerning  God  (as  in 
Psa.  ii,  4;  lix,  8;  Prov.  i,  26)  it  signifies  that  he  de- 
spises or  pays  no  regard  to  the  person  or  subject.  See 
Isaac. 

Laughton,  George,  D.D.,  an  English  minister, 
lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  IHth  century.  Among  his 
works  of  importance  are  his  History  of  A  ncient  Egypt 
(Lond.  1774,  8vo)  : — Reply  to  Chap.  XV  of  Gibbon's  De- 
cline and  Eall  (1780-86).  His  Sermons  were  published 
from  1773-90. — .\llibone,  Diet,  of  British  and  Amei-ican 
Authors,  ii,  1064. 

Laugier,  Marc  Antoine,  a  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  at  Manos  July  25,  1713.  He  was  a  priest  at  Paris 
imtil  1757,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  abbey  of  Ri- 
beaute.  He  died  April  7,  1769.  For  a  list  of  his  works 
on  various  subjects,  see  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Bioyr.  Generule, 
xxix,  894. 

Launay,  Pierre  de,  lord  of  La  Motte  and  Vaufee- 
lan,  a  French  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Blois 
in  1573.  After  holding  a  high  position  in  the  war  de- 
partment, he  resigned  in  1613,  retaining  only  the  title 
of  secretary'  and  counsellor  to  the  king,  and  devoted 
liimself  exclusively  to  study.  He  acquired  the  mastery 
over  Greek,  learned  Hebrew  from  a  Jewish  teacher,  and 
was  for  forty  years  a  member  of  the  Consistory  of  Cha- 
renton.  He  took  part  in  several  provincial  synods,  and 
was  secretary  of  the  two  national  synods  of  Charenton 
in  1623  and  of  Alen^on  in  1637.  He  died  at  Paris  June 
27, 1661.  His  works  are.  Paraphrase  et  Erposition  du 
Prophete  Daniel  (Sedan,  \(>i\) ;— Paraphrase  et  claire 
Exposition  du  Lie  re  d^'  Salomon  vnlr/airement  appele 
r Ecclisiitste  (Saiut-Manrice,  1624,  8vo)  :  —  Paraphrase 
et  Exposition  des  Prorerbes  de  Salomon  et  du  premier 
Chapitre  du  Cantique  des  Caniiques  (Charenton,  1650,  2 
vols.  8vo;  2d  cd.  1655,  12mo)  -.—Paraphrase  et  Exposi- 
tion de  VEpistre  de  Saint  Paul  aux  Romains  (Saumur, 
1647,  8vo)  : — Para})hrase  sur  les  Epistres  de  Saint  Paul 
(Charenton  1650,  2  vols,  -ito):  — Paraphrase  et  Exposi- 
tion de  r Apocalypse  (Geneva,  1651,  4to)  ;  published  un- 
iler  the  name  of  Jonas  le  Buy  de  la  Prie.  In  this  work 
he  advances  opinions  on  the  jNIillFunium  which  were 
strongly  opposed  by  Amyraut : — Examen  de  la  RepUque 
de  M.  A  myraut  (Charenton,  1658,  8vo)  :  —  Traite  de  la 
Sainic  Cene  du  Seigneur,  uvea  I' Explication  de  quelques 


Passages  difficiles  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouveau  Testament 
(Saumur,  1659,  12mo):  —  Remarques  sur  le  Texte  de  la 
Bible,  ou  Explication  des  Mots,  des  Phrases,  et  des  Ei- 
gures  difficiles  de  la  sainte  Eci-itui-e  (Geneva,  1667,  4to), 
a  posthumous  and  highly  esteemed  work.  See  Haag, 
La  Erance  Protestante. —  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Generale, 
xxix,  907. 

Lauiioi,  Jean  de,  a  noted  French  Roman  Catholic 
historian  and  canonist,  was  born  at  Yal-de-Sis,  near  Ya- 
logne,  Dec.  21, 1603.  He  studied  at  Constance  and  Par- 
is, where  he  was  received  magister  in  June,  1034.  In 
the  same  year  he  entered  the  Church.  He  was  highly 
esteemed  among  the  learned  men  of  his  time.  On  a 
journey  to  Rome  he  became  the  intimate  friend  of  Luc 
Holstenius  and  Leo  AUatius.  His  whole  life  was  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  theology  at  the  Sorbonne  in  Paris ; 
he  never  sought  any  promotion,  but  preferred  to  serve 
his  Church  by  his  pen,  which  he  wielded  with  great 
power  and  ability.  He  died  at  Paris  March  10,  1678. 
Moreri  says  of  him :  '•  The  great  number  of  his  works, 
and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  written,  give  ample 
evidence  of  his  extensive  reading  and  ready  ability. 
But  his  style  is  neither  ornate  nor  polished ;  he  uses 
awkward,  obsolete  expressions;  handles  his  subjects  very 
peculiarly ;  and,  if  he  overcomes  his  adversaries,  he  also 
tires  his  readers  by  the  profusion  of  his  quotations.  He 
coukl  not  endure  I'ables  nor  superstitions,  and  defended 
with  great  firmness  the  rights  of  the  Church  and  of  the 
king,  which  were  endangered  by  the  idtramontanes." 
In  a  noble  spirit  of  independence,  he  preferred  expulsion 
from  the  Sorbonne  rather  than  to  indorse  the  condem- 
nation of  Arnauld  by  that  body,  although  he  differed 
from  that  theologian  in  his  views  on  grace.  He  even 
went  so  far  as  to  ■v\Tite  against  the  Eormulaire  of  the 
assembly  of  the  clergy  of  1656.  He  particularly  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  acumen  in  discovering  the  spu- 
riousness  of  most  of  the  acts  of  the  saints,  as  also  of  a 
number  of  ecclesiastical  privileges.  Dom  Bonaventure, 
of  Argonne,  writes  of  him  :  '•  He  is  dangerous  alike  to 
heaven  and  to  earth ;  he  has  overthrown  more  saints  in 
paradise  than  were  canonized  by  any  ten  popes.  He 
looked  with  suspicion  on  the  whole  martyrologia,  and  ex- 
amined the  claims  of  the  saints  one  after  another,  as  they 
do  in  France  about  the  nobility."  His  writings  are  main- 
ly of  a  historico-critical  nature,  and  in  tendency  apolo- 
getical  in  behalf  of  Gallicanism.  The  most  important  of 
them  are.  Syllabus  ratiomtm  quibus  caussa  Durandi  de 
modo  cmijuctionis  concursuum  Dei  et  creaturce,  dfferuli- 
tur  (Par.  1636,  8vo) : — De  mente  cotwilii  Tridentini  circa 
satisfactionem  in  sacramento  pcenitentia;  (1644),  in  which 
he  maintains  that  the  Coimcil  of  Trent  and  the  practice 
of  the  Church  do  not  prove  that  satisfaction  must  pre- 
cede absolution : — De  frequenti  Confessionis  et  Eucharis- 
tim  1ISU  (1653)  -.  —  De  commentitio  Lazari,  Magdalerm, 
Martha  ac  Maximini  in  provinciam  Appulsu  (1660, 
8vo)  :  —  De  auctoritate  negantis  argumenti  (Paris,  1050 
and  1662, 8 vo),  wherein  he  affirms  he  had  himself  seen 
at  Sienna,  in  1634.  the  statue  of  the  popess  Joanna  placed 
between  those  of  Leo  IV  and  Benedict  HI.  It  produced 
quite  a  controversy,  and  abbot  Thiers  wrote  against  it 
Defensio  adversus  Joh.de  Launoi  in  qua  defensione  Lau- 
noii  fraufks  calumnice,  plagia,  impostura,  etc.  (Paris, 
1664): — De  recta  Nicani  canonis  VI,et  prout  a  Rufno 
explicatur,  Inielligentia : — De  veteri  Ciborutn  Delectu  in 
jt'jvniis  Christianorum: — Judicium  de  Auctore  libri  De 
Imitatione  Christi  (Paris,  1649,  1650,  1052,  1063,  8vo). 
Launoi  advocates  the  claim  of  Gersen.  See  Kkmpis, 
TiiojiAS  A  : — De  Cura  Ecclesim  pro  Miseris  et  pauperi- 
bus  (Paris,  1663, 8vo)  -.—Epistola;  (Par.  1664-1673,8  vols. 
8vo ;  Cambridge,  1689,  1  vol.  folio) : — De  rero  A  uctore 
fidei  professionis  qum  Pelagio  Hieronymo,  A  ugustino  tri- 
bui  solet,  in  which  he  attempts  to  prove  that  Pelagius 
is  the  only  author  of  the  profession  of  faith  attributed 
to  Jerome  and  Augustine : — Explicala  Ecclesice  Traditio 
circa  canonem  "  Omnis  utriusque  sexus^'  (Par.  1672,  8vo), 
a  highly-esteemed  work: — Regia  in  Matrimonium  Potes- 
tas,  vel  de  jure  scecularium  principum  Christianorum  in 


LAURA 


277 


LAURENTIUS 


sauciendis  impedimentis  mairimonium  dirimentihus  (Par. 

1674,  4to).  This  work  was  condemned  at  Rome,  Dec. 
10,  1C88,  yet  its  principles  were  approved  by  a  num- 
ber of  the  most  distinguished  theologians  and  jurists : — 
Venerandce  RomaruB  Ecclesim  circa  simoniam  Ti-aditio 
(Paris,  1675,  8vo) : — iJe  Sahbatince  hullm  Priviletjio  et  de 
Sccqndaiis  Carmeliturum  Soliditate : — In  Priviler/ia  or- 
dinis  Pi-(emonstratensis : — In  Ckcuiam  immmiitatis  quam 
beatus  Germanus,  episco^nis  Parisiensis,  suburbano  mon- 
astei-io  dedisse  fertur : — In  privilegium  quod  Gregorius 
I"'  monasterio  Sancti-Medardi  Suessonensis  dedisse.  dici- 
tur.  In  these  works  the  author  examines  a  number  of 
rights  and  privileges  which  he  considers  as  imfounded 
or  unjust: — A  treatise  on  the  conception  of  the  Virgin, 
in  which  he  asserts  that  if  an  attempt  were  made  to  de- 
tine  "  the  point  of  the  conception  of  the  Virgin  by  the 
Scriptures  and  tradition,  it  woiUd  be  shown  that  she  was 
conceived  in  sin."  The  complete  works  of  Launoi  were 
published  by  abbot  Granet  (Geneva,  1731, 10  vols.  fol.). 
See  Dwjnn,  Bibl.  des  Auteurs  Ecclesiastiques,  vol.  xviii, 
34-62 ;  Journal  des  Savants,  anno  1664, 1665, 1667, 1668, 

1675,  1688,  1698,  1701,  1704,  1705,  1726,  1731;  Bibl.  sa- 
cree;  Moreri,  Grand  Diction.  Historique;  Guy-Patin, 
Epist. ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Critique,  and  Nouvelles  de  la  Repub- 
lique  des  Leftres ;  Niceron,  Memoires,  vol.  xxxii ;  Colo- 
mies,  Recueil  de  Particularites,  p.  329 ;  Reiser,  Elogium 
Joannis  Launoii  (Lond.  1685) ;  Hoefcr.  Nouv.  Biog.  Gene- 
rale,  xxix,  912  sq. ,  Herzog,  Real- Ency Mop.  viii,  230  sq. 

Laura  {collection  of  anchorites'  cells'),  a  name  given 
by  Church  historians  to  collections  of  cells,  the  habita- 
tions of  hermits  or  monastics  of  the  early  days  of  the 
Church,  but  incorrectly  used  as  a  sj^nonyme  of  monaste- 
rium,  from  which  it  greatly  differs,  inasmuch  as  the  in- 
mates of  the  latter  were  coenobites,  and  held  intercourse 
with  each  other,  while  those  of  the  former  lived  apart, 
in  seclusion.  The  holy  tenants  of  a  laura  passed  in 
solitude  and  silence  five  days  in  a  week ;  their  food 
was  bread,  water,  and  dates ;  on  Saturday  and  Sunday 
they  received  the  sacrament,  and  messed  together  on 
broth  and  a  small  allowance  of  wine.  Bingham  states 
that  when  many  of  the  cells  of  anchorets  were  placed 
together  in  the  same  wilderness,  at  some  distance  from 
one  another,  they  were  all  called  by  one  common  name, 
laura,  which,  as  Evagrius  informs  us  (i,  21),  differed 
from  a  coenobium  in  this,  that  a  laura  was  many  cells 
divided  from  each  other,  where  every  monk  provided 
for  himself;  but  a  coenobium  was  but  one  habitation, 
where  the  monks  lived  in  society,  and  had  everything 
in  common.  Epiphanius  {Hares.  69, 1)  says  Laura,  or 
Labra,  was  the  name  of  a  street  or  district  where  a 
church  stood  in  Alexandria;  and  it  is  probable  that 
from  this  the  name  was  taken  to  signify  a  multitude  of 
cells  in  the  wilderness,  united,  as  it  were,  in  a  certain 
district,  yet  so  divided  as  to  make  up  many  separate 
habitations.  The  most  celebrated  lauras  were  estab- 
lished in  the  East,  especially  in  Palestine,  as  the  laura 
of  St.  Euthymus,  St.  Saba,  the  laura  of  the  towers,  etc. 
— Eadie,  Ecclesiast.  Diet.  vol.  i,  s.  v.     See  Monachism  : 

MONASTEKV. 

Laureate  (from  the  Latin  verb  laureatus,  crowned 
with  the  prize)  was  used  of  a^successfid  theological  can- 
didate, in  ancient  times,  at  the  Scotch  universities. — 
Buck,  Theological  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Laurence,  Richard,  D.C.L.,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish prelate,  was  born  at  Bath  in  1760 ;  matriculated  in 
the  University  of  Oxford  July  14,  1778,  as  an  exhibi- 
tioner of  Corpus  Christi  College ;  took  the  degree  of  B.A. 
April  10,  1782;  that  of  M.A.'july  9,  1785,  and  those  of 
B.  and  D.C.L.  June  27, 1794.  Upon  the  appointment  in 
1796  of  his  brother,  Dr.  French  Laurence,  to  the  regius 
professorship  of  civil  law,  he  was  made  deputy  professor 
at  Oxford.  In  1804  he  preached  the  Barapton  Lectures, 
and  the  reputation  thence  acquired  secured  for  him  from 
the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  the  rectory  of  Mersham, 
Kent.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  regius 
professor  of  Hebrew,  and  to   the   canonry   of  Christ 


Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1822  was  elevated  to  the  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  Cashel.  He  died  in  Dublin  .Dec.  28, 
1838.  His  most  important  works  are  his  translations 
of  certain  apocryphal  books  of  the  O.  T.  from  the  Ethi- 
opic,  accompanied  by  critical  investigations:  Ascensio 
Isaice  Vutis,  ojjusculum  pseudepigraphum,  multis  ubhinc 
sceculis,  ut  videtiir,  deperditum,  nunc  autem  apud  yEthio- 
pas  compertum  et  cum  versione  Latina  Anglicanaque 
publici  juris  factum  (Oxon.  1819, 8vo)  : — Primi  Ezrce  Li- 
bri,  qui  apud  Vulgatum  appellatur  quartus  versio  ^Ethi- 
opica,  nunc  jwimo  in  medium  prolata  et  Latine  A  nglice- 
que  reddita  (Oxon.  1820,  8vo).  The  translation  is  fol- 
lowed b}^  general  remarks  upon  the  different  versions  of 
this  book,  its  apocrj'phal  character,  the  creed  of  its  au- 
thor, and  the  probable  period  of  its  composition  [see 
EsDRAs]  : — The  Book  of  Enoch  the  Prophet,  an  apocrj'- 
phal  production,  supposed  to  have  been  lost  for  ages, 
but  discovered  at  the  close  of  the  last  centurj^  in  Abys- 
sinia, now  first  published  from  an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  (Oxford,  1821,  8vo;  3d  ed.  1838)  [see 
Enoch,  Book  of]  : — also.  Remarks  on  the  systematical 
Classification  of  MSS.  adopted  by  Griesbach  in  his  Edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Testament  (Oxf.  1814,  8vo) :  —  Disser- 
tation on  the  Logos  of  St.  John  (Oxf.  1808,  8vo)  : — Criti- 
cal Reflections  upon  some  important  Misrepresentations 
contained  in  the  Unitarian  Version  of  the  N.  T.  (Oxford, 
1811,  8vo)  -.—The  Book  of  Job  in  the  Words  of  the  A.V., 
arranged  and  printed  in  conformity  with  the  Masoretic 
text  (Dublin,  1828,  8vo)  -.—On  the  'Existence  of  the  Soul 
after  Death  (London,  1834,  8vo).  This  work,  written  in 
opposition  to  Priestley,  Law,  and  their  respective  follow- 
ers, discusses  the  usage  of  the  terms  Koifiarr^ai  and 
Sheol,  and  enters  into  the  critical  examination  of  vari- 
ous scriptural  narratives: — An  AttemjH  to  illustrate  those 
Aiiicles  of  the  Church  of  England  which  the  Calvinists 
iwpi'operhj  consider  as  Calvinistical  (seven  sermons 
preached  as  Bampton  Lectures,  Oxford,  1838, 8vo) ;  and 
several  sermons  on  the  doctrine  of  A  tonement  (Oxford, 
1810,  8vo),  Baptismal  Regeneration  (1815,  8vo),  and  on 
Baptism  (1838,  8vo).  See  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s. 
V. ;  AUibone,  Diet.  Bnt.  and  A  m.  A  uth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Lond. 
Gentl.  Mag.  1839,  pt.  i,  p.  205  sq. ;  Darling,  Cycloj).  Bibli- 
ograph.  vol.  ii,  s.  v, 

Laurentius,  anti-pope,  lived  about  460-520.  He 
was  archdeacon  of  a  Church  in  Rome,  and  was  opposed 
to  Symmachus,  who  in  498  was  elected  successor  of 
Anastasius  II  in  the  papal  chair.  This  schism  created 
much  disturbance  in  the  city,  Festus  and  Probinus,  two 
of  the  most  influential  senators,  siding  M'ith  Laurentius. 
Both  parties  finally  agreed  to  submit  their  difficulty  to 
the  decision  of  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Goths,  though  an 
Arian.  He  decided  in  favor  of  Symmachus,  and  Lau- 
rentius, having  withdrawn  his  claim,  was  made  bishop 
of  Nocera.  But  as  he  subsequently  created  new  dis- 
turbances, and  was,  whether  justly  or  unjustly  is  not 
known,  accused  of  Eutychianism,  he  was  deposed  by  the 
Synodus  Palmaris  (501),  and  died  an  exile.  See  Anas- 
tasius, FiVa  Pontif;  Baronius,  Annales;  Plotina,  T'tVa 
Pontif-  Roman. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xix,  927. 

(J.N.r.; 

Laurentius,  a  noted  prelate  of  the  early  Englisli 
Church  (Anglo-Saxon  period),  flourished  in  the  first 
half  of  the  7th  century  (A.I).  605)  as  successor  of  St. 
Augustine — suggested  for  the  archbishopric  by  Augus- 
tine himself.  Under  the  reign  of  Eadbald,  the  successor 
of  Ethelbert,  when  England  was  in  danger  of  a  return 
to  heathenish  practices  by  Eadbald's  marriage  of  his 
own  mother-in-law,  Laurentius  shrewdly  managed  af- 
fairs for  the  benefit  of  Christianity ;  he  induced  the  king 
to  renounce  his  incestuous  marriage,  and  to  embrace  the 
Christian  faith.  See  Churton,  I/ist. Early  Engl.  Church, 
p.  41  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  bk.  ii.  cent,  vii,  pt.  i,  ch. 
i,  §  2,  and  note  (5). 

Laurentius,  St.,  according  to  tradition,  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  pope  Sixtus  II  (257-258),  who  received  him 
among  the  seven  Roman  deacons,  and  afterwards  made 


LAUREN  TIUS  VALLA 


278 


LAVALETTE 


him  arcluleacon.  When  the  pope,  during  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  b_y  Valerian,  was  led  out  to  suffer 
martyrtlom,  Laurentius  wished  to  accompany  him,  and 
to  share  his  fate  ;  but  Sixtus  prevented  him,  prophesying 
to  him  at  the  same  time  that  he  would  be  called  upon 
to  endure  even  greater  sufferings  for  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  he  would  follow  him  within  three  days. 
The  omen  was  fultilled :  the  Koraan  governor  had  lieard 
of  treasures  belonging  to  the  Cliristian  Church,  and 
wished  to  obtain  possession  of  them.  He  desired  Lau- 
rentius to  reveal  them  to  him.  Laurentius  seemed  to 
comply,  and  was  allowed  to  depart.  Soon  the  cour- 
ageous young  disciple  of  Christ  returned,  accompanied 
by  a  crowd  of  paupers,  cripples,  and  sick,  whom  he  pre- 
sented to  the  governor,  saying,  "These  are  oiu:  treas- 
ures." This  was  regarded  as  an  insult,  and  in  punish- 
ment he  was  condemned  to  be  slowly  roasted  alive  in  an 
iron  chair.  Laurentius  underwent  this  martj'rdom  with 
resignati(m  and  cheerfulness.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  in  tlie  Via  Tiburtina.  The  pope  Leo  I  said  of 
him  that  he  was  as  great  an  honor  to  Kome  as  Stephen 
to  Jerusalem,  and  Augustine  that  the  crown  of  Lauren- 
tius can  as  little  be  hidden  as  the  city  of  Eome  itself. 
Under  Constantine  a  church  was  erected  o\-er  tlie  place 
where  his  remains  were  supposed  to  be  (SH.  Laurentii 
extra  muros);  another  church  dedicated  to  him  is  St. 
Laurentii  in  Damaso.  He  is  commemorated  on  the  10th 
of  August.  The  earhest  accounts  of  his  martyrdom  are 
to  be  found  in  Ambros.  Be  offic.  ministr.  i,  41 ;  ii,  28.  The 
most  glowing  account  of  him  is  Prudentius's  Hymn,  in 
Laur.  (Prudentius,  F'eristeph.). — Herzog,  Real-EncyMop. 
viii,  202 ;  AVetzcr  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  305. 

Laurentius  Valla,  a  distinguished  humanist,  was 
born  at  Kome  in  1415.  He  was  still  young  when  the 
reaction  against  scholasticism  set  in,  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  conflict.  He  attacked  the  authenticity  of 
Constantine  the  Great's  deed  of  donation  in  his  Be /also 
credita  et  ementita  Constantini  donatiune  DecUimatio,  as 
also  all  the  other  unproved  assertions  of  the  theologians. 
Thus  he  questioned  the  origin  of  the  so-called  Apostles' 
Creed,  pointed  out  the  faults  contained  in  the  old  Latin 
versions  of  the  Bible,  and  applied  i)hilological  exegesis 
to  the  New  Testament.  It  is  no  Avontler  that  by  such  a 
course  he  gained  many  enemies,  especially  among  the 
clergy,  who  denounced  him  as  an  inlidcl.  He  Avas  com- 
pelled to  leave  Kome,  and  retired  to  the  court  of  Al- 
phonse,  king  of  Naples,  who,  though  fifty  years  of  age, 
now  commenced  to  study  Latin  under  Valla's  tuition. 
Here,  however,  he  commenced  anew  his  arguments  on 
the  Trinity,  free  will,  the  vows  of  continence,  and  other 
delicate  questions,  and  was  therefore  accused  of  heresy 
by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  King  Alphonse  suc- 
ceeded in  saving  his  life,  but  could  not  prevent  his  be- 
ing whipped  publicly  around  the  convent  of  St.  Jacob. 
Valla  then  returned  to  Kome,  where  he  found  a  protector 
in  pope  Nicholas  V,  who  gave  him  permission  to  teach, 
and  granted  him  a  salary.  Here  again  he  entered  into 
a  most  violent  controversy  with  Poggi.  He  died  at 
Kome  in  1457.  His  works,  in  which  he  attacks  scho- 
lastic theology  more  with  the  weapons  of  common  sense 
than  of  philosophy,  are  especially  directed  against  Aris- 
totle and  Boetius,  whom  he  considers  as  the  founders  of 
the  scholastic  dialect.  He  looked  upon  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  as  a  result  of  sane  human  reason,  which, 
in  its  development,  has  become  participant  in  the  divine 
revelation.  But  he  was  far  from  attenqjling  to  inquire 
further  into  these  revelations  by  analyzing  their  myste- 
ries. He  says  that  there  are  many  things  we  cannot 
know,  and  that  we  must  respect  tlie  mystery  with  which 
it  has  pleased  (lod  to  surround  them.  His  tendency  is 
eminently  practical ;  according  to  him  there  is  no  Vir- 
tue without  faith,  and  all  without  it  is  but  sinfulness. 
Where  hope  no  longer  points  t.o  liigher  and  eternal 
ha[)piness,  nothing  can  remain  l)ut  the  false  honesty  of 
the  stoic,  or  the  material  sense  of  the  epicure.  "Without 
hope  of  a  future  life  there  can  be  no  virtue,  only  mis- 
ery ;  the  peace  and  inner  satisfaction  of  which  philoso- 


phers boast  are  but  falsehoods.  True  virtue  is  undeni- 
ably above  worldly  desires — it  is  the  chief  requisite  of 
happiness ;  but  it  must  be  Christian  virtue,  not  that  of 
the  philosophers.  Among  his  works  are  to  be  noticed 
Ek(jantiai  Latini  sermonis  (Venice,  1471,  G  vols.  fol. ;  Par, 
1575, 4to) : — Be  libera  arbitrio : — Be  volitptdti'  ac  de  vera 
bono  libriiii: — Fuhulm  et  facetia  ;  and  especiallv  the 
above  Be  falsa  credita  et  ementita  Constantini  dunatione 
declamutio.  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Basle 
in  1540,  folio,  and  at  Venice  in  1592.  See  H.  Kitter, 
Geschichte  d.  Christl.  Pltilasap/ne,  v,  243-261 ;  Herzog, 
Real-EncyUop.  viii,  232,  233 ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen- 
Lex.  vi,  oOG. 

Lauria,  FnAxcis  Laurext  Brancate  de,  an  Ital- 
ian theologian,  was  born  at  Lauria,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  in  IGll.  He  joined  the  Franciscans,  was  made 
cardinal  by  Innocent  XI  in  1GS7,  and  died  at  Kome 
Nov.  30,  1G93.  He  MTote  commentaries  on  the  four 
books  of  Scot's  sentences  (8  vols,  folio) : — Bevata  luudis 
ad  sanctissiniam  Trinitatem  Oratio  (Rome,  1C95, 12mo)  : 
— Be  Pra'destinatione  et  Beprobatinne  (Rome,  1G88,  4to; 
Kouen,  1715).  In  this  last  work  he  defended  Augus- 
tine's doctrine  on  grace  against  the  Molinists  and  Jan- 
senists.  See  Perennes,  Biograjjhie  Chretienne  et  Anti- 
Chretienne;  Joannes  a  Sancto-Antomo,  Biblioth.  Fran- 
ciscana. — Hoefer,  Nauv.  Biorj.  Gen.  xxix,  939.    (.1.  N.  P.) 

Laurie,  James,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  Feb.  11,  1778,  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  where  he 
also  received  his  education.  He  was  licensed  in  1800, 
and  continued  to  preach  in  his  native  country  for  two 
years,  after  which  he  came  to  America,  having  been  pre- 
viously ordained.  In  1803  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Associate  Reformed  Congregation,  and  was  instrumen- 
tal in  the  establishment  of  the  first  place  of  Protestant 
worship  in  Washington,  D.  C.  He  Avas  employed  also 
during  his  ministry  as  a  clerk  in  the  register's  office  of 
the  Treasur\^  He  died  April  18,  1853.  He  published 
A  Sermon. — Sprague, -4 ?!««/.<,  iv,  314. 

Lavacrum.     See  Font  ;  Lavatory. 

Laval,  FRANfjOis  de  Montmokexcy,  a  noted  prel- 
ate of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  at  Laval, 
France,  INIarch  23, 1G22,  and  early  decided  for  the  priest- 
hood. He  was  ordained  priest  at  Paris  Sept.  23,  1G45; 
became  archdeacon  of  Evreux  in  1G53,  and  bishop  of 
Petrea  and  vicar  apostolic  of  New  France  in  1G58.  In 
the  year  following  he  went  to  Quebec  ami  assumed  the 
government  of  that  see  ;  while  there,  founded  the  Semi- 
nary of  Quebec  in  1GG3,  and  in  IGGG  consecrated  the  pa- 
rochial church  of  Quebec.  He  returned  to  France  in 
1674.  In  1688,  however,  he  returned  again,  and  retired 
to  the  seminary  he  had  founded,  and  to  this  school  made 
over  all  his  private  possessions.  He  died  at  (Quebec 
May  6, 1708.  Laval  is  said  to  have  exercised  as  pow- 
erful an  influence  over  the  civil  as  he  did  over  the  ec- 
clesiastical affairs  of  the  colony.  See  Y>ra.kQ,  Bictionary 
of  Amiriran  Jiiorjrajihy,  s.  v. 

Lavalette,  Anthony  de,  a  French  Jesuit,  who  be- 
came the  iiulircct  cause  of  the  suppression  of  his  order 
in  France  in  17G4,  was  born  near  Valbres  Oct.  21,  1707. 
He  entered  the  society  at  Toulouse  Oct.  10,  1725;  was 
for  a  time  professor  at  Puy  and  Rodez,  and  ^^■as  ordained 
priest  in  1740.  In  1741  he  went  to  3Iartini<iue,  where 
he  had  at  first  the  care  of  a  parish  ;  then  became  admin- 
istrator of  the  mission,  and  was  intrusted  with  aU  its 
temporal  concerns.  Appointed  general  of  tlie  Jesuits' 
mission  in  South  America  in  1754,  he  indulged  in  wild 
commercial  speculations  for  the  purpose  of  cancelling 
the  debts  of  the  mission,  but  they  all  failed;  he  became 
bankrupt,  ami  bad  to  leave  the  country.  He  retired  to 
England,  was  disowned  by  the  society,  and  died  some 
time  after  17G2.  Tlie  society  was  sued  by  his  creditors, 
but  declined  any  responsibility  for  his  engagements  con- 
tracted without  the  consent  or  knowledge  of  his  superi- 
ors; the  (luestion  was  referred  to  Parliament,  which  de- 
cided against  the  Jesuits.  The  sums  claimed  amounted 
to  five  million  francs.    On  the  8th  of  May,  17G1,  the  Jes- 


LAVATER 


279 


LAVATER 


uits  were  condc.nned  to  pay  the  whole  amount  and  costs; 
and  on  Aug.  G,  17G1,  their  institution  itself  was  attacked 
as  illegal,  and  as  contrary  to  the  interest  of  the  country. 
This  linally  led  to  the  suppression  of  the  order  in  France 
by  an  edict  of  Nov.  1764.  See  Seuac  de  Meilhan,  De  la 
Destruction  des  Jesuites  en  France,  in  itie.' Melanfjes  d'llis- 
toire  et  de  Litterature,  published  by  Crawford,  and  in  the 
appendix  to  the  Memoires  de  Mme.  du  Iluusset ;  Kanke, 
Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  296  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog,  Ge- 
nerale,  xxix,  973. 

Lavater,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  noted  Swiss  the- 
ologian and  preacher,  one  of  the  most  interesting  men 
of  the  last  century,  was  born  at  Zurich  Nov.  15, 1741. 
His  father,  Ilcnry  Lavater,  was  doctor  of  medicine  and 
member  of  the  government  of  Zurich.  His  mother, 
whose  maiden  name  was  Regula  Escher,  was  a  woman 
of  marked  character  and  oxtraordinarj'  gifts.  His  child- 
hood was  not  marked  by  any  great  signs  of  promise  as 
a  student,  but  he  had  a  decided  tendency  to  religion, 
and  a  great  predilection  for  singing  hymns  and  reading 
the  Bible.  It  was  wliile  at  school  in  Zurich  that  he 
conceived  the  idea  of  becoming  a  minister  of  the  Gos- 
pel. In  1755  Lavater  entered  the  college  in  his  native 
city.  In  1759  he  began  his  theological  studies,  and  in 
1762  was  ordained  a  minister.  In  consequence  of  com- 
plications in  the  political  affairs  of  liis  country,  he  trav- 
elled in  company  with  the  celebrated  painter  Fuseli, 
and  successively  visited  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and 
Berlin.  He  also  visited  Barth,  in  I'omerania,  for  the 
theological  advice  of  the  celebrated  provost  Spalding. 
In  17()4  ho  returned  to  his  native  place,  and  occupied 
himself  with  the  duties  of  the  ministerial  office  and 
Biblical  studios,  lie  also  wrote  some  poetry,  inspired 
by  the  poetical  jn'oductions  of  Bodmer  and  Klopstock. 
In  1766  he  married  Miss  Anna  Schinz,  the  daughter 
of  a  highly  respectable  merchant.  As  the  rosidt  of 
his  study  of  Bodmer  and  Klopstock,  ho  published  in 
1767  his  Schweitzerlieder,  containing  his  finest  poems, 
which  was  followed  by  his  Aiissichten  in  die  Ewigkeit 
(1768-73,3  vols.),  the  tirst  of  a  series  of  works  in  wliich 
he  maintained  the  perpetuity  of  miracles,  the  irresisti- 
bility of  prayer,  and  the  necessity  for  every  person  to 
conceive  of  God  as  manifested  in  Christ  crucilied  in  or- 
der to  be  really  alive  to  himself.  The  last  doctrine  was 
called  his  Christomania.  In  1769  Lavater  was  made 
deacon  of  the  Orphan-house  Church  at  Zurich,  where 
the  extraordinary  effect  of  his  sermons,  his  blameless 
life,  and  benevolent  disposition  made  him  the  idol  of 
his  congregation,  while  his  printed  sermons  sent  forth 
his  fame  to  distant  parts.  It  was  reserved,  however, 
for  his  Physioffiiomische  Fragmente  zur  Befurdenmg  der 
Menschenkenntniss  und  Menschenliehe  (Leipsic,  1775-78) 
to  extend  his  celebrity  generally.  This  Avork,  which 
has  often  been  reprinted  and  translated  (best  by  Dr.  H, 
Hunter,  London,  1789-98,  5  vols,  roj^al  4to),  was  the  first 
elaborate  attempt  to  reduce  physiognomy  to  a  science. 
Having  in  early  life  been  acquainted  with  a  large  num- 
ber of  eminent  men,  he  had  observed  corresponding 
points  of  resemblance  in  their  minds  as  well  as  their 
features,  and  from  a  disposition  to  generalize  he  was 
led  to  adopt  a  fixed  sj^stem,  and  wrote  this  work  in 
the  hope  that  it  might  promote  greatly  the  welfare  of 
mankind,  an  effort  in  which  he  moderately  succeeded. 
He  illustrated  it  with  numerous  engravings  and  vign- 
ettes, and  it  is  superior  in  respect  of  paper  and  typog- 
raphy to  any  book  previously  issued  from  the  German 
press,  Lavater  had  remarkable  powers  of  observation, 
and  skill  in  detecting  character.  He  differed  from  all 
who  had  preceded  him  in  this  science.  In  order  to  form 
an  opinion  of  the  character  from  the  face,  he  required 
to  see  the  face  at  rest — in  sleep  or  in  au  unconscious' 
state,  "The  greater  part  of  the  physiognomists,"  he 
says,  "  speak  only  of  the  passions,  or  rather  of  the  ex- 
terior signs  of  the  passions,  and  the  expression  of  them 
in  the  muscles.  But  these  exterior  signs  are  only  tran- 
sient circumstances,  which  are  easily  discoverable.  It 
has  therefore  always  been  my  object  to  consider  the 


general  and  fundamental  character  of  the  man,  from 
which,  according  to  the  state  of  his  exterior  circum- 
stances and  relations,  all  his  passions  arise  as  from  a 
root,"  Lavater's  "  Fragmente"  gave  rise  to  considerable 
discussion,  and  occasioned  general  excitement.  He  was 
visited  at  Zurich  by  throngs  of  eminent  and  curious  per- 
sons, whose  character  he  usually  judged  with  great  sa- 
gacity ;  at  a  glance  he  recognised  Necker,  Mirabeau, 
and  Mercier,  In  1775  he  was  elevated  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Orphan-house ;  in  1778  was  elected  second  pas- 
tor of  St,  Peter's  Church  in  Ziirich,  and  in  1786  he  was 
called  to  fill  the  position  of  chief  pastor,  made  vacant  by 
the  death  of  his  associate.  When  the  French  Kevolu- 
tion  broke  out  Lavater  Avas  a  zealous  partisan  of  it,  but 
the  execution  of  Louis  XVI  made  him  turn  in  disgust 
from  the  Republican  party,  and  in  1798,  when  the  French 
took  possession  of  Switzerland,  he  protested  against  their 
ravages  in  a  publication  addressed  to  the  Directory,  en- 
titled "Words  of  a  free  Swiss  to  a  great  Nation,"  which, 
on  account  of  its  high-toned  courage,  gained  the  ap- 
plause of  all  Europe,  This  v.'ork  was  addressed,  under 
his  own  name,  to  Keubol,  a  member  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment at  that  time,  but  was  printed  witliout  his  co- 
operation, and  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  copies 
(;irculated.  At  the  same  time  he  gave  a  thrilling  dis- 
course from  his  pulpit  from  the  words,  "  Let  every  soul 
be  subject  unto  the  liigher  powers.  For  there  is  no 
power  but  of  (jod,"  etc,  (Kom,  xiii,  1-4).  This,  as  may 
be  supposed,  produced  an  indescribable  excitement.  The 
Swiss  Directory  at  first  resolved  upon  his  banishment. 
Difficulties  were  in  the  way  of  carrying  out  this  rigid 
measure,  and  the  decree  was  changed  to  suspension  from 
his  office.  This,  too,  was  prevented  by  his  friends,  and 
finally  he  received  only  a  gentle  expression  of  disap- 
proval. A  few  months  later,  however,  while  away  from 
home  for  his  health,  he  was  seized  and  carried  prisoner 
to  Basle,  on  the  charge  of  conspiracy  against  the  French, 
but  was  released,  after  a  confinement  of  several  weeks, 
for  want  of  evidence.  On  his  return  to  Ziirich  he  re- 
newed his  pastoral  labors,  and  opposed  with  all  his  en- 
ergies the  oppressive  measures  of  the  French  Directory. 
On  the  26th  of  September,  1799,  after  the  French  had 
taken  possession  of  Ziirich,  as  Lavater  was  standing  near 
his  own  house  and  trying  to  pacify  some  disorderly  sol- 
diers with  money,  he  received  a  gun-shot  from  one  of 
them,  which,  though  it  healed  for  a  time,  finally  proved 
fatal.  The  last  year  of  his  life  was  one  of  great  bodily 
suffering,  occasioned  by  his  wound,  Avhich  he  bore  with 
Christian  patience,  praying  for  the  man  who  had  wound- 
ed him.  He  desired  that  the  culprit  shoidd  not  be  ar- 
rested, "  I  woiUd,  Avith  all  my  severe  pain,  have  much 
more  sorrow  if  I  knew  that  any  punishment  were  done 
to  him,  for  he  certainly  knew  not  what  he  did,"  He  at 
the  same  time  inscribed  some  beautiful  poetical  lines  to 
him.  During  the  intervals  of  suffering  his  mental  ac- 
tivity continued  unabated.  He  was  never  idle.  When 
travelling  or  taking  daitj-  exercise,  and  even  at  his 
meals,  he  always  had  a  pencil  and  paper,  that  he  might 
write  down  any  new  thought  that  might  suggest  itself. 
He  wrote,  during  this  period  of  his  life,  several  small 
works  or  poems.  Among  them  were  "  Ziirich  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Nineteenth  Century,"  "Swan  Song,  or 
Last  Thoughts  of  a  Departing  One  on  Jesus  of  Nazareth 
and  Memorial  Leaves."  The  latter  he  desired  to  be  given 
after  his  death,  as  little  legacies,  to  his  friends,  Lava- 
ter's relation  to  his  fiock  was  always  of  the  most  inti- 
mate character,  as  is  evinced  by  his  request,  not  long 
before  his  death,  to  be  afforded  one  more  opportunity  to 
speak  to  his  beloved  congregation,  and  partake  with" 
them  of  the  holy  sacrament.  He  was  carried  to  liLs 
much-loved  Church,  where  he  met  a  large  assembly  of 
devoted  and  sorrowing  ]icoi)le.  One  who  was  i)reseut 
on  the  occasion  wrote :  "  His  face  was  filled  Avith  ear- 
nestness and  love,  bj-  which,  tliough  death  could  be  read 
in  everj'  one  of  his  features,  he  seemed  to  be  reflecting 
the  very  glory  of  heaven."  When  he  was  no  longer 
able  to  sit  up  and  hold  his  pen,  he  dictated  to  an  aman- 


LAVATER 


280 


LAYER 


uensis.  On  the  last  evening  of  the  old  year,  while  ly- 
inij;  ill  bed,  and  his  friends  were  obliged  to  stand  very 
near  to  understaud  liim,  he  dictated  some  lines  (Gernnan 
hexameters)  to  be  read  the  following  day  to  his  congre- 
gation.    He  died  the  '2d  of  January,  1801. 

Lavater  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  men  of  his 
time.  He  had  an  original  mind,  and  was  a  true  philos- 
opher. He  wrote  with  acceptance  on  a  great  variety 
of  subjects,  and  on  none  more  effectively  than  on  ques- 
tions of  theology.  Among  those  who  knew  liim  best, 
he  was  distinguished  more  by  his  moral  traits  than  by 
his  intellectual  gifts;  by  his  purity  of  heart,  his  deep 
humility,  his  fervent  piety,  his  Christian  charity  and 
zeal  for  mankind.  A  more  thoroughly  good  man  and 
devoted  Christian  the  annals  of  literature  do  not  exhib- 
it. Goethe  at  one  time  said  of  him, "  He  is  the  best, 
greatest,  wisest,  sincerest  of  all  mortal  and  immortal 
men  that  I  know."  He  always  firmly  clung  to  his  pe- 
culiar religious  views, "  which  were  a  mixture  of  new 
interpretations  with  ancient  orthodoxy,  and  mystical 
even  to  superstition.  One  leading  article  of  his  faith 
was  a  belief  in  the  sensible  manifestation  of  supernatural 
powers.  His  disposition  to  give  credence  to  the  mirac- 
idous  led  him  to  believe  the  strange  pretensions  of  many 
individuals,  such  as  the  power  to  exorcise  devils,  to  per- 
form cures  by  animal  magnetism,  etc.  Some  even  sus- 
pected him  of  lioman  Catholicism.  Thus,  while  his 
mystical  tendency  rendered  him  an  object  of  ridicule  to 
the  party  called  the  enlightened  (Aufgeklarte),  the  fa- 
vor he  showed  to  many  new  institutions  offended  the 
religionists  of  the  old  school"  {Enr/l.  Cyclop,  s.  v.).  Yet 
withal,  many  of  the  religious  world,  even  of  those  not 
immediately  belonging  to  his  congregation,  regarded 
Lavater  with  great  veneration,  and  those  who  were 
entertained  by  a  correspondence  with  him  found  his 
letters  the  great  source  of  their  spiritual  consolation. 
His  biography  by  his  son-in-law  Gessner  {Lehensbe- 
schreibung  Lavaters),  by  far  the  most  complete,  appeared 
in  1802  (3  vols.  8vo),  and  an  excellent  selection  from  his 
works  by  Orelli  (Zurich,  1841-44, 8  vols.  8vo).  See  Ap- 
pleton's  New  A  rnericuu  Cyclopcedui,  s.  v, ;  Hedge,  Pi'ose 
Writers  of  Germany  (Phdadel.  1848),  p.  187-189;  Anna 
Lavater,  or  Picture  of  Swiss  Pastoral  Life  in  the  JMSt 
Century  (Cincinnati,  1870);  Hagenbach, //is/or^  of  the 
Church  in  the  \Hth  and  IQth  Centuries  (New  York,  1869)  ; 
Bodemann,  Lavater  (1856)  ;  Nitzsch,  Lavater  u.  Gellert 
(1857)  ;  Utber  Lavater's,  Herder's,  und  Schleiermacher's 
Kirchcnyeschichtliche  Bedeutun{j,  in  the  A  llyem.  Kirchen- 
zeit.  1856,  No. 91  sq.;  and  the  excellent  article  by  Schen- 
kel,  in  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop.  viii,  233  sq. 

Lavater,  Louis,  a  Swiss  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  at  Kybourg  March  1, 1527.  He  went  to  Stras- 
burg  in  1545,  and  there  became  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  theologians  liucer  and  Sturm.  He  afterwards 
removed  to  Paris,  and  studied  theology  with  Turnebus, 
Kamiis,  and  Lambin.  After  visiting  Italy  he  returned 
to  Zurich,  where  he  became  archdeacon  and  canon  in 
1550,  and  finall\'  head  pastor  in  1585.  He  died  July 
15,  1586.  His  principal  works  are,  De  Ritibus  et  Instl- 
tutis  ecclesicE  Tigui-ino!  (Zurich,  1559,  8vo)  :  —  Historia 
de  oriyine  et  j)rogressu  Co?ttroversice  Saci-anientaruB  de 
Ccena  Domini  (Zurich,  1563  and  1572,  8vo)  -.-De  Spec- 
iris,  Lemuribus  et  magnis  atque  insolitis  fragoribus  ft 
prcEsagiiionibus  guce  obitum  hominum,  eludes,  mutatio- 
nesque  inipcriorum  prvecediint  (Zlir.  1570,  12mo;  trans- 
lated into  most  European  languages) :  — Fwji  Lr-Jpn  ?/. 
Tod  Ihiurich  linUingers  (Ziirich,  1576);  and  a  number 
of  exegctical  and  devotional  works.  See  Adam,  Vila' 
Theolog.  German  ;  Verhegden,  Elogia  ;  Hottinger,  Bibl. 
Tiguriua.—HocfcT,  Xour.  Biog.  Generale,  xxix,  994. 

Lavatory  (Lat.  laraioriiun),  a  cistern  or  trough  to 
wash  ill.  There  was  usually  a  lavatory  in  the  cloisters 
of  monastic  establishments,  at  whicli-tlie  inmates  washed 
their  hands  and  faces,  also  the  surplices  ami  other  vest- 
ments ;  some  are  still  extant.  This  name  is  also  given 
to  the  pucina  (q.  v.).     In  the  south  of  Germany  the 


Lavatory  at  Selby,  Yorkshire, 
lavatory  is  an  important  feature  resembling  a  baptis- 
tery; it  is  a  separate  chamber,  square  or  octagonal, 
standing  on  one  side  of  the  cloister-court,  with  a  reser- 
voir of  water  or  a  fountain  in  the  middle,  and  water- 
troughs  around  the  sides  for  washing  at. — Parker,  Glos- 
sary, s.  V. 

Laver  ("li^S  and  "i^S,  kiyor',  prop,  a  basin  for  boil- 
ing in,  and  so  signifying  a  "  pan"  for  cooking,  1  Sam.  ii, 
14;  or  a  fire-pan,  ''hearth,"  Zech.  xii,  6;  also  a  pulpit 
or  "  scaffold"  of  similar  form  for  a  rostrum,  2  Chron.  vi, 
13 ;  elsewhere  spoken  of  the  sacred  wash-bowl  of  the 
tabernacle  and  Temple,  Exod.  xxx,  18,  28;  xxxi,  9; 
XXXV,  16;  xxxviii,  8;  xxxix,  39;  xl,  7,  11,  30;  Lev. 
viii,  11 ;  2  Kings  xvi,  17;  plur.  fem.  1  Kings  vii,  30,  38, 
40,  43;  plural  masc.  2  Chron.  iv,  6,  14;  Sept.  Xovrijp, 
Vulg.  labruni),  a  basin  to  contain  the  water  used  by  the 
priests  in  their  ablutions  during  their  sacred  ministra- 
tions.    This  was  of  two  sorts  in  different  periods. 

1.  The  original  one  was  fabricated  at  the  divine  com- 
mand (Exod.  xxx,  18)  of  brass  {copper,  P'llJnp,  see 
Biihr,  Symbolik;  i,  484,  485 ;  Michaelis,  Soc.  Gott.  com- 
ment, iv ;  Umbreit,  in  the  Studien  und  Kritiken,  1843,  p. 
157),  out  of  the  metal  mirrors  which  the  women  brought 
from  Egypt  (Exod.  xxxviii,  8).  The  notion  held  by 
some  Jewish  writers,  and  reproduced  by  Franzius,  Biihr 
(Symb.  i,  484),  and  others,  founded  on  the  omission  of 
the  word  "  women,"  that  the  brazen  vessel,  being  pol- 
ished, served  as  a  mirror  to  the  Levites,  is  untenable. 
(See  the  parallel  passage,  1  Sam.  ii,  22,  where  C^OSj 
yvi'atKM',  is  inserted;  Gesenius  on  the  prep.  2,  p.  172; 
Keil,  Bibl.  Arch,  pt,  i,  c.  1,  §  19;  Glassms,  Phil.  Sacr.  i, 
580,  ed.  Dathe;  Lightfoot,  Descr.  Tempi,  c.  37,  1 ;  Jen- 
nings, Jew.  A  ntiq.  p.  302 ;  Knobel,  Kurtzg.  Exeg.  Ilandb, 
Exod.  xxxviii;  Philo,  Vit.Mos.  iii,  15;  ii,  156,  ed.  Man- 
gey.)  Its  size  and  shape  are  not  given,  but  it  is  thought 
to  have  been  circular.  It  contained  water  wherewith 
the  priests  were  to  wash  their  hands  and  their  feet 
whenever  they  entered  the  tabernacle,  or  came  near  to 
the  altar  to  minister  (Exod.  xl,  32).  It  stood  in  the 
court  between  the  altar  and  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
and,  according  to  Jewish  tradition,  a  little  to  the  south 
(Exod.  xxx,  19,  21;  Keland,  Ant.  Ilebr.  pt.  i,  ch.  iv,  9; 
Clemens,  De  Labro  ^Eneo,  iii,  9;  ap.  LTgolini  Thes.  xix). 
It  rested  on  a  basis  ("3,  ken,  Sept.  /3ocrtf)i  i-  e.  a  foot, 
though  by  some  ex|)lained  to  be  a  cover  (Clemens,  ibid. 
c.  iii,  5),  of  copper  or  brass,  which  was  likewise  made 
from  the  same  mirrors  of  the  women  who  assembled  at 
the  door  of  the  tabernacle  court  (Exod.  xxxviii,  8). 
Tliis  ''foot"  seems,  from  the  distinct  mention  constantly 
made  of  if,  to  liave  been  something  more  than  a  mere 
stand  or  support.  Probably  it  formetl  a  lower  basin  to 
catch  the  water  which  flowed,  through  taps  or  other- 
wise, from  the  laver.  The  priests  could  not  have  washed 
in  the  laver  itself,  as  all  the  water  would  have  been 


LAYER 


281 


LAYER 


thereby  defiled,  and  so  would  have  had  to  be  renewed 
for  each  ablution.  The  Orientals,  in  their  washings, 
make  use  of  a  vessel  with  a  long  spout,  and  wash  at  the 
stream  which  issues  from  thence,  the  waste  water  being 
received  in  a  basin  which  is  placed  underneath.  See 
Ablution.  It  has  therefore  been  suggested  that  they 
held  their  hands  and  feet  under  streams  that  flowed 
from  the  laver,  and  that  the  "  foot"  caught  the  water 
that  fell.  As  no  mention  is  made  of  a  vessel  whereat 
to  wash  the  parts  of  the  victims  offered  in  sacrifice,  it 
is  presumed  that  the  laver  served  this  purpose  also. 
The  Jewish  commentators  state  (perhaps  referring,  how- 
ever, to  the  later  vessels  in  the  Temple)  that  any  kind 
of  water  might  be  used  for  the  laver,  but  that  the  water 
must  be  changed  every  day.  They  also  mention  that 
ablution  before  entering  the  tabernacle  was  in  no  case 
dispensed  with.  A  man  might  be  perfectly  clean,  might 
be  quite  free  from  any  ceremonial  impurity,  and  might 
even  have  washed  his  hands  and  feet  before  he  left 
home,  but  still  he  could  by  no  means  enter  the  taberna- 
cle without  previous  ablution  at  the  laver.  "  In  the 
account  of  the  offering  by  the  woman  suspected  of  adul- 
tery there  is  mention  made  of 'holy  water'  mixed  with 
dust  from  the  floor  of  the  tabernacle,  which  the  woman 
was  to  drink  according  to  certain  rites  (Numb,  v,  17). 
Most  probably  this  was  water  taken  from  the  laver. 
Perhaps  the  same  should  be  said  of  the  '  water  of  puri- 
fying' (Numb,  viii,  7),  which  was  sprhikled  on  the  Lc- 
vites  on  occasion  of  their  consecration  to  the  service  of 
the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle"  (Fairbairn).  Like  the  other 
vessels  belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  the  laver  was,  to- 
gether with  its  "foot,"  consecrated  with  oil  (Lev.  viii, 
10,  11).  No  mention  is  found  in  the  Hebrew  text  of 
the  mode  of  transporting  it,  but  in  Numb,  iv,  14  a  pas- 
sage is  added  in  the  Sept.,  agreeing  with  the  Samaritan 
Pent,  and  the  Samaritan  version,  which  prescribes  the 
method  of  packing  it,  viz.  in  a  purple  cloth,  protected 
by  a  skin  covering.     See  Tabernacle. 

2.  In  the  Temple  of  Solomon,  when  the  number  of  both 
priests  and  victims  had  greatly  increased,  ttn  lavers 
were  used  for  the  sacrifices,  and  the  molten  sea  for  the 
personal  ablutions  of  the  priests  (2  Chron.  iv,  6).  These 
lavers  are  more  minutely  described  than  that  of  the 
tabernacle.  These  likewise  were  of  copper  ("brass"), 
raised  on  bases  (Hli-^S,  from  ',!13,  to  "stand  upright," 
Gesenius,7'/ie«(!/r.  p.  G65,  G70 ,  Sept. Griecizes  fitxwim^, 
Vulg.  bases)  (1  Kings  vii,  27,  39),  five  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  respectively  of  the  court  of  the  priests.  They 
were  used  for  washing  the  animals  to  be  offered  in  burnt- 
offerings  (2  Chron.  iv,  6).  Josephus  (^Ant.  viii,  3,  G) 
gives  no  distinct  account  of  their  form.  Ahaz  mutila- 
ted the  laver,  and  removed  it  from  its  base  (2  Kings 
xvi,  17).  Whether  Ilezekiah  restored  the  parts  cut  off 
is  not  stated,  but  in  the  account  of  the  articles  taken  by 
the  Chakkeans  from  the  Temple  only  the  bases  are 
mentioned  (2  Kings  xxv,  IG;  Jer.  lii,  17;  Josephus 
omits  even  these,  A  nt.  x,  8,  5). 

"  The  dimensions  of  the  bases,  with  the  lavers,  as 
given  in  the  Hebrew  text,  are  four  cubits  in  length  and 
breadtli,  and  three  in  height.  The  Sept.  gives  4  by  4, 
and  G  in  height.  Josephus,  who  appears  to  have  fol- 
lowed a  various  reading  of  the  Sept.,  makes  them  five  in 
length,  four  in  width,  and  six  in  height  (1  Kings  vii,  28; 
Thenius,  ad  loc. ;  Josephus,  yl?;^  viii,  3,  8).  There  were 
to  each  four  wheels  of  one  and  a  half  cubit  in  diameter, 
with  spokes,  etc.,  all  cast  in  one  piece.  The  principal 
parts  requiring  explanation  may  be  thus  enumerated: 
{(I)  '  Borders'  (rillJO^,  Sept.  irvyKXiin^iara,  Vulgate 
sciilpturcp),  probably  panels.  Gesenius  ( T/iesanr.  p.  938) 
supposes  these  to  have  been  ornaments  like  square 
shields,  with  engraved  work,  (b)  '  Ledges'  (CSb'J, 
i^tX<'>l^ti'a,  juncture,  from  25^3,  '  to  cut  in  notches,' 
Gesenius,  p.  1411),  joints  in  corners  of  bases  or  fillets 
covering  joints,  {r)  'Additions'  (n""'?,  from  ni^, '  to 
twine,'  Gesenius,  p.  746 ;  xCiQai,  lora,  whence  Thenius 


suggests  \CJpoi  or  Xwf)«  as  the  true  reading),  probably 
festoons ;  Lightfoot  translates  '  margines  oblique  de- 
scendentes.'  ((/)  'Plates'  (CJ'lp,  irQokxovTa,  axes,  Ge- 
senius, p.  972 ;  Lightfoot,  massce  (erece  tetragona),  prob- 
ably axles,  cast  in  the  same  piece  as  the  wheels,  (e) 
'  Undersetters'  (msrs,  wfiiat,  humendi,  Gesen.  p.  724), 
either  the  naves  of  the  wheels,  or  a  sort  of  handles  f(jr 
moving  the  whole  machine,  Lightfoot  renders ' columniB 
fulcientes  lavacrum.'  (/)  '  Naves'  (n"i'n!l\l"n,  modioli), 
io)  'Spokes'  (Cpli'rt,  radii;  the  two  words  combined 
in  the  Sept.  ?)  irpayixaTtia,  Gesen.  p.  536;  Schleusner, 
Lex.  V.  T.  Trpayji.).  (h)  'Felloes'  (D'^Sa,  vuiroi,  canthi, 
Gesen.  p.  256).  (i)  '  Chapiter'  (n'nrs,  Ki^aXii;,  summi- 
fas,  Gesen.  p.  725),  perhaps  the  rim  of  the  circular  open- 
ing ('  mouth,'  1  Kings  vii,  31)  in  the  convex  top.  (k) 
A  '  round  compass'  (a"""  D  ?^",  Gesenius,  p.  935,  989 ; 
ff-pdyyiiXoi'  ki<k\({J  ;  7-otundilas),  perhaps  the  convex 
roof  of  the  base.  To  these  parts  Josephus  adds  chains, 
which  may  probably  be  the  festoons  above  mentioned 
(.4  «^  viii,  3,  ()). 


Conjectural  Diagram  of  the  Laver.    (After  Thenius.) 

a,  borders;  6,  ledges;  c,  additions;  rf,  plwtes  ;  e,  undersetters,  _/,  naves;  ^, 
spokes;  A,  felloes;  i,  chapiter;  X:,  round  compass. 

"Thenius,  with  whom  Keil  in  the  main  agrees, both  of 
them  differing  from  Ewald,  in  a  minute  examination  of 
the  whole  passage,  but  not  without  some  transposition, 
chiefly  of  the  greater  part  of  ver.  31  to  ver.  35,  deduces  a 
construction  of  the  bases  and  lavers,  which  seems  fairly 
to  reconcile  the  very  great  difficulties  of  the  subject.  Fol- 
lowing chiefly  his  description,  we  may  suppose  the  base 
to  have  been  a  quadrangular  hollow  frame,  connected 
at  its  corners  by  pilasters  (ledges),  and  moved  l>y  four 
wheels  or  high  castors,  one  at  each  corner,  with  handles 
(plates)  (for  drawing  the  machine.  The  sides  of  this 
frame  were  divided  into  three  vertical  panels  or  com- 
partments (borders),  ornamented  with  bass-reliefs  of 
lions,  oxen,  and  cherubim.  The  fop  of  the  base  was 
convex,  with  a  circular  opening  of  one  and  a  half  cubit 
diameter.  The  top  itself  was  covered  with  cngra\'ed 
cherubim,  lions,  and  palm-trees  or  branches.  The 
height  of  the  convex  top  from  the  upper  plane  of  the 
base  was  one  and  a  half  cubit,  and  the  space  between 
this  top  and  the  lower  surface  of  the  laver  one  and  a 


LAVERTY 


282 


LAVINGTOX 


half  cubit  more.  The  laver  rested  on  supports  (under- 
setters)  rising  from  the  four  corners  of  the  base.  Each 
laver  coutaiued  40  '  baths'  (Gr.  X""?);  or  about  300  gal- 
lons. Its  dimensions,  therefore,  to  be  in  ])roporliou  to 
seven  feet  (four  cubits,  vcr.  38)  in  diameter,  must  have 
been  about  thirty  inches  in  depth.  The  great  height 
of  the  whole  machine  was  doubtless  iii  order  to  bring  it 
near  the  height  of  the  altar  (2  Chron.  iv,  1 ;  Arias  Mon- 
tanus,  De  Templi  Fabrica,  in  Crit.  Sac.  viii,  G2G ;  Light- 
foot,  Descr.  Templi,  c.  xxxvii,  3,  vol.  i,  p.  Gi6 ;  Thenius,  in 
Kurzg.  Exeg.  llandb.  on  1  Kings  vii,  and  Append,  p.  41 ; 
Ewald,  Geschichte,  iii,  313  ;  Keil,  Hundb.  ihr  Bibl.  Arch. 
§  24,  p.  128,  129)"  (Smith).  Mr.  Paine,  in  his  work 
on  Solomon's  Temple  (plate  xii,  fig.  6),  gives  the  follow- 
ing conjectural  view  of  one  of  these  lavers,  which  is 
more  compact,  less  likely  to  be  overturned,  and  more 
closely  analogous  to  the  forp  of  the  great  or  molten  sea 


Form  of  the  "Laver"  acco;  diu2:  to  Paiue. 


(q.  v.).  Yet  in  neither  of  these  figures  does  the  "  base," 
with  its  chest-like  form  and  inconvenient  height,  seem 
at  all  adapted  to  the  above  purpose  of  catching  the 
waste  water,  or  of  aiding  in  any  M'ay  the  ablutions,  un- 
less the  laver  itself  were  furnished  with  a  spout,  and  the 
box  below  formed  a  tank  with  openings  on  the  top  for 
receiving  the  stream  after  it  had  served  its  cleansing 
purpose.  The  portable  form  was  doubtless  for  conven- 
ience of  replenishing  and  emptying. 

3.  In  the  second  Temple  there  appears  to  have  been 
only  one  laver  of  brass  (Mishna,  Middoth,  iii,  C),  with 
twelve  instead  of  two  stop-cocks,  and  a  machine  for 
raising  water  and  filling  it  (Jlishna,  Tumid,  lii,  8;  com- 
pare i,  4,  Ziima,  iii,  10).  Of  its  size  or  shape  we  have 
no  information,  but  it  was  jirobably  like  those  of  Solo- 
mon's Temple.  Josephus,  in  liis  description  of  Herod's 
Temple  ( War,  v,  5),  scarcely  alludes  to  f  liis  laver.  See 
H.  (L  Clemens,  De  labro  m/ieo  (Utr.  1725 ;  also  in  Ugo- 
lini  Thesuur.  xix);  Lamy,  De  tabernac.  fad.  iii,  6,  7,  p. 
460  sq.,  and  table  10;  Vilalpandus,  On  Ezek.  li,  p.  492; 
L'Erapereur  in  Surenhusius's  Mi.irhna,  v,  3fi0  ;  Schaacht, 
Anim.ivlr.  ad  I  ken.  antiq.  p.  297  scj. ;  Ziillig,  Chcrubim- 
vai/i'ti,  \).  50  sq. ;  Griineisen,  in  the  Shiltijart.  Kunstbl. 
183 1,  No.  5  sq. ;  A.  Clants,  Scription.  biblic.  (Groningen, 
1733),  p,  05;  Scacchi,  Mgroth.  sacr.  thuochrism.  p.  41; 
and  the  various  commentators  on  the  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, especially  Kosenmiiller,  and  Ilengstenberg'sPcwta^ 
ii,  133.     See  TiiMPi.E. 

Laverty,  Wii.li.vji  W.,  an  American  Presbyterian 
minister,  was  born  in  Union  Comity,  Pa.,  June  15, 1828; 
was  educated  at  Wasliington  College,  Pa.  (class  of  1849), 
and  studied  theology  iu  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary. In  the  fall  of  1853  he  was  ordained  and  installed 
pastor  of  15ig  Sjiring  and  New  Cumberland  churches, 
Ohio.  In  connection  with  his  ministerial  duties  he  also 
filled  the  position  of  principal  of  Hagerstown  Academy. 
In  1857  he  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  Wellsville  and 


East  Liverpool  churches,  Ohio,  and  in  the  spring  of  1864 
he  was  elected  principal  of  Mongolia  Academy,  at  Mor- 
gantown,  West  Va.,  where  he  died  Oct.  28, 1805.  Mr. 
Laverty  was  especially  adapted  to  the  training  and  in- 
struction of  youth,  and  he  always  devoted  himself  with 
untiring  assiduity  to  whatever  he  undertook. — Wilson, 
Presb.  Historical  Almanac,  1800,  p.  107. 

Lavialle,  Piekre  Joseph,  a  Roman  Catholic  prelate, 
was  born  in  jMauriac,  France,  in  1820,  and  received  both 
a  collegiate  and  theological  education  in  the  universities 
of  his  native  city.  In  1843  he  came  to  the  United 
States,  and  was  ordained  priest  the  following  year.  Af- 
ter a  year's  service  in  New  York  City  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  St.  IMary's  College,  Lebanon,  Ky., 
and  in  1855  was  appointed  president  of  the  same  insti- 
tution. In  1859  he  declined  the  proffered  bishopric  of 
Savannah,  but  in  18G5  accepted  that  of  Louisville.  He 
died  May  11. 1807.  Bishoj)  Lavialle  was  a  man  of  great 
zeal  and  energy.  He  founded  several  educational  and 
benevolent  institutions  in  his  diocese.  His  character 
was  such  as  to  win  him  the  esteem  not  only  of  his  own 
people,  but  of  the  citizens  generally. — .4  merican  A  nnual 
Ci/clopwdia,  1 807,  p.  428. 

Laviugton,  George,  an  English  prelate,  noted  for 
his  antagonism  to  AVesley  and  Whitefield,  was  born  in 
Wiltshire  in  1083 ;  became  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  London, 
in  1732,  and  in  1747  Avas  promoted  to  the  bishopric  of 
Exeter.  Shortly  after  his  elevation  to  the  episcopal 
dignity,  Lavington,  who  had  from  the  first  looked  unfa- 
vorably upon  the  Methodistic  movement,  found  an  op- 
portunity to  exert  liis  episcopal  jurisdiction  upon  one 
of  the  ministers  of  his  diocese,  the  liev.  JMr.  Thompson, 
"  the  tolerant  and  zealous  rector  of  St.  Gennis,"  who  had 
dared  to  exert  himself  in  behalf  of  a  more  genuine  and 
active  religious  spirit  among  the  people  of  his  own  par- 
ish, and  the  community  in  its  neighborhood.  In  this 
instance  the  bishop  failed  utterly  of  cutting  short  the 
evangelizing  efforts  of  an  earnest  and  zealous  servant  of 
God,  and  he  gave  vent  to  his  feelings  by  a  public  attack 
on  the  originators  of  the  whole  movement — Wesley  and 
Whitefield — in  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Enthusiasm  of 
3fethodists  and  Papists  comjiared  (LoniXon,  1749,3  parts, 
8vo),  in  which  he  "  exaggerated  their  real  faidts,  and 
imputed  to  them  many  that  were  monstrous  fictions." 
The  attack  was  at  once  taken  up  by  both  tlie  persons 
assailed  in  the  pamphlet,  and  from  the  position  assumed 
by  Wesley  in  his  answer  many  of  the  English  Church 
divines  have  plucked  an  arrow  in  defence  of  their  own 
Church  in  Wesley's  day.  Southey  was  the  first  to  cen- 
sure Wesley  for  the  use  of  intemperate  language  in  his 
reply  to  Lavington,  but  tlicre  is  really  no  reason  for 
any  one,  however  anxious  to  shield  Mr. Wesley,  to  de- 
fend his  harsh  treatment  of  the  bishop,  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  provocation  was  great  indeed.  Mr.  Ty- 
erman,  Wesley's  latest  biographer  (London,  1871,  3  vols. 
8vo ;  N.  York,  Harper  and  Brothers,  3  vols.  8vo,  1872), 
certainly  goes  too  far  when  he  attempts  to  clear  Wes- 
ley's skirts  by  saying  that  Lavington  "  deserved  all  he 
got,"  and  that  he  was  '•  a  buffooning  bishop"  and  '•  a  cow- 
ardly calumniator"  (ii,  94,  153).  But  there  is  no  jus- 
tice in  the  attempts  of  modern  English  writers  to  praise 
bishop  Lavington  at  the  expense  of  Jlr.  Wesley.  The 
bishop  made  a  most  undignified  assault  on  men  who 
were  engaged  in  a  work  approved  and  owned  of  God, 
and,  as  his  later  conduct  towards  lady  Huntingdon 
and  Wesley  himself  ])rovcs,  retreated  from  the  posi- 
tion he  had  taken,  '•ajjologizing  to  her  ladysliip  [Hunt- 
ingdon I  and  the  IMcssrs.  Whitefield  and  Wesley  for  the 
harsh  and  unjust  censures  which  he  was  led  to  pass  on 
them,"  and  even  requested  them  to  "  acce])t  his  un- 
feigned regret  at  liaving  unjustly  wounded  their  feel- 
ings, and  expose<l  tllem  to  the  odium  of  the  wuxM"  {Ladj 
//untinr/dan's  Life  ami  Times,  ch.  vii\  How  iu  the  face 
of  this  position,  however  hypocritical  on  the  part  of  Lav- 
ington, any  English  writers  can  afford  to  defend  bishop 
Laviiigton's  position,  as  has  been  done  lately  in  the 
North  British  Review  (Jan.  1871),  seems  to  us  stiU  more 


LAVIPEDIUM 


283 


LAW 


strange  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  attitude  of 
Wesley  on  his  last  meeting  with  hishop  Lavington  :  '•  I 
was  well  iilease<l  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with 
my  old  op])()nent,  bishop  Lavington.  Oh,  may  we  sit 
down  together  in  the  kingdom  of  our  Father!"  record- 
ed by  Wesley  himself  in  liis  journal  of  17G2.  Bishop 
Lavington,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  fond  of  polemical 
extravagances,  for  a  few  years  after  liis  attack  on  jNIeth- 
odism  he  wrote  The  Moravians  compared  and  detected 
(1755,  8vo).  Besides  these  two  attacks  upon  fellow- 
Christians,  he  published  some  occasional  Sermons.  He 
died  in  17G2.  See,  besides  the  references  already  made, 
Polwhele,  ilistortj  of  Devonshire,  i,  313 ;  Stevens,  Hist,  of 
ilethodism,  i,  247.300 ;  Meth.  Quart.  Revieic,  1871,  p.  306 
sq.    (J.H.W.) 

Lavipedium.     See  Foox-washixg. 

La^w  is  usually  detuied  as  a  rule  of  action ;  it  is 
more  properly  a  precept  or  command  coming  from  a  su- 
perior authorit}-,  which  an  inferior  is  bound  to  obey. 
Such  laws  emanate  from  the  king  or  legislative  body  of 
a  nation.  Such  enactments  of"  the  powers  that  be"  are 
recognised  in  Scripture  as  resting  upon  the  ultimate  au- 
thority of  the  divine  Lawgiver  (Rom.  xiii,  1).  We 
propose  in  this  article  to  discuss  only  the  various  dis- 
tinctions or  applications  of  the  term,  in  an  ethical  sense, 
reserving  for  a  separate  place  the  consideration  of  the 
Mosaic  law,  in  its  various  aspects,  ceremonial,  moral, 
and  civil. 

1.  Classification  ofLau-s  as  to  their  interior  Nature. — 
1.  " Penal  Laivs"  are  such  as  have  some  penalty  to  en- 
force them.  All  the  laws  of  God  are  and  cannot  but  be 
penal,  because  every  breach  of  his  law  is  sin,  and  meri- 
torious of  punishment. 

2.  "  Directinrj  Laws''''  are  prescriptions  or  maxims  with- 
out any  punishment  annexed  to  them. 

3.  "Positive  Laws"  are  precepts  which  are  not  found- 
ed upon  any  reasons  known  to  those  to  wliom  they  are 
given.  Thus,  in  the  state  of  innocence,  God  gave  the 
law  of  the  Sabbath ;  of  abstinence  from  the  fruit  of  the 
tree  of  knowledge,  etc.  In  childhood  most  of  the  pa- 
rental ct)mmands  are  necessarily  of  this  nature,  owing 
to  the  incapacity  of  the  child  to  understand  the  grounds 
of  their  inculcation. 

IL  Certain  Special  Uses  of  the  Tej-m. — 1.  "  Laio  ofFlon- 
or'"  is  a  system  of  rules  constructed  by  people  of  fashion, 
and  calculated  to  facilitate  theit  intercourse  with  one 
another,  and  for  no  other  purpose.  Consequently  noth- 
ing is  adverted  to  by  the  law  of  honor  but  what  tends 
to  incommode  this  intercourse.  Hence  this  law  only 
prescribes  and  regulates  the  duties  betwixt  equals,  omit- 
ting such  as  relate  to  the  Supreme  Being,  as  well  as 
those  which  we  owe  to  our  inferiors,  and  in  most  in- 
stances is  favorable  to  the  licentious  indulgence  of  the 
natural  passions.  Thus  it  allows  of  fornication,  adul- 
terj',  dnmkcnness,  prodigality,  duelling,  and  of  revenge 
in  the  extreme,  and  lays  no  stress  upon  the  virtues  op- 
posite to  these. 

2.  '•  Laws  of  Nations''''  are  those  rules  which,  by  a  tacit 
consent,  are  agreed  upon  among  all  communities,  at  least 
among  those  who  are  reckoned  the  polite  and  human- 
ized part  of  mankind. 

o."Laws  of  Natin-e." — "The  word  law  is  sometimes 
also  employed  in  order  to  express  not  only  the  moral 
connection  l)etwecn  free  agents  of  an  inferior,  and  oth- 
ers of  a  superior  power,  but  also  in  order  to  express  the 
•nexus  criiisrdi.i,  the  connection  between  cause  and  effect 
in  inanimate  nature.  However,  the  expression  law  of 
nature,  hx  natiirw,  is  improper  and  figurative.  The  term 
law  implies,  in  its  strict  sense.  Kpontaneiti/,  or  the  power 
of  deciding  between  right  and  wrong,  and  of  choosing 
between  good  and  evil,  as  well  on  the  part  of  the  law- 
giver as  on  the  part  of  those  who  have  to  regidate  tlieir 
conduct  according  to  his  dictates"  (Kitto,  s.  v.).  More- 
over, the  (lowers  of  nature,  which  these  laws  are  con- 
ceived as  representing,  arc  nothing  in  reality  but  the 
power  of  God  exerted  in  these  directions.  Hence  these 
laws  may  at  any  time  be  suspended  by  God  when  the 


higher  interests  of  his  spiritual  kingdom  require.  View- 
ed in  this  light,  miracles  not  only  become  possible,  but 
even  probable  for  the  furtherance  of  the  divine  economy 
of  salvation.  (See  BusheU,  Nature  and  the  Supei-natu- 
ral.)     See  Miracle. 

HI.  Forms  of  the  Divine  I^aw. — The  manner  in  which 
God  governs  rational  creatures  is  by  a  law,  as  the  rule 
of  their  obedience  to  him,  and  this  is  what  we  call 
God's  moral  government  of  the  world.  At  their  very 
creation  he  placed  all  intelligences  ixnder  such  a  system. 
Thus  he  gave  a  law  to  am/els,  which  some  of  them  have 
kept,  and  have  been  confirmed  in  a  state  of  obedience  to 
it ;  but  which  others  broke,  and  thereby  plunged  them- 
selves into  destruction  and  misery.  In  like  manner  he 
also  gave  a  law  to  ,4  (/«?»,  which  was  in  the  form  of  a 
covenant,  and  in  which  Adam  stood  as  a  covenant  head 
to  all  his  posterity  (Kom.  v).  But  our  first  parents  soon 
violated  that  law,  and  fell  from  a  state  of  innocence  to  a 
state  of  sm  and  misery  (Hos.  vi,  7).     See  Fall. 

1.  The  "Imw  of  Natu7'e"  is  the  wiU  of  God  relating 
to  human  actions,  grounded  in  the  moral  difference  of 
things,  and,  because  discoverable  by  natural  light,  obli- 
gatory upon  all  mankind  (Com.  i,  20;  ii,  14, 15).  This 
la^v  is  coeval  with  the  human  race,  buidmg  all  over  the 
globe,  and  at  all  times;  yet,  through  the  corruption  of 
reason,  it  is  insufficient  to  lead  us  to  happiness,  and  ut- 
terly unable  to  accjuaint  us  how  sin  is  to  be  forgiven, 
without  the  assistance  of  revelation.  This  law  is  that 
generally  designated  by  the  term  conscience,  which  is  in 
strictness  a  capacity  of  being  affected  by  the  moral  re- 
lations of  actions;  in  other  words,  merely  a  sense  of  right 
amhvronr/.  It  is  the  judgment  which  intellectually  de- 
termmes  the  moral  quality  of  an  act,  and  this  always 
by  a  comparison  with  some  assumed  standard.  With 
those  who  have  a  revelation,  this,  of  course,  is  the  test; 
with  others,  education,  tradition,  or  caprice.  Hence  the 
importance  of  a  trained  conscience,  not  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cultivating  its  susceptibility  to  a  high  degree  of 
sensitiveness  and  authority,  but  also  in  order  to  correct 
the  judgment  and  fumish  it  a  just  basis  of  decision.  A 
perverted  or  misled  conscience  is  scarcely  less  disastrous 
than  a  hard  or  blind  one.  Historj-  is  full  of  the  miseries 
and  mischiefs  occasioned  by  a  misguided  moral  sense. 

2.  "Ceremonial  La^v"  is  that  which  prescribes  the 
rites  of  worship  under  the  Old  Testament.  These  rites 
were  typical  of  Christ,  and  were  obligator}-  only  till 
Christ  had  finished  his  work,  and  began  to  erect  his  Gos- 
pel Church  (Heb.  vii,  9, 1 1 ;  x,  1 ;  Eph.  ii,  16 ;  Col.  ii,  14 ; 
Gal  v,  2, 3). 

3.  "Judicial  I^aw"  was  that  which  directed  the  pdlicy 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  under  the  peculiar  dominion  of 
God  as  their  supreme  magistrate,  and  never,  except  in 
things  relating  to  moral  equity,  was  binding  on  any  but 
the  Hebrew  nation. 

4.  "Moral  Law"  is  that  declaration  of  God's  will  which 
directs  and  binds  all  men,  in  every  age  and  place,  to  their 
whole  duty  to  him.  It  was  most  solemnly  proclaimed 
by  God  himself  at  Sinai,  to  confirm  the  original  law  of 
nature,  and  correct  men's  mistakes  concerning  the  de- 
mands of  it.  It  is  denominated  perfect  (Psa.  xix,  7), 
peqietual  (Matt,  v,  17,  18),  holy  (Kom.  vii,  12),  good 
(Kom.  vii,  12%  spiritual  (Kom.  vii,  14),  exceeding  broad 
(Psa.  cxix,  96).  Some  deny  that  it  is  a  rule  of  conduct 
to  believers  under  the  (iospel  dispensation;  but  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  futility  of  such  an  idea;  for,  as  a  tran- 
script of  the  mind  of  God.  it  must  be  the  criterion  of 
moral  good  and  evil.  It  is  also  given  for  that  very  pur- 
pose, that  we  may  see  our  duty,  and  abstain  from  every- 
thing derogatory  to  the  divine  glory.  It  affords  us 
grand  ideas  of  the  holiness  and  purity  of  (iod  ;  without 
attention  to  it,  we  can  have  no  knowledge  of  sin.  Christ 
himself  came,  not  to  destroy,  but  to  f'ldfil  it;  and  though 
we  cannot  do  as  he  did,  yet  we  are  commanded  to  follow 
his  example.  Love  to  God  is  the  end  of  the  moral  law 
as  well  as  the  end  of  the  Gospel.  By  the  law,  also,  we 
are  led  to  .see  the  nature  of  holiness  and  our  own  de- 
pravity, and  learn  to  be  humbled  under  a  sense  of  our 


LAW 


284 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


imperfection.  We  are  not  under  it,  however,  as  a  cov- 
enant of  works  (Gal.  iii,  13),  or  as  a  source  of  terror 
(Rom.  viii,  1),  although  we  must  abide  by  it,  together 
with  the  whole  preceptive  word  of  God,  as  the  rule  of 
oiir  conduct  (Rom.  iii,  31 ;  vii). — Hend.  Buck.    See  Law 

OF  MOSKS. 

IV.  Soiptiiral  Uses  of  the  Law. — The  word  "  law" 
(n"nri.  to/a/i',  vo/iof)  is  properly  used,  in  Scripture  as 
clse^vhcre,  to  express  a  definite  commandment  laid  down 
by  any  recognised  authority.  The  commandment  may 
be  general  or  (as  in  Lev.  vi,  9, 14,  etc.,"  the  law  of  the 
burnt-offering,"  etc.)  particular  in  its  bearing,  the  au- 
thority either  human  or  divine.  It  is  extended  to  pre- 
scriptions respecting  sanitary  or  purificatory  arrange- 
ments ("  the  law  of  her  that  has  been  in  childbed,"  or 
of  those  that  have  had  the  leprosy,  Lev.  xiv,  2),  or  even 
to  an  architectural  design  ("  the  law  of  the  house,"  Ezek. 
xliii,  12 ) :  so  in  Rom.  vii,  2,  '■  the  law  of  the  husband"  is 
liis  authority  over  his  wife.  But  when  the  word  is  used 
with  the  article,  and  without  any  words  of  Umitation,  it 
refers  to  the  expressed  will  of  God,  and,  in  nine  cases  out 
often,  to  the  Mosaic  law,  or  to  the  Pentateuch,  of  which 
it  forms  the  chief  portion. 

The  Hebrew  word  (derived  from  the  root  n^"^,  yarah', 
"  to  point  out,"  and  so  "  to  direct  and  lead")  laj's  more 
stress  on  its  moral  authority,  as  teaching  the  truth,  and 
guiding  in  the  right  way  ;  the  Greek  j'tijuoc  (from  vs/iw, 
*'  to  assign  or  appoint")  on  its  constraining  power,  as 
imposed  and  enforced  by  a  recognised  authority.  But 
in  either  case  it  is  a  commandment  proceeding  from 
without,  and  distinguished  from  the  free  action  of  its 
subjects,  although  not  necessarily  opposed  thereto. 

The  sense  of  the  word,  however,  extends  its  scope, 
and  assumes  a  more  abstract  character  in  the  writings 
of  the  apostle  Paul,  fiofiog,  when  used  by  him  with 
the  article,  still  refers  in  general  to  the  law  of  Moses; 
but  when  used  without  the  article,  so  as  to  embrace  any 
manifestation  of  "law,"  it  includes  all  powers  which  act 
on  the  Avill  of  man  by  compulsion,  or  by  the  pressure  of 
external  motives,  whether  their  commands  be  or  be  not 
expressed  in  definite  forms.  This  is  seen  in  the  con- 
stant opposition  of  epya  vo/uou  ("  works  done  under  the 
constraint  of  law")  to  faith,  or  "  works  of  faith,"  that  is, 
works  done  freely  bj'  the  internal  influence  of  faith.  A 
stUl  more  remarkable  use  of  the  word  is  found  in  Rom. 
vii,  23,  \vhere  the  power  of  evil  over  the  will,  arising 
from  the  corruption  of  man,  is  spoken  of  as  a  "  law  of 
sin,"  that  is,  an  unnatural  tyranny  proceeding  from  an 
evil  power  without.  The  same  apostle  even  uses  the 
terra  "  law"  to  denote  the  Christian  dispensation  in 
contrast  with  that  of  Moses  (James  i,  25 ;  ii,  12  ;  iv,  1 1 ; 
comp.  Rom.  X,  4  i  Heb.  vii,  12;  x,  1);  also  for  the  laws 
or  precepts  established  by  the  Gospel  (Rom.  xiii,  8,  10 ; 
Gal.  vi,  2 ;  v,  23). 

The  occasional  use  of  the  word  "  law"  (as  in  Rom.  iii, 
27,  "law  of  faith,"  in  vii,  23,  "law  of  my  mind"  [tov 
voof] ;  in  viii,  2, "  law  of  the  spirit  of  life ;"  and  in  James 
i,  25;  ii,  12, "  a  perfect  law,  the  law  of  liberty")  to  denote 
an  iiiterniil  principle  of  action  does  not  really  miUtate 
against  the  general  rule.  For  in  each  case  it  will  be 
seeu  that  such  principle  is  spoken  of  in  contrast  with 
some  formal  law,  and  the  word  "  law"  is  consequently 
applied  to  it  "  improperly,"  in  order  to  mark  this  opposi- 
tion, the  (jualifying  words  which  follow  guarding  against 
any  danger  of  misa[)prehension  of  its  real  character. 

It  should  also  be  noticed  that  the  title  "  the  law"  is 
occasionally  used  loosely  to  refer  to  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament  (as  in  .John  x,  34,  referring  to  Psa.  Ixxxii,  6; 
in  John  xv,  25,  referring  to  Psa.  xxxv,  19 ;  and  in  1  Cor. 
xiv,  21,  referring  to  Isa.  xxviii.  11, 12).  This  usage  is 
probably  due,  not  only  to  desire  of  brevity  and  to  the 
natural  prominence  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  also  to  the 
predominance  in  the  older  covenant  (when  considered 
senarately  from  the  new,  for  which  it  was  the  prepara- 
tion) of  an  external  and  legal  character. — Smith,  s.  v. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  j/o/zof  very  often 


stands,  even  when  without  the  article,  for  the  Mosaic 
law,  the  term  in  that  sense  being  so  well  known  as  not 
to  be  liable  to  be  misunderstood.   See  Article,  Greek. 

LAW  OF  MOSES  {r\'4_-!2  n^lB)  signifies  the  whole 
body  of  Mosaic  legislation  (1  Kuigs  ii,  3 ;  2  Kings  xxiii, 
25 ;  Ezra  iii,  2),  the  law  given  by  Moses,  which,  in  refer- 
ence to  its  divine  origin,  is  called  Ti'iTi'}  n"nFi,  the  law 
nf  Jehovah  (Psa.  xix,  H  ;  xxxvii,  31 ;  Isa.  v,  24 ,  xxx,  9). 
In  the  latter  sense  it  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence, 
rrninn,  the  hm  (Dent,  i,  5;  iv,  8,  44;  xvii,  18,  19. 
xxvii,  3,  8),  When  not  so  much  the  substance  of  legis- 
lation, but  rather  the  external  written  code  in  which  it 
is  contained  is  meant,  the  following  terms  are  employed : 
"  Book  of  the  Law  of  Moses"  (2  Kings  xiv,  6 ;  Isa,  viii,31 ; 
xxiii,  6) ;  "  Book  of  the  Law  of  the  Lord,"  or  "  Book  of 
the  Law  of  God"  (Josh,  xxiv,  2G).  "Judgments,"  "  stat- 
utes," "  testimonies,"  etc.,  are  the  various  precepts  con- 
tained in  the  law.  In  the  present  article,  which  is 
chiefly  based  upon  those  in  the  dictionaries  of  Kitto 
and  Smith  (but  differs  from  them  both  in  maintaining 
the  perpetual  obligation  of  the  ten  commandments),  we 
propose  to  give  a  brief  analysis  of  its  substance,  to  point 
out  its  main  principles,  and  to  explain  the  position 
which  it  occupies  in  the  progress  of  divine  revelation. 
For  the  history  of  its  delivery,  see  Moses  ;  Exode  ;  for 
its  authenticity,  see  Pextateuch  ;  for  its  particular  or- 
dinances, see  each  in  its  alphabetical  place. 

The  law  is  especially  embodied  in  the  last  four  books 
of  the  Pentateuch.  In  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Num- 
bers there  is  perceptible  some  arrangement  of  the  va- 
rious precepts,  although  they  are  not  brought  into  a 
system.  In  Deuteronomy  the  law  or  legislation  con- 
tained in  the  three  preceding  books  is  repeated  with 
slight  modifications.     See  each  of  these  books. 

The  Jews  assert  that,  besides  the  written  law,  il"iin 
arDaiy,  vofioQ  tyypa^oc,  which  may  be  translated  into 
other  languages,  and  which  is  contained  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, there  was  communicated  to  Moses  on  Mount 
Sinai  an  07-al  law,  tlS  ?"-lI5  niiri,  vofioQ  nypa<poc, 
which  was  subsequently  written  down,  together  with 
many  rabbinical  observations,  and  is  contained  in  the 
twelve  folio  volumes  which  now  constitute  the  Talmud, 
and  which  the  Jews  assert  cannot  be,  or  at  least  ought 
not  to  be,  translated.     See  Taljiud. 

The  Rabbins  divide  the  whole  Mosaic  law  into  613 
precepts,  of  which  248  are  affirmative  and  365  negative. 
The  number  of  the  affirmative  precepts  corresponds  to 
the  248  members  of  which,  according  to  rabbinical  anat- 
omy, the  whole  human  body  consists.  Tlie  number  of 
the  negative  precepts  corresponds  to  the  365  days  of  the 
solar  year ;  or,  according  to  the  rabbinical  work  Brand- 
spieyel  (which  has  been  published  in  Jewish  German  at 
Cracow  and  in  other  places),  the  negative  precepts  agree 
in  number  with  the  366  veins  which,  they  say,  are  found 
in  the  human  body.  Hence  their  logic  concludes  that 
if  on  each  day  each  member  of  the  liuman  body  keeps 
one  affirmative  precept  and  abstains  from  one  thing  for- 
bidden, the  whole  law,  and  not  the  Decalogue  alone,  is 
ke[)t.  The  whole  law  is  sometimes  called  by  Jewish 
writers  Theriog,  which  word  is  formed  from  the  Hebrew 
letters  that  are  employed  to  express  the  number  613,  viz. 
400  =  n-t-200  =  -l  +  10  =  i+3  =  5.  Hence  613  =  J-'-.n 
theriog.  Women  are  subject  to  the  negative  precepts 
or  prohibitions  only,  and  not  to  the  affirmative  precepts 
or  injunctions.  This  exception  arises  partly  from  their 
nature,  and  partly  from  their  being  subject  to  the  au- 
thority of  husbands.  According  to  some  rabbinical 
statements  women  are  subject  to  100  precepts  only,  of 
which  64  are  negative  and  36  affirmative.  The  number 
613  corresponds  also  to  the  number  of  letters  in  the  Dec- 
alogue. Others  are  inclined  to  find  that  there  are  620 
precepts  according  to  the  numerical  value  of  the  Avord 
"in3=crowi,  viz.,  400  =  n+200  =  "l  +  20  =  D;  and  oth- 
ers, again,  observe  that  the  numerical  value  of  the  let- 


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285 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


ters  il'i'iT,  latv,  amounts  only  to  611.  The  first  in  or- 
der of  these  laws  is  found  in  Gen.  i,  27, 13^1  1"1S,  be 
f miff  til  and  multiply.  The  transgressor  of  this  law  is, 
according  to  l^abbi  Eliezer,  as  wicked  as  a  murderer. 
He  who  is  still  unmarried  at  twenty  years  of  age  is  a 
transgressor;  and  the  law  is  binding  upon  every  man, 
according  to  Schamai,  until  he  has  two  sons  ^  or,  accord- 
ing to  Hillel,  one  son  and  one  daughter  (compare  Juris 
Hebrceorum  leges,  ductu  Rabbi  Levi  Barzelonitse,  auctore 
J.  Henrico  Hottinger).     See  Cabala. 

1.  The  Law  with  refereme  to  the  Past  History  of  the 
People. — 1.  Here  it  is  all-important,  for  the  proper  un- 
derstanding of  the  law,  to  remember  its  entire  dependence 
on  the  A  brahamic  Covenant,  and  its  adaptation  thereto 
(see  Gal.  iii,  17-24).  That  covenant  had  a  twofold  char- 
acter. It  contained  the  "  spiritual  promise"  of  the  Mes- 
siah, which  was  given  to  the  Jews  as  representatives  of 
the  whole  human  race,  and  as  guardians  of  a  treasure  in 
which' "  all  families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed."  This 
Avould  prepare  the  Jewish  nation  to  be  the  centre  of  the 
iniity  of  all  mankind.  But  it  contained  also  the  tem- 
poral promises  subsidiary  to  the  former,  and  requisite  in 
order  to  preserve  intact  the  nation,  through  which  the 
race  of  man  should  be  educated  and  prepared  for  the 
coming  of  the  Redeemer.  These  promises  were  special, 
given  distinctively  to  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  and  calcu- 
lated to  separate  them  from  other  nations  of  the  earth. 
It  follows  that  there  shoidd  be  in  the  law  a  correspond- 
ing duality  of  nature.  There  would  be  much  in  it  pe- 
culiar to  the  Jews,  local,  special,  and  transitorj- ;  but  the 
fundamental  principles  on  which  it  was  based  must  be 
universal,  because  expressing  the  will  of  an  unchanging 
God,  and  springing  from  relations  to  him  inherent  in 
human  nature,  and  therefore  perpetual  and  universal  in 
their  application. 

2.  The  nature  of  this  relation  of  the  law  to  the  prom- 
ise is  clearly  pointed  out.  The  belief  in  God  as  the  Re- 
deemer of  man,  and  the  hope  of  his  manifestation  as  such 
in  the  person  of  the  INIessiah,  involved  the  belief  that 
the  spiritual  power  must  be  superior  to  all  carnal  ob- 
structions, and  that  there  was  in  man  a  spiritual  ele- 
ment which  could  rule  his  life  bj-  communion  with  a 
Spirit  from  above.  But  it  involved  also  the  idea  of  an 
antagonistic  power  of  evil,  from  which  man  was  to  be 
redeemed,  existing  in  each  individual,  and  existing  also 
in  the  world  at  large.  The  promise  was  the  witness  of 
the  one  truth,  the  law  was  the  declaration  of  the  other. 
It  was  "  added  because  of  transgressions."  In  the  indi- 
vidual it  stood  between  his  better  and  his  worse  self, 
in  the  world,  between  the  Jewish  nation  as  the  witness 
of  the  spiritual  promise,  and  the  heathendom  which 
groaned  under  the  power  of  the  flesh.  It  was  intended, 
by  the  gift  of  guidance  and  the  pressure  of  motives,  to 
strengthen  the  weakness  of  good,  while  it  curbed  direct- 
ly the  power  of  evil.  It  followed  inevitably  that,  in  the 
individual,  it  assumed  somewhat  of  a  coercive,  and,  as 
between  Israel  and  the  world,  somewhat  of  an  antago- 
nistic and  isolating  character;  and  hence  that,  viewed 
without  reference  to  the  promise  (as  was  the  case  with 
the  later  Jews"),  it  might  actually  become  a  hinderance 
to  the  true  revelation  of  God,  and  to  the  mission  for 
which  the  nation  had  been  made  a  "  chosen  people." 

3.  Nor  is  it  less  essential  to  note  the  period  of  the  his- 
tory at  which  it  was  given.  It  marked  and  determined 
the  transition  of  Israel  from  the  condition  of  a  tribe  to 
that  of  a  nation,  and  its  definite  assumption  of  a  distinct 
position  and  office  in  the  history  of  the  world.  It  is  on 
no  unreal  metaphor  that  we  base  the  well-known  analo- 
gy between  the  stages  of  individual  life  and  those  of  na- 
tional or  universal  existence.  In  Israel  the  patriarchal 
time  was  that  of  childhood,  ruled  chiefiy  through  the  af- 
fections and  the  power  of  natural  relationship,  with  rules 
few,  simple,  and  unsystematic.  The  national  period  was 
that  of  youth,  in  which  this  indirect  teaching  and  influ- 
ence gives  place  to  definite  assertions  of  right  and  re- 
sponsibility, and  to  a  system  of  distinct  commandments, 


needed  to  control  its  vigorous  and  impulsive  action.  The 
fifty  days  of  their  wandering  alone  with  God  in  the  si- 
lence of  the  wilderness  represent  that  awakening  to  the 
difiiculty,  the  responsibility,  and  the  nobleness  of  life, 
which  marks  the  '•  putting  away  of  childish  things." 
The  law  is  the  sign  and  the  seal  of  such  an  awaken- 
ing. 

4.  Yet,  though  new  in  its  general  conception,  it  was 
probably  not  wholly  ttew  in  its  materials.  Neither  in  his 
physical  nor  his  spiritual  providence  does  God  proceed 
per  saltum.  There  must  necessarily  have  been,  before 
the  law,  commandments  and  revelations  of  a  fragment- 
ary' character,  under  which  Israel  had  hitherto  grown  up. 
Indications  of  such  are  easily  found,  both  of  a  ceremoni- 
al and  moral  nature,  as,  for  example,  in  the  penalties 
against  murder,  adulter^',  and  fornication  (Gen.  ix,  6 ; 
xxxviii,  24),  in  the  existence  of  the  Levirate  law  (Gen. 
xxxviii,  8),  m  the  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  ani- 
mals (Gen.  viii,  20),  and  probably  in  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbath  (Exod.  xvi,  23, 27-29).  But,  even  without 
such  indications,  our  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  Is- 
rael as  a  distinct  community  in  P^gypt  would  necessitate 
the  conclusion  that  it  must  have  been  guided  by  some 
laws  of  its  own,  growing  out  of  the  old  patriarchal  cus- 
toms, which  would  be  preserved  with  Oriental  tenacity, 
and  gradually  becoming  methodized  by  the  progress  of 
circumstances.  Nor  would  it  be  possible  for  the  Israel- 
ites to  be  in  contact  with  an  elaborate  system  of  ritual 
and  law,  such  as  that  which  existed  in  Egj-pt,  without 
being  influenced  by  its  general  principles,  and,  in  less 
degree,  by  its  minuter  details.  As  they  approached 
nearer  to  the  condition  of  a  nation  they  would  be  more 
and  more  likely  to  modify  their  patriarchal  customs  by 
the  adoption  from  Egvpt  of  laws  which  were  fitted  for 
national  existence.  This  being  so,  it  is  hardly  conceiv- 
able that  the  Jlosaic  legislation  should  have  embodied 
none  of  these  earlier  materials.  It  is  clear,  even  to  hu- 
man wisdom,  that  the  only  constitution  which  can  be 
efticient  and  permanent  is  one  which  has  grown  up 
slowly,  and  so  been  assimilated  to  the  character  of  a 
people.  It  is  the  peculiar  mark  of  legislative  genius  to 
mould  by  fundamental  principles,  and  animate  by  a 
higher  inspiration,  materials  previously  existing  in  a 
cruder  state.  The  necessity  for  this  lies  in  the  nature, 
not  of  the  legislator,  but  of  the  subjects,  and  the  argu- 
ment, therefore,  is  but  strengthened  by  the  acknowledg- 
ment in  the  case  of  Moses  of  a  divine  and  special  inspira- 
tion. So  far,  therefore,  as  they  were  consistent  with  the 
objects  of  the  Jewish  law,  the  customs  of  Palestine  and 
the  laws  of  Egypt  would  doubtless  be  traceable  in  the 
Mosaic  system. 

5.  In  close  connection  with  this,  and  almost  in  conse- 
quence of  this  reference  to  antiquity,  we  find  an  accom- 
modation of  the  lavj  to  the  temper  and  circumstances 
of  the  Israelites,  to  which  our  Lord  refers  in  the  case  of 
divorce  (Matt,  xix,  7, 8)  as  necessarily  interfering  with 
its  absolute  perfection.  In  many  cases  it  rather  should 
be  said  to  guide  and  modify  existing  usages  than  actu- 
ally to  sanction  them  ;  and  the  ignorance  of  their  exist- 
ence may  lead  to  a  conception  of  its  ordinances  not  onh' 
erroneous,  but  actually  the  reverse  of  the  truth.  Thus 
the  punishment  of  filial  disobedience  appears  severe 
(Deut.  xxi,  18-21);  yet  when  we  refer  to  the  extent  of 
parental  authority  in  a  patriarchal  system,  or  (as  at 
Rome)  in  the  earlier  periods  of  national  existence,  it  ap- 
pears more  like  a  limitation  of  absolute  parental  authori- 
ty by  an  appeal  to  the  judgment  of  the  community.  The 
Levirate  law,  again,  appears  (see  'Mich.  Mos.  Recht,\ik. 
iii,  ch.  vi,  art.  98)  to  have  existed  in  a  far  more  general 
form  in  the  early  Asiatic  peoples,  and  to  have  been  rath- 
er limited  than  favored  by  INIoses.  The  la^v•  of  the  aven- 
ger of  blood  is  a  similar  instance  of  merciful  limitation 
and  distinction  in  the  exercise  of  an  immemorial  usage, 
probably  not  without  its  value  and  meaning,  and  cer- 
tainly too  deep-seated  to  a<lmit  of  any  but  gradual  ex- 
tinction. Nor  is  it  less  noticeable  that  the  degree  of 
prominence  given  to  each  part  of  the  Mosaic  system 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


286 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


has  a  similar  reference  to  tlic  period  at  whioh  the  na- 
tion had  arrived.  The  ceremonial  portion  is  marked 
out  distinctly  and  with  elaboration ;  the  moral  and  crim- 
inal law  is  clearly  and  sternly  decisive ;  even  the  civil 
law,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  individuals,  is  systematic,  be- 
cause all  tliese  were  called  for  by  the  past  growth  of  the 
nation,  and  needed  in  order  to  settle  and  develop  its  re- 
sources. But  the  political  and  constitutional  law  is  com- 
paratively imperfect;  a  few  leading  principles  are  laid 
down,  to  be  developed  hereafter;  and  the  law  is  directed 
rather  to  sanction  the  various  powers  of  the  state  than 
to  define  and  balance  their  operations.  Thus  the  exist- 
hvj;  authorities  of  a  patriarchal  nature  in  each  tribe  and 
family  are  recognised,  while  side  I)y  side  with  them  is 
established  the  priestly  and  Levitieal  power  which  was 
to  supersede  them  entirely  in  sacerdotal,  and  partly  also 
in  judicial  functions.  Tiie  supreme  civil  power  of  a 
"judge,"  or  (eventually)  a  king,  is  recognised  distinct- 
ly, although  only  in  general  terms,  indicating  a  sover- 
eign and  summary  jurisdiction  (Deut,  xvii,  14-20) ;  and 
the  prophetic  office,  in  its  political  as  well  as  its  moral 
aspect,  is  spoken  of  still  more  vaguely  as  future  (Deut. 
xviii,  15-22).  These  powers,  being  recognised,  are  left, 
within  due  limits,  to  work  out  the  political  system  of  Is- 
rael, and  to  ascertain  by  experience  their  proper  spheres 
of  exercise.  On  a  careful  tmderstanding  of  tliis  adapta- 
tion of  the  law  to  the  national  growth  and  character  of 
the  Jews  (and  of  a  somewhat  similar  adaptation  to  their 
climate  and  physical  circumstances)  depends  the  cor- 
rect appreciation  of  its  nature,  and  the  power  of  distin- 
guishing in  it  what  is  local  and  temporary  from  that 
which  is  universal. 

G.  In  close  connection  with  this  subject  we  observe 
also  t/ie  riradual process  by  u-ltich  the  law  u-cts  revealed  to 
the  Israelites.  In  Exod.  xx-xxiii,  in  direct  connection 
with  the  revelation  from  Mount  Sinai,  that  which  may 
be  called  the  rough  outline  of  the  I^Iosaic  law  is  given 
by  (iod,  solemnly  recorded  by  Jloses,  and  accepted  by 
the  people.  In  Exod.  xxv-xxxi  there  is  a  similar  out- 
line of  the  Mosaic  ceremonial.  On  the  basis  of  these  it 
may  be  conceived  that  the  fabric  of  the  IMosaic  system 
gradually  grew  up  mider  the  rc([uirements  of  the  time. 
In  certain  cases,  indeed  (as  e.fi..  in  Lev.  x,  1,  2,  compared 
with  K-11;  Lev.  xxiv,  11-lG;  Numb,  ix,  6-12,  xv,  32- 
41 ;  xxvii,  1-11,  compared  with  xxxvi,  1-12),  we  actual- 
ly see  how  general  rules,  civil,  criminal,  and  ceremonial, 
originated  in  special  circumstances;  and  the  unconnect- 
ed nature  of  the  records  of  laws  in  the  earlier  books  sug- 
gests the  idea  that  this  method  of  legislation  extended 
to  many  other  cases. 

TIk'  lirst  revelation  of  the  law  in  anything  like  a 
perfect  form  is  found  in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  at 
a  period  when  the  people,  educated  to  freedom  and  na- 
tional responsibility,  were  prepared  to  receive  it,  and 
carry  it  with  them  to  the  land  which  was  now  prepared 
for  them.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  systematic  charac- 
ter and  its  reference  to  lirst  jirinciples;  for  probably  even 
I)y  M<ises  himself,  certainly  Ijy  tlie  i)eople,  the  law  had 
not  bi'fore  this  been  recognised  in  all  its  essential  char- 
acteristics; and  to  it  we  naturally  refer  in  attempting  to 
analyze  its  various  parts.  .See  Dkuteuoxojiy.  Yet 
even  then  the  revelation  was  not  final;  it  was  the  duty 
of  the  prophets  to  amend  and  explain  it  in  special  points 
(as  in  tlie  well-known  example  in  Ezek.  xviii),  and  to 
bring  out  more  clearly  its  great  principles,  as  distin- 
guislied  from  the  external  rides  in  which  they  were  em- 
bodied; for  in  this  way,  as  in  others,  they  prejiared  the 
way  of  llim  who  "came  to  fuUil"  {-\ijf)Maai)  the  law 
of  old  time. 

IL  A  milj/sis  of  its  Contents.— It  is  customary  to  divide 
the  law  into  the  Jloral,  the  Ceremonial,  and  the  Political. 
I!ut  this  division,  although  valuable  if  considered  as  a  dis- 
tinction merely  sul)jcctive  (as  onal)Iing  us,  that  is,  to  con- 
ceive the  ol)jects  of  law,  dealing  as 'it  <loes  with  man  in 
his  soci.il,  political,  and  religious  cajiacity),  is  wholly  im- 
aginary if  regarded  as  an  objective  separation  of  various 
classes  of  laws.     Any  single  ordinance  might  have  at 


once  a  moral,  a  ceremonial,  and  a  political  bearing;  and 
in  fact,  although  in  particular  cases  one  or  other  of  these 
aspects  predominated,  yet  the  whole  principle  of  the 
jMosaic  insi;itutions  is  to  obliterate  any  such  supposed 
separation  of  laws,  and  refer  aU  to  first  principles,  de- 
pending on  the  will  of  God  and  the  nature  of  man.  In 
giving  an  analysis  of  the  substance  of  the  law,  it  will 
probably  be  better  to  treat  it,  as  any  other  system  of 
laws  is  usually  treated,  by  dividing  it  into  (1)  Civil; 
(2)  Criminal ;  (3)  Judicial  and  Constitutional ;  (4)  Ec- 
clesiastical and  Ceremonial. 

(I.)  LAWS  CIVIL. 
1.  Of  Peksons. 

(a)  Father  and  Son. 

The.  jioioe.r  of  a  Father  to  be  held  sacred ;  cursing,  or 
smiting  ^Exod.  xxl,  15,  17;  Lev.  xx,  9),  or  stubborn  and 
wilful  disobedience  to  be  considered  cupital  crimes.  I5ut 
uncontrolled  power  of  life  and  death  was  apparently  re- 
fused to  the  father,  and  vested  only  in  the  congregation 
(Deut.  xxi,  lS-21). 

Right  o.f  tlie  fir st-h»rn  to  a  double  portion  of  the  iuherit- 
ance  not  to  be  set  aside  by  partiality  (Deut.  xxi,  15-17). 
For  an  example  of  the  authority  of  the  lirst-boru,  see  1 
Sam.  XX,  21)  ("My  brother,  he  hath  commanded  me  to  be 
there"). 

Inheritance  by  Datighters  to  be  allowed  iu  default  of 
sous,  provided  (Xunib.  xxvli,  C-S;  conip.  xxxvi)  that  heir- 
esses married  iu  their  own  tribe. 

Duwjhtera  unmarried  to  he  entirely  dependent  oil  their 
father  (Numb,  xxx,  3-5). 

(u)  Husband  aiul  Wife. 

The  power  of  a  Husband  to  be  so  great  that  a  wife  could 
never  be  siii  juris,  or  enter  iudepeudeutly  into  any  en- 
gagement, even  before  God  (Numb,  xxx,  6-15).  A  widow 
or  divorced  wife  became  independent,  and  did  not  again 
fall  under  her  father's  power  (ver.  9). 

Divoree  (for  uncleanuess)  allowed,  but  to  be  formal  and 
irrevocable  (Deut.  xxiv,  1-4). 

Marriage  within  certain  degrees  forbidden  (Lev.  xviii, 
etc.). 

A  Slave  Wife,  whether  bought  or  captive,  not  to  be  act- 
ual property,  nor  to  be  sold  ;  if  ill  treated,  to  be  ipso  facto 
free  (Exod.  xxi,  7-9  ;  Deut.  xxi,  10-14). 

Slander  aijaiust  a  wife's  virginity  to  be  punished  by  fine, 
and  by  de|)rival  of  power  of~divo"rce  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
ante-conniil)ial  uucleauness  iu  her  to  be  punished  by  death 
(Deut.  xxii,  18-21). 

The  raising  xip  of  seed  (Levirate  law)  a  formal  right  to 
be  claimed  by  the  widow,  under  pain  of  infamy,  with  a 
view  to  pieservatiou  of  families  (Deut.  xxv,  5-10). 

(c)  Master  and  Slave. 

Pover  of  Master  so  .far  limited  that  death  under  actual 
chastisement  was  punishable  (Exod.  xxi,  20) ;  and  mailn- 
iug  was  to  give  liberty  ipso  facto  (ver.  26,  27). 

The  Hebrew  Slave  to  be  freed  at  the  sabbatical  year,  and 
provided  with  necessaries  (his  wife  and  children  to  go 
with  him  only  if  theycame  to  his  master  with  him),  nuless 
by  his  own  formal  act  he  consented  to  be  a  perpetual  slave 
(Exod.  xxi,  1-6;  Deut.  xv,  12-lS).  Tn  any  case  (it  would 
seem)  to  be  freed  at  the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxv,  10),  with  his 
children.  If  sold  to  a  resident  alien,  to  be  always  redeem- 
able, at  a  price  proportional  to  the  distance  of  "the  jubilee 
(Lev.  xxv,  47-.54). 

Foreign  Slaves  to  be  held  and  inherited  as  property  for- 
ever (Lev.  xxv,  45,  46)  ;  and  fugitive  slaves  from  foreign 
nations  not  to  be  given  up  (Deut.  xxiii,  15).    See  Si.avk. 

(i>)  Foreigners. 
They  seem  never  to  have  been  aid  juris,  or  able  to  pro- 
tect themselves,  and  accordingly  protection  and  kindness 
towards  them  are  enjoined  as  a  sacred  duty  (Exod.  xxii, 
21 ;  Lev.  xix,  33,  34). 

2.  Law  op  Tuings. 

(a)  Laics  of  Land  (and  Propertii). 

(1)  AU  Laiul  to  be  the  property  of  God  alone,  and  its  hold- 
ers to  be  deemed  His  tenants  (Lev.  xxv,  2.S). 

(2)  AU  sold  Land  tlierefcH'e  to  retMrn  to  its  original  own- 
ers at  the  jubilee,  and  the  price  of  sale  to  be  calculated 
accordingly  ;  and  redemption  on  equitable  terms  to  be  al- 
lowed at  ail  times  (xxv,  •J5-'.'7). 

,1  House  sold  to  be  redeemable  within  a  year;  and,  if  not 
redeemed,  to  pass  away  altogether  (xxv,  29,  30). 

But  the  Hou.frs  of  the  Levites,  or  those  in  nnwalled  vil- 
lages, to  be  redeemable  at  all  times,  iu  the  same  way  as 
laiid;  and  the  Levitieal  suburbs  to  be  inalienable  (xxv,  31 
-34). 

(3)  Land  or  Houses  sanctified,  or  tithes,  or  unclean  flrst- 
lintrs,  to  he  capable  of  beinir  redeemed  at  six-fifths  value 
(calculated  according  to  the  distance  from  the  jubilee  year 
l>y  the  priest) :  if  devoted  by  the  owner  and  unredeemed, 
to  be  hallowed  at  the  jubilee  forever,  and  given  to  the 
priests;  if  only  by  a  possessor,  to  leluru  to  the  owner  at 
the  jubilee  (Lev.  xxvii,  14-34). 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


287 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


(4)  Inheritance: 


(I)  Sons.  I 

('2)  Daughti'TH.  \ 

(,3)  Brotitera. 

(4)  Vnch»  on  the  Path 

(5)  N^xt  Kinsinenj  generally, 

(b)  Laws  of  Debt. 

Ci)  All  Dehts  (to  an  Isi-aelite)  to  be  released  at  the  seventh 
(sabbatical)  year ;  a  blessing  promised  to  obedience,  and 
a  curse  on  rcl'iisal  to  lend  (Dent,  xv,  1-11). 

(2'i  Interest  (from  Israelites)  not  to  be  taken  (Exod.  xxii, 
25-v!T  ;  Deut.  xxiii,  I'J,  2U). 

(3)  Pleihjcs  not  to  be  insolently  or  ruinously  exacted 
(Deut.  xxiv,  6,  lU-13, 17,  18). 

(o)  Taxation. 

(1)  Censits-moneij,  a  poll-tax  (of  a  half  shekel),  to  be  paid 
for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  (Exod.  xxx,  12-16). 

All  spoil  in  war  to  be  halved;  of  the  combatant's  half, 
one  tive  hundredth,  of  the  people's,  one  fiftieth,  to  be  paid 
for  a  "  heave-ofl'eriug"  to  Jehovah. 
•  (2)  Tithes : 

(a)  Tithes  of  all  produce  to  he  given  for  maintenance 
of  the  Levites  (Numb,  xviii,  20-24). 

(Of  this,  one  tenth  to  be  paid  as  a  heave-ofi"ering 
[for  maintenance  of  the  priests]  [Numb,  xviii,  2'1- 
32J.) 
(6)  Second  Tithe  to  be  bestowed  in  religious  feasting 
and  charity,  either  at  the  Holy  Place,  or  every  third 
year  at  home  (?)  (Deut.  xiv,  22-28). 
(c)  First-frtiits  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil  (at  least  one  six- 
tieth, generally  one  fortieth,  for  the  priests)  to  be 
offered  at  Jerusalem,  with  a  solemn  declaration  of 
dependence  on  God,  the  King  of  Israel  (Deut.  xxvi, 
1-15 ;  Numb,  xviii,  12,  13). 

Firstlings  of  clean  beasts;  the  redemption-money 
(5  shekels)  of  man,  and  (t  shekel,  or  1  shekel)  of  un- 
clean beasts,  to  be  given  to  the  priests  after  sacrifice 
(Numb,  xviii,  15-18). 

(3)  Poor-Laws : 

(«)  Gleanings  (in  field  or  vineyard)  to  be  a  legal  right 
of  the  poor  (Lev.  xix,  9, 10  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  19-22). 

Q>)  Sliqlit  Trespass  (eating  on  the  spot)  to  be  allowed 
as  legal  (Deut.  xxiii,  24,  25). 

(c)  Second  Tithe  (see  2,  b)  to  be  given  in  charity. 

(f/)  Wages  to  be  jiaid  dag  bg  dag  (Deut.  xxiv,  15). 

(4)  Maintenance  of  Priests  (Numb,  xviii,  8-32). 
(a)  Tenth  of  Levites'  Tithe.     (See  2,  a.) 

(f>)  The  heave  and  wave  offerings  (breast  and  right  shoul- 
der of  all  peace-ofl'erings). 

(c)  The  meat  and  sin  offerings,  to  be  eaten  solemnly, 
and  only  in  the  holy  place. 

{d)  First-fruits  and  redemption  money.    (See  2,  c.) 

(c)  Price  of  all  devoted  things,  unless  specially  given 
for  a  sacred  service.  A  man's  service,  or  that  of  his 
household,  to  be  redeemed  at  50  shekels  for  man,  30 
for  woman,  20  for  boy,  and  10  for  girl. 

(II.)  LAWS  CRIMINAL. 

1.  Offences  against  God  (of  the  nature  of  treason). 
Ist  Command.    Acknowledgment  of  false  gods  (Exod. 

xxii,  2(1),  as  e.  g..  Moloch  (Lev.  xx,  1-5),  and  generally  all 
idolatry  (Deut.  xiii ;  xvii,  2-5). 

2d  Command.  Witchcraft  and  false  prophecg  (Exod.  xxii, 
18;  Deut.  xviii,  9-22;  Lev.  xix,  31). 

3d  Command,     lilasphcmg  (Lev.  xxiv,  15,  16). 

4tti  Command.     Sabbath-breaking  (Numb,  xv,  32-30). 

Punishment  in  all  cases,  death  bg  stoning.  Idolatrous 
cities  to  be  utterly  destroyed. 

2.  Offences  against  Man. 

5th  Command.  Disobedience  to  or  cursing  or  smiting  of 
parents  (Exod.  xxi,  15,  17;  Lev.  xx,  9;  Deut.  xxi,  18-21), 
to  be  punished  by  death  by  stoning,  [(ublicly  adjudged  and 
inflicted  :  so  also  ofdisobedience  to  the  priests  (as  judges) 
or  Supreme  Judge.  Cump.  1  Kings  xxi,  10-14  (Nahoth) ; 
2  Chron.  xxiv,  21  (Zechariah). 

6th  Command.  (1)  Mi(rder,  to  be  punished  by  death 
without  sanctuary  or  reprieve,  or  satisfaction  (Exod.  xxi, 
12, 14;  Deut.  xix,  ll-l.i).  Death  of  a  slave,  actually  under 
the  rod,  to  be  punished  (Exod.  xxi,  20,  21). 

(2)  Death  bg  negligence,  to  be  punished  by  death  (Exod. 
xxi,  2S-30). 

(3)  Accidental  Homicide;  the  avenger  of  blood  to  be  es- 
caped by  flight  to  the  cities  of  refuge  till  the  death  of  the 
high-priest  (Numb,  xxxv,  9-28  ;  Deut.  iv,  41^3  ;  xix,  4-10). 

(4)  Uncertain  Mttrder,  to  be  expiated  by  formal  disavow- 
al and  sacrifice  by  the  elders  of  the  nearest  city  (Deut.  xxi, 
1-0).  J  \  ) 

(5)  .\Rsrnilt  to  be  punished  by  lex  talionis,  or  damages 
(E.xod.  xxi,  18, 19,  22-25;  Lev.  xxiv,  19,  20). 

7th  Cnminaud.  (1)  Adnlterg  to  be  punished  by  death  of 
both  ofl'fuders:  the  rape  of  a  married  or  betrothed  rt'om- 
an,  by  death  of  the  oflender  (Deut.  xxii,  13-27). 

(2)  Rape  or  Sedvction  of  an  unbetrothed  virtrin,  to  be 
compensated  by  marriage,  with  dowrv  (5U  shekels),  and 
without  liower  of  divorce;  or,  if  she  be  refused,  by  pay- 
ment of  full  dowry  (Exod.  xxii,  16, 17 ;  Deut.  xxii,  28,  2'.)). 


(3)  Unlaipful  Marriages  (incestaons,  etc.)  to  be  punished, 
some  by  death,  some  by  childlessness  (Lev.  xx). 

8th  Command.  (1)  Theft  to  be  punished  by  fourfold  or 
double  restitution;  a  nocturnal  robber  miglit  be  slain  as 
an  outlaw  (Exod.  xxii,  1-4). 

(2)  Trespass  and  injury  of  things  lent  to  be  compensated 
(Exod.  xxii,  5-15). 

(3)  Perversion  nf  Justice  (by  bribes,  threats,  etc.),  and  es- 
pecially oppression  of  strangers,  strictly  forbidden  (Exod. 
xxiii,  9,  etc.). 

(4)  Kidnapping  to  be  punished  by  death  (Deut.  xxiv,  7). 
!»th  Command.     False  Witness;  to  be  punished  by  lex 

talioitis  (Exod.  xxiii,  1-3;  Deut.  xix,  16-21). 

Slander  of  a  wife's  chastity,  by  tine  and  loss  of  power  of 
divorce  (Deut.  xxii,  18, 19). 

A  fuller  consideration  of  the  tables  of  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments is  given  elsewhere.    See  Ten  Commandments. 

(III.)  LAWS  JUDICIAL  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL. 

1.  Jdkisdiotion. 

(a)  Local  Judges  (generally  Levites,  as  more  skilled  in 
the  law)  appointed,  for  ordinary  matters,  probably  by  the 
people,  with  approbation  of  the  supreme  authority  (as  of 
Moses  in  the  wilderness)  (Exod.  xviii,  25  ;  Deut.  1, 15-18), 
through  all  the  land  (Deut.  xvi,  18). 

{b)  Appeal  to  the  Priests  (at  the  holy  place),  or  to  the 
judge;  their  sentence  final,  and  to  be  accepted  under  pain 
of  death.  See  Deut.  xvii,  S-13  (comp.  appeal  to  Moses, 
Exod.  xviii,  26). 

{c)  Two  xcitnesses  (at  least)  required  in  capital  matters 
(Numb,  xxxv,  30  ;  Deut.  xvii,  6,  7). 

(d)  Punishment  (except  by  special  command)  to  be  per- 
sonal, and  not  to  extend  to  the  family  (Deut.  xxiv,  16). 

Stripes  allowed  and  limited  (Deut.  xxv,  1-3),  so  as  to 
avoid  outrage  on  the  human  frame. 

All  this  would  be  to  a  great  extent  set  aside — 

1st,  By  the  summary  jurisdiction  of  the  king.  See  1 
Sam.  xxii,  11-19  (Saul) ;  2  Sam.  xxii,  1-5 ;  iv,  4-11";  1  Kings 
iii,  16-2S;  which  extended  even  to  the  deposition  of  the 
high-priest  (1  Sam.  xxii,  17,  IS;  1  Kings  ii,  20,  27). 

The  practical  difliculty  of  its  being  carried  out  is  seen 
in  2  Sam.  xv,  2-6,  and  would  lead,  of  course,  to  a  certain 
delegation  of  his  power. 

2d.  By  the  appointment  of  the  Seventy  (Numb,  xi,  24- 
.80)  with  a  solemn  religious  sanction.  In  later  times  there 
was  a  local  Sanhedrim  of  23  in  each  city,  and  two  such  in 
Jerusalem,  as  well  as  the  Gieat  Sanhedrim,  consisting  of 
70  members,  besides  the  president,  who  was  to  be^'the 
high-priest  if  duly  qualified,  and  controlling  even  the  king 
and  high-priest.  The  members  were  priests,  scribes  (Le- 
vites), and  elders  (of  other  tribes).  A  court  of  exactly 
this  nature  is  noticed,  as  appointed  to  supreme  power  by 
Jehoshaphat.     (See  2  Chron.  xix,  S-11.) 

2.  Royal  Power. 

The  King's  Poieer  limited  by  the  law,  a."!  written  and 
formally  accepted  by  the  king,  and  directly  forbidden  to 
be  despotic  (Deut.  xvii,  14-20 ;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  25).  Yet 
he  had  power  of  taxation  (to  one  tenth),  and  of  compul- 
sory service  (1  Sam.  viii,  10-18) ;  also  the  declaration  of  war 
(1  Sam.  xi),  etc.  There  are  distinct  traces  of  a  "mutual 
contract"  (2  Sam.  v,  3  (David) ;  a  "  league"  (Joash),  2  Kiugs 
xi,  17);  the  remonstrance  with  Rehoboam  being  clearly 
not  extraordinary  (1  Kings  xii,  1-6). 

The  Princes  of  the  Congregation.  The  heads  of  the  tribes 
(sec  Josh,  ix,  15)  seem  to  have  had  authority  under  Joshua 
to  act  for  the  people  (comp.  1  Chron.  xxvii,  16-22) ;  and  in 
the  later  times  "the  princes  of  Judah"  seem  to  have  had 
power  to  control  both  the  king  and  the  priests  (see  Jer. 
xxvi,  10-24 ;  xxxviii,  4,  5,  etc.). 

3.  RoYAi,  Revenue. 

(1)  Tenth  of  pro4uce. 

(2)  Domain  land  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  26-29).  Note  confisca- 
tion of  criminal's  land  (1  Kings  xxi,  15). 

(3)  Bond  service  (1  Kings  v,  17.  IS),  chiefly  on  foreigners 
(1  Kings  ix,  20-22;  2  Chron.  ii,  16, 17). 

(4)  Floelcs  and  herds  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  29-31). 

(5)  Tributes  (gifts)  from  ftn-eign  kings. 

(6)  Commerce;  especially  in  Solomon's  time  (1  Kings  x, 
22,  29,  etc.). 

(IV.)  ECCLESIASTICAL  AND  CEREMONIAL  LAW. 
1.  Law  of  Sacrifice  (considered  as  the  sign  and  the  ap- 
pointed means  of  the  union  with  God,  on  which  the 
holiness  of  the  people  depended). 
(a)  Ordinary  Sacrifices, 
(a)  The  whole  Burnt-Offering  (Lev.  i)  of  the  herd  or  the 
flock  ;  to  be  offered  continually  (Exod.  xxix,  3S-42) ; 
and  the  fire  on  the  altar  never  to  be  extinguished 
(Lev.  vi,  8-13). 
(6)  The  Meat-Offering  (Lev.  ii ;  vi,  14-23)  of  flour,  oil, 
and  frankincense,  unleavened,  and  seasoned  with 
salt. 

(c)  The  Peace-Offcring  (Lev.  iii ;  vii,  11-21)  of  the  herd 
or  the  flock ;  either  a  tbank-oflering,  or  a  vow,  or 
free-will  ofl'ering. 

(d)  The  Sin-Offering,  or  Trespass-Otl'ering  (Lev.  iv,  v, 
vi). 

[1]  For  sins  committed  in  ignorance  (Lev.  iv). 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


288 


LAAV  OF  MOSES 


[2]  For  vows  unwittingly  made  and  broken,  or 

uncleanness  unwittingly  contracted  (Lev.  v). 
[3]  For  sins  wittingly  cummitted  (Lev.  vi,  1-T). 
(n)  Extraordinary  Sacrifices. 

(a)  At  the  Caii.iecration  of  Priests  (Lev.  viii,  ix). 
(6)  At  the  J'nrijiratiun  of  Women  (Lev.  xii). 

(c)  At  the  Chaiusinii  of  hepern  (Lev.  xiii,  xiv). 

(d)  On  the  Great  Day  of  Atononent  (Lev.  xvi). 
((')  On  the  great  Festivals  (Lev.  xxiii). 

2.  Law  op  Hoi-inkss  (arising  from  tlie  union  with  God 
through  sacrifice). 
(\)  Holiness  of  Persotis. 
(a)  Holincsii  of  the  lohole  people  as  "children  of  God" 
(Exod.  xix,  5,  6 ;  Lev.  xi-xv,  xvii,  xviii ;  Deut.  xiv, 
1-21)  shown  in 

[ij  The  Dedication  of  the  first-born  (Exod.  xiii,  2, 
12, 13  ;  xxii,  29,  30,  etc.) ;  and  the  ofleriug  of  all 
firstlings  and  first-fruits  (Deut.  xxvi,  etc.). 
[2]  Distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  food  (Lev.  xi ; 

Deut.  xiv). 
[3]  Provision  for  purification  (Lev.  xii,  xiii,  xiv, 

XV ;  Deut.  xxiii,  1-14). 
[4]  Laws  against  disfigurement  (Lev.  xix,  27;  Deut. 
xiv,  1 :  compare  Deut.  xxv,  3,  Hgainst  excessive 
scourging). 
[6]  Laws  against  unnatural  marriages  and  lusts 
(Lev.  xviii,  xx). 
(h)  Holiness  of  the  Priests  {and  Levites). 

[1]  Their  consecration  (Lev.  viii,  ix;  Exod.  xxix). 
[2]  Their  special  qualifications  and   restrictions 

(Lev.  xxi ;  xxii,  1-9). 
[3]  Their  rights  (Deut.  xviii,  1-C ;  Numb,  xviii)  and 
authority  (Deut.  xvii,  8-13). 
(u)  Holiness  of  Places  and  Thimjs. 
(«)  The  Tabernacle  with  the  ark,  the  vail,  the  altars, 
the  laver,  the  priestly  robes,  etc.  (Exod.  xxv-xxviii, 
xxx). 
(6)  The  Holy  Place  chosen  for  the  permanent  erection 
of  the  tabernacle  (Deut.  xii ;  xiv,  22-29),  where  only 
all  sacrifices  were  to  be  offered,  and  all  tithes,  first- 
fruits,  vows,  etc.,  to  be  given  or  eaten. 
(o)  Holiness  of  Times. 
(a)  The  Sabbath  (Exod.  xx,  9, 11 ;  xxiii,  12,  etc.). 
(6)  The  Sabbatical  Year  (Exod.  xxiii,  10, 11 ;  Lev.  xxv, 
1-7,  etc.). 

(c)  The  Year  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  xxv,  8, 16,  etc.). 

(d)  The  Passover  (Exod.  xii,  3,  27;  Lev.  xxiii,  4-14). 

(e)  The  Feast  of  Weeks  (Pentecost)  (Lev.  xxiii,  16,  etc.). 

(f)  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii,  33-43). 
(y)  The  Feast  of  Trumpets  (Lev.  xxiii,  23-25). 

(//)  The  Day  of  Atonement  (Lev.  xxiii,  26-32,  etc.). 
On  this  part  ofthe  subject,  see  Festival;  Kino;  Peiest; 
Tabernacle;  Saouifioe,  etc. 

III.  Distinctice  Characteristics  of  the  Mosaic  Law. — 
1.  The  leading  principle  of  the  whole  is  its  theocratic 
CHAUACTER,  Its  reference  (that  is)  of  all  action  and 
thoughts  of  men  directly  and  immediately  to  the  will  of 
God.  All  law,  indeed,  must  ultimately  make  this  refer- 
ence. If  it  bases  itself  on  the  sacredness  of  human  au- 
thority, it  must  Anally  trace  that  authority  to  God's  ap- 
pointment; if  on  the  rights  of  the  individual  and  the 
need  of  protecting  them,  it  must  consider  these  rights 
as  inherent  and  sacred,  because  implanted  by  the  hand 
of  the  Creator.  IJut  it  is  characteristic  of  the  Mosaic 
law,  as  also  of  all  Biblical  history  and  prophecy,  that  it 
passes  over  all  the  intermediate  steps,  #id  refers  at  once 
to  God's  commandment  as  the  foundation  of  all  human 
duty.  The  key  to  it  is  found  in  the  ever -recurring 
formula, "  Ye  shall  observe  all  these  statutes ;  I  am  Je- 
hovah." 

It  follows  from  this  that  it  is  to  be  regarded  not  mere- 
ly as  a  law,  that  is,  a  rule  of  conduct,  based  on  known 
truth  and  acknowledged  authority,  but  also  as  a  revela- 
tion of  God's  nature  and  his  dispensations.  In  this  view 
of  it,  more  particularly,  lies  its  connection  with  the  rest 
of  the  Old  Testament.  As  a  law,  it  is  definite  and  (gen- 
erally speaking)  final;  as  a  revelation,  it  is  the  begin- 
ning of  the  great  system  of  prophecy,  and  indeed  bears 
within  itself  the  marks  of  gradual  development,  from  the 
first  simple  declaration  ("I  am  the  Lord  thy  God")  in 
Exodus  to  the  full  and  solemn  declaration  of  his  nature 
and  will  in  Deuteronomy.  With  this  peculiar  character 
of  revelation  stamped  upon  it,  it  naturally  ascends  from 
rule  to  principle,  and  regards  all  gfiodness  in  man  as  the 
shadow  of  the  divine  attributes,'' Ye  shall  be  holy;  fori 
the  Lord  your  God  am  lioly"  (Lev.  xLx,  2,  etc. ;  comp. 
MatU  V,  48). 


Cut  this  theocratic  character  of  the  law  depends  nec- 
essarily on  the  belief  in  God  as  not  only  the  creator  and 
sustainer  of  the  world,  but  as,  by  special  covenant,  the 
head  of  the  Jewish  nation.  It  is  not  indeed  doubted 
that  he  is  the  king  of  all  the  earth,  and  that  all  earthly 
authority  is  derived  from  him ;  but  liere  again,  in  the 
case  of  the  Israelites,  the  intermediate  steps  are  all  but 
ignored,  and  the  people  are  at  once  brought  face  to  face 
with  him  as  their  rider.  It  is  to  be  especially  noticed  that 
God's  claim  (so  to  speak)  on  their  allegiance  is  based, 
not  on  his  power  or  wisdom,  but  on  his  especial  mercy 
in  being  their  saviour  from  Egyptian  bondage.  Be- 
cause they  were  made  free  by  him,  therefore  they  be- 
came his  servants  (comp.  Kom.  vi,  19-22) ;  and  the  dec- 
laration which  stands  at  the  opening  of  the  law  is, "  I 
am  the  Lord  thy  God,  ichich  hi-oiight  thee  out  of  the  land 
of  Effyj^f"  (Compare  also  the  reason  given  for  the  ob- 
servance of  the  Sabbath  in  Deut.  v,  15;  and  the  histor- 
ical prefaces  of  the  delivery  of  the  second  law  [Deut.  i- 
iii] ;  of  the  renewal  of  the  covenant  by  Joshua  [Josh. 
xxiv,  1-13]  ;  and  of  the  rebuke  of  Samuel  at  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  kingdom  [1  Sam.  xii,  6-15].) 

This  immediate  reference  to  God  as  their  king  is 
clearly  seen  as  the  groundwork  of  their  entire  polity. 
The  foundation  of  the  whole  law  of  land,  and  of  its  re- 
markable provisions  against  alienation,  lies  in  the  decla- 
ration, "  The  land  is  mine,  and  ye  are  strangers  and  so- 
journers with  me"  (Lev.  xxv,  23).  As  in  ancient  Home 
all  land  belonged  properly  to  the  state,  and  under  the 
feudal  system  in  mediaeval  Europe  to  the  king,  so  in 
the  Jewish  law  the  true  ownership  lay  in  Jehovah  alone. 
The  very  system  of  tithes  embodied  only  a  peculiar 
form  of  tribute  to  their  king,  such  as  they  were  familiar 
with  in  Egypt  (see  Gen.  xlvii,  23-2(5) ;  and  the  offering 
of  the  first-fruits,  with  the  remarkable  declaration  by 
which  it  was  accompanied  (see  Deut.  xxvi,  5-10),  is  a 
direct  acknowledgment  of  God's  immediate  sovereign- 
ty. As  the  land,  so  also  the  persons  of  the  Israelites  are 
declared  to  be  the  absolute  property  of  the  Lord  by  the 
dedication  and  ransom  of  the  first-bom  (Exod.  xiii,  2- 
13,  etc.),  by  the  payment  of  the  half  shekel  at  the  num- 
bering of  the  people  "  as  a  ransom  for  their  souls  to  the 
Lord"  (Exod.  xxx,  11-16),  and  by  the  limitation  of 
power  over  Hebrew  slaves  as  contrasted  with  the  abso- 
lute mastership  permitted  over  the  heathen  and  the  so- 
journer (Lev.  xxv,  39-46). 

From  this  theocratic  nature  of  the  law  follow  impor- 
tant deductions  with  regard  to  (a)  the  Aiew  which  it 
takes  of  political  society ;  (6)  the  extent  of  the  scope  of 
the  la^v ;  (c)  the  penalties  by  which  it  is  enforced ;  and 
(d)  the  character  which  it  seeks  to  impress  on  the  peo- 
ple. 

(1.)  The  basis  of  human  society  is  ordinarily  sought, 
by  law  or  philosophy,  either  in  the  rights  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  the  y)artial  delegation  of  them  to  political 
authorities;  or  in  the  mutual  needs  of  men,  and  the  re- 
lations which  spring  from  them ;  or  in  the  actual  exist- 
ence of  power  of  man  over  man,  whether  arising  from 
natural  relationship,  or  from  benefits  confeiTcd,  or  from 
physical  or  intellectual  ascendency.  The  maintenance 
of  society  is  supposed  to  depend  on  a  "social  compact" 
between  governors  and  subjects;  a  compact,  true  as  an 
abstract  idea,  but  untrue  if  supposed  to  have  been  a  his- 
torical reality.  The  !Mosaic  law  seeks  the  basis  of  its 
polity,  first,  in  the  absolute  sovereignty  of  God;  next,  in 
the  relationship  of  each  individual  to  God,  and  through 
God  to  his  countrymen.  It  is  clear  that  such  a  doc- 
trine, while  it  contradicts  none  of  the  common  theories, 
yet  lies  beneath  them  all,  and  shows  why  each  of  them, 
being  only  a  secondarj-  deduction  from  an  ultimate  truth, 
cannot  be  in  itself  sufficient ;  and,  if  it  claim  to  be  the 
whole  truth,  will  become  an  absurdity.  It  is  the  doc- 
trine which  is  insisted  upon  and  develoi)ed  in  the  whole 
series  of  pro])hecy,  and  which  is  brought  to  its  perfec- 
tion only  when  applied  to  that  universal  and  spiritual 
kingdom  for  which  the  IMosaic  system  was  a  ])rcparation. 

(2.)  The  law,  as  proceetUng  directly  from  God,  and 


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289 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


referring  directly  to  him,  is  necessarily  absolute  in  its  su- 
jyremacy  and  unlimited  in  its  scope. 

It  is  supreme  over  the  governors,  as  being  only  the 
delegates  of  the  Lord,  and  therefore  it  is  incompatible 
with  any  despotic  authority  in  them.  This  is  seen 
in  its  limitation  of  the  power  of  the  master  over  the 
slave,  in  the  restrictions  laid  on  the  priesthood,  and  the 
ordination  of  the  "  manner  of  the  kingdom"  (Deut.  xvii, 
14-20;  comp.  1  Sam.  x,  25).  By  its  establishment  of 
the  hereditary  priesthood  side  by  side  with  the  author- 
ity of  the  heads  of  tribes  ("  the  princes"),  and  the  sub- 
sequent sovereignty  of  the  king,  it  provides  a  balance 
of  po\vers,  all  of  which  are  regarded  as  subordinate.  The 
absolute  sovereignty  of  Jehovah  was  asserted  in  the  ear- 
lier times  in  the  dictatorship  of  the  judge,  but  much 
more  clearly  under  the  kingdom  by  the  spiritual  com- 
mission of  the  prophet.  By  his  rebukes  of  priests, 
princes,  and  kings  for  abuse  of  their  power,  he  was  not 
only  defending  religion  and  morality,  but  also  maintain- 
ing the  divinely-appointed  constitution  of  Israel. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  supreme  over  the  governed, 
recognising  no  inherent  rights  in  the  individual  as  pre- 
vailing against,  or  limiting  the  law.  It  is  therefore  un- 
limited in  its  scope.  There  is  in  it  no  recognition,  such 
as  is  familiar  to  us,  that  there  is  one  class  of  actions  di- 
rectly subject  to  the  coercive  power  of  law,  while  other 
classes  of  actions  and  the  whole  realm  of  thought  are  to 
be  indirectly  guided  by  moral  and  spiritual  influence. 
Nor  is  there  any  distinction  of  the  temporal  authority 
which  wields  the  former  power  from  the  spiritual  au- 
thority to  which  belongs  the  other.  In  fact,  these  dis- 
tinctions woidd  have  been  incompatible  with  the  char- 
acter and  objects  of  the  law.  They  depend  partly  on 
the  want  of  Ibresight  and  power  in  the  lawgiver ;  they 
could  have  no  place  in  a  system  traced  directly  to  God : 
they  depend  also  partly  on  the  freedom  which  belongs 
to  the  manhood  of  our  race ;  they  could  not,  therefore, 
be  appropriate  to  the  more  imperfect  period  of  its  j-outh. 

Thus  the  law  regulated  the  whole  life  of  an  Israelite. 
His  house,  his  dress,  and  his  food,  his  domestic  arrange- 
ments and  the  distribution  of  his  property,  all  were  de- 
termined. In  the  laws  of  the  release  of  debts  and  the 
prohibition  of  usury,  the  dictates  of  self-interest  and  the 
natural  course  of  commercial  transactions  are  sternly 
checked.  His  actions  were  rewarded  and  punished  with 
great  minuteness  and  strictness,  and  that  according  to 
the  standard,  not  of  their  consequences,  but  of  their  in- 
trinsic morality,  so  that,  for  example,  fornication  and 
adultery  were  as  severely  visited  as  theft  or  murder. 
His  religious  worship  was  defined  and  enforced  in  an 
elaborate  and  unceasing  ceremonial.  In  all  things  it  is 
clear  that,  if  men  submitted  to  it  merely  as  a  law,  im- 
posed under  penalties  by  an  irresistible  authority,  and 
did  not  regard  it  as  a  means  to  the  knowledge  and  love 
of  God,  and  a  preparation  for  his  redemption,  it  would 
well  deserve  from  Israelites  the  description  given  of  it 
by  St.  Peter  (Acts  xv,  10)  as  "  a  yoke  which  neither 
they  nor  their  fathers  were  able  to  bear." 

(3.)  The  penalties  and  7-ewards  by  which  the  law  is 
enforced  are  such  as  depend  on  the  direct  theocracy. 
With  regard  to  individual  actions,  it  may  be  noticed 
that,  as  generally  some  penalties  are  inflicted  by  the 
subordinate,  and  some  only  by  the  supreme  authority, 
so  among  the  Israelites  some  penalties  came  from  the 
hand  of  man,  some  directly  from  the  providence  of  God. 
So  much  is  this  the  case,  that  it  often  seems  doubtful 
whether  the  threat  that  a  "  soul  shall  be  cut  off  from 
Israel"  refers  to  outlawrj"^  and  excommunication,  or  to 
such  miraculous  punishments  as  those  of  Nadab  and 
Abihu,  or  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abirani.  In  dealing  with 
the  nation  at  large,  Moses,  regularly  and  as  a  matter  of 
course,  refers  for  punishments  and  rewards  to  the  provi- 
dence of  God.  This  is  seen  not  only  in  the  great  bless- 
ing and  curse  which  enforces  the  law  as  a  whole,  but 
also  in  special  instances,  as,  for  example,  in  the  promise 
of  unusual  fertility  to  compensate  for  the  sabbatical 
year,  and  of  safety  of  the  countrv  from  attack  when  left 
v.— T  ' 


undefended  at  the  three  great  festivals.  Whether  these 
were  to  come  from  natural  causes,  i.  e.  laws  of  his  prov- 
idence, which  we  can  understand  and  foresee,  or  from 
causes  supernatural,  i.  e.  incomprehensible  and  inscruta- 
ble to  us,  is  not  in  any  case  laid  down,  nor  indeed  does 
it  affect  this  principle  of  the  law. 

(4.)  The  bearing  of  this  principle  on  the  inquiry  as  to 
the  revelation  of  a  future  life,  in  the  Pentateuch,  is  easily 
seen.  So  far  as  the  law  deals  with  the  nation  as  a 
whole,  it  is  obvious  that  its  penalties  and  rewards  could 
only  refer  to  this  life,  in  which  alone  the  nation  exists. 
So  far  as  it  relates  to  such  individual  acts  as  are  gener- 
ally cognizable  by  human  law,  and  capable  of  temporal 
punishments,  no  one  would  expect  that  its  divine  origin 
should  necessitate  any  reference  to  the  world  to  come. 
But  the  sphere  of  moral  and  religious  action  and  thought 
to  which  it  extends  is  beyond  the  cognizance  of  human 
laws  and  the  scope  of  their  ordinary  penalties,  and  is 
therefore  left  by  them  to  the  retribution  of  God's  inscru- 
table justice,  which,  being  but  imperfectly  seen  here,  is 
contemplated  especially  as  exercised  in  a  future  state. 
Hence  arises  the  expectation  of  a  direct  revelation  of 
this  future  state  in  the  Mosaic  law.  Such  a  revelation 
is  certainly  not  given.  Warburton  (in  his  Divine  Le- 
gation of  Moses)  even  builds  on  its  non-existence  an  ar- 
gument for  the  supernatural  power  and  commission  of 
the  lawgiver,  who  could  promise  and  threaten  retribu- 
tion from  the  providence  of  God  in  this  life,  and  submit 
his  predictions  to  the  test  of  actual  experience.  The 
truth  seems  to  be  that,  in  a  law  which  appeals  directly 
to  God  himself  for  its  authority  and  its  sanction,  there 
cannot  be  that  broad  line  of  demarcation  between  this 
life  and  the  next  which  is  drawn  lor  those  whose  power 
is  limited  by  the  grave.  Our  Lord  has  taught  us  (jMatt. 
xxii,  31,32)  that  in  the  very  revelation  of  God,  as  the 
"  God  of  Abraham,  and  Isaac,  and  Jacob,"  the  promise  of 
immortality  and  future  retribution  was  implicitly  con- 
tained. We  may  apply  this  declaration  even  more 
strongly  to  a  law  in  which  God  was  revealed  as  enter- 
ing into  covenant  with  Israel,  and  in  them  drawing 
mankind  directly  under  his  immediate  government. 
His  blessings  and  curses,  by  the  very  fact  that  they 
came  from  him,  would  be  felt  to  be  milimited  by  time^ 
and  the  plain  and  immediate  fulfilment  which  they 
found  in  this  life  would  be  accepted  as  an  earnest  of  a. 
deeper,  though  more  mysterious  completion  in  the  world 
to  come.  But  the  time  for  the  clear  revelation  of  thi& 
truth  had  not  yet  come,  and  therefore,  while  the  future- 
life  and  its  retribution  is  implied,  yet  the  rewards  and 
penalties  of  the  present  life  are  those  which  are  plainly 
held  out  and  practically  dwelt  upon. 

(5.)  But  perhaps  the  most  important  consequence  of 
the  theocratic  nature  of  the  law  was  the  jieculiar  char- 
acter offjoodness  which  it  sought  to  impress  on  the  peo- 
ple. Goodness  in  its  relation  to  man  takes  the  forms  of 
righteousness  and  love ;  in  its  independence  of  aU  rela- 
tion, the  form  of  purity ;  and  in  its  relation  to  God,  that 
of  piet3\  Laws  which  contemplate  men  chiefly  in  their 
mutual  relations  endeavor  to  enforce  or  protect  in  thera 
the  first  two  qualities;  the  Mosaic  law,  beginning  with 
piety  as  its  first  object,  enforces  most  emphatically  the 
purity  essential  to  those  who,  by  their  union  with  God,, 
have  recovered  the  hope  of  intrinsic  goodness,  while  it 
views  righteousness  and  love  rather  as  deductions  from 
these  than  as  independent  objects.  Not  that  it  neglects 
these  qualities;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  full  of  precepts 
which  show  a  high  conception  and  tender  care  of  our 
relative  duties  to  man  (see,  for  example,  Exod.xxi,7-ll, 
28-36;  xxiii,  1-9;  Dcut.  xxii,  1-4;  xxiv,  10-22,  etc.) ; 
but  these  can  hardly  be  called  its  distinguishing  feat- 
ures. It  is  most  instructive  to  refer  to  the  religious 
preface  of  the  law  in  Deut.  vi-xi  (especially  to  vi,  4-13), 
where  all  is  based  on  the  first  great  commandment,  and 
to  observe  the  subordinate  and  dependent  character  of 
"  the  second  that  is  like  unto  it" — '*•  Thou  shalt  love  thy 
neighbor  as  thj'self ;  /  am  the  Lord"  (Lev.  xix,  18).  On 
the  contrary',  the  care  for  the  purity  of  the  people  stands- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


290 


Lx\W  OF  MOSES 


out  remarkably,  not  only  in  the  enforcement  of  ceremo- 
nial "  cleanness,"  and  the  multitude  of  precautions  or 
remedies  against  any  breach  of  it,  but  also  in  the  sever- 
ity of  the  laws  against  self-pollution,  a  severity  which 
distinguishes  the  Mosaic  code  before  all  others,  ancient 
and  modern.  In  punishing  these  sins,  as  committed 
against  a  man's  own  self,  without  reference  to  their  ef- 
fect on  others,  and  in  recognising  purity  as  having  a 
substantive  value  and  glorj^,  it  sets  up  a  standard  of  in- 
dividual morality  such  as,  even  in  Greece  and  Rome, 
philosophy  reserved  for  its  most  esoteric  teaching. 

Now  in  all  this  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  appeal  is 
not  to  any  dignity  of  human  nature,  but  to  the  obliga- 
tions of  communion  with  a  holy  God.  The  subordina- 
tion, therefore,  of  this  idea  also  to  the  religious  idea  is 
enforced ;  and  as  long  as  the  due  supremacy  of  the  lat- 
ter was  preserved,  all  other  duties  would  find  their  places 
iu  proper  harmony.  But  the  usurpation  of  that  su- 
premacy in  practice  by  the  idea  of  personal  and  national 
sanctity  was  that  which  gave  its  pecidiar  color  to  the 
.Jewish  character.  In  that  character  there  was  intense 
religious  devotion  and  self-sacrifice;  there  was  a  high 
standard  of  personal  holiness,  and  connected  with  these 
an  ardent  feeling  of  nationality,  based  on  a  great  idea, 
and,  therefore,  finding  its  vent  in  their  proverbial  spirit 
of  proselytism.  But  there  was  also  a  spirit  of  contempt 
for  all  unbelievers,  and  a  forgetfulness  of  the  existence 
of  any  duties  towards  them,  which  gave  even  to  their 
religion  an  antagonistic  spirit,  and  degraded  it  in  after 
times  to  a  ground  of  national  self-glorification.  It  is  to 
be  traced  to  a  natural,  though  not  justifiable  perversion 
f)f  the  law  by  those  who  made  it  their  aU,  and  both  in 
its  strength  and  its  weaknesses  it  has  reappeared  re- 
markably among  those  Christians  who  have  dwelt  on 
the  Old  Testament  to  the  neglect  of  the  New. 

(6.)  It  is  evident  that  this  characteristic  of  the  Isra- 
elites would  tend  to  preserve  the  seclusion  which,  under 
(Jod's  providence,  was  intended  for  them,  and  woiUd  in 
its  turn  be  fostered  by  it.  We  may  notice,  in  connec- 
tion with  this  part  of  the  subject,  many  subordinate 
provisions  tending  to  the  same  direction.  Such  are  the 
establishment  of  an  agricultural  basis  of  society  and 
property,  and  the  provision  against  its  accumulation  in 
a  few  hands;  the  discouragement  of  commerce  by  the 
strict  laws  as  to  usury,  and  of  foreign  conquest  by  the 
laws  against  the  maintenance  of  horses  and  chariots,  as 
well  as  the  direct  prohibition  of  intermarriage  with 
idolaters,  and  the  indirect  prevention  of  all  familiar  in- 
tercourse with  them  by  the  laws  as  to  meats — all  these 
things  tended  to  impress  on  the  Israelitish  polity  a 
character  of  permanence,  stability,  and  comparative  iso- 
lation. Like  the  nature  and  position  of  the  country  to 
which  it  was  in  great  measure  adapted,  it  was  intended 
to  preserve  in  purity  the  testimony  borne  by  Israel  for 
God  in  the  darkness  of  heathenism,  until  the  time  should 
cx)nie  for  the  gathering  in  of  all  nations  to  enjoy  the 
blessing  promised  to  Abraham. 

2.  Tiie  second  great  and  obvious  design  of  the  Mosaic 
statutes  was  to  found,  iu  pursuance  of  the  theocratic  idea, 
a  complete  system  of  national  cui/rrs,  and,  in  order  to 
the  perpetuity  of  this,  to  establish  a  permanent  sacred 
caste  or  hierarchy.  We  here  use  the  word  hierarchy 
without  meaning  to  express  that  the  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion was  like  some  later  hierarchies  falsely  so  called,  in 
wliich  it  was  attempted  to  carry  into  effect  selfish  and 
wicked  plans  bypassing  thorn  off  as  being  of  divine  ap- 
pointment. In  the  ISIosaic  hierarchy  the  aim  is  man- 
ifest, viz.  to  make  that  which  is  really  holy  {ru  \tr){.v) 
])revail,  while  in  the  false  hierarchies  of  later  times  the 
profanest  selfishness  has  been  rendered  practicable  by 
giving  to  its  manifestations  an  appearance  of  holiness 
calcidated  to  deceive  the  multitude.  In  the  Mosaic 
legislation  the  priests  certainly  exercise  a  considerable 
authority  as  extern.al  ministers -of  holiness,  Iwit  we  find 
nothing  to  be  compared  with  the  sale  of  indulgences  in 
the  llomish  Church.  There  occur,  certainly,  instances 
of  gross  misdemeanor  on  the  part  of  the  priests,  as,  for 


instance,  in  the  case  of  the  sons  of  Eli ;  but  proceedings 
originating  in  the  covetousness  of  the  priests  were  never 
authorized  or  sanctioned  by  the  law. 

In  the  IMosaic  legislation  almost  the  whole  amount 
of  taxation  was  paid  in  the  form  of  tithe,  which  was 
employed  in  maintaining  the  priests  and  Levites  as  the 
hierarchical  office-bearers  of  government,  in  supporting 
the  poor,  and  in  providing  those  things  which  were 
used  in  sacrifices  and  sacrificial  feasts. 

The  taxation  by  tithe,  exclusive  of  almost  all  other 
taxes,  is  certainlj'  the  most  lenient  and  most  considerate 
which  has  ever  anywhere  been  adopted  or  proposed.  It 
precludes  the  possibility  of  attempting  to  extort  from 
the  people  contributions  beyond  their  power,  and  it  ren- 
ders the  taxation  of  each  individual  proportionate  to  his 
possessions;  and  even  this  exceedingly  mild  taxation 
was  apparently  left  to  the  conscience  of  each  person. 
This  we  infer  from  there  never  occurring  in  the  Bible 
the  slightest  vestige  either  of  persons  having  been  sued 
or  goods  distrained  for  tithes,  and  only  an  indication  of 
curses  resting  upon  the  neglect  of  paying  them.  Tithes 
were  the  law  of  the  land,  and  nevertheless  they  were 
not  recovered  by  law  during  the  period  of  the  taberna- 
cle and  of  the  first  Temple.  It  is  only  during  the  pe- 
riod of  the  second  Temple,  when  a  general  demoraliza- 
tion had  taken  place,  that  tithes  were  farmed  and  sold, 
and  levied  by  violent  proceedings,  in  which  refractory 
persons  were  slain  for  resisting  the  levy.  But  no  rec- 
ommendation or  example  of  such  proceeding  occurs  in 
the  Bible.  This  seems  to  indicate  that  the  propriety  of 
paying  these  lenient  and  beneficial  taxes  was  generally 
felt,  so  much  so  that  there  were  few,  or  perhaps  no  de- 
faulters, and  that  it  was  considered  inexpedient  on  the 
part  of  the  recipients  to  harass  the  needy. 

Besides  the  tithes  there  was  a  small  poU-tax,  amount- 
ing to  half  a  shekel  for  each  adult  male.  This  tax  was 
paid  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sanctuary.  In  atUlition 
to  this,  the  first-fruits  and  the  first-born  of  men  and 
cattle  augmented  the  revenue.  The  first-bom  of  men 
and  of  unclean  beasts  were  to  be  redeemed  by  mone}-. 
To  this  may  be  added  some  fines  paid  in  the  shape  of 
sin-offerings,  and  also  the  vo^vs  and  free-wiU  offerings. 

3.  In  addition  to  these  great  moral  and  liturgical  ends 
of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  we  must  not  fail  to  notice  their 
REPUBLICAN  ECONOMY.  The  whole  territory  of  the 
state  was  to  be  so  distributed  that  each  family  should 
have  a  freehold,  which  was  intended  to  remain  perma- 
nently the  inheritance  of  that  family,  and  which,  even 
if  sold,  was  to  return  at  stated  periods  to  its  original 
o%vners.  Since  the  whole  population  consisted  of  fami- 
lies of  freeholders,  there  was,  strictly  speaking,  neither 
citizens,  nor  a  profane  or  lay  nobility,  nor  lords  tempo- 
ral. We  do  not  overlook  the  fact  that  there  were  per- 
sons called  heads,  elders,  princes,  dukes,  or  leaders  among 
the  Israelites ;  that  is,  persons  who  by  their  intelligence, 
character,  wealth,  and  other  circumstances  were  leading 
men  among  them,  and  from  whom  even  the  seventy 
judges  were  chosen  who  assisted  IVIoscs  in  administer- 
ing justice  to  the  nation.  But  we  have  no  proof  that 
there  was  a  nobility  enjoying  prerogatives  similar  to 
those  which  are  connected  with  birth  in  several  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  sometimes  in  spite  of  mental  and  moral 
disqualifications.  We  do  not  find  that,  according  to  the 
Mosaic  constitution,  there  were  hereditary  peers  tem- 
poral. Even  the  inhabitants  of  towns  were  freeholders, 
and  their  exercise  of  trades  seems  to  have  been  com- 
bined with,  or  subordinate  to,  agricultural  ]>ursuits.  The 
only  nobility  was  that  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  all  the 
lords  were  lords  spiritual,  the  descendants  of  Aaron. 
The  priests  and  Levites  were  ministers  of  public  wor- 
ship, that  is,  ministers  of  Jehovah  the  King,  and,  as 
such,  ministers  of  state,  by  whose  instrumentality  the 
legislative  as  well  its  the  judicial  power  was  exercised. 
The  poor  were  mercifully  considered,  but  beggars  are 
never  mentioned.  Hence  it  appears  that  as,  on  the  one 
hand,  there  was  no  lay  nobility,  so,  on  the  other,  there 
was  no  mendicity. 


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291 


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Owing  to  the  rebellious  spirit  of  the  Israelites,  the 
salutary  injunctions  of  their  law  Avere  so  frequently 
transgressed  that  it  could  not  procure  for  them  that  de- 
gree of  prosperity  wliicli  it  was  calculated  to  produce 
among  a  nation  of  faithful  observers;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  Mosaic  legislation,  if  truly  observed,  was  more 
fitted  to  promote  universal  happiness  and  tranquillity 
tlian  any  other  constitution,  either  ancient  or  modern. 

4.  We  close  this  part  of  our  discussion  by  a  few  mis- 
cellaneous observations  on  minor  peculiarities  of  the 
Mosaic  code. 

It  has  been  deemed  a  defect  that  there  were  no  laws 
against  infanticide ;  but  it  may  well  be  observed,  as  a 
proof  of  national  prosperity,  that  there  are  no  historical 
traces  of  this  crime ;  and  it  would  certainly  have  been 
preposterous  to  give  laws  against  a  crime  \vhich  did  not 
occur,  especially  as  the  general  law  against  murder, 
"Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  was  applicable  to  this  species 
also.  I'lie  words  of  Josephus  (Contra  Apionem,  ii,  24) 
can  only  mean  that  the  crime  was  against  the  spirit  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  An  express  verbal  prohibition  of  this 
kind  is  not  extant. 

Tliere  occur  also  no  laws  and  regulations  about  wills 
and  testamentary  dispositions,  although  there  are  suf- 
ficient historical  facts  to  prove  that  the  next  of  kin 
was  considered  the  lawfid  heir,  that  primogeniture  was 
deemed  of  the  highest  importance,  and  that,  if  there 
were  no  male  descendants,  females  inherited  the  freehold 
property.  We  learn  from  the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the 
Hebrews  (ix,  IG,  17)  that  the  Jews  disposed  of  property 
by  wills ;  but  it  seems  that  in  the  time  of  IMoses,  and 
for  some  period  after  him,  all  Israelites  died  intestate. 
However,  the  word  SinOijKi],  as  used  in  ]Matthew,  IMark, 
Acts,  Romans,  Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  re- 
peatedly in  the  Hebrews,  implies  rather  a  disposition, 
arrangement,  agreement  between  parties,  than  a  wiU  in 
the  legal  acceptation  of  the  term.     See  Testament. 

There  are  no  laws  concerning  guardians,  and  none 
against  luxurious  living.  The  inetHciency  of  sumptu- 
ary laws  is  now  generally  recognised,  although  renowned 
legislators  in  ancient  times  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  dis- 
played on  this  subject  their  wisdom,  falsely  so  called. 

Neither  are  there  any  laws  against  suicide.  Hence 
we  infer  tliat  suicide  was  rare,  as  we  may  well  suppose 
in  a  nation  of  small  freeholders,  and  that  the  inefficiency 
of  such  laws  was  understood. 

The  Jlosaic  legislation  recognises  the  human  dignity 
of  women  and  of  slaves,  and  particularly  enjoins  not  to 
slander  the  deaf  nor  mislead  the  blind. 

Moses  expressly  enjoined  not  to  reap  the  corners  of 
fields,  in  consideration  of  the  poor,  of  persons  of  broken 
fortimes,  and  even  of  the  beasts  of  the  field. 

Tlie  laws  of  INIoses  against  crimes  are  severe,  but  not 
cruel.  The  agony  of  the  death  of  criminals  was  never 
artificially  protracted,  as  in  some  instances  Avas  usual  in 
various  countries  of  Europe  even  in  the  present  century; 
nor  was  torture  employed  in  order  to  compel  criminals 
to  confess  their  crimes,  as  was  usual  in  ancient  times, 
and  till  a  comparatively  recent  period.  Forty  was  the 
maximum  number  of  stripes  to  be  inflicted.  This  max- 
imum was  adopted  for  the  reason  expressly  stated  that 
the  appearance  of  the  person  punished  should  not  be- 
come liorril>le,  or,  as  J.  D.  Michaelis  renders  it,  bur7if, 
which  expresses  the  appearance  of  a  person  unmerciful- 
ly beaten.  Punishments  were  inflicted  in  order  special- 
ly to  express  the  sacred  indignation  of  tlie  divine  Law- 
giver against  wilful  transgression  of  his  commandments, 
and  not  for  any  purposes  of  human  vengeance,  or  for 
the  sake  of  frightening  other  criminals.  In  some  in- 
stances the  people  at  large  were  appealed  to  in  order  to 
inflict  summary  punishment  by  stoning  the  criminal  to 
death.  This  was,  in  fact,  the  most  usual  mode  of  exe- 
cution. Other  modes  of  execution  also,  such  as  burn- 
ing, were  always  public,  and  conducted  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  people.  Like  every  human  proceeding, 
this  was  liable  to  abuse,  but  not  to  so  much  abuse  as 
our  present  mode  of  conducting  lawsuits,  which,  on  ac- 


count of  their  costliness,  often  afford  but  little  protection 
to  persons  in  narrow  circumstances.  In  lawsuits  very 
much  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  judges,  his  posi- 
tion greatly  resembling  that  of  a  permanent  jury,  who 
liad  not  merely  to  decide  whether  a  person  was  guilty, 
but  who  frequently  had  also  to  award  the  amount  of 
punishment  to  be  inflicted. 

In  the  Old  Testament  w^e  do  not  hear  of  a  learned 
profession  of  the  law.  Lawyers  (rojuiicoi)  are  men- 
tioned only  after  the  decline  of  tlie  IMosaic  institutions 
had  considerably  progressed.  As,  however,  certain  laws 
concerning  contagion  and  purification  were  administered 
by  the  priests,  these  might  be  called  lawyers.  They, 
nevertheless,  did  not  derive  their  maintenance  from  the 
administration  of  these  laws,  liut  were  supported  by 
glebe-lands,  tithes,  and  portions  of  the  sacrificial  offerings. 
It  is,  indeed,  very  remarkable  that,  in  a  nation  so  entirely 
governed  by  law,  there  were  no  lawyers  forming  a  dis- 
tinct profession,  and  that  the  vojitiKoi  of  a  later  age  were 
not  so  much  remarkable  for  enforcing  the  spirit  of  the 
law  as  rather  for  ingeniously  evading  its  injunctions,  by 
leading  the  attention  of  the  people  from  its  spirit  to  a 
most  minute  literal  fulfilment  of  its  letter.    See  Lawyer. 

IV.  In  considering  f/ie  i-elation  of  the  law  to  thefnlitre, 
it  is  important  to  be  guided  by  the  general  principle  laid 
down  in  Heb.  vii,  10, "  The  law  made  nothing  perfect"' 
{ovCiv  treXtiiiKTev  u  j'(5/(oc).  This  principle  will  be  ap- 
pUed  in  different  degrees  to  its  bearing  (a)  on  the  after- 
history  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth  before  the  coming 
of  Christ,;  (A)  on  the  coming  of  our  Lord  himself;  and 
(c)  on  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel. 

1.  To  that  after-histor\'  the  law  was,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, the  key  ;  for  in  ceremonial  and  criminal  law  it  was 
complete  and  final;  while,  even  in  civil  and  constitu- 
tional law,  it  laid  down  clearly  the  general  principles  to 
be  afterwards  more  fully  developed.  It  was,  indeed, 
often  neglected,  and  even  forgotten.  Its  fundamental 
assertion  of  the  theocracy  was  violated  by  the  constant 
lapses  into  idolatry,  and  its  provisions  for  the  good  of 
man  ovenvhelmed  by  the  natural  course  of  human  self- 
ishness (Jer.  xxxiv,  12-17);  till  at  last,  in  the  reign  of 
Josiah,  its  very  existence  was  unknown,  and  its  discov- 
ery w'as  to  the  king  and  the  f)Oople  as  a  second  publica- 
tion: yet  it  still  formed  the  standard  from  which  they 
knowingly  departed,  and  to  which  they  constantly  re- 
turned, and  to  it,  therefore,  all  which  was  peculiar  in 
their  national  and  individual  character  was  due.  Its 
direct  influence  was  probalily  greatest  in  the  periods  be- 
fore the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  and  after  the 
Babj'lonian  captivity.  The  last  act  of  Joshua  was  to 
bind  the  Israelites  to  it  as  the  charter  of  their  occupa- 
tion of  the  conquered  land  (Josh,  xxiv,  24-27)  ;  and,  in 
the  semi-anarchical  period  of  the  Judges,  the  law  and 
the  tabernacle  were  the  only  centres  of  anything  like 
national  unity.  The  establishment  of  the  kingdom  was 
due  to  an  impatience  of  this  position,  and  a  desire  for  a 
visible  and  personal  centre  of  authority,  much  the  same 
in  nature  as  that  which  plunged  them  so  often  into  idol- 
atry. The  people  were  wanied  (1  Sam.  xii,  G-25)  that 
it  involved  great  danger  of  their  forgetting  and  reject- 
ing the  main  principle  of  the  law — that  "  Jehovali  their 
God  was  their  king."  The  truth  of  the  prediction  was 
soon  shown.  Even  undei-  Solomon,  as  soon  as  the  mon- 
archy became  one  of  great  splendor  and  power,  it  as- 
simed  a  heathenish  and  polytheistic  character,  breaking 
the  law  both  by  its  (Ushonor  towards  God  and  its  for- 
bidden tyranny  over  man.  Indeed,  if  the  law  was 
looked  iqwn  as  a  collection  of  abstract  rules,  and  not  as 
a  means  of  knowledge  of  a  personal  god,  it  was  inevita- 
ble that  it  should  be  overborne  by  the  presence  of  a  vis- 
ible and  personal  authority. 

Therefore  it  was  that  from  the  time  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  kingdom  the  prophetic  office  began.  Its 
ol)ject  was  to  enforce  and  to  jierfect  the  law  by  bearing 
testimonj'  to  the  great  truths  on  which  it  was  built,  viz. 
the  truth  of  God's  government  over  all,  kings,  jiriests, 
and  people  alike,  and  the  consequent  certainty  of  a 


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292 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


righteous  retribution.  It  is  plain  that  at  the  same  time 
this  testimony  went  far  beyond  the  law  as  a  definite  code 
of  institutions.  It  dwelt  rather  on  its  great  principles, 
which  -were  to  transcend  the  special  forms  in  which  they 
v.-ere  embodied.  It  frequently  contrasted  (as  in  Isa.  i, 
etc.)  the  external  observance  of  form  with  the  spiritual 
homage  of  the  heart.  It  tended  therefore,  at  least  in- 
directly, to  the  time  when,  according  to  the  well-known 
contrast  drawn  by  Jeremiah,  the  law  written  on  the  ta- 
bles of  stone  shoidd  give  place  to  a  new  covenant,  de- 
pending on  a  law  written  on  the  heart,  and  therefore 
coercive  no  longer  (Jer.  xxxi,  31-3i).  In  this  it  did  but 
carry  out  the  prediction  of  the  law  itself  (Deut,  xviii,  9 
-22),  and  prepare  the  way  for  '•  the  Prophet"  who  was  to 
come. 

Still  the  law  remained  as  the  distinctive  standard  of 
the  people.  In  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  after  the  separa- 
tion, the  deliberate  rejection  of  its  leadmg  principles  by 
Jeroboam  and  his  successors  was  the  beginning  of  a 
gradual  declension  into  idolatry  and  heathenism.  But 
in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the  very  division  of  the  mon- 
arch}^ and  consequent  diminution  of  its  splendor,  and 
the  need  of  a  principle  to  assert  against  the  superior 
material  power  of  Israel,  brought  out  the  law  once  more 
in  increased  honor  and  influence.  In  the  days  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  we  find,  for  the  first  time,  that  it  was  taken 
by  the  Levites  in  their  circuits  through  the  land,  and  the 
people  were  taught  by  it  (2  Chron.  xvii,  9).  We  find  it 
especially  spoken  of  in  the  oath  taken  by  the  king  "  at 
his  pillar"  in  the  Temple,  and  made  the  standard  of 
reference  in  the  reformation  of  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  (2 
Kings  xi,  1-1;  xxiii,  3;  2  Chron.  xxx;  xxxiv,  14-31). 

Far  more  was  this  the  case  after  the  captivity.  The 
revival  of  the  existence  of  Israel  was  hallo\ved  by  the 
new  and  solemn  publication  of  the  law  by  Ezra,  and  the 
institution  of  the  synagogue,  through  which  it  became 
tleeply  and  familiarly  known.  See  Ezra.  The  loss  of 
the  independent  monarchy,  and  the  cessation  of  proph- 
ecy, both  combined  to  throw  the  Jews  back  upon  the 
law  alone  as  their  only  distinctive  pledge  of  nationality 
and  sure  guide  to  truth.  The  more  they  mingled  with 
the  other  subject-nations  under  the  Persian  and  Grecian 
empires,  the  more  eagerly  they  climg  to  it  as  their  dis- 
tinction and  safeguard;  and  opening  the  knowledge  of 
it  to  the  heathen  by  the  translation  of  the  Septuagint, 
tlicy  based  on  it  their  proverbial  eagerness  to  proselytize. 
Tliis  love  for  the  law,  rather  than  any  abstract  patriot- 
ism, was  the  strength  of  the  Maccaba;an  struggle  against 
the  Syrians  (note  here  the  question  as  to  the  lawfulness 
of  war  on  the  Sabbath  in  this  war  [1  I\Iacc.  ii,  23-41]), 
and  the  success  of  that  struggle,  enthroning  a  Levitical 
l)ower,  deepened  the  feeling  from  which  it  sprang.  It 
so  entered  into  the  heart  of  the  people  that  open  idolatry 
became  impossible.  The  certainty  and  authority  of  the 
law's  commandments  amidst  the  periilcxities  of  pagan- 
ism, and  the  spirituality  of  its  doctrine  as  contrasted 
with  sensual  and  carnal  idolatries,  were  the  favorite 
boast  of  the  Jew,  and  the  secret  of  his  influence  among 
the  heathen.  The  law  thus  became  the  moidding  in"- 
iluence  of  the  Jewish  character;  and,  instead  of  being 
Ijoked  upon  as  subsidiary  to  the  promise,  and  a  means 
to  its  fulfilment,  it  was  exalted  to  sujireme  importance  as 
at  once  a  means  and  a  pledge  of  national  and  individual 
sanctity. 

This  feeling  laid  hold  of  and  satisfied  the  mass  of  the 
people,  harmonizing  as  it  did  with  their  ever-increasing 
sjiirit  of  an  almost  fanatic  nationality,  until  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  city.  The  Pharisees,  truly  rejiresenting  the 
chief  strength  of  the  \>V(<\,U'.  systematized  this  feeling; 
they  gave  it  fresh  food,  and  assumed  a  predominant 
leadership  over  it  liy  the  lloating  mass  of  tradition  which 
they  gradually  accumidated  around  the  law  as  a  nu- 
cleus. The  popular  use  of  the  \vord  '•  lawless"  (drofioc) 
as  a  term  of  contempt  (Acts  ii,  23^  1  Cor.  ix,  21)  for  the 
heathen,  and  even  for  the  uneducated  mass  of  their  fol- 
lowers (John  vii,  49),  marked  and  stereotyped  their  prin- 
ciple. 


Against  this  idolatry  of  the  law  (which,  when  import- 
ed into  the  Christian  Church,  is  described  and  vehe- 
mently denounced  by  St.  Paul)  there  were  two  reactions. 
The  first  was  that  of  the  Sudducees;  one  which  had 
its  basis,  according  to  common  tradition,  in  the  idea  of  a 
higher  love  and  service  of  God,  independent  of  the  law 
and  its  sanctions,  but  which  degenerated  into  a  specu- 
lative infidelity  and  an  anti-national  systein  of  politics, 
and  -which  probably  had  but  little  hold  of  the  people. 
The  other,  that  of  the  Kssenes,  M'as  an  attempt  to  burst 
the  bonds  of  the  formal  law,  and  assert  its  ideas  in  all 
fidness,  freedom,  and  purity.  In  its  practical  form  it 
assiuned  the  character  of  high  and  ascetic  devotion  to 
God ;  its  speculative  guise  is  seen  in  the  school  of  Philo, 
as  a  tendency  not  merely  to  treat  the  commands  and 
history  of  the  law  on  a  symbolical  principle,  but  actu- 
ally to  allegorize  them  into  mere  abstractions.  In  nei- 
ther form  could  it  be  permanent,  because  it  had  no  sulH- 
cient  relation  to  the  needs  and  realities  of  human  na- 
ture, or  to  the  personal  subject  of  all  the  Jewish  prom- 
ises ;  but  it  was  stdl  a  declaration  of  the  insufiiciency 
of  the  law  in  itself,  and  a  preparation  for  its  absorption 
into  a  higher  principle  of  unity.  Such  was  the  history 
of  the  law  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  It  was  full  of 
effect  and  blessing  when  used  as  a  means;  it  became 
hollow  and  insufficient  when  made  an  end. 

2.  The  relation  of  the  law  to  the  advent  of  Christ  is 
also  laid  down  clearly  by  St.  Paul.  The  law  was  the 
TraiSaywyvQ  ti'c  Xptarui',  the  servant  (that  is)  whose 
task  it  was  to  guide  the  cliild  to  the  true  teacher  (Gal. 
iii,  24) ;  and  Christ  was  "  the  end"  or  object "  of  the  law" 
(Rom.  X,  4).  As  being  subsidiary  to  the  promise,  it  had 
accomplished  its  purpose  when  the  promise  was  fultilled. 
In  its  national  aspect  it  had  existed  to  guard  the  foith 
in  the  theocracy.  The  chief  hinderance  to  that  faith 
had  been  the  difficulty  of  realizing  the  invisible  pres- 
ence of  God,  and  of  conceiving  a  communion  with  the 
infinite  Godhead  which  should  not  crush  or  absorb  the 
finite  creature  (compare  Deut,  v,  24-27 ;  Numb,  xvii,  12, 
13;  Jobix,32-35;  xiii,21,22;  Isa.xlv,  15,  Ixiv,  l,etc,). 
From  that  had  come  in  earlier  times  open  idolatry,  and 
a  half-idolatrous  longing  for  and  trust  in  the  kingdom ; 
in  after  times  the  substitution  of  the  law  for  the  prom- 
ise. The  difficulty  was  now  to  pass  away  forever,  in 
the  incarnation  of  the  Godhead  in  one  truly  and  vis- 
ibh'  man.  The  guardianship  of  the  law  was  no  longer 
needed,  for  the  visible  and  personal  presence  of  the  Jles- 
siah  required  no  farther  testimony.  Moreover,  in  the  law 
itself  there  had  always  been  a  tendency  of  the  funda- 
mental idea  to  burst  tlie  formal  bonds  which  confined  it. 
In  looking  to  God  as  especially  their  king,  the  Israelites 
were  inheriting  a  privilege,  belonging  originally  to  all 
mankind,  and  destined  to  revert  to  them.  Yet  that  ele- 
ment of  the  law  which  was  local  and  national,  now  most 
prized  of  all  by  the  .Jews,  tended  to  limit  this  gift  to 
them,  and  place  them  in  a  position  antagonistic  to  the 
rest  of  the  world.  It  needed,  therefore,  to  pass  away 
before  all  men  could  be  brought  into  a  kingdom  -where 
there  was  to  be  "neither  Jew  nor  Gentile,  barbarian, 
Scythian,  bond,  or  free." 

In  its  individual,  or  what  is  usually  called  its '"  moral" 
aspect,  the  law  bore  equally  the  stamp  of  trausitoriness 
and  insufficiency.  It  had,  as  we  have  seen,  declared  the 
authority  of  truth  and  goodness  over  man's  will,  and 
taken  for  granted  in  man  the  existence  of  a  spirit  which 
could  recognise  that  authority;  but  it  had  done  no  more. 
Its  presence  had  therefore  detected  the  existence  and 
the  sinfulness  of  sin,  as  alien  alike  to  God's  will  and 
man's  true  nature;  but  it  had  also  brought  out  with 
more  vehement  and  desperate  antagonism  the  power  of 
sin  dwelling  in  man  as  fallen. (Kom.  vii,  7-25),  It  only 
showed,  therefore,  the  need  of  a  Saviour  from  sin,  and 
of  an  indwelling  jiower  which  should  enable  the  spirit  of 
man  to  conquer  the  ''law"  of  evil.  Hence  it  bore  testi- 
mony to  its  own  insufficiency,  and  led  men  to  Christ.  Al- 
ready the  prophets,  speaking  by  a  living  and  indwelling 
spirit,  ever  fresh  and  powerful,  had  been  passuig  beyond 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


29.- 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


the  dead  letter  of  the  law,  and  indirectly  convicting  it 
of  insufficiency.  But  there  was  need  of  "l/ie  Prophet" 
who  should  not  only  have  tlie  fulness  of  the  Spirit  dwell- 
ing in  hinlself,  but  should  liave  the  power  to  give  it  to 
others,  and  so  open  the  now  dispensation  already  fore- 
told. When  he  had  come,  and  by  the  gift  of  the  Spirit 
implanted  in  man  a  i'ree  internal  power  of  action  tend- 
ing to  God,  the  restraints  of  the  law,  needful  to  train  the 
childhood  of  the  world,  became  unnecessarj'  and  even 
injurious  to  the  free  development  of  its  manhood. 

nie  relation  of  the  law  to  Christ,  in  its  sacrificial  and 
ceremonial  aspect,  will  be  more  fuUy  considered  else- 
where. See  SACKincE.  It  is  here  only  necessary  to 
remark  on  the  evidently  typical  character  of  the  whole 
system  of  sacrifices,  upon  which  alone  their  virtue  de- 
pended ;  and  on  the  imperfect  embodiment,  in  any  body 
of  mere  men,  of  the  great  truth  which  was  represented 
in  the  priesthood.  By  the  former  declaring  the  need 
of  atonement,  by  the  latter  the  possibility  of  mediation, 
and  yet  in  itself  doing  nothing  adequately  to  realize 
either,  the  law  again  led  men  to  him  who  was  at  once 
the  only  mediator  and  the  true  sacrifice. 

Thus  the  law  had  trained  and  guided  man  to  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Messiah  in  his  threefold  character  of 
king,  prophet,  and  priest ;  and  then,  its  work  being  done, 
it  became,  in  the  minds  of  those  who  trusted  in  it,  not 
only  an  encumbrance,  but  a  snare.  To  resist  its  claim 
to  allegiance  was  therefore  a  matter  of  life  and  death  in 
the  days  of  St.  Paul,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  in  after  ages 
of  the  Church. 

3.  It  remains  to  consider  how  far  it  has  any  obligation 
or  existence  under  the  dispensation  of  the  Gospel.  As 
a  means  of  justification  or  salvation,  it  ought  never  to 
have  been  regarded,  even  before  Christ:  it  needs  no 
proof  to  show  that  still  less  can  this  be  so  since  he  has 
come.  But  yet  the  question  remains  whether  it  is  bind- 
ing on  Christians,  even  when  they  do  not  depend  on  it 
for  salvation. 

It  seems  clear  enough,  that  its  formal  coercive  author- 
ity as  a  whole  ended  with  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dis- 
pensation. We  may  indeed  distinguish  its  various  ele- 
ments; yet  he  who  offended  "in  one  point  against  it 
was  guilty  of  all"  (James  ii,  10).  It  referred  throughout 
to  the  Jewish  covenant,  and  in  many  points  to  the  con- 
stitution, the  customs,  and  even  the  local  circumstances 
of  the  people.  That  covenant  was  preparatory  to  the 
Christian,  in  which  it  is  now  absorbed;  those  customs 
and  observances  have  passed  awaj'.  It  follows,  by  the 
very  nature  of  the  case,  that  the  former  obligation  to 
the  \dw  as  such  must  have  ceased  with  the  basis  on 
which  it  is  grounded.  This  conclusion  is  stamped  most 
imequivocally  with  the  authority  of  St.  Paul  through 
the  whole  argument  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Komans  and 
to  the  Galatians.  That  we  are  "not  under  law"  (Kom. 
vi.  14, 15 ;  Gal.  v,  18) ;  "  that  we  are  dead  to  law"  (Rom. 
vii,  4^G ;  (ial.  ii,  19), "  redeemed  from  under  law"  (Gal.  iv, 
5),  etc.,  is  not  only  stated  without  any  limitation  or  ex- 
ception, but  in  many  places  is  made  the  prominent  feat- 
ure of  the  contrast  between  the  earlier  and  later  cove- 
nants. It  is  impossible,  therefore,  to  avoid  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  formal  code,  promulgated  by  Moses,  and 
sealed  with  the  prediction  of  the  blessing  and  the  curse, 
cannot,  an  a  law,  be  binding  on  the  Christian. 

But  what,  then,  becomes  of  the  declaration  of  our 
Lord,  that  he  came  "  not  to  destroy  the  law,  but  to  per- 
fect it,"  and  that  "  not  one  jot  or  one  tittle  of  it  shall 
pass  away?"  what  of  the  fact,  consequeut  upon  it,  that 
the  law  has  been  reverenced  in  all  Christian  churches, 
and  had  an  important  infiuence  on  much  Christian  leg- 
islation? The  explanation  of  the  apparent  contradic- 
tion lies  in  several  considerations. 

(1.)  The  positive  obligation  of  the  law,  as  such,  has 
passed  away  ;  but  every  revelation  of  God's  will,  and  of 
the  righteousness  and  love  which  are  its  elements,  im- 
poses a  moral  obligation,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  being 
linown,  even  on  those  to  whom  it  is  not  primarily  ad- 
dressed.    So  far  as  the  law  of  Moses  is  such  a  revela- 


tion of  the  will  of  God  to  mankind  at  large,  occupying  a 
certain  place  in  the  education  of  the  world  as  a  whole, 
so  far  its  declarations  remam  lor  our  guidance,  though 
their  coercion  and  their  penalties  may  be  no  longer  need- 
ed. It  is  in  their  general  principle,  of  course,  that  they 
remain,  not  in  their  outward  form ;  and  our  Lord  lias 
taught  us,  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  that  these  prin- 
ciples should  be  accepted  by  us  in  a  more  extended  and 
spiritual  development  than  they  could  receive  in  the 
time  of  IMoses. 

To  apply  this  principle  practically  there  is  need  of 
study  and  discretion,  in  order  to  distinguish  what  is  lo- 
cal and  temporary  from  Avhat  is  universal,  and  what  is 
mere  external  form  from  what  is  the  essence  of  an  ordi- 
nance. The  moral  law  undoubtedly  must  be  most  per- 
manent in  its  influence,  because  it  is  based  on  the  nature 
of  man  generally,  although  at  the  same  time  it  is  modi- 
fied by  the  greater  prominence  of  love  in  the  Christian 
system.  Yet  the  political  law,  in  the  main  principles 
which  it  lays  down  as  to  the  sacredness  and  responsil  il- 
ity  of  all  authorities,  and  the  rights  which  belong  to 
each  individual,  and  which  neither  slavery  nor  even  gtdit 
can  quite  eradicate,  has  its  permanent  value.  Even  tlie 
ceremonial  law,  by  its  enforcement  of  the  purity  and  jicr- 
fection  needed  in  any  service  offered,  and  in  its  disregard 
of  mere  costliness  on  such  service,  and  limitation  of  it 
strictly  to  the  prescribed  will  of  God,  is  still  in  many 
respects  our  best  guide.  In  special  cases  (as,  for  exam- 
ple, that  of  the  sabbatic  law  and  the  prohibition  of 
marriage  iwithin  the  degrees)  the  question  of  its  author- 
ity must  depend  on  the  further  inquiry  whether  the  ba- 
sis of  such  laws  is  one  common  to  all  human  nature,  or 
one  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  people.  This  inquiry  may  oc- 
casionally be  diflacult,  especially  in  the  distinction  of  the 
essence  from  the  form  ;  but  by  it  alone  can  the  original 
question  be  thoroughly  and  satisfactorily  answered. 

(2.)  A  plain  distinction  of  this  kind  seems  to  lie  on  the 
face  of  the  subject,  as  to  the  main  question  at  issue.  The 
ceremonial  or  ritual  department  of  the  Mosaic  laws, 
Avhich  stood  in  meats,  and  drinks,  and  canial  ordinances 
(Heb.  ix,  10) ;  which  were  of  a  typical  character,  and  a 
mere  shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  was  abolished  by 
the  introduction  of  the  Gospel;  for  then  they  ceased  to 
have  any  pertinence,  the  reality  having  come  of  which 
they  were  the  figures.  But  the  kernel  of  the  law, 
properly  speaking,  the  moral  law,  which  is  a  transcript 
of  the  divme  mind,  is  eternal  and  unchangeable  in  its 
obligations  and  sanctions.  It  was  fuljilled  rather  than 
abrogated  by  the  Gospel.  It  was  confirmed  by  Christ, 
and  explained  in  its  infinite  comprehension  and  spiritu- 
ality b}'  him  and  his  apostles  throughout  the  New  Tes- 
tanient  (Matt,  v,  17, 18 ;  Luke  x,  26-28 ;  Pom.  v,  15-viii, 
o9).  Hence,  when,  in  Kom.  vi,  14;  vii,  1-G;  Gal.  ii,  19; 
V,  18,  the  moral  law  is  spoken  of  as  not  being  the  mere 
rule  of  life  for  persons  who  rely  on  the  grace  of  God, 
<and  who  are  authorized  to  expect  a  salvation  not  to  be 
purchased  by  their  works,  it  is  so  depreciated  simply 
because  in  that  aspect  it  is  regarded  as  a  law  according 
to  which  rewards  and  punishments  should  be  adjudged 
in  so  rigid  and  inexorable  a  manner  as  to  exclude  aU 
grace,  and  all  reliance  on  grace  (Eom.  iv,  12-14 ;  Gal.  ii, 
31 ;  iii,  10-12).  In  short,  it  is  abrogated  as  a  justifying 
ground  of  salvation  bj'  good  works,  because  none  can 
keep  it  perfectly  to  that  end.  Yet  it  is  not  abolished  as 
an  external  criterion  of  virtue  and  pict}',  and  as  the  final 
test  before  the  assembled  universe.     See  Antinojiians. 

(3.)  Another  very  important  fact  in  this  discussion  is 
that  all  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Decalogue  have  been 
re-enacted  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  not  only  in 
principle,  but  in  explicit  terms  (JMark  x,  19 ;  Kom.  xiii, 
9).  It  is  true  Jesus  sums  up  the  spirit  of  the  wliole 
ten  commandments  in  the  two  of  love  to  God  and  man 
(IMatt.  xxii,  37-40),  and  St.  Paid  (Rom.  xiii,  10),  as  well 
as  St.  John  (1  John  iii,  11),  substantialh'  do  the  same. 
But  this  is  not  done  with  a  view  to  derogate  from  the 
]irecise  form  of  the  Mosaic  commands,  much  less  to  abol- 
isli  them ;  but  rather  with  a  view  to  re-enforce  them  by 


LAW  OF  MOSES 


294 


LAW 


educing  their  peniianeiit  and  universal  principle  of  obli- 
gation. Cliristianity  has  therefore  in  all  ages  justly 
recognised  the  paramount  and  unvarying  force  of  the 
moral  law  as  promulgated  on  Mount  Sinai. 

The  only  exception  to  the  above  remark  of  the  direct 
renewal  of  all  these  commandments  by  Christ  and  his 
r.postles  is  that  relating  to  the  Sabbath,  which  is  never 
([uoted  among  the  rest,  but  is  noticeably  omitted,  and 
lias  even  been  held  to  be  intentionally  discarded,  by 
]irecept,  inference,  and  example,  by  them.  The  excep- 
tion, however,  is  only  apparent,  and  is  due  to  the  pecul- 
iar nature  of  this  observance.  It  really  rests  upon  an 
earlier  than  the  Mosaic  institute,  for  it  dates  from  the 
creation,  and  was  therefore  appropriately  introduced  at 
Sinai  by  the  allusion,  "  Remember  the  Sabbath  day." 
^Moreover,  the  Jews  of  our  Lord's  day  were  in  no  need 
of  being  reminded  of  this  institution;  they  were  slav- 
ishly and  superstitiously  observant  of  it.  Fmally,  as 
the  day  of  its  observance  was  changed  by  the  very  first 
Christians,  there  would  have  been  an  obvious  impropri- 
ety in  their  referring  to  the  institution  itself  umler  that 
mime.  That  the  obligation  to  occupy  in  religious  rest 
one  day  in  seven  was  scrupulously  recognised  by  them 
the  historical  fact  of  the  ''Lord's  day"  abundantly  at- 
tests.    See  Sabbath. 

(4.)  Indeed,  the  same  remark  as  to  primeval  origin 
and  validity  applies  to  the  whole  Decalogue,  although 
this  cannot  be  so  clearly  proved  in  a  historical  argument 
as  with  regard  to  the  Sabbath.  Yet  it  has  been  shown 
above  (§  i,  No.  4)  that  these  moral  enactments  at  least 
were  nothing  new;  indeed,  as  all  must  at  once  admit, 
tliey  lie  at  the  very  foundation  of  civil  law  and  social 
organization;  and  it  coidd  easily  be  shown  that  the  He- 
lire  ws  had  substantialh'  recognised  their  force  for  ages. 
They  were  therefore,  in  fact,  but  republished  on  Sinai, 
under  new  sanctions,  and  do  not  require  for  their  au- 
thority the  support  of  any  special  dispensation. 

The  argument  of  the  apostle  Paul,  especially  in  the 
epistles  to  the  Romans,  Galatians,  and  Hebrews,  invari- 
a'uly  is  an  appeal  from  the  legal  bondage  of  .Judaism — 
not  merely,  be  it  observed,  the  intolerable  ceremonial 
yoke  (Acts  xv,  10),  but  still  more  emphatically  the  law 
of  "good  works,"  including,  of  course,  especially  the 
moral  code  (see  Rom.  ii,  21,  22 ;  vii,  7)  —  to  the  ante- 
jMosaic  dispensation,  the  faith  which  Abraham  had 
when  yet  a  Gentile  (Rom.  iv,  10 ;  Gal.  iii.  17, 18),  and  the 
primitive  priesthood  of  Jesus  (Heb.  vii).  Yet  this  law 
of  faith,  so  far  from  ignoring  the  moral  law,  is  its  only 
elTectual  support  (comp.  John  vi,  29)  ;  and  thus  the  so- 
lution of  this  question  becomes  likewise  the  reconcilia- 
tion of  the  doctrine  of  St.  Paul  with  that  of  St.  James. 
See  Jajies,  Epistle  of. 

V.  Literature.  —  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Mosaisches  Recht 
(Frkft.  1770-75),  translated  by  Alexander  Smith  under 
the  title  Commentaries  on  the  Iaiics  nf  Moses  (London, 
1814) ;  J.  II.  Ilottinger,  Juris  llebraorum  lerjes  cclxi,  ad 
Judworum  meniem  explicates  (Tiguri,  1655);  Selden, />e 
Ju7-e  naturali  et  gentium  juxta  JJebrceorum  Disciplinam 
(Argentorati,  1GG5);  Reimarus,  I)e  kfjibus  Mosaicis  ante 
Mosem  (Ilamb.  1741)  ;  D.  Hornsyli  J)e  pj-incipiis  Leijum 
Mosdiranim  (Hafniie,  1792);  Stiiudhn,  Comment  at  iones 
J I  de  Lei/nm  Mosaicarum  ((Jottingic,  1796) ;  Purmann, 
J)c  Jliiitibus  et  aconomia  Le<jum  Mosaicarum  (Franco- 
furti,  1789);  T.  G.  Erdmann,  Lefjes  Mosvi  p)r(vstantiores 
esse  lei/ibus  I.tjvurgi  et  Solunis  (Viteberga?,  1788) ;  Pas- 
toret,  liistoire  de  la  Legislation  (Par.  1817),  vols,  iii  et  iv; 
J.  Salvador,  I/istoii-e  des  Institutions  de  Mu'ise  et  du  Peu- 
plc  Ilebreu  (Paris,  1828, ."  vols.)  ;  Manson,  De  le/jislafura 
Miisaica  quantum  ad  /iijf/ie/ien  pertinet  (Haag,  1835); 
A\'clker,  Die  Letzten  Criinde  von  Itecht,  p.  270  sq. ;  Stiiud- 
Yvc\,  Geschichte  dfr  Sittetdehre  Jesu,  i,  1 11  sq. ;  Holberg, 
Ueschickte  der  Sittenlehre  Jesu,ii,'d'd\.  sq. ;  DaWette, 
tiittenlehre,  ii,  21  sq.  Luther's  views  are  given  by  C.  H. 
Y.  P/ialloblotzky,  l)e  Lef/is  Mosaicee  A  bror/dtione  (Got- 
tingw,  1824).  For  other,  chletly  older,  works  on  the 
subject  in  general,  see  Winer,  L'eidirvr-terburh,  s.  v.  Ge- 
setz;  Danz,  Wurierbuch,  s.  v.  Moses;  Yolbeding,  Index 


Programmatum,  p.  37 ;  Darling,  Cyclop.  Blbliogr.  column 
237  sq.  Among  later  discussions  we  may  name  Duncan, 
Character  and  Design  of  (he  Law  of  Moses  (Edinburgh, 
1851) ;  an  art.  in  the  Stud.  u.  Krii.  1846,  i,  43  sq. ;  Saal- 
schiUz,  I),  mos.  Redd  m.  Beriichsicht.  des  spat.  Jiid.  (Berl. 
1846) ;  Piccard,  De  legislationis  Mosa'icce  indole  morali 
(Utr.  1841)  ;  Klibel,  Das  alltestam.  Geselz  und  seine  Ur- 
kunde  (Stuttg.  1867).     See  Moses. 

Law,  Edmund,  D.D.,  a  noted  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  1703,  near  Cartmel,  in  Lancasliire,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge ;  was  elected 
feUow  upon  graduation,  and  in  1737  was,  by  the  luiiver- 
sity,  presented  with  the  rectory  of  Graystock,  in  Cum- 
berland. To  this  living  was  added  in  1743  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Carlisle.  These  positions  he  held  until  1766, 
when  he  returned  to  Cambridge  as  master  of  St.  Peter's 
College.  Later  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the  uni- 
versity and  professor  of  casuistrj',  was  made  archdeacon 
of  Stafford,  was  presented  with  a  prebend  in  the  church 
of  Lincoln,  and  in  1767  with  one  of  the  rich  prebends  in 
the  church  of  Durham,  and  m  1768,  finally,  ^vas  honored 
with  the  bisliopric  of  Carlisle.  He  died  in  1787.  While 
yet  a  student  at  Cambridge,  Law  published  two  works 
which  show  at  once  the  peculiar  turn  of  his  own  mind, 
and  secured  him  a  place  among  the  best  and  wisest  in- 
structors of  their  species.  The  first  of  these  was  his 
translation  of  archbishop  King's  Essay  on  the  Origin  of 
Etil,  with  copious  notes,  in  which  many  of  the  difHcult 
questions  in  metaphysical  science  are  considered;  the 
second  was  his  Ineiuiry  into  the  Ideas  of  Space  and 
Time.  In  1743,  wliile  a  resident  of  Salkcld,  on  the  pleas- 
ant banks  of  the  Eden,  a  part  of  the  living  of  Carlisle, 
which  Lavv  was  then  holding,  he  began  his  third  work, 
Considerations  on  the  Theory  of  Religion,  etc.  (Camb. 
1745, 1749, 1755, 1765,  8vo ;  London,  1774,  8vo ,  7th  ed., 
CarUsle,  1784,  8vo  ;  new  edit,  by  bishop  George  H.  Law, 
of  Chester,  with  Life  of  bishop  Edmund  Law  by  William 
Palcy,  D.D.,  Lond.  1820,  8vo),  and  shortly  after.  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Life  and  Character  of  Christ  (Camb.  1749, 
8vo ;  often  reprinted  with  the  Considerations),  "  a  work 
of  singular  beauty,  not  to  be  read  by  any  person  with- 
out edification  and  improvement."  In  1777  he  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  the  works  of  Locke,  with  a  life  of 
the  author.  Of  this  English  philosopher  bishop  Law 
was  ever  an  ardent  follower  and  able  interpreter.  In- 
deed, "the  peculiar  character  of  Dr.  Law's  mind  appears 
to  have  been  acquired  in  a  great  measure  by  a  devoted 
study  of  the  writings  of  that  philosopher.  From  him 
he  seems  to  have  derived  that  value  which  he  set  on 
freedom  of  inquiry,  in  relation  to  theology  as  well  as 
to  every  other  subject.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  great  controversy  respecting  subscription,  and  act- 
ed accordingly  himself.  The  most  striking  proof  of 
this  is  afforded  in  the  later  edition  of  his  Considera- 
tions, which  contains  many  important  alterations.  From 
Locke  also  he  seems  to  have  derived  his  notions  of  the 
proper  mode  of  studying  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  order 
to  come  at  their  true  sense.  He  was.  in  short,  an  emi- 
nent master  in  that  school  of  rational  and  liberal  divines 
which  flourished  in  England  in  the  last  century,  and  is 
adorned  by  the  names  of  Jortin,  Blackburne,  Powell, 
Tyrwhitt,  Watson,  Paley,  and  many  others."  See  Eng- 
lish Cyclopeedia,  s.  v. ;  AJlibone,  Diet.  ofL'rit.  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  ii,  1065. 

Law,  George  Henry,  D.D..  an  English  divine, 
second  son  of  Edmund  Law.  D.D..  was  born  in  1761. 
He  became  l)ishoii  of  Chester  in  1812,  and  of  Bath  and 
Wells  in  1824.  He  died  in  1845.  Bishop  Law  publish- 
ed a-  number  of  his  Sermons,  for  a  Ust  of  whicli,  and  a 
biographical  notice  of  the  author,  see  the  London  Gent. 
Mag.  1845,  pt.  ii,  p.  529. — ^Vllibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Law,  Isaac,  a  minister  of  the  Laiited  Presbyterian 
Church,  was  born  Sept.  5. 1815.  at  Salem,  N.York,  was 
educated  at  Union  College  (class  of  1838),  and  became 
shortly  after  a  student  of  theology  at  Canousburg,  I'a., 


LAW 


295 


LAWYER 


and  was  licensed  March  26,  1840.  In  1842  he  was  or- 
dained missionary  by  tlie  East  Salem  Presbytery,  and 
labored  in  this  capacity  untij  1847,  when  he  was  ordain- 
ed pastor  at  Cambridge.  He  died  Jan.  28,  ISGl.  Law 
'■proved  himself  'a  workman  that  needeth  not  to  be 
ashamed.'  ...  As  a  minister,  in  the  discharge  of  every 
public  and  private  duty  of  religion  he  was  exact,  fixed, 
and  regular." — Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imaiiac,  1862,  p.  22. 
Lavr,  Joseph,  a  Methodist  minister,  was  born  in 
Washington  C^ouiity,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  10, 1798 ;  was  converted 
in  1815,  and  admitted  into  the  New  York  Conference  in 
1830,  after  eight  years'  service  as  a  local  preacher.  Al- 
though he  had  not  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  early  ed- 
ucation, he  soon,  by  unwearied  perseverance,  fitted  him- 
self for  usefulness  in  the  ministry,  and  quickly  gained 
distinction  among  his  ministerial  brethren  and  among 
the  ])eoi)le,  and  he  was  honored  with  some  of  the  best 
appointments  in  the  Conference.  He  was  for  many 
years  confined  in  his  labors  to  the  cities  of  New  York 
and  Brooklyn,  and  New  Haven  (First  and  Second 
Church)  and  Hartford.  In  the  city  of  Brooklyn  he  wa# 
instrumental  in  the  building  of  five  large  churches.  He 
was  superannuated  in  1861,  and  died  June  11, 1803.  On 
his  dying  bed  he  frequently  reciuested  the  sorrowing 
friends  around  him  to  sing;  and  a  little  before  his  spirit 
departed,  as  they  were  singing  one  of  his  favorite 
hymns — "  On  Jordan's  stormy  banks  I  stand,"  etc. — his 
eye  kindled  with  rapture,  and  he  gave  the  whispered  as- 
surance, "All  is  well." — Smith,  Sacred  Memories,  p.  243. 

Law,  Samuel  "Warren,  a  Methodist  minister, 
the  son  of  the  IJev.  Joseph  Law  (q.  v.),  was  born  at 
Marlborough,  Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  November,  1821,  was 
converted  in  his  fourteenth  year,  and  in  1841  entered 
the  itinerancy.  He  had  many  excellences,  and  was  an 
able  and  successfid  minister.  His  death,  which  occurred 
April  28, 1857,  was  such  as  his  life  had  promised — calm, 
confiding,  and  peacefid. — Smith,  Sac.  Memories,  p.  230. 

LaTV,  "William,  an  eminent  English  nonjuring  di- 
vine and  able  religious  writer  of  the  mystic  school  of 
the  last  century,  was  born  at  Kingscliffe,  Northampton- 
shire, in  1686,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.A.  in  1712, 
and  became  fellow  in  1713.  Shortly  after  this  he  began 
to  preach,  but  was  obliged  to  quit  tlie  ministry,  and  also 
to  give  up  his  fellowship,  on  the  accession  of  George  I 
in  1714,  because  of  his  refusal  to  take  the  required  oath. 
He  now  became  tutor  to  his  relative  and  friend,  Edward 
Gibbon,  father  of  the  historian,  who  s]ieaks  of  his  piety 
and  talents  with  unusual  warmth.  Later,  two  of  his 
friends.  Miss  Hester  Gibbon,  sister  of  his  pupil,  and  Mrs. 
Hutcheson,  widow  of  a  London  barrister,  having  resolved 
to  retire  from  the  world,  and  devote  themselves  to  works 
of  charity  and  a  religious  life,  selected  Law  for  their  al- 
moner and  instructor.  He  accepted  the  position,  and 
the  three  parties  settled  in  a  house  at  Kingscliffe,  where 
Law  died,  April  9,  1761.  Law's  writings  are  tinged 
with  what  is  commonly  called  mysticism,  as  he  became 
an  ardent  follower  of  the  noted  mystic,  Jacob  Bohme. 
His  princiijal  work,  and,  indeed,  one  of  the  best  books 
of  the  kind,  is  his  Serious  Call  to  a  Devout  and  Holy 
Life  (1729),  a  treatise  that  first  awakened  the  religious 
sensibilities  of  Ur.  Samuel  Johnson,  who  speaks  of  it  in 
high  "terms,  and  from  which  the  brothers  Wesley  also 
derived  much  advantage.  Next  to  the  Serious  Call, 
his  most  important  works  are  his  answer  to  Mande- 
ville's  Fublc  of  Uie  Bees  (published  in  1724 ;  republished, 
with  an  introduction  by  the  Kev.  F.  D.  Maurice,  in  1844), 
his  letters  to  the  bishop  of  Bangor,  The  Way  to  Knoicl- 
etlye,  and  The  Spirit  of  Love.  A  collective  edition  of 
his  works  was  published  at  London  in  9  vols.  8vo  in 
1762.  It  has  fallen  to  the  lot  of  but  few  English  Avrit- 
ers  to  elicit  such  general  comment  and  commendation  as 
has  l)cen  the  fortune  of  William  Law.  The  rationalistic 
Gilibon,  the  liberal  Macaulay,  the  pious  John  Weslej-, 
and  the  morose  Sam.  Johnson,  all  were  of  one  mind  in 
their  praise  of  William  Law.     Sec  Eichard  Tighe,  Life 


and  Writiriffs  of  William  Law>  (1813,  8vo)  ;  Lond.  Gent. 
May.  vol.  Ixx ;  Theol.  Eclectic,  Jan.  1868 ;  Contempora?!/ 
Review,  Oct.,  1867;  Christian  Examiner,  1869,  p.  157; 
Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  AUibone,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  merican  A  uthors,  ii,  1065  sq. 

Lavrn  Sleeves.     See  Eochette. 

Lavrrence,  Abbott,  an  eminent  American  mer- 
chant and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Groton,  Mass.,  in 
1792 ;  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1839,  and  in  1843  was 
appointed  commissioner  to  settle  the  north-east  bound- 
ary question  with  Great  Britain ;  United  States'  minister 
to  England  in  1849  ;  and  died  in  1855.  Among  his  nu- 
merous and  munificent  donations  was  that  of  $100,000 
to  Harvard  University,  to  found  the  scientific  school 
called  by  his  name.  He  also  beciueathed  the  sum  of 
|;50,000  towards  erecting  model  lodging-houses. — Thom- 
as, Bioy.  Did.  p.  1384. 

La^wrence,  Amos,  a  distinguished  American  phi- 
lanthropist, was  born  at  Groton,  Mass.,  in  1786.  He  spent 
a  great  part  of  his  immense  fortune  in  various  charities 
and  donations  to  public  institutions.  He  died  in  1852. 
His  Life  and  Correspondence  was  published  bj^  his  son 
in  1855. — Thomas,  Bioy.  Diet.  p.  1384. 

Lavrrence,  Sir  Henry  Montgomery,  brother 
of  sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  the  "Saviour  of  India,"  is  noted 
for  his  philanthropy  and  Christian  bearing  as  a  sol- 
dier in  the  British  army  in  India.  He  was  born  in  Cey- 
lon in  1806,  and  after  entering  the  army  quickly  rose  to 
distinction.  In  the  campaigns  of  the  Sutlej  he  served 
with  distinction,  and  about  1850  was  appointed  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  government  in  the  Punjaid;),  and  in 
1857,  when  the  Indian  mutiny  broke  out,  chief  commis- 
sioner of  Lucknow,  and  virtually  governor  of  Oude, 
While  in  command  of  the  handful  of  heroic  men  who 
defended  the  women  and  children  in  the  residency  of 
Lucknow,  sir  Henry  was  wounded  b}'  the  explosion  of  a 
shell,  and  died  July  4, 1857.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
LMicrence  Asylum  for  the  reception  of  the  chiU^ien  of 
European  soldiers  in  India.  A  monument  to  his  mem- 
ory has  been  placed  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  See  J.  W. 
Kaye,  Lives  of  Lndian  Officers  (London,  1867);  Fraser^s 
Mayazine,  Dec.  1857;  North  British  licvieiv,  May,  1860; 
Butler,  Land  of  the  Veda,  p.  319  sq. 

Lawrence,  St.     See  Laurentius,  St. 

Lawrence,  St.,  Regular  Canons  of,  a  religious 
order,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Benedict  in  the 
6th  century.  Its  seat  was  in  Dauphine.  It  was  re- 
formed in  the  1 1th  century,  under  the  patronage  of  Ode, 
count  of  Savoy.  The  bishop  of  Turin  in  1065  conferred 
many  gifts  upon  it,  and  several  popes  enriched  it  with 
benefactions. — Eadie,  L'ccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lav/reuson,  Laurence,  a  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  1779;  entered  the  Philadeliihia 
Conference  in  1810,  and  died  April  4,  1829.  He  pos- 
sessed a  strong  and  generous  mind,  and  deep  piety.  He 
was  an  excellent  presiding  elder,  and  preached  with  dis- 
tinguished success  the  word  of  life. — Minutes  of  Confer- 
ences, ii,  3.S. 

Lawyer  (i'djukoc,  relatiny  to  the  lair,  as  in  Tit.  iii, 
9), "  in  its  general  sense,  denotes  one  skilled  in  the  law, 
as  in  Tit.  iii,  13.  When,  therefore,  one  is  called  a  law- 
yer, this  IS  understood  with  reference  to  the  laws  of  the 
land  in  which  he  lived,  or  to  which  he  belonged.  Hence 
among  the  Jews  a  lawyer  was  one  versed  in  the  laws  of 
Jloses,  which  he  taught  in  the  schools  and  synagogues 
(Matt,  xxviii, 35 ;  Luke  x,  25).  The  same  person  who  is 
called '  a  lawyer'  in  these  texts  i*'  in  the  parallel  jiassage 
(Mark  xii,  28)  called  '  a  scribe'  (yjia/i/zora'c),  whence  it 
has  been  inferred  that  the  functions  of  the  lawyers  and 
the  scribes  were  identical.  The  individual  may  have 
been  both  a  lawyer  and  a  scribe,  but  it  does  not  thence 
follow  that  all  lawyers  were  scribes.  Some  suppose, 
however,  that  the  'scribes'  were  the  public  expounders 
of  the  law,  while  the  '  lawyers'  were  the  private  ex- 
pounders and  teachers  of  it.     But  this  is  a  mere  conjee- 


LAWYERS 


296 


LAY  PREACHIXG 


ture,  and  nothing;  more  is  really  kiio^\ni  than  that  the 
'  lawviTs'  were  expouiulers  of  the  law,  whether  publicly 
or  privately,  or  both"  (Kitto).  Hence  the  term  is  equiv- 
alent to  '"teacher  of  the  law"  (voj^ioCicaffKciXog,  Acts  v, 
34).  '■  By  the  use  of  the  word  vojxiko^  (in  Tit.  iii,  9)  as 
a  simple  adjective,  it  seems  more  probable  that  the  title 
'  scribe'  was  a  legal  and  official  designation,  but  that  the 
name  vojiikoq  was  properly  a  mere  epithet  signifying 
one  '  learned  in  the  law'  (somewhat  like  the  o'l  t/c  vofiov 
in  Ilom.  iv,  14),  and  only  used  as  a  title  in  common  par- 
lance (comp.  the  use  of  it  in  Tit.  iii,  13, '  Zenas  the  law- 
yer'). Tliis  would  accomit  for  the  comparative  unfre- 
ciuency  of  the  word,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  always  used 
in  connection  with '  Pharisees,'  never,  as  the  word '  scribe' 
so  often  is,  in  connection  with  '  chief  priests'  and  'eld- 
ers' "  (Smith).  See  Lilienthal,  De  vofxiKoiQ  juris  utri- 
usqiie  apml  Ilebrceos  (Hal.  1740J.    Comp.  Scklbe. 

Lawyers.  In  the  Roman  and  Spanish  churches, 
pleaders  before  the  courts  were  not  eligible  to  the  cler- 
ical office.  The  rule,  however,  was  not  universal,  for  the 
Council  of  Sardica  enacted  that  a  lawyer  might  be  or- 
dained a  bishop  if  he  passed  through  the  inferior  grades 
of  reader,  deacon,  and  presbyter.  On  the  other  hand, 
clergymen  -were  not  allowed  to  act  as  law3'ers,  or  to 
plead  either  their  own  cause  or  even  an  ecclesiastical 
one.  Bribery  and  extortion  were  forbidden  to  la'svyers 
under  severe  penalties. — Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay,  Benjamin,  an  eccentric  philanthropist,  was 
born  at  Colchester,  in  England,  in  1G81,  and  settled  in 
Barbadoes  in  1710,  but  became  obnoxious  to  the  people 
by  his  abiihtion  principles,  came  to  the  United  States, 
and  settled  at  Abington,  Pa.  He  was  one  of  the  earli- 
est and  most  zealous  opponents  of  slaver}-^  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  coadjutor  of  Franklin  and  Benezet.  He 
•was  originally  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  but 
so  decidedly  opposed  was  he  to  the  practice  of  slavehold- 
ing  then  prevalent  among  them  (e.  g.  he  resolutely  re- 
fused to  partake  of  any  food  or  wear  any  clothing  which 
was  wholly  or  in  part  produced  by  the  labor  of  slaves) 
that  he  was  obhged  to  leave  the  society  in  1717.  Be- 
fore his  death  (in  1760),  however,  he  had  the  pleasure 
of  seeing  his  society  take  a  decided  stand  against  this 
abominable  institution.  His  opposition  to  slavery  was 
noticeable  on  every  public  occasion  where  he  had  any 
opportunity  to  manifest  his  disapprobation.  He  always 
expressed  himself  in  strong  terms,  and  sometimes  re- 
sorted to  methods  for  enforcing  his  arguments  that 
evinced  great  eccentricity.  Says  Janney  (iii,  246) :  "  He 
came  into  the  yearly  meeting  with  a  bladder  fUled  with 
blood  in  one  hand  and  a  sword  in  the  other.  He  ran 
the  sword  through  the  bladder,  and  sprinkled  the  blood 
on  several  Friends,  declaring  that  so  the  sword  would  be 
sheathed  in  the  bowels  of  the  nation  if  they  did  not 
leave  otF  oppressing  the  negroes."  In  1737  he  wrote  a 
treatise  entitled  All.  Slare-keepers  that  kwp  the  Innocent 
in  Bondii;ie  Apostates,  which  was  published  by  Frank- 
lin.   See  Janney,  Hist,  of  the  Friends,  iii,  245.    (J.  H.W.) 

Lay  Abbots  or  Abbacomites.  Prior  to  the 
period  nf  ('harlemagne  the  court  ajipointed  its  favorites 
to  the  office  of  abbot:  rich  abbacies  were  given  to  the 
higher  secular  clergy  in  commendam,  i.  e.  simply  to  en- 
joy its  revenues,  or  else  to  counts  and  military  chiefs 
m  reward  for  their  services.  These  lay  abbots  occupied 
the  monasteries  with  their  families,  or  with  their  friends 
and  retainers,  sometimes  for  months,  converting  them 
into  baiH|ucting  halls,  or  using  them  for  hunting  expe- 
ditions or  for  military  exercises.  The  wealthiest  abba- 
cies the  kings  either  retained  for  themselves  or  bestow- 
ed on  tlieir  sons  and  daughters,  their  wives  and  mis- 
tresses. Charlemagne  corrected  this  abuse:  he  insisted 
on  strict  discipline,  and  made  it  a  ride  that  schools 
should  be  planted  in  connection  with  the  various  monas- 
teries, and  that  literary  labors  sliould  be  prosecuted  with- 
in their  walls.— Eadie,  F.ccles.  Diet.     See  also  Abbot. 

Layard,  Ciiaislks  Pktkk.  D.D.,  an  English  theolo- 
gian, grandfather  of  Austm  Henry  Layard,  the  cele- 


brated traveller,  and  himself  a  descendant  of  an  an- 
cient French  family,  was  bom  about  1748.  He  was  ed- 
ucated at  Westminster  Sc^iool  and  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge;  was  then  appointed  minister  of  Oxendon 
Chapel,  and  librarian  to  Tenison's  Librarj',  Westminster; 
and  in  1800  was  promoted  to  the  deanery  of  Bristol,  and 
to  the  royal  chaplaincy.  He  died  April  11, 1803.  Be- 
sides an  essay  on  Charity  and  Duelling  (1774  and  1776), 
he  published  several  of  his  Sermons.  Layard  was  one 
of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  day.  See  Allibone, 
Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  7ner.  A  uthors,  ii,  1071 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Bioff.  Generale,  xxx,  39. 

Lay  Baptism.     See  Baptism,  Lay. 

Lay  Brothers,  a  name  for  a  class  of  Romish  iUit- 
erate  persons  who  in  convents  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  monks.  They  wear  a  different  habit  from 
the  monks,  but  never  enter  the  choir,  nor  are  present  at 
the  chapters.  The  only  vow  they  make  is  of  obedience 
and  constancy.  They  were  first  employed  in  the  11th 
century.  In  the  nimneries  there  are  also  lai/  sisteis,  or 
siste7-s  converse,  who  hold  a  similar  relation  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  nuns.     See  Farrar,  Ecdes.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay  Chancellors.  This  office  is  found  in  the 
Church  at  an  early  period.  Bishops  Avere  often  appeal- 
ed to  in  civil  causes,  especially  when  both  parties  agreed 
to  refer  any  dispute  to  them ;  and  in  this  case  their  sen- 
tence was  valid,  but  its  execution  was  left  to  the  civil 
power.  When  civil  causes  began  to  multiply,  the  bish- 
ops were  compelled  to  devolve  some  part  of  this  service 
on  others,  in  whose  fidelity  and  integrity  they  could  con- 
fide. Some  bishops  selected  laymen  for  this  purpose, 
and  this,  according  to  Bingham,  probably  originated  the 
office  of  lay  chancellor. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lay  Elders.     See  Elder. 

Laying  on  of  Hands.     See  Hands,  Imposition 

OF. 

Layish.     See  Lion. 

Laymann,  Paul,  a  German  Jesuit,  was  born  at 
Innsbruck  in  1576,  and  died  of  the  plague  at  Constance 
Nov.  13,  1635.  He  was  distinguished  in  life  for  a  re- 
markable knowledge  of  canonical  law,  so  that  he  be- 
came an  oracle  in  these  matters.  His  Morallheologie, 
published  first  at  Munich  (1625,  4to),  passed  through 
many  editions  (one  of  the  best  at  Mayencc,  1723).  His 
work,  Justa  defensio  Sanciissimi  Romani  Pontifcis,  etc.,  in. 
causa  il/onasteriorum  et  honorum  ecclesiastic,  vacaniinm, 
etc.  (Diling.  1631),  was  replied  to  by  the  Benedictine  Ro- 
man Ha}'',  in  Aster  inextinctus,  and  led  to  an  answer  by 
Laymann,  entitled  Censura  A  strolog.  ccclesiasticcv,  et  A  s- 
tri  inexlincti.  After  his  death  appeared  his  Jus  canon- 
icuin  (Diling.  1643)  a.w\. Repertorium  (Diling.  1644).  See 
Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  383. 

Layuez.     See  Lainez. 

Lay  Preaching.  In  order  to  form  just  views  of 
this  subject,  it  is  well  to  consider  that  primary  design 
of  Christianity  which  contemplates  world-wide  diffu- 
sion. For  the  accomplishment  of  that  design,  preach- 
ing is  the  grand  and  divinely  ajipointed  agcncj-.  But 
the  true  idea  of  preaching,  as  instituted  by  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  is  not  n'arrow  and  exclusive.  It  is  com- 
prehensive and  manifold.  It  demands  adaptation  to  all 
men  and  all  circumstances.  Preaching  warns,  pro- 
claims, invites,  teaches.  Although  made  the  special 
work  of  certain  representative  disciples,  it  is,  in  fact, 
enjoined  upon  the  Church  as  a  whole,  and  upon  its 
members  in  particular,  '-as  of  the  ability  which  God 
giveth"  (1  Pet.  iv,  10,  M).  There  is  no  Christian  so 
humble  as  to  be  beneath  the  application  of  the  follow- 
ing and  many  kindred  precepts  :  '•  Let  your  light  so 
shine  before  men  that  they  may  see  your  good  works, 
and  glorify  your  Father  which  is  in  heaven"  (Matt,  v, 
16) ;  "  Herein  is  my  Father  glorified,  that  ye  bear  much 
fruit;  so  shall  ye  be  my  disciples"  (John  xv.  8) :  "  Who- 
soever shall  confess  me  before  men.  him  shall  the  Son 
of  man  also  confess  before  the  angels  of  God"  (^Luke  xii, 


LAY  PKEACHING 


297 


LAY  PREACHIXG 


8).  These  tieclaration:,  of  the  Saviour  have  a  special  sig- 
nificance when  viewetl  in  comparison  witli  various  other 
passages  which  indicate  that  an  important  element  of 
preacliing  consists  in  bearing  witness  of  things  seen, 
heard,  and  experienced  in  reference  to  Christ  and  his 
kingdom  (see  Luke  xxiv,  48 ;  Acts  i,  21,  2 ;  ii,  32 ;  iv, 
20;  xxii,  15). 

When  considered  in  the  plain  light  of  Christian  his- 
tory and  obligation,  the  subject  of  lay  preaching  be- 
comes relieved  from  both  the  difficidties  and  the  tech- 
nicalities with  which  it  has  sometimes  been  invested  by 
a  pretentious  ecclesiasticism.  None  of  our  Lord's  disci- 
ples were  priests,  and  yet,  from  the  moment  of  their  call 
to  his  discipleship,  he  proceeded  to  instruct  them  in  the 
matter  and  duty  of  preaching.  At  an  early  period  of 
their  instruction  they  were  sent  out  to  preach  experi- 
mentally (see  Matt,  x,  5-42;  Luke  ix,  1-G).  Not  only 
Avere  the  twelve  thus  sent  forth  to  preach,  but  "  other 
seventy  also."  The  number  seventy  was  symbolic  both 
of  multiplicity  and  completeness,  and  the  a<-"t  of  sending 
out  seventy  (lay)  disciples, "  two  by  two,  before  his  face, 
into  every  city  and  place  whither  he  himself  would 
come,"  was  in  itself  significant  of  our  Lord's  purpose  to 
employ  all  his  true  disciples  in  spreading  the  truth  and 
establishing  his  kingdom  upon  tlie  earth. 

In  imitation  of  its  divine  Lord,  the  Apostolic  Church 
employed  not  only  the  apostles,  but  its  lay  members  in 
preaching  the  Word.  '-At  that  time  (after  the  death 
of  Stephen)  there  was  a  great  persecution  against  the 
Churcli  which  was  at  Jerusalem,  and  they  were  all  scat- 
tered abroad  tliroughout  the  regions  of  Judea  and  Sa- 
maria, except  the  apostles."  "Therefore  they  that 
were  scattered  abroad  went  everywhere  preaching  the 
Word"  (Acts  viii,  1,  4).  The  same  fact  is  illustrated  by 
the  course  of  Paul,  of  whom,  immediately  after  his  con- 
version, and  long  prior  to  his  ordination,  it  is  recorded, 
"and  straightway  he  preached  Christ  in  the  syna- 
gogues" (Acts  ix,  20).  In  this  act  the  regenerated  per- 
secutor showed  that  Christian  obligations  jirecede  min- 
isterial, and  that  whosoever  is  born  of  God  not  only 
hath  the  witness  in  himself,  but  is  prompted  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  utter  his  testimony  in  the  ears  and  to 
the  hearts  of  his  fellow-men. 

Tlie  allusions  to  the  modes  and  accompaniments  of 
worship  in  Ilom.  xii,  G-8,  and  1  Cor.  xiv,  as  well  as  in 
several  less  detailed  passages,  clearly  imply  that  the 
apostles  were  accustomed  to  encourage  the  exercise  of 
all  sjiecies  of  gifts  in  the  Church,  but  especially  those  of 
exhortation  and  prophecy.  From  these  scriptural  ex- 
amples, it  is  just  to  infer  that  lay  preaching,  in  the  va- 
rious forms  of  teaching,  evangelizing,  and  prophesying, 
had  from  the  first  a  double  object:  1,  to  do  good  to  all 
men ;  and,  2,  to  develop  and  prove  the  gifts  of  those 
who  IVoni  time  to  time  were  called  from  the  ranks  of 
the  laity  to  the  more  public  ministry  of  the  Word. 
Such,  doubtless,  continued  to  be  the  practice  of  the 
Church  during  the  early  centuries,  and  it  was  only  by 
degrees  that  it  became  modified  under  the  hierarchical 
spirit  which  became  developed  at  a  later  period.  In- 
teresting proof  of  this  is  found  in  connection  with  the 
history  of  Origen  of  Alexandria.  He,  as  a  layman  of 
known  learning  and  skill  in  exposition,  having  gone  to 
Ciesarea,  was  invited  by  the  bishops  there  to  preach. 
True,  his  preaching  on  that  occasion  was  made  the 
ground  of  a  charge  from  Demetrius  of  Alexandria 
against  the  bishops  who  invited  him.  But  the  form 
which  the  charge  took  is  in  favor  of  the  general  right 
of  laymen  to  exercise  their  teaching  fiuutions  in  the 
Church.  His  alleged  offence  was  not  that  he,  being  a 
layman,  taught,  but  that  he  taught  when  bishops  were 
present.  The  accused  bishops,  Alexander  of  Jerusalem 
and  Theoctistos  of  Ca'sarea,  defended  themselves,  not 
■with  a  plea  of  ignorance  or  of  exceptional  circumstances, 
but  by  an  appeal  to  the  common  law  of  the  Church. 
They  knew  the  custom,  even  in  the  form  of  wliich  De- 
metrius complained,  to  prevail  at  Iconium  and  other 
diurclies  of  Asia.     They  believed  it  to  prevail  else- 


where, and  thought  it  proper  to  be  recognised  at  Alex- 
andria also  (see  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  vi,  19). 

In  the  fourth  Council  of  Carthage  we  find,  with  the 
name  of  Augustine  among  the  subscriptions  to  its  laws, 
the  rule,  "Laicus  prajsentibus  clericis,  nisi  ipsis  jubenti- 
bus,  docere  non  audeat"  (can.  98).  From  this  we  may 
infer  that  in  tlie  absence  of  the  clergy  a  layman  might 
teach,  and  also  in  their  presence  at  their  request.  It  is 
noted  by  Socrates  {IJist.  Eccks.  v,  22)  as  an  exceptional 
custom  of  the  Alexandrian  Church  that  the  office  of 
reader  might  be  filled  by  even  an  unbaptized  catechu- 
men. The  commentary  of  the  pseudo- Ambrose  on  Eph. 
4th  recognises  that  at  the  commencement  "omnibus 
concessum  est  et  evangelizare,  et  baptizare,  et  scripturas 
in  ecclesia  explanare."  In  the  so-called  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions, representing  the  practice  of  the  Church  in  the 
3d  and  4th  centuries,  we  find  tlie  law  that  "  if  any  man, 
though  a  layman,  is  skilful  in  expounding  doctrines,  and 
of  venerable  manners,  he  may  be  allowed  to  teach"'  (viii, 
32).  Similar  indications  are  also  found  in  the  Shepherd 
of  Hermas.     See  Laitv. 

But  it  is  unnecessary  to  dweU  upon  the  lingering  evi- 
dences of  a  custom  that  was  destined  to  be  crushed  out 
by  increasing  perversions  of  the  original  spirit  of  the 
Gospel.  When  ritual  ceremonies  came  to  supersede  not 
only  the  practice,  but  the  very  idea  of  evangelization,  it 
is  not  surprising  tliat  preaching  itself  became  a  ceremo- 
ny, and  at  length  a  rare  and  infrequent  ceremony.  Not 
merely  laymen,  but  even  presbyters  of  the  Church,  were 
inhibited  from  ]3rcaching,  except  by  special  permission 
of  bishops ;  while  many  of  the  bishops,  who  had  arroga- 
ted to  themselves  the  exclusive  right  of  preaching,  ei- 
ther through  ignorance  or  indolence  practically  aban- 
doned the  custom.  "  There  was  a  time  when  the  bish- 
ops of  Eome  were  not  known  to  preach  for  five  hundred 
years  together!  —  insomuch  that,  wlien  Pius  Quintus 
made  a  sermon,  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  prodigy,  and, 
indeed,  was  a  greater  rarity  than  the  Swculun's  Lmli 
were  in  old  Pome"  (Bingham,  Orif/.  Eccl.  book  ii,  ch.  iii, 
§  4).  This  general  abandonment  of  the  great  and  pe- 
culiar work  of  the  Christian  ministry  had  its  counterpart 
of  error  in  monasticism,  which,  by  an  equal  perversion, 
sent  myriads  of  the  best  men  in  the  Church  during  suc- 
cessive centuries  to  waste  their  lives  and  religious  zeal 
in  fruitless  penances  in  desert  places  and  gloomy  clois- 
ters. Had  the  lives  and  talents  which  were  thus  thrown 
away  in  monastic  idleness  been  wisely  employed  in  va- 
rious forms  of  evangelization,  whether  lay  or  clerical, 
who  can  tell  how  much  better  the  world  would  have 
been  to-day !  In  fact,  nearly  all  the  real  progress  made 
by  Christianity  during  several  of  the  mediaeval  centu- 
ries was  by  exceptional  missionary  effort  among  various 
aboriginal  nations  of  Europe.  The  general  abandon- 
ment of  preaching  above  alluded  to  formed  a  pretext  for 
the  establishment,  in  the  13th  or  14th  centuries,  of  sev- 
eral preaching  orders  of  monks,  specialh'  the  Franciscans 
and  Dominicans.  These  monks,  in  an  ecclesiastical 
point  of  view,  were  laymen,  and  by  profession  they  were 
also  mendicants.  Nevertheless,  thej'  acquired  great  in- 
fiucnce  and  great  wealth  for  their  several  orders.  But 
such  results  did  not  relieve  the  evangelical  barrenness 
of  the  period,  nor  render  less  necessary  the  great  llcfor- 
mation  of  the  16th  century.  In  the  Reformed  churches 
there  was  a  general  breaking  away  from  the  trammels 
of  ecclesiasticism,  together  with  an  energy  of  purpose 
wliich  did  not  scrujile  to  employ  any  agencies  at  its 
command  for  the  dissemination  of  truth.  Still,  under 
I  the  infiuence  of  long-prevailing  custom,  that  great  ele- 
j  mcnt  of  Christian  power  to  be  derived  from  the  personal 
activity  of  devoted  laymen  was  to  a  large  degree  suffer- 
ed to  lie  dormant,  and  in  some  cases  actually  repressed. 
The  first  formal  and  greatly  effective  organization  of  lay 
preaching  as  a  system,  and  as  a  recognised  brancli  of 
Church  effort,  took  place  under  John  Wesley  at  an  early 
period  of  that  great  religious  movement  known  as  the 
revival  of  the  18th  century.  See  Stevens,  Histoi-y  of 
Methodism,  i,  173, 174, 


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298 


LAY  REPRESENTATION 


Not  only  was  great  good  accomplishcil  V)v  the  Wes- 
loyaii  lay  [ircachers  in  England,  hut  hy  ])crsons  of  this 
class  Methodism  was  introduced  into  America.  See 
Embuuy,  Philip  ;  Strawukidge,  liOUEur  ;  Webb, 
Capt.  In  all  parts  of  the  Avorld,  wherever  Methodism 
lias  extended  its  activities,  organized  lay  preaching  has 
been  a  leading  feature  of  its  evangelical  movements. 
See  ExiiouTERS;  Local  PiiEACiiEits;  Keaders.  Dur- 
ing the  current  century  other  evangelical  churches  have 
adopted  analogous  measures  in  various  forms,  and  em- 
ployed lay  evangelists  under  such  names  as-Bible-read- 
ers,  prayer-leaders,  colporteurs,  etc.  In  some  cliiirches 
in  which  official  sanction  has  not  been  given  to  lay 
jireaching — e.  g.  the  national  churches  of  England  and 
Scotland,  many  earnest  Christian  laymen,  including 
some  noblemen,  have  gone  forth  independently,  under 
their  personal  convictions  of  duty,  preaching  wherever 
they  could  assemble  congregations. 

The  vast  Sunday-school  enterprises  of  modern  times 
are  themselves  at  once  a  grand  result  and  agency  of  lay 
teaching  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  design  of  the 
Christian  ministry,  and  powerfully  auxiliary  to  its  most 
effective  administration  by  regularly  ordained  ministers 
of  the  Word.  The  Christian  Associations  of  the  pres- 
ent day  are  chiefly  composed  of  laymen,  and  the  whole 
weight  of  their  intluence  is  given  to  encourage  the 
evangelization  of  the  neglected  classes  of  society  by  all 
available  agencies,  such  as  lay  preaching  and  its  various 
auxiliary  forms  of  Christian  work.  By  these  numerous 
and  multiplying  means  of  Christian  teaching  and  influ- 
ence the  modern  Church  is  approximating  the  intense 
activity  of  the  apostolic  Church,  and  at  the  same  time 
adapting  itself  to  the  moral  necessities  and  special  con- 
ditions of  the  present  age.  In  this  manner  the  pri- 
mary design  of  Christianity  is  answered,  and  great  good 
is  accomplished  among  classes  of  people  that  would 
scarcely  be  reached  by  the  regular  clergy  of  any  of  the 
churches.  Nor  are  the  just  prerogatives  of  ordained 
preachers  in  any  degree  prejudiced  by  the  co-operative 
action  of  pious  and  judicious  laymen.  On  the  other 
hand,  all  ministers  of  a  truly  apostolic  type  cannot  fail 
to  see  that  their  own  success  is  greatly  promoted  by 
their  imitation  of  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  in  enlist- 
ing and  encouraging  as  extensively  as  possible  all  wor- 
thy helpers  in  Christ.  See  Young  Men's  Christian 
Assot'iATiONS.     (D.  P.  K.) 

Lay  Representation.  The  participation  of  the 
laity,  by  their  representatives,  in  the  government  of  the 
Church,  is  one  of  the  fruits  of  the  Protestant  Keforma- 
tion.  The  ground  of  their  claim  to  be  represented  in 
ecclesiastical  government  is  found,  however,  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  Christian  priesthood,  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Church  itself.  Christ  having  satisfied,  by  his  offer- 
ing of  himself,  that  sense  of  need  which  leads  men  to 
seek  for  mediators,  there  remains  to  the  Christian  com- 
munity the  offering  of  themselves,  as  a  priestly  body,  in 
sacrilice  and  service  to  their  Eedeemer.  Towards  God, 
all  are  spiritually  equal,  and  the  Church,  therefore,  as 
originally  constituted,  was  without  an  external  priest- 
ly caste.  '-As  all  believers,"  says  Neandcr,  in  his  Plant- 
iiKj  (iiiil  TnwdiKi  of  the  Church,  "were  conscious  of  an 
equal  relation  to  Clirist  as  their  Pedeemer,  and  of  a 
common  participation  of  communion  with  God  through 
him,  so  on  this  consciousness  an  equal  relation  of  believ- 
ers to  one  another  was  grounded,  which  utterly  preclu- 
ded any  relation  like  that  found  in  other  forms  of  relig- 
ion subsisting  between  a  priestly  caste  and  a  people  of 
whom  they  were  mediators  and  spiritual  guides.  The 
apostles  tliemselves  were  very  far  from  jjlacing  them- 
selves in  a  relation  to  believers  which  bore  any  relation 
to  a  mediating  priesthood:  in  this  respect  they  always 
placed  themselves  on  a  footing  of  etpiality." 

Yet  ajmstolic  churches  were  bv  no  means  without  a 
distinct  method  of  government.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  synagogue,  elders  very  soon  ajipear  in  the 
Christian  community;  and  the  choosing  of  deacons  by 
the  people,  with  the  approval  of  the  apostles,  is  one  of 


the  earliest  facts  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  history 
of  the  organizing  Church.  The  charisins,  or  gifts  of 
the  Spirit,  included  that  of  government  (1  Cor.  xii) ; 
j'et  this  gift  was  used,  not  as  of  exclusive  right,  but  in 
co-operation  with  other  gifts  for  the  common  Melfarc. 
The  gift  of  the  Spirit  was  a  designation  to  the  Christian 
community  of  the  persons  fitted  for  the  exercise  of  this 
function.  The  Gentile  churches  adopted  substantially 
the  form  of  government  in  use  among  their  Jewish  fel- 
low-Christians; ''but  their  government,"  says  Neander, 
"  by  no  means  excluded  the  participation  of  the  whole 
Church  in  the  management  of  their  common  concerns, 
as  may  be  inferred  from  what  we  have  already  remark- 
ed respecting  the  nature  of  the  Christian  communion, 
and  is  also  evident  from  many  individual  examples  in 
the  apostolic  Church.  The  whole  Church  at  Jerusalem 
took  part  in  the  deliberation  respecting  the  relation  of 
the  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  to  each  other,  and 
the  epistle  drawn  up  after  these  deliberations  was  like- 
wise in  the  name  of  the  whole  Church.  The  epistles  of 
the  apostle  Paul,  which  treat  of  various  controverted 
ecclesiastical  matters,  are  addressed  to  whole  churches, 
and  he  assumes  that  the  decision  belonged  to  the  whole 
body.  Had  it  been  otherwise,  he  would  have  addressed 
liis  instructions  and  advice  principally,  at  least,  to  the 
overseers  of  the  Church." 

In  the  post-apostolic  age,  with  the  growth  of  the  sac- 
erdotal system,  the  laity  gradually  disappeared  from 
participation  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  As  re- 
ligion became  more  external,  the  minister  became  more 
a  mediating  priest,  until  finally  the  churches  were  rep- 
resented in  the  provincial  and  other  councils  solely 
by  their  bishops.  See  Laity.  The  hardening  process 
went  on  till  the  fabric  of  mediaaval  Christianity  was 
complete.  The  laity  were  held  in  a  state  of  pupilage, 
their  capability  of  self-guidance  in  matters  of  faith  and 
practice  was  denied,  and  the  powers  of  the  Church  were 
wholly  absorbed  by  the  hierarchy.  This  continued  till 
the  spell  of  mediffivalism  was  broken  by  Luther. 

The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  abolished 
human  mediation  between  man  and  God.  Luther  fully 
recognised  the  New-Testament  idea  of  the  priesthood  of 
all  believers,  and  proclaimed  it  with  all  the  force  of  his 
eloqueiice.  His  language  on  this  subject  is  verj^  ex- 
plicit :  "  Every  Christian  man  is  a  priest,  and  every 
Christian  woman  a  priestess,  whether  they  be  young  or 
old,  master  or  servant,  mistress  or  maid-servant,  scholar 
or  illiterate.  All  Christians  are,  properly  speaking, 
members  of  the  ecclesiastical  order,  and  there  is  no  dif- 
ference between  them  except  that  they  hold  different 
offices"  (see  citations  in  Hagenbach.  Hut.  of  Doctrines, 
ii,  '24).  By  the  inculcation  of  this  fundamental  princi- 
ple the  laity  recovered  their  position  in  the  Church  of 
Christ,  and  lay  representation  again  became  possible. 
'■The  restoration,"  says  Litton,  in  his  work  on  the 
Church,  "  in  theory  at  least,  of  the  laity  to  their  proper 
place  in  the  Church,  was  an  immediate  consequence  of 
the  Reformation.  By  reasserting  the  two  great  scrip- 
tural doctrines  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  Christians, 
and  of  the  indwelling  of  the  Spirit,  not  in  a  iiriestly 
caste,  but  in  the  whole  body  of  the  faithfid,  Luther  and 
his  contemporaries  shook  the  whole  fabric  of  sacerdotal 
usurpation  to  its  base,  and  recovered  for  the  Christian 
laity  the  rights  of  which  they  had  been  deprived.  The 
lay  members  of  the  body  of  Christ  emerged  from  the 
spiritual  imbecility  which  they  had  been  taught  to  re- 
gard as  their  natural  state,  and  became  free,  not  from 
the  yoke  of  Christ,  but  from  that  of  the  priest." 

The  right  of  the  laity  to  representation  has  ever  since 
remained  one  of  the  imints  of  difference  between  Protes- 
tantism and  L'omanisni.  The  Council  of  Trent  reaffirm- 
ed the  mediaeval  doctrine  in  the  strongest  terms.  In  its 
decree  on  the  sacrament  of  "order"  it  says,  '"And  if  any 
one  affirm  that  all  Christians  indiscriminately  are  priests 
of  the  New  Testament,  or  that  they  are  mutually  en- 
dowed with  an  ccpial  spiritual  power,  he  clearly  does 
nothing  but  confound  the  ecclesiastical  hierarchv,  which 


LAY  REPRESENTATIOX 


299 


LAY  REPRESENTATION" 


is  as  an  armj^  set  in  array;  as  if,  contrary  to  the  doc- 
trine uf  the  blessed  Paul,  all  were  apostles,  all  prophets, 
all  evangelists,  all  pastors,  all  doctors."  In  the  develop- 
ment of  Protestantism  the  lay  power  was  unfortunately 
absorbed  by  the  state.  The  State-Church  system  has 
hindered  the  free  growth  of  the  Christian  community; 
but  wherever  Protestantism  has  liad  the  opportunity  of 
freely  unfolding  its  principles,  lay  representation  has 
been  recognised  as  just  and  fitting. 

The  form  of  lay  representation  varies  in  the  Protes- 
tant churches.  Among  the  Presbyterians  the  laity  are 
represented  by  ruling  elders,  who  are  chosen  for  life.  A 
presbytery  usually  consists  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one 
ruling  elder  from  each  congregation  within  a  certain 
district ;  a  synod  is  a  similarly  constituted  body  from  a 
larger  district,  embracing  several  presbyteries;  and  a 
general  assembly  consists  of  an  equal  delegation  of  min- 
isters and  elders  from  each  presbytery,  in  a  certain  fixed 
]iroportion.  In  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State 
Church  of  Scotland,  the  crown  is  also  represented  by  a 
lord  high  commissioner.  The  Lutheran  Church  adheres 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  believers, 
as  taught  by  Luther:  "The  ultimate  source  of  power  is 
in  the  congregation,  and  sj'nods  possess  such  powers  as 
the  congregations  delegate  to  them."  In  the  United 
States  most  of  the  synods  are  connected  with  a  more 
general  bodj'  (the  General  Synod,  the  General  Council, 
or  the  Southern  General  Synod).  Among  the  Friends, 
or  Quakers,  the  legislative  power  is  exercised  by  a  year- 
ly meeting,  which  embraces  the  whole  society  witliin  a 
certain  district.  In  this  the  proceedings  of  the  (juarter- 
ly  and  monthly  meetings  are  reviewed.  There  are. also 
"  district  meetings"  for  the  supervision  and  care  of  the 
ministry,  which  are  composed  of  ministers  and  elders. 
The  Congregationalists  hold  the  entire  independence  of 
each  Christian  congregation,  and  its  right  to  manage  its 
own  affairs  without  interference  from  other  churches. 
In  each  church  all  the  brethren  have  ecjual  rights. 
Councils  may  be  called  by  letters  addressed  to  neigh- 
boring churches,  and,  when  assembled,  are  composed  of  a 
pastor  and  a  delegate  from  each  chiu'ch  invited.  They 
have,  however,  no  authoritative  power.  In  the  United 
States  all  the  congregational  bodies  (Baptists,  Orthodox 
Congregationalists,  Unitarians,  and  Universalists)  hold 
general  conventions,  in  which  the  laity  are  always  rep- 
resented. 

In  the  Established  Church  of  England  the  lay  power 
has  been  jealously  retained  and  guarded  by  the  crown 
and  Parliament,  but  the  Disestablished  Church  of  Ire- 
land has  reorganized  with  lay  representation.  In  the 
councils  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  the  laity  have  an  important  place.  In  each 
diocese  there  is  held  annually  a  convention  composed 
of  the  bishop,  the  clergy,  and  a  lay  delegate  from  each 
church.  This  is  the  governing  body  of  the  diocese. 
The  legislative  authority  of  the  entire  Ch\irch  resides  in 
a  general  convention,  which  meets  once  in  three  years, 
and  is  composed  of  the  bishops  and  four  clerical  and  four 
lay  delegates  from  each  diocese,  elected  by  the  diocesan 
convention.  The  bishops  form  one  house,  and  the  cler- 
ical and  lay  delegates  another.  The  concurrence  of 
both  liouses  is  necessary  for  the  passage  of  any  law, 
find,  if  asked  for,  the  concurrence  of  the  three  orders  be- 
comes necessary. 

Direct  representation  of  the  laity  is  not  established 
among  the  Wesleyan  INIethodists  of  England.  There 
are,  however,  preparatory  committees  appointed  by  the 
conference,  and  composed  of  ministers  and  laymen,  who 
revise  the  connectional  business  in  advance  of  the  an- 
nual assembling  of  the  conference.  These  committees 
shape  the  measures  ado]ited  subsequently  by  the  con- 
ference, their  recommendations  being  usually  concur- 
red in.  Direct  lay  representation  has  been  proposed 
by  the  Kev.WiUiam  Arthur  and  JNIr.  Percival  Punting, 
and  no  doubt  the  proposal  will  hereafter  be  much  dis- 
ciissed.  The  Irish  Wesley ans  are  making  steady  pmg- 
ress  towards  lay  delegation.    The  minor  Wesleyan  bod- 


ies in  England  (the  Primitive  IMethodists,  New  Connec- 
tion Methodists,  etc.)  have  adopted  lay  representation. 
Lay  representation  first  went  into  effect  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  South  in  18G9.  It  also  exists  in  the 
Methodist  Protestant,  the  Methodist,  the  African  Meth- 
odist, and  the  African  Meth.  Episcopal  Zion  churches. 

The  history  of  lay  rejiresentation  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  has  been  quite  eventful.  Originally 
and  for  many  years  the  Church  was  governed  by  the 
travelling  ministers,  through  annual  conferences  and  a 
delegated  general  conference.  Early  in  this  century 
symptoms  of  a  desire  for  a  change  in  the  form  of  gov- 
ernment appeared.  About  18-22  the  Wesleijan  Reposito- 
rij,  a  paper  advocating  reform  (as  it  was  then  called), 
was  established  in  Philadelphia.  Tliis  was  followed  by 
a  convention  of  "  reformers"  in  Baltimore  in  1824,  who 
established  as  their  periodical  organ  in  that  citv  The 
Mutual  Rifjhts.  The  objects  of  attack  were  the  ejpisco- 
pacy  and  the  clerical  government  of  the  Church.  In 
1827  Dr. Thomas  E.Bond  issued  an  appeal  to  IMethodists 
against  lay  delegation  which  exerted  a  groat  influence 
in  determining  the  maintenance  of  the  existing  system. 
At  the  General  Conference  of  1828  the  subject  was  dis- 
cussed in  the  celebrated  "  Report  on  Petitions  and  Me- 
morials," which  denied  the  claims  of  the  petitioners. 
This  report  was  unanimous!}'  adopted.  By  this  time 
Church  proceedings  had  been  instituted  against  some  of 
the  '-reform  party"  in  Baltimore,  which  resulted  in  ex- 
pulsion. Others  withdrew,  and  in  1830  the  Constitution 
of  the  '■  Methodist  Protestant  Church"  was  formed.  The 
controversy  was  accompanied  and  followed  with  great 
bitterness  on  both  sides.  Looked  at  from  this  distmice 
of  time,  it  is  apparent  that  both  parties  numbered  among 
their  leaders  good  and  strong  men,  who  unfortunately 
stood  upon  extreme  and  irreconcilable  propositions.  The 
'•  reformers"  claimed  the  admission  of  the  laity  to  the 
General  Conference  on  the  ground  of  the  right  of  the 
pco|Je  to  share  in  ecclesiastical  legislation ;  this  claim 
was  denied  by  the  conservative  side  chiefly  on  the 
ground  that  the  General  Conference  possessed  '•  no  strict- 
ly legislative  powers." 

The  discussion  rested,  after  the  organization  Of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  Church,  for  more  than  twenty 
years.  Shortly  before  the  General  Conference  of  1852, 
a  convention  of  laymen  was  held  in  Philadelphia  to  take 
measures  for  brhiging  the  subject  before  the  Church 
once  more.  This  convention,  however,  disclaimed  all 
connection  with  the  principles  of  the  reformers  of  1828, 
and  asked  for  lay  representation  on  the  grounds  of  expe- 
diency solely.  Dr.  Thomas  E.  Bond,  the  great  antago- 
nist of  the  "radicals,"  met  the  members  of  the  conven- 
tion in  the  most  friendly  spirit,  and  conceded  to  them 
that  la}'  delegation  put  on  the  ground  of  expediency 
was  an  open  question.  While  still  denying  the  claim 
of  right,  he  went  so  far  as  to  suggest  a  plan  of  lay  co- 
operation in  the  annual  conferences.  The  petition  of 
the  convention  to  the  General  Conference  was  denied. 
In  the  General  Conference  of  185G  an  appeal  for  lay 
delegation  was  jiresented  again,  but  received  very  little 
attention.  By  LSGO  such  progress  had  been  made  that 
the  General  Conference,  assembled  in  that  year,  referred 
the  measure  to  a  popular  and  ministerial  vote,  to  be 
taken  in  1861  and  1862.  Both  votes  were  adverse  to 
lay  representation;  but  the  vote,  though  adverse,  de- 
veloped the  fact  of  a  growing  favor  for  this  important 
measure.  The  Methodist,  which  was  estabHshed  in  18G0, 
devoted  itself  to  the  advocac}'  of  it ;  other  pajjers,  espe- 
cially the  Zioris  Herald  and  the  Xorth-Wesltrn  Advo- 
cate, urged  it  upon  the  Church.  A  largely-attended 
convention  of  laymen  was  held  in  New  York  in  the 
spring  of  1863.  At  this  meeting  it  was  resolved  to  hold 
another  convention,  concurrently  with  the  session  of  the 
General  Conference  at  Philadelphia,  in  1864.  The  con- 
vention was  so  held,  and  presented  througli  a  deputation 
of  its  delegates  a  memorial  to  the  General  Conference, 
though  without  immediate  rcsidt.  A  third  convention 
was  held,  concurrently  with  the  session  of  the  General 


LAYRITZ 


300 


LAZARISTS 


Conference  at  Cliicngo,  in  18G8.  At  this  conference  a 
l)i)|)iil:ir  and  ministerial  vote  was  ordered  for  a  second 
time.  Tlie  vote  of  the  lay  members,  which  was  large, 
showed  a  majority  of  two  to  one  for  lay  delegation,  and 
the  necessary  three  fourths  of  the  ministry  were  se- 
cured. At  the  session  of  General  Conference  which  as- 
sembled in  Brooklyn  May  1, 1872,  the  measure  was  fully 
inaugurated,  and  the  lay  delegates  already  elected  were 
admitted  to  equal  powers.  The  plan  tluis  adopted  pro- 
vides for  two  lay  delegates  for  every  Annual  Conference, 
with  separate  votes  of  the  lay  and  clerical  members  on 
any  question  in  case  one  third  of  either  order  demand  it. 
References.  —  Neander,  Uistorij  of  the  Planting  and 
Training  of  the  Christian  Church,  book  i,  chapter  ii,  and 
book  iii,  chap,  v;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Christian  Doc- 
trines, ii,  277-283  ;  Litton,  History  of  the  Church,  book 
iii,  chapter  ii;  Waterworth,  CV«io«s  and  Decrees  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  p.  172  sq. ;  Constitution  of  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  in  the  CS.{p\ih].  by  Presb.  Board,  Philadel- 
phia) ;  Life  of  Bishop  Emory,  chaps,  x,  xi ;  Economy  of 
Methodism  Illustrated  and  Defended,  by  Dr.  T.  E.  Bond, 
Introduction  and  Appendix;  Perrine  (Prof.  W.  H.),  The 
'•  Wcsleyan  Axiom"  expounded:  a  Plea  for  a,  Lay  Dele- 
gation thoroughly  Scriptural,  Wesleyan,  and  Democratic 
(N.  Y.  1872),  attacking  the  plan  adopted  by  the  General 
Conference  of  18(38.     See  Laity.     (G.  K.  C.) 

Layritz,  Johann  Georg,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  July  15, 1641,  at  Hof,  in  Bavaria.  In  1667  he 
entered  the  university  at  Jena ;  in  1677  he  was  graduated 
M.  A.,  and  became  in  1673  professor  of  Church  and  profane 
history  at  the  gymnasium  of  Baireuth ;  in  1675,  librarian 
and  instructor  of  the  margraves  Erdmann,  Philipp,  and 
Georg  Albrecht ;  in  1685,  deacon  of  the  court  Church ;  in 
1688,  superintendent  at  Neustadt.  In  1697  he  accepted 
the  call  of  the  duke  Wilhelm  Ernst  of  Weimar,  and  he 
then  became  superintendent  in  general,  counsellor  of  the 
consistory,  tirst  preacher  of  the  Petri-Paul  Church,  and 
director  of  the  gymnasium.  He  died  April  4, 1716.  He 
left  numerous  productions,  e.  g.  Diss,  de  simplici  et  com- 
posito  (Jena;,  1668, 4to)  : — Auszug  der  Kirch engeschichte 
<k'S  Xeuen  Testam.  (Baireuth  und  Niiremb.  1678,  r2mo) : 
—  Synopsis  kistorim  ecclesiasticee  A^'ovi  Testam.  (ibid. 
1678,  12mo)  : — Der  rdmische  Papst-Thron,  cl.  i.  grilnd- 
liche  und  ausfiihrliche  Beschreibung  des papstlichen  Ehr- 
iind  Marht-  und  Wachstltums  (ibid,  1685,  4to). 

Layritz,  Paul  Eugeu,  a  noted  German  theolo- 
gian and  Moravian  bishop,  was  born  Nov.  13,  1707,  at 
Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria;  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  Leipsic,  where,  besides  theology,  he  studied  philos- 
ophy and  mathematics.  In  1731  he  became  subrec- 
tor,  and  in  1735  rector  of  the  town-school  at  Neustadt. 
Through  an  early  acquaintance  with  the  count  Zinzen- 
dorf,  however,  he  was  in  1749  intrusted  with  the  direc- 
torship of  the  Moravian  seminary  and  grammar-school  at 
Marienborn,  and  henceforth  with  different  commissions 
on  the  affairs  of  the  denomination;  in  1749  he  was  sent 
by  them  to  England;  in  1763  to  St. Petersburg,  to  pro- 
cure permission  for  the  IMoravians  to  settle  in  the  Russian 
empire;  in  1773  to  Labrador,  to  inquire  into  the  progress 
of  their  missions  there.  In  1775,  at  the  Synod  of  Bar- 
by,  he  was  appointed  a  bishop,  and  intrusted  with  the 
supervision  of  the  Moravian  communities  throughout 
Silesia.  In  1782  he  undertook  also  the  supervision  of 
th3  communities  in  upper  Lusatia,  espcciallv  that  of 
llcrrnhut.  He  died  Aug.  3,  1788.  Besides  his  practical 
ariivity,  of  great  importance  to  his  denomination,  and 
his  extended  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
of  the  modern  also,  his  productions  as  an  author  received 
a  hearty  welcome  by  his  contemporaries,  and  are  by  no 
means  useless  to  us,  a  few  of  which  are  here  mentioned : 
Erste  Anfangsgriinde  der  Verntafthhre  (Ziillichau,  1743, 
8vo;  2d  ed.,  ibid,  1748, 8vo;  .-Jd'ed.,  ibid.  1755,  8vo;  ^th 
ed.,  ibid.  1764,  8vo;  translated  into,Latin,  with  the  title 
Ekmenta  Lor/icce,  Stuttgard,  1766,  8vo)  i—Iietrachtungeu 
iiber  cine  vollstdndige  und  christliche  Erziehung  der  Kin- 
der (Barby,  1776,  8vo).  Sec  Dciring,  Gelehrte  Theolog. 
Deutschlunds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Lazae  or  Xiazi  (AaZai),  the  name  of  a  large  nation 
inhabiting  Colchis,  between  the  rivers  Bathys  and  Pha- 
sis.  Untler  the  Komans  the  name  Lazica  was  applied 
to  the  whole  of  Colchis.  In  520  the  prince  of  the  Laza?, 
Tyathus  (Zathus  or  Tzathus),  went  to  Constantinople 
to  ask  the  aid  of  the  emperor  Justin  against  the  Per- 
sians. He  was  baptized  there,  with  the  emperor  hitn- 
self  as  his  sponsor,  married  a  Grecian  Christian  lady 
of  high  rank,  and  requested  the  emperor  to  crown  him 
king,  in  order  that,  if  he  should  receive  the  crown  at 
the  hands  of  the  king  of  Persia,  as  was  formerly  the 
custom,  he  shoidd  not  be  obliged  to  take  a  part  in  the 
heathen  ceremonies  and  sacrifices  which  woidd  follow. 
Justin  recognised  him  as  an  independent  sovereign,  and 
crowned  him  himself.  Soon  after  this  the  whole  of  the 
Lazaj  appear  to  have  become  zealous  Christians.  Pro- 
copius  calls  them  "  the  most  zealous  of  aU  Christians," 
and  this  ,seems  to  be  to  some  extent  corroborated  by  the 
fact  that  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  endeavored  to  remove 
them  into  the  interior  of  his  empire,  as  they  and  their 
neighbors  the  Iberians,  who  were  also  Christians,  op- 
posed an  invincible  barrier  to  the  extension  of  I'ersia. 
One  of  their  princes,  Gubazes,  having  been  assassinated 
by  a  Roman  general,  they  entertained  for  a  moment  the 
idea  of  attaching  themselves  to  Persia,  but  relinquished 
it  for  fear  of  thereby  being  in  danger  of  losing  their 
faith:  "qui  enim  varia  senserint,  versari  simul  nil  pos- 
sunt,  et  sane  nee  timore  intercedente  nee  beneficio  ducc 
fides  in  his  stabilis  manet,  ni  forte  eadem  et  rectius  sen- 
serint" (Agath.  iii,  12).  From  the  statement  in  Proco- 
pius  {Bell.  Goth,  iv,  2),  that  the  bishops  of  the  Laz;c  sent 
priests  to  neighboring  independent  Christian  nations,  it 
appears  that  the  Laza3  were  zealous  in  propagating  their 
faith.  Among  the  converts  they  made  to  Christianitj- 
are  the  Abasians,  to  Avhom  Justinian  I  sent  priests.  Sec 
Thcophan.  CAroBo^r.  anno  512;  Herzog,  Peal- Encyllop. 
viii,  250  ;  Wetzer  imd  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  oSG; 
Smith,  T)ict.  of  Class.  Geog.  s.  v. 

Lazaiists,  or  Priests  of  the  Mission,  a  soci- 
ety of  missionary  priests  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
It  was  founded  in  1G24 
by  St.  Vincent  of  Paid, 
who,  while  living  as  tu- 
tor and  chaplain  in  the 
liouse  of  count  Gondi, 
general  of  the  royal  gal- 
leys, was  induced  by  the 
general  confession  of  sick 
men  to  give  a  mission 
for  the  people  of  the  do- 
minions of  the  count. 
The  results  of  the  mis- 
sion so  well  pleased  the 
count  that  he  offered  a 
sum  of  money  to  any 
religious  congregation 
which  would  be  willing 
to  give  a  mission  in  his 
dominions.  Vincent  in 
vain  offered  this  sum  to 
the  members  of  his  own 
order,  the  Oratorians, 
Lazarist,  or  PiiL-st  of  the  Mis-  and  to  the  Jesuits.  Botli 
®"'""  were    so    overwhelmed 

with  business  that  they  could  not  accept  the  offer.  This 
refusal,  and  the  wish  of  the  family  of  count  Gondi,  as 
well  as  of  the  brother  of  the  coimt,  the  archijishoi)  of 
Paris,  induced  Vincent  in  1624  to  establish  the  society 
of  the  missionary  priests,  who  were  chiefly  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  religious  care  of  the  country  pcopb 
and  the  lower  classes.  The  new  institution  soon  re- 
ceived the  royal  sanction,  and  pope  Urban  VIII  made  it 
a  special  religious  society  under  the  name  of  the  Priests 
of  the  Mission.  In  1632  they  received  the  college  of 
St.  Lazarus  in  Paris,  whence  their  usual  name  Lazarists 
is  derived.  Their  more  spacious  establishment  and  the 
increase  of  their  income  now  enabled  the  congregation 


LAZARUS 


301 


LAZARUS 


to  extend  their  sphere  of  action.  In  addition  to  the 
revival  of  religion  among  the  masses  of  the  people,  the 
chief  ol)jects  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission  were  the  ref- 
ormation of  the  clergy  by  means  of  conferences,  and  the 
establisliment  of  seminaries  in  accordance  with  the  de- 
crees of  the  Council  of  Trent.  Even  during  the  lifetime 
of  St.  Vincent  nearly  all  the  dioceses  of  France  had  been 
visited  by  his  disci))les;  and,  besides,  also  Italy,  Corsica, 
Poland,  Ireland,  Scotland,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Madagas- 
car received  the  missionaries,  who,  on  the  coast  of  Afri- 
ca, vied  with  the  Order  of  Mercy  in  the  redemption  of 
slaves.  To  Poland  they  were  called  by  the  queen,  Ma- 
ria Louisa,  wife  of  king  John  Casimir  II.  They  estab- 
lished a  missionary  institution,  under  the  direction  of 
Lambert,  while  the  plague  and  famine  were  raging,  in 
particular  in  "Warsaw.  Lambert  and  his  successor, 
Ozenne,  fell  victims  to  the  epidemic,  but  the  mission 
became  very  prosperous.  The  first  successors  of  Vin- 
cent as  superiors  general  were  Eene  Almeras  (1G72), 
Edmund  Jolly  (1G97),  and  Nicolas  Pierron ;  at  the  time 
of  the  first  revolution  abbe  Cayla  de  la  Garde  was  the 
head  of  the  congregation.  At  this  time  the  congrega- 
tion had  reached  its  zenith;  and  as  in  France  no  less 
than  forty-nine  theological  seminaries  were  conducted 
by  it,  it  exercised  a  gieat  influence  on  the  theological 
views  of  the  French  clergy.  During  the  Revolution, 
the  Lazarists,  in  common  with  all  the  other  religious 
denominations,  perished ;  but  they  were  restored  as  early 
as  1804,  and  even  received  from  the  public  exchequer  a 
support  of  15,000  francs.  At  Paris  a  hospital  belonging 
to  the  public  domain  was  given  to  them  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  central  institution  and  a  novitiate ;  they 
also  received  several  houses  in  the  departments  beyond 
the  Alps,  and  the  right  to  accept  legacies.  But  when  Na- 
])()leon  had  fallen  out  with  the  pope  he  again  abolished 
the  Lazarists  by  a  decree  of  1809,  suppressed  all  their 
houses,  cancelled  the  dotation,  and  contiscated  the  prop- 
erty which  had  been  given  to  them  or  acquired  by  them. 
They  were  legally  restored  in  181G :  and,  though  they 
could  not  recover  their  original  house,  St.  Lazare,  they 
acquired  another  house  in  the  Kue  Sevres,  whither  they 
also  transferred  their  seminary.  They  now  resumetl 
their  former  labors,  but  remained  for  some  time  without 
a  regular  superior  general.  After  the  death  of  Cayla  de 
la  Garde  two  vicars  general  had  been  appointed,  but  in 
1829  the  pope  appointed  a  new  superior  general  (Pierre 
DewaiUy),  as  the  convocation  of  a  chapter  general  pre- 
sented insurmountable  obstacles.  The  pope,  in  making 
this  appointment,  expressly  recognised  the  fact  that  the 
office  of  superior  general  had  always  been  filled  by  a 
Frenchman.  According  to  the  Roman  Almanac  for 
1870,  the  office  of  superior  general  was  at  that  time  filled 
l)y  father  Etienne.  In  18(5".!  (according  to  P.  Karl  vom 
heil.  Aloys,  Statisclies  Jahrhuch  der  Kirche,  Ratisbon, 
1802)  the  Lazarists  had  18  houses  in  France,  27  in  Italy, 
4  in  the  British  Isles,  fi  in  Germany,  3  in  the  Pyrenean 
peninsula,  10  in  Poland  (with  143  members).  In  Asia 
they  had  establishments  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Persia, 
in  JIanilla,  and  in  rive  provinces  of  China ;  in  Africa, 
at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  at  Algiers  and  Mustapha,  in 
Algeria,  and  at  Adowa,  in  Abyssinia.  In  America  they 
ha<l  17  establishments.  In  all,  there  were  in  1862  about 
100  establishments,  with  2000  members.  See  Wetzer  u. 
Wcltc,  Kirchen-Lex.  vi,  383 ;  Fehr,  Gesch.  der  Moncksor- 
deii,  ii,  254.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Laz'arus  (Ari^apor,  an  abridged  form  of  the  Heb. 
name  EUazrir,  with  a  (ireek  termination,  which  in  the 
Talmud  is  written  "'iT"^  [see  Byna?us,  De  morte  Chr.  i, 
180;  comp.  Josephus,  ]r«?-,  V,  13,  7;  Simonis,  Onoinast. 
N. T.  p.  9G ;  Fuller,  Miscdl. i,  10 ;  Suicer,  Thesaiir.  ii,  205 ]. 
It  is  proper  to  note  this  here,  because  the  parable  which 
describes  Lazarus  in  Abraham's  bosom  has  been  sup- 
posed to  contain  a  latent  allusion  to  the  name  of  Eliezer, 
whom,  before  the  birth  of  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  Abraham 
regarded  as  his  heir  [see  Geiger,  in  the  Jiid.  Zeitschr. 
18G8,  p.  19G  sq.]),  the  name  of  two  persons  in  the  X.T. 

1.  An  inhabitant  of  Bethany,  brother  of  Mary  and 


INIartha,  honored  with  the  friendship  of  Jesus,  by  whom 
he  Avas  raised  from  the  dead  after  he  had  been  four 
days  in  the  tomb  (John  xii,  1-17).  A.D.  29.  This 
great  miracle  is  minutely  described  in  John  xi  (see  Kit- 
to,  Daibj  Bible  lUusf.  ad  loc).  Tlie  credit  which  Christ 
obtained  among  the  people  by  this  illustrious  act,  of 
which  the  life  and  presence  of  Lazarus  afforded  a  stand- 
ing evidence,  induced  the  Sanhedrim,  in  plotting  against 
Jesus,  to  contemjjlate  the  destruction  of  Lazarus  also 
(John  xii,  10).  Whether  they  accomplished  this  object 
or  not  we  are  not  informed,  but  the  probability  seems  to 
be  that  when  they  liad  satiated  their  malice  on  Christ 
they  left  Lazarus  unmolested.  According  to  an  old  tra- 
dition in  Epiphanius  {Hnr.  Ixvi,  34,  p.  C52),  he  was  thir- 
ty years  old  when  restored  to  life,  and  lived  thirty  years 
afterwards.  Later  legends  recount  that  his  bones  were 
discovered  A.D.  890  in  Cyprus  (Suicer,  Thesimr.  ii,  208), 
which  disagrees  with  another  story  that  Lazarus,  accom- 
panied by  JNIartha  and  Mary,  travelled  to  Provence,  in 
France,  and  preached  the  Gospel  in  Marseilles  (Fabrici- 
us.  Codex  Aj)ocr.  N.  Test,  iii,  475,  and  Lux  evang.  p.  388  ; 
Thilo,  Apocryph.  p.  711 ;  see  Launoii  Dissert,  de  Lazari 
appulsu  in  Provinciam,  in  his  Opera,  ii,  1). 

"  The  raising  of  Lazarus  from  the  dead  was  a  work 
of  Christ  beyond  measure  great,  and  of  aU  the  miracles 
he  had  hitherto  wrought  imdoubtedly  the  most  stupen- 
dous. 'If  it  can  be  incontrovertibly  shown  that  Christ 
performed  one  such  miraculous  act  as  this,'  says  Tho- 
luck  (in  his  Conimentur  zum  Evanfj.  Johmwis),  '  much 
will  thereby  be  gained  to  the  cause  of  Christianity. 
One  poi.it  so  peculiar  in  its  character,  if  irrefragably  es- 
tablished, may  serve  to  develop  a  belief  in  the  entire 
evangelical  record.'  The  sceptical  Spinoza  Avas  fidly 
conscious  of  this,  as  is  related  by  Bayle  {Diet.  s.  v.  Spino- 
za). It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  enemies  of 
Christianity  have  used  their  utmost  exertions  to  destroy 
the  credibility  of  the  narrative.  The  earlier  cavils  of 
Woolston  and  his  followers  were,  however,  satisfactorily 
answered  by  Lardner  and  others,  and  the  more  recent 
efforts  of  the  German  neologists  have  been  ably  and 
successfully  refuted  by  Oertelius,  Langius,  and  Reinhard, 
and  by  H.  L.  Heubner  in  a  work  entitled  Miraculoriim 
ah  Eranf/elisiis  narralorum  inter jiret at.  gramviatico-his- 
torica  (Wittenb.  1807),  as  well  as  by  others  of  still  more 
recent  date,  whose  answers,  with  the  objections  to  which 
they  apply,  may  be  seen  in  Kuinoel"  (Kitto).  See  also 
Flatt,  in  Mag.fiir  Dupnat.  iind  Aforal.  xiv,  91 ;  Schott, 
Opusc.  i,  259  ;  Ewald,  Lazen-us  Jiir  Gehildete  Christiisve- 
rehrer  (Berl.  1790)  ;  and  the  older  monographs  cited  by 
Volbeding,  Index  Programmatum,  p.  49 ;  Hase,  Ethen 
Jesii,  p.  1G9.  The  rationalistic  views  of  Paulus  (Kritisch. 
Kommentar)  and  Gabler  {Journal  f.  A  userl.  Theol.  Lit. 
iii,  235)  have  been  successfully  refuted  by  Strauss  (Lebeu 
Jesu),  and  the  mythological  dreams  of  the  latter  have 
been  dissipated  by  a  host  of  later  German  writers,  and 
the  reality  of  the  story  triumphantly  established  (see 
especially  Ncander,  Das  I^eben  Jesu  Christi;  Stier  and 
Olshausen,  ad  loc).  The  last  modification  of  Strauss's 
theory  (Die  Ilalhen  iind  die  Ganzen.  p.  79  sq.,  Berl.  1865) 
has  been  demolished  by  Hengstenberg  {Zeitschr.  f.  Prot- 
estant, u.  Kirche,  p.  39  sq.,  18G8) ;  comp.  Spiith  {Zeitschr. 
f.  wissensch.  Theol.  p.  339, 18G8)  and  Holzmann  {ibid.  p. 
71  sq.,  1869).  The  views  of  Paulus  have  just  been  re- 
vived in  the  lively  romance  of  M.  E.  Renan,  entitled  ]'ie 
de  Jesus;  and  the  latter's  theory  of  a  pious  Jraiid  has 
been  completely  demolished  by  Ebrard,  Pressense,  and 
Ellicott,  in  their  works  on  our  Lord's  life.  See  also  tlie 
Studien  und  Krii.  ii,  1861 ;  Watson,  Lazarus  of  Bethany 
(London,  1844).     Compare  Jesus  ;  Mary. 

2.  A  beggar  named  in  the  parable  of  Dives  (Luke 
i<.\\,  20-25)  as  suffering  the  most  abject  poverty  in  this 
life,  but  whose  humble  piety  was  rewarded  with  idtimate 
bliss  in  the  other  world;  the  only  instance  of  a  proper 
name  in  a  parable,  and  probably  selected  in  this  instance 
on  account  of  its  frecpiency.  He  is  an  imaginary  rep- 
resentative of  the  regard  which  God  exercises  towards 
those  of  his  sauits  whom  the  world  spurns  and  passes 


LAZARUS 


302 


LEACOCK 


unnoticed  ;  by  otliers,  however,  he  has  been  considered 
a  real  personage,  with  which  accords  the  old  tradition 
that  even  fjives  the  name  of  the  rich  man  as  being  Do- 
bntk  (sec  ¥.  Fabri,  Ecaijat.  i,  35  sq.).  Some  interpret- 
ers think  he  was  some  well-known  mendicant  of  Jeru- 
salem (see  Seb.  Schmid,  Fascic.  disputut.  p.  878  sq.),  and 
have  attempted  to  detine  his  disease  (see  Wetlcl,  Kj-ercit. 
Med.  cent,  ii,  dec.  ii.  No.  2 ;  Bartolini,  Morh.  bibl.  c.  xxi) 
with  the  success  that  might  be  expected  (S.  G.  Feige, 
De  morte  Laz.  [Hal.  1733]). 

Tlie  history  of  this  Lazarus  made  a  deep  impression 
upon  the  Church,  a  fact  illustrated  by  the  circumstance 
to  which  Trench  calls  attention,  "  that  the  term  lazar 
should  have  passed  into  so  many  languages,  losing  alto- 
gether its  signification  as  a  proper  name"  (On  Parables, 
p.  459,  note).  Early  in  the  history  of  the  Church  Laza- 
rus was  regarded  as  the  patron  saint  of  the  sick,  and  es- 
pecially of  those  suffering  from  the  terrible  scourge  of 
leprosy.  "Among  the  orders,  half  military  and  half 
monastic,  of  the  Tith  century,  was  one  which  bore  the 
title  of  the  Knights  of  St.  Lazarus  (A.D.  1119),  whose 
special  work  it  was  to  minister  to  the  lepers,  first  of 
Syria,  and  afterwards  of  Europe.  The  use  of  lazaretto 
and  haar-house  for  the  leper  hospitals  then  founded  in 
all  parts  of  Western  Christendom,  no  less  than  that  of 
lazzarone  for  the  mendicants  of  Italian  towns,  are  indi- 
cations of  the  effect  of  the  parable  upon  the  mind  of 
Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  thence  upon  its  later 
speech.  In  some  cases  there  seems  to  have  been  a  sin- 
gular transfer  of  the  attributes  of  the  one  Lazarus  to  the 
other.  Thus  in  Paris  the  prison  of  St.  Lazave  (the  Clos 
S.  Lazare,  so  famous  in  1848)  had  been  originally  a  hos- 
pital for  lepers.  In  the  17th  century  it  was  assigned  to 
the  Society  of  Lazarists,  who  took  their  name,  as  has 
been  said,  from  Lazarus  of  Bethany,  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  died  tliere  in  IGGO.  In  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  prison,  however,  are  two  streets,  the  Rue 
d'Enfer  and  Kue  de  Paradis,  the  names  of  which  indi- 
cate the  earlier  associations  with  the  Lazarus  of  the  par- 
able. 

"  It  may  be  mentioned  incidentally,  as  there  has  been 
no  article  under  the  head  of  Dives,  that  the  occurrence 
of  this  word,  used  as  a  quasi-proper  name,  in  our  early 
English  literature,  is  another  proof  of  the  impression 
which  was  made  on  the  minds  of  men,  either  by  the 
parable  itself,  or  by  dramatic  representations  of  it  in  the 
medi.eval  mysteries.  It  appears  as  early  as  Chaucer 
(•  Lazar  and  Dives,'  Sompnoure's  Tale)  and  Piers  Plough- 
man ('Dives  in  the  deyntees  Ij-vede,'  1.  9158),  and  in 
later  theological  literature  its  use  has  been  all  but  uni- 
versal. In  no  other  instance  has  a  descriptive  adjective 
passed  in  this  way  into  the  received  name  of  an  indi- 
vidual. The  name  Ximciisis,  which  Euthymius  gives 
as  that  of  the  rich  man  (^Trench,  Parables,  1.  c),  seems 
never  to  have  come  into  any  general  use"  (Smith).  See 
Klinkhardt,  Z^e /iO?«i«e  divite  et  Lazaro  (Lipsice,  1831); 
Walker,  Parable  of  Lazarus  (Lond.  1850);  Meth.  Qiutr. 
Per.  July  and  Oct.  1859 ;  Jour.  Sac.  Lit.  April,  July,  and 
Oct.  18(54.     See  Pauaulk. 

Lazarus,  a  noted  French  prelate,  flourished  in  the 
first  half  of  the  5th  century.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was 
raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Aix  in  408,  and  resigned 
in  411,  at  the  death  of  Constantine.  In  415  he  distin- 
guished himself  among  the  most  zealous  adversaries  of 
Pclagius,  and  of  liis  disciple  C<jelcstius,  for  we  find  that 
the  Council  of  Diospolis,  in  tlie  meeting  of  Dec.  20, 415, 
condemned  tlic  errors  attriljutcd  to  Pelagius,  and  de- 
nounced by  Lazarus,  then  archbishoji  of  Aix,  and  by 
lleros,  bislio])  of  Aries.  Pelagius  having  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  Eastern  bishops  that  he  did  not  hold 
the  condemned  doctrines,  Lazarus  and  Heros  addressed 
further  memorials  against  him  to  the  bishops  of  Africa, 
who  were  on  the  eve  of  iiolding  the  Council  of  Carthage. 
Here  Pelagius  and  Nestorius  were  finally  condemned. 
The  letters  of  pope  Zosimus,  who  fiivorcd  Pelagius,  are 
full  of  bitterness  against  Lazarus.  See  Augustine,  Ppia- 
tolce,  passim,  ct  Gesta  Pelur/ii ;  Marius  Mercator,  Com- 


monitorium;  Zosimi  Epistolw,  a  J.Sirmondo  edita;;  Gal- 
lia Christ,  vol.  i,  col.  299 :  Ifist.  Lit.  de  la  France,  ii,  147  ; 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gemrale,  xxix,  43.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Leach.     See  Hoksk-leecii. 

Leach,  James,  a  Presbj'terian  minister,  was  born  in 
Stafford  County,  Va.,  Juh- 15, 1791.  He  was  educated 
in  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Va.,  studied  divinity  in  the 
Union  Theological  Seminarj',  Va.,  and  was  licensed  by 
the  Winchester  Presbytery  Oct,  10, 1818.  He  was  a 
jiredestinarian  of  the  order  of  Augustine  and  Calvin. 
His  ordination  and  installation  took  place  soon  after  his 
call.  Sept,  27, 1819,  and  in  1824  he  was  transferred  from 
Berkeley  to  Hanover  by  the  Presbytery.  At  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  Church  he  took  sides  with  those  opposed 
to  the  Old-School  party,  believing  the  action  of  the  As- 
sembly of  1837  unconstitutional  as  well  as  injudicious. 
He  died  Sept.  4, 180G. — 'Wilson,  Presbyterian  Historical 
Almanac,  18G9,  p.  442. 

Leacock,  Hamble  James,  a  missionary  of  the 
Church  of  England,  was  born  at  Cluff 's  Bay,  Barbadoes, 
Feb.  14, 1795.  His  family  was  descended  from  a  noble 
English  ancestry.  Slaves  were  an  element  of  respecta- 
bility in  Barbadoes,  and  his  father  had  many.  Young 
Leacock  received  his  early  education  at  Codrington 
College,  Barbadoes.  Through  Dr.  Coleridge,  bishop  of 
Barbadoes  and  Leeward  Islands,  he  became  reader  in 
his  native  parish,  and  in  connection  studied  with  his 
pastor,  Rev.  W.  M.  Harte.  and  obtained  deacon's  orders 
in  January,  182G.  While  acting  as  assistant  priest  of 
St.  John's  Church  he  became  very  decided  in  his  relig- 
ious views,  and  extended  the  privileges  of  the  Church 
to  all  the  parish's  slaves,  at  the  same  time  liberating  aU 
his  o^vii  slaves.  The  hatred  and  open  reproach  of  the 
whites  even  the  bishop  could  not  calm.  Leacock  was 
transferred  to  the  island  of  St.Vincent,  and  then  to  Ne- 
vis, where  he  became  rural  dean  and  pastor  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Charlest.own.  lie  there  fought  polygamy  with 
success.  But  soon  reverses  came — difficulty  with  the 
bishop,  insurrections  of  the  slaves,  and  fall  of  jiroperty. 
lie  left  for  the  United  States,  and  settled  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  in  1835.  His  confirmation,  neglected  in  his  youth, 
here  took  place  on  arrival.  He  fell  into  the  society 
of  such  men  as  Dr.  Coit,  Dr.  Cooke,  Amos  Cleaver,  and 
found  many  friends  in  Transylvania  University.  He 
gained  a  livelihood  by  teaching  until  1836,  when  he 
became  pastor  of  a  new  congregation,  St.  Paul's.  Diffi- 
culty soon  arose  here  also,  and  led  to  his  removal.  His 
friends  scattered  to  different  parts  of  the  Union.  Bishop 
Otey  stationed  him  in  Franklin  parish,  Tenn.  Soon  af- 
ter, urged  liy  friends,  he  preached  six  months  to  a  new 
congregation  in  Louisville,  Ky. ;  he  then  returneil  to  his 
old  parish.  He  bought  a  small  farm  in  New  Jersey, 
near  the  city  of  New  Brunswick,  and  settled  on  it  in 
1840.  He  no\v'  preached  in  different  places — for  a  few 
Sundays  in  and  about  Bridgeport,  Conn. ;  then  he  sup- 
plied the  winter  service  of  the  absent  pastor  of  Christ 
Church,  New  Brunswick.  In  1841  his  personal  appear- 
ance in  the  West  Indies  recovered  for  him  some  of  his 
pro])crty  there.  He  returned  to  the  States,  and  was 
appointed  to  two  small  stations  near  liis  farm.  In 
1843  he  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's  Church.  Perth  Am- 
boy.  In  1847  bis  health  and  ])roperty  called  him  to  the 
West  Indies  again.  By  a  letter  from  bishop  Doane, 
bishop  I'arry's  reception  was  such  that  he  decided  to 
remain,  and  in  1848  his  Perth  Amboy  congregation  ac- 
cepted his  resignation.  He  revisited  the  island  of  Ne- 
vis, and,  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  preached  vehemently 
against  some  of  the  immoral  practices  prevalent  there. 
In  1852  he  preached  again  for  one  year  in  St.  Peter's 
Church,  Speightstown.  Barbadoes.  In  1854  he  preached 
in  St,  Leonard's  Chapel,  Bridgetown.  On  July  15, 1855, 
he  became  the  first  volunteer  to  the  West  Indian  Church 
Association  for  the  furtherance  of  the  (iosjiel  in  Western 
Africa  (recently  formed  l>y  liishop  Parry),  sailed  for  Eng- 
land, visited  and  ]ircparcil  tliere,  reached  Africa,  and 
landed  at  Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  Nov.  10.     Aided  by 


LEAD 


303 


LEAD 


the  bishop  of  Sierra  Leone  and  colonel  Hill,  its  govern- 
or, he  founded  at  length  a  station,  the  Rio  Pongas.  At 
Tintima  village  he  gained  over  one  out  of  the  five  hos- 
tile negro  chiefs.  An  educated  black  coming  with  him 
from  Barbadoes,  John  H.  A.  Duport,  and  a  converted  ne- 
gro chief,  Mr.  Wilkinson,  aided  him  greatly;  the  latter 
gave  him  a  site  for  his  dwelling  and  chapel.  Ill  health 
drove  the  missionary  to  Freetown  to  recruit.  Return- 
ing, he  opened  a  school  for  boys,  with  an  attendance 
wiiieh  increased  to  fort}^  He  was  aided  with  money, 
books,  and  clothing  from  England,  and  his  congregations 
in  Perth  Amboj',  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee.  His  terri- 
tory soon  widened,  the  natives  became  favorable,  and 
tlie  school  increased.  Again  sickness  drove  him  to  his 
friends  in  Sierra  Leone.  Against  their  advice,  and  that 
of  the  bishop  of  Barbadoes,  he  returned  to  his  post.  He 
seemed  to  recover,  and  laid  plans  for  future  efforts  ;  but 
died  August  20, 185G.  As  a  result  of  his  labors,  a  large 
missionary  field  was  opened.  His  biography  is  Avritten 
by  Rev.  Henry  Caswall,  D.D.  (London,  1857,  r2mo),  a 
friend,  and  English  secretary  of  the  society  under  which 
he  acted. 

Lead  (P'lSS',  ophe'reth,  from  its  duslij  color,  in  pause 
r"lEr,Exod;xv,  10;  Numb.  xxxi,22;  Jobxix,24;  Jer. 
vi,29;  Ezek.xxii,18,20;  xxvii,]2;  Zech.v,7,8;  Sept. 
I^6\i[iooc),a  well-known  metal,  generally  found  in  veins 
of  rocks,  though  seldom  in  a  metallic  state,  and  most 
commonly  in  combination  with  sulphur.  Although  the 
metal  itself  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  and  to  the 
Hebrews,  yet  the  earlj'  uses  of  lead  in  the  East  seem 
to  have  been  comparatively  few,  nor  are  they  now  nu- 
merous. One  may  travel  far  in  Western  Asia  without 
discovering  a  trace  of  this  metal  in  any  of  the  numer- 
ous usefid  applications  which  it  is  made  to  serve  in  Eu- 
ropean countries.  We  are  not  aware  that  any  native 
lead  has  been  yet  found  within  the  limits  of  Palestine. 
But  ancient  lead  mines,  in  some  of  which  the  ore  has 
been  exhausted  by  working,  have  been  discovered  by 
Mr.  Burton  in  the  mountains  between  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  Nile ;  and  lead  is  also  said  to  exist  at  a  place  called 
Sheff,  near  Mount  Sinai  (Kitto,  P/ii/s.  Bisf.  Pal.  p.  Ixxiii). 

The  ancient  Egyptians  employed  lead  for  a  variety 
of  purposes,  but  chietly  as  an  alloy  with  more  precious 
metals.  On  the  breasts  of  mummies  that  have  been 
unrolled  there  is  frequently  found  in  soft  lead,  thin  and 
quite  tlexiblc,  the  figure  of  a  hawk,  with  extended  wings, 
emblematical  of  Re,  or  Phra,  the  sun.  Specimens  of 
lead  have  also  been  discovered  among  the  Assyrian  ruins 
(Layard's  Kin.  and  Bab.  p.  357),-  and  a  bronze  lion  is 
found  attached  to  its  stone  base  by  means  of  this  metal 
(Bonomi,  Nineveh,  p.  325). 

The  first  scriptural  notice  of  this  metal  occurs  in  the 
triumphal  song  in  which  Moses  celebrates  the  overthrow 
of  T'haraoh,  whose  host  is  there  said  to  have  "  sunk  like 
lead''  in  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv,  10).  That 
it  was  common  in  Palestine  is  shown  by  the  expression 
in  Ecclus.  xlvii,  18,  where  it  is  said,  in  apostrophizing 
Solomon,  "Thou  didst  multiply  silver  as  lead;"  the  WTit- 
er  having  in  view  the  hyperbolical  description  of  Solo- 
mon's wealth  in  1  Kings  x,  27:  "The  king  made  the 
silver  to  be  in  Jerusalem  as  .^tone.^."  It  was  among  the 
spoils  of  the  Midianites  which  the  children  of  Israel 
brought  with  them  to  the  ])lains  of  Moab,  after  their  re- 
turn from  the  slaughter  of  the  tribe  (Numb,  xxxi,  22). 
The  shijis  of  Tarshish  supplied  the  market  of  Tyre  with 
lead,  as  with  other  metals  (Ezek.  xxvii,  12).  Its  heavi- 
ness, to  which  allusion  is  made  in  Exod.  xv,  10,  and 
Ecclns.  xxii,  14,  caused  it  to  be  used  for  weights,  which 
were  cither  in  the  form  of  a  round  flat  cake  (Zech.  v,  7), 
or  a. rough  unfashioned  lump  or  "stone"  (ver.  8) ;  stones 
having  in  ancient  times  served  the  purpose  of  weights 
(comp.  Prov.  xvi,  11).  This  fact  may  perhaps  explain 
the  substitution  of  "  lead''  for  "  stones"  in  the  passage  of 
Ecclesiasticus  above  quoted ;  the  commonest  use  of  the 
che.ipest  metal  being  present  to  the  mind  of  the  writ- 
er.    If  Gesenius  is  correct  in  rendering  ~3N,  and/:,  by 


"lead,"  in  Amos  vii, 7, 8,  we  have  another  instance  of 
the  purposes  to  which  this  metal  was  applied  in  forming 
the  ball  or  bob  of  the  plumb-line.  See  Plumb-line. 
Its  use  for  weighting  fishing-lines  was  known  in  the 
time  of  Homer  (//.  xxiv,  80).  In  Acts  xxvii,  28,  a 
plummet  {lioXir,  in  the  form  j3oXi4w,  to  heave  the  lead) 
for  taking  soundings  at  sea  is  mentioned,  and  this  was, 
of  course,  of  lead. 

But,  in  addition  to  these  more  obvious  uses  of  this 
metal,  the  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  another  meth- 
od of  employing  it,  which  indicates  some  advance  in  the 
arts  at  an  early  period.  Job  (xix,  24)  utters  a  WMsh 
that  his  words,  "with  a  pen  of  iron  and  lead,  were  graven 
in  the  rock  forever."  The  allusion  is  supposed  to  be  to 
the  practice  of  carving  inscriptions  upon  stone,  and  pour- 
ing molten  lead  into  the  cavities  of  the  letters,  to  render 
them  legible,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve  them  from 
the  action  of  the  air.  Frecpient  references  to  the  use  of 
leaden  tablets  for  inscriptions  are  found  in  ancient  writ- 
ers. Pausanias  (ix,  31)  saw  Ilesiod's  Worls  and  Days 
graven  on  lead,  but  almost  illegible  with  age.  Public 
proclamations,  according  to  Pliny  (xiii,  21),  were  written 
on  lead,  and  tlie  name  of  Germanicus  was  carved  on 
leaden  tablets  (Tacitus,  Ann,  ii,  69).  Eutychius  {Ann. 
A  lex.  p.  390)  relates  that  the  history  of  the  Seven  Sleep- 
ers was  engraved  on  lead  by  the  cadi.  The  translator 
of  Rosenmiiller  (in  Bib.  Cab.  xxvii,  ()4)  thinks,  howeve.'-, 
that  the  poetical  force  of  the  scriptural  passage  has  been 
overlooked  by  interpreters;  "Job  seems  not  to  have 
drawn  his  image  from  anything  he  had  actually  seen 
executed :  he  only  wishes  to  express  in  the  strongest 
possible  language  the  durability  due  to  his  words;  and 
accordingly  he  says,  'IMay  the  pen  be  iron,  and  the  ink 
of  lead,  with  which  they  are  written  on  an  everlasting- 
rock,'  i.  e.  Let  them  not  be  written  with  ordinary  per- 
ishable materials."  The  above  usual  explanation  seems 
to  be  suggested  by  that  of  the  Septuagint,  "  that  they 
were  sculptured  by  an  iron  pen  and  lead,  or  hewn  into 
rocks."     See  Pen. 

Oxide  of  lead  is  employed  largely  in  modern  pottery 
for  the  formation  of  glazes,  and  its  presence  has  been 
discovered  in  analyzing  the  articles  of  earthen-ware  found 
in  Egypt  and  Nineveh,  proving  that  the  ancients  were 
acquainted  with  its  use  for  the  same  purpose.  The  A. 
V.  of  Ecclus.  xxxviii,  30  assumes  that  the  usage  was 
known  to  the  Hebrews,  though  the  original  is  not  ex- 
plicit upon  the  point.  Speaking  of  the  potter's  art  ni 
finishing  off  his  work,  "  he  applieth  himself  to  lead  it 
over,"  is  the  rendering  of  what  in  the  Greek  is  simply 
"he  giveth  his  heart  to  complete  the  smearing,"  the 
material  employed  for  the  purpose  not  bemg  indicated. 
See  PoTTEiiY. 

In  modern  metallurgy  lead  is  emiiloj'ed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  purifying  silver  from  other  mineral  products,  in- 
stead of  the  more  expensive  quicksilver.  The  alloy  is 
mixed  with  lead,  exposed  to  fusion  upon  an  earthen  ves- 
sel, and  submitted  to  a  blast  of  air.  By  this  means  the 
dross  is  consumed.  This  process  is  called  the  cupelling 
operation,  with  which  the  description  in  Ezek.  xxii,  18- 
22,  in  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Napier  {Met.  of  Bible,  p.  20-24), 
accurately  coincides.  "  The  vessel  containing  the  alloy 
is  surrounded  by  the  fire,  or  placed  in  the  midst  of  it, 
and  the  blowing  is  not  applied  to  the  fire,  but  to  the 
fused  metals.  .  .  .  When  this  is  done,  nothing  but  the 
perfect  metals,  gold  and  silver,  can  resist  the  scorify- 
ing influence."  In  support  of  his  conclusion  he  quotes 
Jer.  vi,  28-30,  adding, "  This  description  is  perfect.  If 
we  take  silver  having  the  impurities  in  it  described  in 
the  text,  namely,  iron,  copper,  and  tin,  and  mix  it  with 
lead, and  place  it  in  the  fire  upon  a  cupell, it  soon  melts; 
the  lead  will  oxidize  and  form  a  thick  coarse  crust  upon 
the  surface,  and  thus  consume  away,  but  effecting  no 
purifying  influence.  The  alloy  remains,  if  anything, 
worse  than  before.  .  .  .  The  silver  is  not  rcfhied,  because 
'the  bellows  were  burned'  —  there  existed  nothing  to 
blow  upon  it.  Lead  is  the  purifier,  but  only  so  in  con- 
nection with  a  blast  blowing  upon  the  precious  metals." 


LEADE 


304 


LEADERS 


An  allusion  to  this  use  of  lead  is  to  be  found  in  Theog- 
nis  (G/wm.  ir27  sq.,  ed.  Welcker),  and  it  is  mentioned  by 
riiny  (xxxiii,  31)  as  indispensable  to  the  purification  of 
silver  from  alloy.    Comp.  also  Mai.  iii,2, 3.    See  jMetal. 

By  modern  artificers  lead  is  used  with  tin  in  the  com- 
jiosition  of  solder  for  fastening  metals  together.  That 
the  ancient  Hebrews  were  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
solder  is  evident  from  the  description  given  by  the 
])rophet  Isaiah  of  the  processes  which  accompanied  the 
formation  of  an  image  for  idolatrous  worship.  The 
method  by  which  two  pieces  of  metal  were  joined  to- 
gether Avas  identical  with  that  employed  in  modern 
times;  the  substances  to  be  united  being  first  clamped 
liofore  being  soldered.  No  hint  is  given  as  to  the  com- 
jiosition  of  the  solder,  but  in  all  probability  lead  was  one 
of  the  materials  employed,  its  usage  for  such  a  purpose 
Ijeing  of  great  antiquity.  The  ancient  Egyptians  used 
it  for  fastening  stones  together  in  the  rough  parts  of  a 
building.  Mr.  Napier  (Metallurffij  of  the  Bible,  p.  130) 
conjectures  that  "  the  solder  used  in  early  times  for  lead, 
and  termed  lead,  was  the  same  as  is  now  used — a  mix- 
ture of  lead  and  tin." — Smith;  Kitto.     See  Solder. 

Leade  or  Leadly,  Jane,  an  English  mystic,  found- 
er of  the  Philadelpkiaus,  was  born  in  the  county  of  Nor- 
folk in  1G23.  According  to  her  own  accounts  she  was 
convicted  of  sin  in  her  sixteenth  j'ear  by  a  mysterious 
voice  whispering  in  her  ear,  and  found  peace  in  the 
grace  of  God  three  years  after.  Her  parents,  whose 
name  was  Ward,  seriously  opposed  Jane's  firm  religious 
stand,  and,  having  decided  to  withdraw  from  the  paren- 
tal roof,  she  removed  in  1643  to  London  to  join  a  brother 
of  hers  living  there.  She  had  spent  a  year  in  the  Eng- 
lish metropolis,  constantly  growing  in  grace  and  in  the 
kno^vledge  of  Christian  truths,  when  a  summons  came 
to  her  from  her  parents  to  return  home,  which  request 
was  at  once  obeyed.  Shortly  afterwards  she  was  mar- 
ried to  ■\ViUiani  Leade,  a  pious,  noble-hearted  man,  with 
whom  she  lived  happily,  blessed  with  a  family  of  four 
daughters,  until  1670,  when  William  was  suddenly  re- 
moved at  the  age  of  forty-nine.  From  the  time  of  her 
earliest  conversion  she  had  shown  signs  of  a  mystical 
tendency;  she  found  the  greatest  delight  in  seeking 
l)rivate  communion  with  God;  now  the  loss  of  her 
husband  drew  her  still  further  away  from  the  world, 
and  she  became  a  confirmed  mystic.  As  early  as  1652, 
Dr.  Pordage  (q.  v.)  and  his  wife,  together  \vith  Dr. 
Thomas  Bromley  (q.  v.),  had  succeeded  in  gathering  a 
congregation  of  mystics  of  the  Jacob  Bohme  (q.  v.) 
type,  but  the  pestilence  of  1655  had  necessitated  sep- 
aration, and  they  were  just  gathering  anew  at  London 
when  Jane  Leade  was  deprived  of  the  earthly  associa- 
tion of  her  husband.  She  joined  them  readily,  and  soon 
became  one  of  the  leading  spirits  of  this  new  mystical 
movement,  and  rose  until  she  finally  became  the  founder 
of  a  distinct  mystical  school  known  as  the  Philndelphi- 
wis  (q.  v.).  As  her  motive  for  joining  Pordage,  she 
assigned  certain  secret  divine  revelations  and  visions 
which  she  claimed  to  have  had  in  the  spring  of  1670, 
and  shortly-  after  she  actually  brought  before  the  society 
a  set  of  laws  which  she  professed  to  have  received  of  the 
Lord,  in  like  manner  as  Moses  had  been  intrusted  with 
the  Ten  Commandments.  (For  a  complete  copy,  see 
Xeitgchriftf.  hist.  Thenl.  1865,  p.  187  sq.)  A  still  stron- 
ger hold  she  gained  upon  the  society  and  upon  the  peo- 
ple at  large  by  the  publication  of  some  of  her  writings 
in  1683,  when  she  was  cnalded  to  send  them  forth  by 
the  pecuniary  aid  of  a  pious  lady  who  believed  in  Jane 
Leade's  divine  mission.     Her  great  object  in  publishing 

her  writings  (consisting  of  eight  large  octavo  volumes 

very  scarce  at  present  — like  tV.ose  of  Jacob  Bohme, 
though  less  original,  abounding  in  emblematic  and  figu- 
rative language,  and  very  obscure  in  style)  was  evident- 
ly to  spread  her  peciUiar  viev.s,  and  by  these  means  to 
form  a  society  of  all  truly  regenerated"  Cliristians,  from 
all  denominations,  which  should  be  the  visible  Church 
of  Christ  upon  earth,  and  be  tlius  awaiting  the  second 
coming  of  the  Lord,  which  she  claimed  to  have  been  in- 


formed by  revelation  was  near  at  hand  (for  1700).  She 
was  led  to  seek  the  establishment  of  a  distinct  organi- 
zation by  the  movements  of  the  German  Pietists  and 
Chiliasts  at  this  period.  In  1690,  Kilner,  of  Moscow, 
agitated  this  subject  still  fiu-ther  by  an  ettbrt  to  estab- 
lish a, pail  iarchul  and  LipostoUcal  society  of  true  and  per- 
secuted Christians,  and  in  1696  Mrs,  Petersen,  in  her 
Anleitunf/  z.  Versidndniss  d.  Offenharung,  and  again  in 
1698  in  Ber  geistliche  Kampf  (HaUe,  8vo),  called  upon 
the  regenerate  Christians  to  separate  from  the  world 
and  to  form  a  new  Jerusalem.  In  1695,  Jane  Leade,  to- 
gether with  her  friends  Bromley  and  Pordage,  removed 
to  carry  out  these  projects  in  London,  and  proposed  a 
new  society,  to  consist  only  of  Christians,  who,  Avith- 
out  separating  from  the  different  churches  to  which 
they  belonged,  should  form  a  pure  and  nndefiled  Church 
of  true  Christians,  to  be  governed  only  by  God's  wiU 
and  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  who  shoidd  hasten  tlie  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ  and  the  beginning  of  the  millen- 
nium. So  successful  was  this  effort  that  by  1702  the 
Philadelphians,  as  they  now  called  themselves,  were 
able  to  send  missionaries  to  Germany  and  Holland  with 
a  view  to  making  proselytes ;  and,  although  they  failed 
to  accomplish  their  object  immediately,  the  idea  which 
constituted  it  took  ground  and  spread,  especially  in  Ger- 
many. Conrad  Briisske  of  Offenbach,  a  disciple  of  Bev- 
erley, Dr.  Horch  of  Marburg,  and  Dr.  Kaiser  of  Stutt- 
gard,  labored  to  propagate  it;  the  latter  wrote  a  number 
of  works  on  the  subject  under  the  name  of  Timotheus 
Philadelphus,  and  established  a  Philadelphian  commu- 
nity at  Stuttgard.  An  approximate  estimate  of  the  ex- 
tent of  Jane  Leade's  influence  on  Germany  and  Holland 
may  be  obtained  by  a  reference  to  the  extensive  list  of 
her  correspondents  in  those  countries  (comp.  Zeitsch.f. 
hist.  Theol.  1865,  p.  222,  note  38).  Many,  without  being 
outwardly  members  of  this  and  similar  societies,  were 
evidently  favorable  to  them.  But  some  enthusiasts,  as 
Gebhard, Wetzel,  Eva  von  Buttlar,  etc.,  caused  the  move- 
ment to  fall  into  discredit.  The  scattered  elements  of 
the  divers  societies  were  afterAvards  reunited  by  comit 
Zinzendorf,  and  formed  part  of  the  Jloravian  institution. 
But  to  return  to  Jane  Leade  herself.  In  1702  she  felt 
that  her  end  was  near  at  hand.  She  wrote  out  her  fu- 
neral discourse,  to  be  read  at  her  grave,  and  made  all 
manner  of  preparations  for  departure.  One  of  the 
strangest  featitres  of  this  period  of  her  life  is  her  study 
of  the  writings  of  cardinal  Petrucci  and  of  Eichard  of 
Samson.  She  died  Aug.  19, 1704.  The  most  noted  of 
her  works  are,  The  Wonders  of  God's  Creation  manifest- 
ed in  the  Variety  of  eight  Worlds,  as  they  u-ere  made 
hnown  experimentally  to  the  A  uthor  (Lond.  1695,  2-lmo) : 
— The  Tree  of  Faith,  or  the  Tree  of  Life,  springing  up  in 
the  Paradise  of  God  (Lond.  1696,  24mo),  See  G.  Ar- 
nold, Kirchenhistorie,xo\.  ii;  Gichtel,  Theosophia  prac- 
tica  ;  Poiret  and  Arnold,  Gesch.  d.  Mystik  ;  Corrodi,  Kri- 
tische  Gesch.  des  Chiliasmus,  iii,  403-421 ;  Gobel,  Gesch. 
d.  Christl.  Lebens,  vols,  ii  and  iii ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist. 
bk.  iv,  cent,  xvii,  sec.  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch.  vii,  §  5;  Lee,  Life  of 
Jane  Leade ;  J.  W.  Joeger,  Dissert,  de  Vita  et  Doctrina 
Janm  Lea.dce ;  Herzog,  Real-Encylclop.  viii,  251 ;  Hoefer, 
JVoiiv.  Biogr.  Generale,  xxx,  50;  Hochhuth,  Gesch.  der 
philadelphischen  Geineinden,  Part  I,  Jane  Leade  imd  die 
Philadelphier  in  England,  in  the  Zeitschy-ift  fiir  Hist. 
Theolnq.  1865,  p.  172-290.  See  PuiLADELriiiANs,  (J. 
H.W.) 

Leaders.  This  term  has  a  technical  significance 
as  applied  to  leaders  of  religious  classes  in  the  original 
Methodist  societies,  and  in  the  Methodist  churches  of 
the  present  day.  See  Class- jieetixgs.  The  leader's 
office  is  one  of  pastoral  help.  It  therefore  in\-olves  great 
responsibility,  and  requires  for  the  proper  discharge  of 
its  duties  a  deep  religious  experience,  combined  with  a 
capacity  to  instruct  believers  in  the  practical  details  of 
religious  truth,  to  console  the  afflicted,  to  encourage  the 
despondent,  to  guide  the  erring,  and,  in  short,  both  by 
precept  and  example,  to  lead  Christians  and  penitents 
forward  in  the  pathway  of  holiness.     Leaders  are  ex- 


LEADERS'  MEETINGS 


305 


LEAGUE 


pected  to  meet  the  several  members  of  their  classes 
weekly  lor  religious  worship  and  conversation,  to  visit 
those  who  are  detained  by  sickness,  and  to  take  all  suit- 
able means  for  aiding  the  religious  life  and  progress  of 
those  under  their  care.  They  are  also  required  to  meet 
their  pastors  weekly,  to  report  respecting  the  welfare  of 
the  members  and  probationers  attached  to  their  classes. 
See  Leaders'  Meetings  and  Probationers.  In  some 
cases  women  are  appointed  leadeis,  more  especially  of 
classes  composed  of  females  or  of  children.  That  the 
office  of  class-leader  has  been  greatly  helpful  to  the  pas- 
torate in  those  churches  which  have  employed  it  does  j 
not  admit  of  question.  Hence  it  is  a  recognised  obliga- 
tion of  pastors  in  those  churclies  not  only  to  select  the 
best  persons  for  the  office,  but  also  to  aid  them  in  ac- 
quiring the  best  qualitications  for  its  useful  exercise. 
To  aid  in  the  task  of  instructing  leaders  various  tracts 
and  small  books  have  been  published.  See  Tract  list 
of  tlie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.     (D.  P.  K.) 

Leaders'  Meetings.  As  an  essential  part  of  the 
Wcsleyan  sj'stem  of  subpastoral  superintendence  by 
means  of  class  -  leaders  [see  Leaders],  an  organized 
meeting  was  appointed  to  be  held  Meekly  under  the 
above  title.  A  leaders'  meeting  is  composed  of  the  itin- 
erant ministers  of  any  circuit  or  station,  and  all  persons 
regularly  in  office  as  leaders  or  stewards.  See  Stew- 
ards. In  England,  the  powers  of  leaders'  meetings  have 
been  considerably  enlarged  since  such  meetings  were 
instituted  by  Mr.  Wesley.  "  They  have  now  a  veto 
upon  the  admittance  of  members  into  the  society,  when 
appealed  to  in  such  cases  by  any  parties  concerned : 
they  possess  the  power  of  a  jury  in  the  trial  of  accused 
members :  without  their  consent,  no  leader  or  steward 
can  be  appointed  to  office,  or  removed  from  it,  except- 
ing when  the  crime  proved  merits  exclusion  from  mem- 
bership, in  wliich  case  the  superintendent  can  at  once 
depose  the  offender  from  office,  and  expel  him  from  the 
society.  Without  their  consent,  in  conjunction  with 
the  trustees  of  the  chapel  in  which  their  meeting  is  at- 
tached, the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  cannot  be 
administered  in  the  said  chapel ;  and  the  fund  for  the 
relief  of  poor  and  afflicted  members  of  the  society  is  dis- 
tributed under  their  direction  and  management.  Eeg- 
idar  leaders'  meetings  have  from  the  beginning  been 
found  essential  to  the  pastoral  care  and  spiritual  pros- 
perity of  our  societies,  as  well  as  to  the  orderly  trans- 
action of  their  financial  concerns.  The  ministers  are 
directetl  attentively  to  examine,  at  each  meeting,  the  en- 
tries made  in  the  class-books  in  reference  to  the  attend- 
ance of  members,  in  order  that  prompt  and  timely  meas- 
ures may  be  adopted  in  cases  which,  on  inquiry,  shall 
ajipear  to  demand  the  exercise  of  discipline,  or  the  in- 
ter])osition  of  pastoral  exhortation  and  admonition" 
((Jrindrod's  Compendium  of  Wedeijan  ]\[etkodism).  In 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  leaders'  meetings  have 
no  judicial  or  veto  powers  as  described  above.  They 
are  held  monthly,  or  at  the  call  of  the  pastor.  Their 
usual  business  embraces  the  following  items :  o.  That 
tlie  leaders  have  an  opportiniity  "  to  inform  the  minister 
of  any  that  are  sick,  or  of  any  that  walk  disorderly  and 
will  not  be  reproved."  h.  That  the  pastor  may  examine 
the  several  class-books,  and  ascertain  the  Christian  walk 
and  character  of  each  member  of  the  Church,  and  learn 
what  members  of  the  flock  especially  need  his  watch- 
care  and  counsel,  c.  To  inquire  into  the  religious  state 
of  all  persons  on  trial,  and  ascertain  who  can  be  recom- 
mended by  the  leader  for  admission  into  full  connection, 
and  who  should  be  discontinued,  d.  To  examine  the 
several  leaders  respecting  their  '•  method  of  leading  their 
classes."  e.  To  recommend  to  the  quarterly  conference 
suitable  candidates  for  appointment  as  local  preachers. 
The  leaders'  meeting  also  becomes  to  pastors  a  conven- 
ient and  appropriate  body  of  men  with  whom  they  can 
take  coun.sel  from  time  to  time  respecting  many  minor 
matters  of  Church  interest  in  reference  to  which  advice 
or  co-operation  may  seem  desirable.  See  CLASS-jiEEr- 
INGS.      (D.  P.  K.) 

V.-U 


Leaf,  a  term  occurring  in  the  Bible,  both  in  the  sin- 
gular and  pliural,  in  three  senses. 

1.  Leaf  of  a  tree  (prop,  nbr,  aleh',  so  called  from 
spruiging  up ;  Gr.  (pvWov ;  also  "^S",  opki',  foliage  [Psa. 
civ,  12],  or  in  Chald.  the  top  of  a  tree  [Dan.  iv,  9, 11, 18], 
and  ~'^^,  te'rei^h,  a.  fresh  leaf  [Ezek.  xvii,  9]  "plucked 
off"  [Gen.  viii,  11]).  The  olive -leaf  is  mentioned  in 
Gen.  viii,  11.  Fig-leaves  formed  the  first  covering  of 
our  parents  in  Eden.  The  barren  fig-tree  (Matt,  xxi, 
19;  Mark  xi,  13)  on  the  road  between  Bethany  and  Je- 
rusalem "  had  on  it  nothing  but  leaves."  The  "tig-leaf  is 
alluded  to  by  our  Lord  (Matt,  xxiv,  32 ;  Mark  xiii,  28)  : 
"When  his  branch  is  yet  tender,  and  iiutteth  forth 
leaves,  ye  know  that  summer  is  nigh."  The  oak-leaf 
is  mentioned  in  Isa.  i,  30,  and  vi,  13.  Leaves,  the  organs 
of  perspiration  and  inhalation  in  plants,  are  used  sym- 
bolically in  the  Scriptures  in  a  variety  of  senses ;  some- 
times they  are  taken  as  an  evidence  of  grace  (Psa.  i,  3), 
while  at  others  they  represent  the  mere  outward  form 
of  religion  without  the  Spirit  (Matt,  xxi,  19).  Their 
flourishing  and  their  decay,  their  restoration  and  their 
fragility,  furnish  the  subjects  of  numerous  allusions  of 
great  force  and  beauty  (Lev.  xxvi,  36 ;  Isa.  i,  30  ;  xxxiv, 
4;  Jer.  viii,  13;  Dan.  iv,  12,  14,  21 ;  Mark  xi,  13;  xiii, 
28 ;  Eev.  xxii,  2).  The  bright,  fresh  color  of  the  leaf 
of  a  tree  or  plant  shows  that  it  is  richh'  nourished  bj'  a 
good  soil,  hence  it  is  the  symbol  of  prosperity  (Psa.  i,  3  ; 
Jer.  xvii,  8).  A  faded  leaf,  on  the  contrary,  shows  the 
lack  of  moisture  and  nourishment,  and  becomes  a  fit 
emblem  of  adversity  and  decay  (Job  xiii,  25 ;  Isa.  Ixiv, 
C).  Similar  figures  have  prevailed  in  all  ages  (see  We- 
myss.  Symbol.  Dictionary,  s.  v.).  In  Ezekiel's  vision  of 
the  holy  waters,  the  blessings  of  the  INIessiah's  kingdom 
.are  spoken  of  under  the  image  of  trees  growing  on  a 
river's  bank  ;  there  "  shall  grow  all  trees  for  food,  whose 
leaf  shall  not  fade"  (Ezek.  xlvii,  12).  In  this  passage  it 
is  said  that  "  the  fruit  of  these  trees  shall  be  for  food,  and 
the  leaf  thereof  for  medicine"  (margin, yo?-  bruises  and 
sores').  With  this  compare  John's  vision  of  the  heav- 
enly Jerusalem  (Eev.  xxii,  1,  2)  :  "In  the  midst  of  the 
street  of  it,  and  on  either  side  of  the  river,  was  there  the 
tree  of  life  ....  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were  for  the 
healing  of  the  nations."  There  is  probably  here  an  al- 
lusion to  some  tree  whose  leaves  were  used  by  the  Jews 
as  a  medicine  or  ointment ;  indeed,  it  is  very  likely  that 
many  plants  and  leaves  were  thus  made  use  of  by  them, 
as  by  the  old  English  herbalists.     See  Tree  of  Life. 

2.  Leaf  of  a  door  ("^iJ,  fse'la,  a  side,  in  1  Kings  vi, 
34  [where  the  latter  clause  has,  prob.  by  error,  i'pjr,  ke'- 
lanff,  a  curtain],  means  the  valre  of  a  folding  door ;  so 
also  r^'^l,  de'lcth,  a  door  [Isa.  xlv,  1]).     See  Door. 

3.  Leaf  of  a  book  (rblj,  de'leth,  a  door-ralce,  as 
above,  hence  perhaps  a  fold  of  a  roll  [Jer.  xxxvi,  23], 
like  our  column  of  a  volume).     See  Book. 

League  (r'i"l2,  berith',  a  contract  or  "covenant;" 
also  T^n,  c/idbar'  [Dan.  xi,  23],  to  "join"  in  alliance; 
P^2,  karaili',  to  cut,  i.e.  "make"  a  league),  a  political 
confederacy  or  treaty.  That  the  Hebrews,  surrounded  on 
every  side  by  idolatrous  nations,  might  not  be  seduced 
to  a  defection  from  Jehovah  their  king,  it  was  necessary 
that  they  shoidd  be  kept  from  too  great  an  intercourse 
with  those  nations  by  the  establishment  of  various  sin- 
gular rites  ;  but,  lest  this  seclusion  from  them  should  be 
the  source  of  hatred  to  other  nations,  Moses  constantly 
taught  them  that  they  should  love  their  neiijhhor,  i.  e. 
every  one  with  whom  they  had  intercourse,  including 
foreigners  (Exod.  xxii,  21  ;  xxiii,  9  ;  Lev.  xix,  34;  Deut. 
X,  18, 19 ;  xxiv,  17, 18 ;  xxvii,  19  ;  comp.  Luke  x,  25-37). 
To  this  end,  he  showed  them  that  the  benefits  which 
(iod  had  conferred  upon  them  in  preference  to  other  na- 
tions were  tmdeservcd  (Deut.  vii,  G-8  ;  ix,  4-24).  But, 
although  the  Hebrews  individually  were  debarred  from 
any  close  intimacy  with  idolatrous  nations  by  various 
rites,  yet  as  a  nation  they  were  permitted  to  form  trea- 


LEAGUE  OF  CAMBRAY 


306 


LEANDER 


ties  with  Gentile  states,  with  the  foUowiiic;  exceptions : 
(1.)  The  Canaaniles,  including  the  I'hilisiines ;  with 
these  nations  the  Hebrews  were  not  permitted  to  enter 
into  anv  alliance  whatever  (Exod.  xxiii,  32,  33  ;  xxxiv, 
12-lG;  Deut.  vii,  1-1 1;  xx,  1-18).  The  Phoenicians, 
although  Canaanites,  were  not  included  in  this  deep 
hostility,  as  they  dwelt  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
countrj-,  were  shut  up  within  their  own  limits,  and  did 
not  occupy  the  land  promised  to  the  patriarchs.  (2.) 
The  Ama'lekites,  or  Canaanites  of  Arabia,  were  also  des- 
tined to  hereditary  enmity,  unceasing  war,  and  total  ex- 
termination (Exod.  xvii.  8, 14 ;  Deut.  xxv,  17-19  ,  Judg. 
vi,  3-5;  1  Sam.  xv,  1,  33;  xxvii,  8,  9;  xxx,  1,  17, 18). 
(3.)  The  Moahites  and  A  mmonites  were  to  be  excluded 
forever  from  the  right  of  treaty  or  citizenship  with  the 
Hebrews,  but  were  not  to  be  attacked  in  war,  except 
when  provoked  by  previous  hostiUty  (Deut.  ii,  9-19 ; 
xxiii,  3-C  ;  Judg.  iii,  12-30  ,  1  Sam.  xiv,  47  ;  2  Sam.  viii, 
2  ;  xii,  20).  With  the  Midianitish  nation  at  large  there 
was  no  hereditarj-  enmity,  but  those  tribes  who  had  con- 
spired with  the  Moabites  were  ultimately  crushed  in  a 
war  of  dreadful  severity  (Numb,  xxv,  17, 18;  xxxi,l-18). 
Yet  those  tribes  which  did  not  participate  in  the  hostili- 
ties against  the  Hebrews  were  included  among  the  na- 
tions with  whom  alliances  might  be  formed,  but  in  later 
times  they  acted  in  so  hostile  a  manner  that  no  perma- 
nent peace  could  be  preserved  with  them  (Judg.  vi,  1-40  ; 
vii,  1-25;  viii,  1-21).  No  war  was  enjoined  against  the 
Edomites ;  and  it  was  expressly  enacted  that,  in  the 
tenth  generation,  they,  as  well  as  the  Egyptians,  might 
be  admitted  to  citizenship  (Xumb.  xx,  14-21 ;  Deut. 
ii,  4-8).  The  Edomites  also,  on  their  part,  conducted 
themselves  peaceably  towards  the  Hebrews  till  the  time 
of  David,  when  their  aggressions  caused  a  war,  in  which 
they  were  overcome.  From  that  time  they  cherished  a 
secret  hatred  against  the  Hebrews  (2  Sam.  viii,  13, 14). 
War  had  not  been  determined  on  against  the  Amorites 
on  the  east  of  the  Jordan  ;  but,  as  they  not  only  refused 
a  free  passage,  but  opposed  the  Hebrews  with  arms, 
they  were  attacked  and  beaten,  and  their  country  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Hebrews  (Numb,  xxi,  21-35;  Deut. 
i,  4;  ii,  24-37;  iii,  1-18;  iv,  4(5-49 ;  Judg.  xi,  13-23). 
Treaties  were  permitted  with  all  other  nations,  provided 
they  were  such  as  would  tend  to  the  public  welfare. 
David  accordmgly  maintained  a  friendly  national  in- 
tercourse with  the  kings  of  Tyre  and  Hamath,  and  Sol- 
omon with  the  kings  of  Tyre  and  Egypt,  and  ^vith  the 
queen  of  Sheba.  Even  the  Maccabees,  those  zealots  for 
the  law,  did  not  hesitate  to  enter  into  compact  with  the 
Romans.  When  the  prophets  condemn  the  treaties 
which  were  made  with  the  nations,  they  did  so,  not  be- 
cause they  were  contrary  to  the  Mosaic  laws,  but  be- 
cause they  were  impolitic  and  ruinous  measures,  which 
betrayed  a  want  of  confidence  in  Jehovah  their  king. 
The  event  always  showed  in  the  most  striking  manner 
the  proprietv  of  their  rebukes  (2  Kings  xvii,  4;  xviii, 
20,21;  XX,  12, 13;  2  Chron.  xx,  35-37 ;  xxviii,  21;  Isa. 
vii,  2;  xxx,  2-12;  xxxi,  1-3  ;  xxxvi,  4-7;  xxxix,  1-8; 
Hos.  v,  13 ;  vii,  11 ;  xii,  1 ;  Jer.  xxxvii,  5-10),    See  Al- 

LI.\NCE. 

League  of  Cambray  is  the  name  of  the  league 
entered  into  (A.D.  15(is)  lietween  pope  Julius  H,  the 
emperor  JIaximilian,  and  tlie  kings  of  France  and  Na- 
varre, to  make  war,  by  the  aid  of  both  spiritual  and 
temporal  arms,  against  the  re])ublic  of  Venice.  See  Ju- 
i.irsll;  Mam.mii.ian  ;  Viixici:. 

League  and  Covenant.  See  Covenant,  Sol- 
emn  LKAdTK  AND. 

League,  Holy.     See  Holy  League. 

League  of  Smalcalde.     See  Smalcalde. 

Le'ah  (Heb.  Liah',  TMiO,  jceiu-y ;  Sept.  A£(a,yulg. 
Lia),  the  eldest  daughter  of  the  Aramajan  Laban,  and 
sister  of  Rachel  (Gen.  xxvi,  IG).  '  Instead  of  the  latter, 
for  whom  he  had  served  seven  years,  Jacob  took  her 
through  a  deceit  of  her  father,  who  was  unwilling  to 
give  his  yoimger  daughter  in  marriage  first,  contrarj' 


to  the  usages  of  the  East  (Gen.  xxix,  22  sq. ;  compare 
Rosenm idler,  MorfjciiL  i,  138  sq.).  B.C.  1920.  She  was 
less  beautiful  than  her  younger  sister  (comp.  Josephus, 
Ant.  i,  19,  7),  having  also  weak  eyes  (r\i~T  C^3'^"j 
Sept.  6(p^a\fioi  acrSitvHC,  Yiilg.  lipjns  oculis,  Auth.  Vers, 
"  tender-eyed,"  Gen.  xxix,  17 ;  comp.  the  opposite  qual- 
ity as  a  recommendation,  1  Sam.  xvi,  12),  which  proba- 
bly accounts  for  Jacob's  preference  of  Rachel  both  at 
first  and  ever  afterwatds,  especially  as  he  was  not  likely 
ever  to  love  cordially  one  whom  he  did  not  voluntarily 
marry  (comp.  Gen.  xxx,  20).  See  Rachel.  Leah  bore 
to  Jacob,  before  her  sister  had  any  children,  six  sons, 
namely,  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah  (Gen.  xxix,  32 
sq.),  Issachar,  and  Zebulon  (Ge)i.  xxx,  17  sq. ;  compare 
XXXV,  23);  also  one  daughter,  Dinah  (Gen.  xxx,  21), 
besides  the  two  sons  borne  by  her  maid  Zilpah,  and 
reckoned  as  hers,  namely,  Gad  and  Asher  (Gen.  xxx, 
9),  all  within  the  space  of  seven  j-ears,  B.C.  1919-1913. 
See  Concubine;  Slave.  '"Leah  was  conscious  and 
resentful  (chap,  xxx)  of  the  smaller  share  she  possessed 
in  her  husband's  atfections;  yet  in  Jacob's  differences 
with  his  father-in-law  his  two  wives  appear  to  be  at- 
tached to  him  with  equal  fidelity.  In  the  critical  mo- 
ment Avhen  he  expected  an  attack  from  Esau,  his  dis- 
criminate regard  for  the  several  members  of  his  family 
was  shown  by  his  placing  Rachel  and  licr  children 
hindermost,  in  the  least  exposed  situation,  Leah  and  her 
children  next,  and  the  two  handmaids  with  their  chil- 
dren in  the  front.  Leah  probably  lived  to  witness  the 
dishonor  of  her  daughter  (ch.  xxxiv),  so  cruelly  avenged 
by  two  of  her  sons,  and  the  subsequent  deaths  of  Debo- 
rah at  Bethel,  and  of  Rachel  near  Bethlehem"  (Smith). 
Leah  appears  to  have  died  in  Canaan,  since  she  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  migration  to  Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi,  5), 
and  was  buried  in  the  family  cemetery  at  Hebron  (Gen. 
xlix,  31). — Wmer,  ii,  10.     See  Jacob. 

Lealce,  Lemuel  Fordham,  a  minister  of  the  Pres- 
bj'terian  (O.  S.)  Church,  was  bom  in  Chester,  Morris 
County,  N.  J.,  and  was  educated  at  Princeton  College, 
class  of  1814.  After  graduation  he  taught  two  years, 
then  studied  theology  at  Princeton  Seminary,  was  li- 
censed by  the  Newton  Presbytery  Oct.  7, 1818,  and  l)e- 
came  pastor  of  the  churches  of  Oxford  and  Harmony  in 
1822.  In  1825  he  resigned  this  position,  and  labored 
for  the  missionary  interests  of  the  Church.  In  1831  he 
was  called  to  Chartiers  Church,  at  Canonsburg,  as  suc- 
cessor to  Dr.  M'JMillan,  and  there  he  labored  until  1850, 
when  he  became  president  of  Franklin  College,  New 
Athens,  Ohio.  Later  he  removed  to  Zelienople,  Pa.; 
thence  to  Waveland,  Ind.  He  died  Dec.  1, 1800. — Wil- 
son, Preshjterian  Historical  A  Imanac,  18G7.  p.  1G8. 

Learning,  Jeremiah,  D.D.,  an  Episcopal  clergj-- 
man,  was  born  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  in  1719,  graduated 
at  Yale  College  in  1745,  and,  after  entering  the  minis- 
trj-,  quickly  rose  to  distinction.  He  was  at  one  time 
spoken  of  for  the  office  of  first  bishop  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America.  He  died  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  in  1804.  Among  his  pubUcations  are  A  Defence 
of  Episcopal  Government  of  the  Church: — Evidences  of 
the  Tnith  of  Christianity  ;  etc. — Allibone,  Diet.  British 
and  American  Authors,  voLii,  s.  v. 

Leander,  St.,  a  Spanish  prelate,  flourished  towards 
the  close  of  the  Gth  century,  lie  died  March  13,  GOl  (ac- 
cording to  some,  Feb.  27,  59G).  He  was  a  son  of  Severi- 
anus,  governor  of  Carthage,  and  brother  of  Fulgent  ius, 
bishop  of  that  city,  and  of  St.  Isidore  of  Seville,  who 
succeeded  him  as  bishop  of  Seville.  Leander  especially 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zeal  against  the  Arians. 
Among  his  converts  was  Hermenigilde,  eldest  son  of 
Lcuvigilde,  king  of  the  Goths.  Upon  the  defeat  of  the 
former  by  the  latter  Leander  was  sent  into  exile,  but  he 
was  recalled  in  the  same  year,  and  converted  Reccarede, 
second  son  of  the  king.  After  the  death  of  Lcuvigilde 
he  assembled  at  once  the  third  Council  of  Toledo,  and 
caused  Arianism  to  be  solemnly  condemned.  For  his 
services  in  making  Spain  an  adherent  of  the  faith  of 


LEANG-00-TEE 


307 


LEAVEN" 


Rome  he  was  specially  rewarded  by  Gregorj'  I.  The  ca- 
thedral of  Seville  claims  to  possess  his  remains,  and  he 
is  commemorated  on  the  13th  of  March,  He  wrote  a 
number  of  works,  of  which  there  are  yet  extant  De  In- 
stitutione  Vh'ginum  et  contemptu  mundi  (to  be  foimd  in 
the  Codex  Regularum  of  St.  Benedict  of  Amiane,  pub- 
lished by  Holstenius,  and  in  the  Bibliotheca  Pai rum,  vol. 
xii).  It  is  a  letter  to  his  sister,  St.  Florentine : — Uomilia 
in  luudcm  Ecclesice,  etc.  (Labbe,  Condi,  vol.  v),  a  discourse 
on  the  conversion  of  the  Goths,  pronounced  at  the  third 
Council  of  Toledo.  Leander  is  considered  as  the  origi- 
nator of  the  Mozarabic  rite  completed  by  St.  Isidore. 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  dedicated  to  Leander  his  disser- 
tations on  Job,  which  he  had  undertaken  by  his  advice. 
See  St.  Isidore,  De  Viris  iUusfribiis,  etc. ;  St.  Gregory 
the  Great,  Epist.  and  Dialog. ;  St.  Gregory  of  Tours,  Ilisf. 
vol.  v;  Maxonms,  Annales ;  Dom  Mabillon,  ^w?(«^es  Or- 
dinis  Benedicti,  etc. ;  Baillet,  Vies  des  Saints,  i,  Mar.  13  ; 
Dom  CeUlier,  Ilist. d.  Auteurs  sacres, xvii,  115, etc.;  Dom 
liivet.  Hist.  Litteraire  de  la  France ;  Richard  et  Giraud, 
Bibliotheque  Sacree ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx, 
55 ;  Wetzcr  u.  Welte,  Kirclien-Lex.  vi,  388. 

Leang-Oo-Tee,  emperor  of  China,  and  founder  of 
the  Leang  dynasty,  usurped  the  throne  about  A.D.  502. 
Through  devotion  to  the  doctrines  of  Fo  and  mysticism 
of  the  bonzes  (priests  of  Fo  or  Buddha),  he  neglected 
the  care  of  the  empire.  He  was  dethroned  by  one  of 
his  officers,  Heoo-King,  and  died  soon  after  (549). — 
Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1386. 

Lean'noth  (Heb.  le-annoth',  rii3"5,ybr  ansrvering, 
i.  c.  singing;  Sept,  tov  cnroKpL^i]vai,\u\Q.  ad  respon- 
demlujn),  a  musical  direction  occurring  in  the  title  of 
Psa.  Ixxxviii,  and  denoting  that  it  was  to  be  chanted  in 
the  manner  indicated  by  the  associated  terms.  See 
Psalms,  Book  of. 

Learning,  skill  in  any  science,  or  that  improvement 
of  the  mind  which  we  gain  by  study,  instruction,  ob- 
servation, etc.  An  attentive  examination  of  ecclesias- 
tical history  will  lead  us  to  see  how  greatly  learning  is 
indebted  to  Christianity,  and  that  Christianity,  in  its 
turn,  has  been  much  served  by  learning,  "  All  the  use- 
ful learning  which  is  now  to  be  found  in  the  world  is  in 
a  great  measure  owing  to  the  Gospel,  The  Christians, 
who  had  a  great  veneration  for  tlie  Old  Testament,  have 
contributed  more  than  the  Jev.'s  themselves  to  secure 
and  explain  those  books.  The  Christians,  in  ancient 
times,  collected  and  preserved  the  Greek  versions  of  the 
Scriptures,  particularly  the  Septuagint,  and  translated 
the  originals  into  Latin,  To  Christians  were  due  the 
old  Hexapla;  and  in  later  times  Christians  have  pub- 
lished tlie  Polyglots  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  It 
was  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  which  excited 
Christians  from  early  times  to  study  chronology,  sacred 
and  secular;  and  here  much  knowledge  of  history,  and 
some  skill  in  astronomy,  were  needful.  The  New  Tes- 
tament, being  written  in  Greek,  caused  Christians  to  ap- 
ply themselves  also  to  tlie  study  of  that  language.  As 
the  Christians  were  opposed  by  the  pagans  and  the 
Jews,  they  were  excited  to  the  study  of  pagan  and  Jew- 
ish literature,  in  order  to  expose  the  absurdities  of  the 
Jewish  traditions,  the  weakness  of  paganism,  and  the 
imperfections  and  insufficiency  of  philosophy.  The  first 
fathers,  till  the  3d  centiu^',  were  generally  Greek  writ- 
ers. In  the  3d  century  the  Latin  language  was  much 
upon  the  decline,  but  the  Christians  preserved  it  from 
sinking  into  absolute  barbarism.  IMonken,',  indeed,  pro- 
duced many  sad  effects ;  but  Providence  here  also 
brought  good  out  of  evil,  for  the  monks  were  employed 
in  the  transcribing  of  books,  and  many  valuable  authors 
would  have  perished  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  monas- 
teries. In  the  9th  century  the  Saracens  were  very  stu- 
dious, and  contributed  much  to  the  restoration  of  letters. 
But,  whatever  was  good  in  the  Mohammedan  religion, 
it  is  in  no  small  measure  indebted  to  Christianity  for  it, 
since  INIohammedanism  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity.     If  Christianity  had  been 


suppressed  at  its  first  appearance,  it  is  extremely  proba- 
ble that  the  Latin  and  Greek  tongues  would  have  been 
lost  in  the  revolutions  of  empires,  and  the  irruptions  of 
barbarians  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  for  the  old  in- 
habitants would  have  had  no  conscientious  and  religious 
motives  to  keep  up  their  language ;  and  then,  together 
with  the  Latin  and  Greek  tongues,  the  knowledge  of 
antiquities  and  the  ancient  writers  would  have  been  de- 
stroyed. ...  As  religion  has  been  the  chief  preserver 
of  erudition,  so  erudition  has  not  been  ungrateful  to  her 
patroness,  but  has  contributed  largely  to  the  support  of 
religion.  The  useful  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  the 
sober  and  sensible  defences  of  revelation,  the  faithful 
representations  of  pure  and  undefiled  Christianity— these 
have  been  the  works  of  learned,  judicious,  and  industri- 
ous men.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  common  than  to 
hear  the  ignorant  decry  all  human  learning  as  entirely 
useless  in  religion ;  and,  what  is  still  more  remarkable, 
even  some,  who  call  themselves  preachers,  entertain  the 
same  sentiments.  But  to  such  we  can  only  say  what  a 
judicious  preacher  observed  upon  a  public  occasion,  that 
if  all  men  had  been  as  unlearned  as  themselves,  they 
never  would  liave  had  a  text  on  which  to  have  display- 
ed their  ignorance"  (Jortin's  Sermons,  vol.  vii.  Charge  I), 
See  More,  Hints  to  a  Young  Princess,  i,  64 ;  Cook,  Miss. 
Ser.  on  Matt,  vi,  3 ;  Stennett,  Ser.  on  A  cts  xxvi,  24, 25. — 
Henderson's  Buck,     See  Knowledge, 

Leasing  (^T3,  Jcazab',  Psa,  iv,  2 ;  v,  6),  an  old  Eng- 
lish word  equivalent  to  Iging  or  lies,  as  the  term  is  else- 
where rendered. 

Leather  (li^J,  6i;  2  Kings  i,  6,  properly  skin,  as 
elsewhere  rendered,  i,  e,  on  a  person  or  animal,  also  as 
taken  off,  hide,  sometimes  as  prepared  or  tanned.  Lev, 
xi,  32  ;  xiii,  48  sq. ;  Numb,  xxxi,  20 ;  in  the  N.  T.  only 
in  the  adj.  Ctpnunvog,  "leathern,"  Matt,  iii,  4;  lit.  of 
skin,  as  in  the  parallel  passage,  Mark  i,  6).  A  girdle  of 
leather  is  referred  to  in  the  above  passage  (2  Kings  i,  6) 
as  characteristic  of  Elijah,  which,  with  the  mantle  of 
hair,  formed  the  humble  attire  that  the  prophets  usu- 
ally wore.  In  like  manner  John  the  Baptist  had  his 
raiment  of  camels'  hair  and  a  leathern  girdle  about  his 
loins  (Matt,  iii,  4).  Strong  and  broad  girdles  of  leather 
arc  still  much  used  by  the  nomade  tribes  of  Western 
Asia  (see  Hackett's  Illustr.  of  Script,  p,  96).  See  Skin; 
Dress, 

We  learn  from  the  monuments  [see  cut  on  page  308] 
that  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  well  acquainted  with 
the  various  processes  of  tanning  and  working  in  leather, 
and  from  them  the  Hebrews  undoubtedly  derived  their 
knowledge  of  the  art  of  preparmg  leather  for  a  variety 
of  useful  purposes.  It  appears  that  the  Egyptian  tan 
was  prei^ared  in  earthen  vessels,  and  that  the  workmen 
could  preserve  skins  either  with  or  without  the  hair. 
The  preparation  of  leather  was  an  important  branch  of 
Egyptian  industry  (see  Wilkinson's  Egyptians,  ii,  93, 99, 
105),  Leather  appears  to  have  been  used  by  the  an- 
cient Assyrians  in  some  cases  for  recording  documents 
upon  (Layard's  Nineveh,  ii,  147),     See  Tanner. 

Leaven.  In  the  Hebrew  we  find  two  distinct 
words,  both  translated  leaven  in  the  common  version  of 
the  Bible.  This  is  unfortimate,  for  there  is  the  same 
distinction  between  "Nb,  seur',  and  Y"^^^  chamets',  in 
the  Hebrew,  as  between  leaven  and  leavened  bread  in  the 
English.  The  Greek  ^I'/trj  appears  to  be  used  onlj'  in 
the  former  sense,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  it  applies  to  a 
liquid.  Chemically  speaking,  the  "  ferment"  or  "  yeast" 
is  the  same  substance  in  both  cases;  but  "leaven"  is 
more  correctly  applied  to  solids,  "  ferment"  both  to  liq- 
uids and  solids. 

1.  "'Xb,  seijr',  occurs  only  five  times  in  the  Scriptures, 
in  four  of  which  (Exod.  xii,  15, 19  ;  xiii,  7;  Lev.  ii,ll) 
it  is  rendered  "  leaven,"  and  in  the  fifth  (Dent,  xvi,  4) 
"leavened  bread."  It  seems  to  have  denoted  original- 
ly the  remnant  of  dough  left  on  the  preceding  baking, 
which  bad  fermented  and  turned  acid ;  hence  (accord- 


LEAVEN 


308 


LEAVEN 


ing  to  the  Lexicon  of  Dr.  Avenarius.  1588)  the  German 
sillier,  English  sour.  Its  distinctive  meaning  therefore 
is,  fermented  or  leavened  mass.  It  could  hardly,  how- 
ever, apply  to  the  murk  or  lees  of  wine. 

2,  you,  chamets',  ought  not  to  be  rendered  "  leaven," 
but  leavened  bread.  It  is  a  more  specific  term  than  the 
former,  but  is  confounded  in  our  translation  with  it. 
In  Numb,  vi,  3,  the  cognate  noun  is  applied  to  wine 
as  an  adjective,  and  is  there  properly  translated  "  vin- 
egar of  wine."  In  this  last  sense  it  seems  to  corre- 
spond to  tlie  Greek  ti^of,  a  sort  of  acid  wine  in  very 
common  use  among  the  ancients,  called  by  the  Latins 
posca,  vinum  culpatum  (Adam,  Rom.  Antiq.  p.  393; 
Jahn,  Fiibl.  ArclueoL  §  1-4-4).  This  species  of  wine  (and 
in  hot  countries  pure  wine  speedily  passes  into  the 
acetous  state)  [see  Drink]  is  spoken  of  by  the  Tal- 
mudists,  who  inform  us  that  it  was  given  to  persons 
about  to  be  executed,  mingled  with  drugs,  in  order  to 
stupefy  them  (Prov.  xxxi,  G;  Snnhedrin,  folio  43,  1,  c 
vi).  This  serves  to  explain  IMatt.  xxvii,  34.  A  sour, 
fermented  drink  used  bj'  the  Tartars  appears  to  have 
derived  its  name  kumiss  from  the  Hebrew  chamets'. 
From  still  another  root  comes  also  nS"5,'  7natstsah' 
(sweet,  "without  leaven"  [Lev.  x,  11]),  unleavened  (i.e. 
bread,  though  in  several  passages  "  bread"  and  "  cakes" 
are  also  expressed).     In  Exod.  xiii,  7,  both  seOr'  and 


chamets'  occur  together,  and  are  evidently  distinct: 
^^  Unleaveiwd  bread  (matstsuh')  shall  be  eaten  during 
the  seven  da}'s,  and  there  shall  not  be  seen  with  thee 
fermented  bread  (chamets'),  and  there  shall  not  be  seen 
with  thee  leavened  dough  (^seOr')  in  all  thy  borders." 
See  Wine. 

The  organic  chemists  define  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  substance  which  excites  it,  as  follows : 
"  Fermentation  is  nothing  else  but  the  putrefaction  of  a 
substance  containing  no  nitrogen.  Ferment,  or  yeast,  is 
a  substance  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  the  atoms  of  which 
are  in  a  continual  motion"  (Turner's  Chemist?-//,  by  Lie- 
big).  This  definition  is  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
views  of  the  ancients,  and  gives  point  and  force  to  many 
passages  of  sacred  writ  (Psa.  Ixxix,  21 ;  Matt,  xvi,  G,  11, 
12  ;  Mark  viii,  15  ;  Luke  xii,  1 ;  xiii,  21 ;  1  Cor.  v,  5-8  ; 
Gal.  V,  9).  Leaven,  and  fermented,  or  even  some  readily 
fermentible  substances  (as  honey),  were  prohibited  in 
many  of  the  typical  institutions  both  of  the  Jews  and 
Gentiles.  The  Latin  writers  use  corruptus  as  signify- 
ing fermented ;  Tacitus  applies  the  word  to  the  fermenta- 
tion of  wine.  Plutarch  (Rom.  Qucsst.  cix,  G)  assigns  as 
the  reason  why  the  priest  of  Jupiter  was  not  allowed  to 
touch  leaven, "  that  it  comes  out  of  corruption,  and  cor- 
rupts that  with  which  it  is  mingled."  See  also  Aulus 
Gellius,  viii,  15.  The  use  of  leaven  was  strictly  forbid- 
den in  all  offerings  made  to  the  Lord  by  tire,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  raeat-oifering  (Lev.  ii,  11),  the  trespass-offer- 
ing (Lev.  vii,  12),  the  consecration-offering  (Exod.  xxix, 
2  ;  Lev.  viii,  2),  the  Nazarite-offering  (Numb.vi,  15),  and 
more  particularly  in  regard  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover, 
when  the  Israelites  were  not  only  prohibited  on  pain  of 
death  from  eating  leavened  bread,  but  even  from  having 
any  leaven  in  their  houses  (Exod.  xii,  15, 19)  or  in  their 
land  (Exod.  xiii,  7 ;  Deut.  xvi,  4)  during  seven  days, 
commencing  with  the  14th  of  Nisan.  The  command 
was  rigidly  enforced  by  the  zeal  of  the  Jews  in  later 
times  (compare  IVIishnah,  Pesach.  ii,  1 ;  Schottgen,  Ho- 
i-(B  Hebraicce,  i,  598).  It  is  in  reference  to  these  pro- 
hibitions that  Amos  (iv,  b')  ironically  bids  the  Jews  of 
his  day  to  "  offer  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  with  leav- 
en." Hence,  likewise,  even  honey  was  prohibited  (Lev. 
ii,  11)  on  account  of  its  occasionally  producing  fermen- 
tation. In  other  instances,  where  the  offering  was  to 
be  consumed  by  the  priests  and  not  on  the  altar,  leav- 
en might  be  used,  as  in  the  case  of  the  peace-offering 
(Lev.  vii,  13)  and  the  Pentecostal  loaves  (Lev.  xxiii,  17). 
It  is  to  be  presumed  also  that  the  shew-bread  was  un- 
leavened, both,  it  fortiori,  from  the  prohibition  of  leaven 
in  the  bread  offered  on  the  altar,  and  because,  in  the  di- 
rections given  for  the  making  of  the  shew-bread,  it  is 
not  specified  that  leaven  should  be  used  (Lev.  xxiv, 
5-9) ;  for,  in  all  such  cases,  what  is  not  enjoined  is  pro- 
hibited. Jewish  tradition  also  asserts  that  the  shew- 
bread  was  without  leaven  (Josephus,  Ant.  iii,  6,  6;  Talm. 
Minchoth,  v,  2,  3).  On  Lev.  ii,  11,  Dr.  Andrew  Willet 
observes,  "  They  have  a  spiritual  signilication,  because 
ferment  signifieth  corruption,  as  St.  Paul  applieth  (1  Cor. 
V,  8).  The  honey  is  also  forbidden  because  it  had  a 
leavening  force"  (Junius,  Hexapla,  1631).  On  the  same 
principle  of  symbolism,  God  prescribes  that  salt  shall  al- 
ways constitute  a  part  of  the  oblations  to  him  (Lev.  ii, 
31)  on  account  of  its  antiseptic  properties.  Thus  St. 
Paul  (comp.  Col.  iv,  6;  Eph.  iv,  29)  uses  "salt"  as  pre- 
servative from  corruption,  on  the  same  principle  which 
leads  him  to  employ  that  which  is  unfermented  (uZvfioQ) 
as  an  emblem  of  purity  and  uncorruptedness.  See  Pass- 
over. 

The  Greek  word  ^17(1;,  rendered  '•leaven,''^  is  used  with 
precisely  the  same  latitude  of  meaning  as  the  Hebrew 
seor'.  It  signifies  leaven,  sour  dough  (Matt,  xiii,  33; 
xvi,  12;  Luke  xiii,  21).  Another  quality  in  leaven  is 
noticed  in  the  WWAq,  viz.,  its  secretly  penetrating  and  dif- 
fusive power ;  hence  the  proverbial  saying,  "  a  little 
leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump"  (1  Cor.  v,  6 ;  Gal.  v, 
9).  In  this  respect  it  was  emblematic  of  moral  influence 
generally,  whether  good  or  bad,  and  hence  our  Saviour 


LEBANA 


309 


LEBANON 


adopts  it  r.s  illustrating  the  growth  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  in  the  individual  heart  and  in  the  world  at 
large  (Matt.  xiii,33).  Leaven,  or  ferment,  is  therefore 
used  tropically  for  corruptness,  perverseness,  of  life,  doc- 
trine, heart,  etc.  (Matt,  xvi,  6, 11 ;  Mark  viii,  15  ;  Luke 
xii,  1 ;  1  Cor.  v,  7, 8 ;  couip.  Col.  iv,  6  ;  Eph.  iv,  29).  The 
idea  seems  to  have  been  faraOiar  to  the  Jews ;  compare 
Otlio,  Lex  Rahhin.  Talm.  p.  227.  They  even  employed 
leaven  as  a  figure  of  the  inherent  corruption  of  man : 
"  K.  Alexander,  when  he  had  finished  his  prayers,  said, 
Lord  of  the  universe,  it  is  clearly  manifest  before  thee 
tliat  it  is  our  will  to  do  thy  will :  what  hinders  that  we 
do  not  thy  will  ?  The  leaven  which  is  in  the  mass  {GL, 
The  evil  desire  which  is  in  thGhea.rty\BabijL Beradiotk, 
xvii,  1 ;  ap.  JMeuschen,  X.  T.  ex  Talmude  ill.).  We  tind 
the  same  allusion  in  the  Roman  poet  Ver&ms,  {Sat.  i,  24 ; 
compare  Casaubon's  note.  Comment,  p.  74).  See  Werns- 
dorf.  Be  fermento  llerodis  (Alt.  1724).      See  Unleav- 

ENIiD  BUEAD. 

'■  The  usual  leaven  in  the  East  is  dough  kept  till  it 
becomes  sour,  and  which  is  kept  from  one  day  to  an- 
other for  the  purpose  of  preserving  leaven  in  readiness. 
Tluis,  if  there  should  be  no  leaven  in  all  the  country  for 
any  length  of  time,  as  much  as  might  be  required  coidd 
easily  be  produced  in  twenty-four  hours.  Sour  dough, 
however,  is  not  exclusively  used  for  leaven  in  the  East, 
the  lees  of  wine  being  in  some  parts  employed  as  yeast" 
(Kitto,  Pictorial  Bible,  i,  161).  In  the  Talmud  mention 
is  made  of  leaven  formed  of  the  D^ISIO  b',!3  '^^p, 
bookmakers'' paste  {PesacJi,  iii,  1).  As  the  process  of 
producing  the  leaven  itself,  or  even  of  leavening  bread 
when  the  substance  was  at  hand,  required  some  time, 
unleavened  cakes  were  more  usually  jiroduced  on  sudden 
emergencies  (Gen. xviii,G;  Judg.vi,19). — Kitto;  Smith. 
See  Bake  ;  Bread,  etc. 

Leb'ana  (Neh.  vii,  48).     See  Lebanah. 

Leb'anah  (Heb.  Lebanah',  nsib,  the  moon  as  be- 
ing white,  as  in  Cant,  vi,  10,  etc.;  Sept.  in  Ezra  ii,  45 
AajSaiHo  ;  Chaldaistically  written  Lebana',  N53b,  in 
most  MSS.  in  Neh.  vii,  48,  Sept.  Aafiava,  Auth.  Vers. 
"Lebana";  Yulg.  in  both  passages  Lebana),  one  of  the 
Nethinim  whose  posterity  returned  from  Babylon  with 
Zerubbabel.     B.C.  ante  536. 

Leb'anon,  the  loftiest  and  most  celebrated  moun- 
tain range  in  Syria,  forming  the  northern  boundary  of 
Palestine,  and  running  thence  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  great  pass  which  opens  into  the 
plain  of  Hamath.  The  range  oi  Anti-Lebanon,  usually 
included  by  geographers  under  the  same  general  name, 
lies  jiaraUel  to  the  other,  commencing  on  the  south  at 
the  fountains  of  the  Jordan,  and  terminating  in  the 
plain  of  Hamath.  In  the  following  account  we  adopt 
in  part  the  article  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Porter,  in  Kitto's  Cyclo- 
pcediu,  s.  v.     See  Palestine. 

I.  The  Name. — In  the  O.  Test,  these  mountain  ranges 
are  always  called  '1335,  Lebanon',  to  which,  in  prose, 
the  art.  is  constantly  prefixed,  "iiS^^rt  ;  in  poetry  the 
art.  is  sometimes  prefixed  and  sometimes  not,  as  in  Isa. 
xiv,  8,  and  Psa.  xxix,  5.  The  origin  of  the  name  has 
been  variously  accounted  for.  It  is  derived  from  the 
root  '^b,  "to  be  white."  'ISiiil  "ilH  is  thus  emphati- 
cally "  The  White  ^Mountain"  of  Syria.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  almost  uniformly  the  names  of  the  highest 
mountams  in  all  countries  have  a  like  meaning — Mont 
Blanc,  Himalaija  (in  Sanscrit  signifying  "  snowy"), 
Ben  Neris,  Snowdon,  perhaps  also  Alps  (from  alb, 
"white,"  like  the  Latin  albus,  and  not,  as  commonly 
thought,  from  aJp,  "high").  Some  suppose  the  name 
originated  in  the  white  snow  by  which  the  ridge  is  cov- 
ered a  great  part  of  the  j'car  (Bochart,  Opera,  i,  678 ; 
Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  p.  741 ;  Stanley,  .S'.  and  P.  p.  395). 
Others  derive  the  name  from  the  whitish  color  of  the 
limestone  rock  of  which  the  great  body  of  the  range  is 
comiiosed  (Schulz,  Leitunr/en  des  Hochsten,  v,  471 ;  Kob- 
inson,  Biblic.  lies,  ii,  493).     The  former  seems  the  more 


natural  explanation,  and  is  confirmed  by  several  circum- 
stances. Jeremiah  mentions  the  "snow  of  Lebanon" 
(xviii,  14)  ;  in  the  Chald.  paraphrase  ni^Pi  "1^13,  "  snow 
mountain,"  is  the  name  given  to  it,  and  this  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  not  uncommon  modern  Arabic  appellation,  Je- 
bel  eth-ThelJ  (Gesenius,  Thesaurus,  1.  c. ;  Abulfeda,  Tab. 
Si/r.  p.  18).  Others  derive  the  name  Lebanon  from 
XiliavojTog,  "  frankincense,"  the  gum  of  a  tree  called 
Mfiavog  Qleland,  PalfEst.  p.  312;  Herod,  i,  183),  which 
is  mentioned  among  the  gifts  presented  by  the  magi  to 
the  infant  Saviour  (Matt,  ii,  11).  This,  however,  is  in 
Hebrew  HJinb,  Lebonah  (Exod.  xxx,  34;  Isa.  Ix,  6). 
The  Greek  name  of  Lebanon,  both  in  the  Septuagint 
and  classic  authors,  is  uniformly  AifSavog  (Strabo,  xvi, 
755 ;  Ptol.  V,  15).  The  Septuagint  has  sometimes  'Aiti- 
XijiavoQ  instead  of  Aijiat'og  (Deut.  i,  7 ;  iii,  25 :  Josh,  i, 
4;  ix,  1).  The  Latin  name  is  LJbunus  (Phny,  v,  17), 
which  is  the  reading  of  the  Yidgate.  It  would  appear 
that  the  Greek  and  Roman  geographers  regarded  the 
name  as  derived  from  the  snow.  Tacitus  speaks  of  it 
as  a  remarkable  phenomenon  that  snow  should  lie  where 
there  is  such  intense  heat  {Hist,  v,  6).  Jerome  writes, 
"  Libanus  XevKaafioc  —  id  est,  condor  interpretatur" 
(Adi-ei-sus  Jorianum,  in  Ojjera,  ii,  286,  ed.  Migne)  ;  he 
also  notes  the  identity  of  the  name  of  this  mountain 
anA  franhincense  {in  Osee,  in  Opera,  yj,  ICO).  Arab  ge- 
ographers call  the  range  Jtbel  Libndn  (Abulfeda,  Tab. 
Syr.  p.  163 ;  Edrisi,  p.  336,  edit.  Jaubert).  This  name, 
hoAvever,  is  now  seldom  heard  among  the  people  of 
Syria,  and  ivhen  used  it  is  confined  to  the  western  range. 
Different  parts  of  this  range  have  distinct  names — the 
northern  section  is  called  Jtbel  Alkdr,  the  central  Sun- 
nin,  and  the  southern  J,  ed-JJruze.  Other  local  names 
are  also  used. 

The  eastei-^n  runge,  as  well  as  the  western,  is  fre- 
quently included  under  the  general  name  T.ebanon  in 
the  Bible  (Josh,  i,  4;  Judg.  iii,  3) ;  but  in  Josh,  xiii,  5 
it  is  correctly  distinguished  as  ^^  Lebanon  toward  iJ  e  sun- 
7-ising"  (d'C^'fl  rriTp  ")":3^ri;  Sept.  Aijiavov  airo 
avaToXCjv  ifKiov  ;  and  translated  in  the  Vulg.  Libani 
qiioqne  ref/io  contra  orienteni).  The  southern  section 
of  this  range  was  well  known  to  the  sacred  WTiters  as 
Hermon,  and  had  in  ancient  times  several  descriptive 
titles  given  to  it — Sirion,  Shenir,  Sion;  just  as  it  has  in 
modern  days  —  Jibel  esh-Shdk,  J.  eth-ThelJ,  J.  Antdr. 
Greek  writers  called  the  whole  range  'AiTiXifSarog 
(Strabo,  xvi,  p.  7.54;  Ptolemy,  v,  15),  a  word  which  is 
sometimes  found  in  the  Sept.  as  the  rendering  of  the 
Hebrew  Lebanon  (ut  supra).  Latin  authors  also  uni- 
formly distinguish  the  eastern  range  by  the  name  A  nii- 
libanus  (Pliny,  v,  20).  The  name  is  appropriate,  de- 
scribing its  position,  lying  "  opposite"  or  '•  over  against" 
Lebanon  (Strabo,  I.  c).  Yet  this  distinction  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  known  to  Josephus,  who  uniformly 
calls  the  eastern  as  well  as  the  western  range  AijiavoQ  ; 
thus  he  speaks  of  the  fountains  of  the  Jordan  as  being 
near  to  Libanus  {Ant.  v,  3, 1),  and  of  Abila  as  situated 
in  Libanus  (xix.  5,  1).  The  range  of  Anti-Lebanon  is 
now  called  by  all  native  geographers  Jehel  esh-Shurky, 
"  East  mountain,"  to  distinguish  it  from  Lebanon  prop- 
er, which  is  sometimes  termed  J(bel  el-Ghurbi/,  "West 
mountain"  (Robinson,  Biblical  lies,  ii,  437 ;  Burckhardt, 
Travels  in  Syria,  p.  4). 

To  insure  greater  definitenoss,  and  to  prevent  repeti- 
tion, the  name  Lebanon  will  be  applied  in  this  article  to 
the  western  range,  and  A  nti-Lebanon  to  the  eastern. 

II.  Physical  Geography. — 1.  Lebanon. — (1.)  Limits. — 
The  mountain-chain  of  Lebanon  commences  at  the  great 
vallej'  which  connects  the  INlediterranean  with  the  plain 
of  Hamath  (anciently  called  "  the  entrance  of  Hamath," 
Numb,  xxxiv,  8),  in  lat.  34^  40',  and  runs  in  a  south- 
western direction  along  the  coast,  till  it  sinks  into  the 
plain  of  Acre  and  the  low  hills  of  (ialilee,  in  lat.  33°. 
Its  extreme  length  is  110  geographical  miles,  and  the 
average  breadtli  of  its  base  is  about  20  miles.  The 
highest  peak,  called  Dahar  el-Kudib,  is  about  25  miles 


LEBANON 


310 


LEBANON 


View  of  Lebanon  above  Beirut. 


from  the  northern  extremity,  and  just  over  the  little 
cedar  grove ;  its  elevation  is  10,051  feet  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  170).  From  this  point  the  range  decreases 
in  height  towards  the  south.  The  massive  rounded 
summit  of  Sunnln,  23  miles  from  the  former,  is  8500  feet 
high.  Jebel  Kenlseh,  the  next  peak,  is  6824  feet ;  and 
Tomat  Niha,  "  the  Twin-peaks,"  the  highest  tops  of 
southern  Lebanon,  are  about  6500  feet.  From  these  the 
fall  is  rapid  to  tlie  ravine  of  the  river  Litany,  the  an- 
cient Leontes. 

The  chain  of  Lebanon,  or  at  least  its  higher  ridges, 
may  be  said  to  terminate  at  the  ]ioint  where  it  is  thus 
broken  through  by  the  Litany.  But  a  broad  and  lower 
mountainous  tract  continues  towards  the  south,  border- 
ing the  basin  of  the  HiUeh  on  the  west.  It  rises  to  its 
greatest  elevation  about  Safed  (Jebel  Safed),  and  at 
length  ends  abruptly  in  the  mountains  of  Nazareth,  as 
the  northern  wall  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  This  high 
tract  may  very  properly  be  regarded  as  a  prolongation 
of  Lebanon. 

Some  writers  regard  the  Litany  as  marking  the  south- 
ern limit  of  Lebanon ;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  an- 
cient classical  geographers  were  of  this  opinion  (Smith, 
Did,  of  G.  and  R.  Geoij.  s.  v.  Libanus ;  Kitto,  P/i;/sical 
Jlist.  of  Pal.  p.  32).  Diodorus  Sicidus  describes  Leba- 
non as  extending  along  the  coast  of  Tripolis,  Bj'blus, 
and  Sidon  {Hist,  xix,  58) ;  and  the  Litany  falls  into  the 
sea  a  few  miles  south  of  Sidon.  The  notices  of  Ptolemy 
are  somewhat  indefinite,  and  represent  the  two  chains 
of  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  as  commencing  at  the 
Mediterranean — the  former  on  the  north,  the  latter  on 
the  south  (Jjeog.  v,  15).  Strabo  is  more  definite  and  less 
accurate :  "  There  are  two  mountains  which  inclose  Coele- 
Syria  lying  parallel  to  each  other.  The  commencement 
of  both  these  mountains,  Libanus  and  Anti-Lil)anus,  is  a 
little  way  above  the  sea.  Libanus  rises  from  the  sea 
near  Tripolis  and  Theoprosopon,  and  Anti-Libanus  from 
the  sea  near  Sidon.  They  terminate  somewhere  near 
the  Arabian  mountains,  which  arc  above  the  district  of 
Damascus  and  tlie  Trachoncs.  .  .  .  A  hollow  plain  lies 
between  them,  wliose  breadth  towards  the  sea  is  200 
stadia,  and  its  length  from  the  sea  to  the  interior  about 
twice  as  much.  Kivcrs  fiow  through  it,  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  Jordan"  (xvi,  754).  According  to  Fliny 
the  chains  begin  at  the  sea,  but  they  run  from  south  to 
north  (//.  X.  V,  17 ;  compare  Amniian.  Marcel,  xiv,  26). 
Cellarius  merely  repeats  these  ancient  authors  {Geog.  ii, 
430).  Ixcland  shows  their  errors  and  contradictions, but 
he  cannot  solve  them,  though  he  tlcrived  soine  impor- 
tant information  from  ]\Lnnidrell  {Palccst.  \\.  oil.  sq. ; 
comp.  Early  Trav.  in  Pal.  Hohn,  p.  483).  liosenmiiller 
{Bih.  Geog.  ii,  207,  Clark),  Wells  {Geog.  i,  239),"and  oth- 
ers, only  repeat  the  old  mistakes.  The  source  of  these 
errors  maj'  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  i)hy.sical 
geography  of  the  district  east  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.    There 


can  bo  no  doubt  that  the  range  of  Lebanon,  viewed  in 
its  physical  formation,  extends  from  the  entrance  of  Ha- 
math  to  the  plain  of  Acre ;  but  between  the  parallels 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  it  is  cut  through  by  the  chasm  of  the 
Litany,  which  drains  the  valley  of  Coele-Syria.  That 
river  enters  the  range  obliquely  on  the  eastern  side, 
turns  gradually  westward,  and  at  length  divides  the  main 
ridge  at  right  angles.  Here,  therefore,  it  maj'  be  said, 
in  one  sense,  that  the  chain  terminates ;  and  though  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Litany  another  chain  rises,  and 
runs  in  the  line  of  the  former,  it  is  not  so  lofty,  its  great- 
est height  scarcely  exceeding  8000  feet.  Ancient  geog- 
raphers thought  Lebanon  terminated  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Litany;  and  as  that  river  drains  the  valley  of 
Cocle-Syria,  which  lies  between  Lebanon  and  Anti-Leb- 
anon, they  naturally  supposed  that  the  chain  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Litany  was  the  commencement  of  the 
latter  range.  Here  lies  the  error,  which  Dr.  Porter  was 
among  the  first  to  detect,  by  an  examination  of  the  gen- 
eral conformation  of  the  mountain  ranges  from  the  sum- 
mit of  Hermon  (see  Bihliotheca  Sacra,  xi,  52 ;  Porter, 
Ikimascus,  i,  296). 

Anti-Lebanon  is  completely  separated  from  this  west- 
ern range  by  a  broad  and  deep  valley.  The  great  val- 
ley of  the  Jordan  extends  northward  to  the  -ivestern 
base  of  Hermon,  in  the  parallel  of  the  chasm  of  the  Lit- 
any. From  this  point  a  narrower  valley,  called  wady 
el-Teim,  runs  northward,  till  it  meets  an  eastern  branch 
of  Cffile-Syria.  These  three  valleys,  forming  a  continu- 
ous line,  constitute  the  western  boundary  of  Anti-Leba- 
non. No  part  of  that  chain  crosses  them  (Robinson,  ii, 
438).  The  southern  end  of  the  plain  of  Coele-Syria  is 
divided  by  a  low  ridge  into  two  branches.  Down  the 
eastern  branch  runs  wady  cl-Teim,  conveying  a  tribu- 
tary' to  the  Jordan  (Bib.  Sac.  1.  c. ;  liobinson,  iii,  428- 
430) ;  down  the  western  runs  the  Litany.  The  latter 
branch  soon  contracts  into  a  wild  chasm,  whose  banks 
arc  in  some  places  above  a  thousand  feet  high,  of  naked 
rock,  and  almost  jierpendicular.  At  one  spot  the  ravine 
is  only  60  feet  wide,  and  is  spanned  by  a  natural  bridge, 
at  the  height  of  about  100  feet  above  the  stream.  Over 
it  rise  jagged  walls  of  naked  limestone,  pierced  with 
numerous  caves.  The  scenery  is  here  magnificent;  as 
one  stands  on  this  arch  of  nature's  own  building,  he 
can  scarcely  repress  feelings  of  alarm.  The  cliffs  al- 
most meet  overhead ;  rugged  masses  of  rock  shoot  out 
from  dizzy  heights,  and  appear  as  if  about  to  plunge 
into  the  chasm;  the  mad  river  far  below  dashes  along 
from  rapid  to  rapid  in  sheets  of  foam.  In  wild  grandeur 
this  chasm  has  no  equal  in  Syria,  and  few  in  the  world. 
Yet,  from  a  short  distance  on  either  side,  it  is  not  visible. 
The  mountain  chain  appears  to  run  on  in  its  course,  de- 
clining gradually,  but  without  any  interruption.  The 
ridge,  in  fact,  has  been  cleft  asunder  by  some  terrible 
convulsion,  and  through  the  cleft  the  waters  of  Coele- 


LEBANON 


311 


LEBANON 


Svria  have  forced  their  way  to  the  Mediterranean  in- 
stead of  the  Jordan,  which  is  the  natural  outlet.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  ridge  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Litany  is  the  prolongation  of  that  on  the  north,  and  is 
a  part  of  Lebanon  (Robinson,  ii,  438) ;  and  that  the 
chasm  of  the  Litany,  though  the  draiu  of  Ccele-SjTia, 
is  no  part  of  that  vallc}'.  Neither  Coele-Syria,  there- 
fore, nor  Anti-Lebanon,  at  any  point,  approaches  within 
many  miles  of  the  Mediterranean  {Handbook  for  S.  and 
P.  \).  571 ;  Kobinson,  iii,  420  sq. ;  Van  de  Velde,  Travels, 
i,  145  sq.). 

(2.)  Western  Aspect. — The  view  of  Lebanon  from  the 
Mediterranean  is  exceedingly  grand.  On  approaching, 
it  appears  to  rise  from  the  bosom  of  the  deep  like  a  vast 
wall,  the  wavy  top  densely  covered  with  snow  during 
winter  and  spring,  and  the  two  highest  peaks  capped 
v.'ith  crowns  of  ice  on  the  sultriest  days  of  summer. 
The  ivestern  slopes  are  long  and  gradual,  furrowed  from 
top  to  bottom  with  deep  rugged  ravines,  and  broken  ev- 
erywhere by  lofty  cliffs  of  white  rock,  and  ragged  banks, 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  terrace  walls,  rising  like  steps 
of  stairs  from  the  sea  to  the  snow-wreaths.  "  The  whole 
mass  of  the  mountain  consists  of  whitish  limestone,  or 
at  least  the  rocky  surface,  as  it  reflects  the  light,  exhib- 
its everywhere  a  whitish  aspect.  The  mountain  teems 
with  villages,  and  is  cidtivated  more  or  less  almost  to 
the  top;  yet  so  steep  and  rocky  is  the  surface,  that  the 
tillage  is  carried  on  chieflj^  by  means  of  terraces,  built 
np  with  great  labor,  and  covered  above  with  soil.  When 
one  looks  upward  from  below,  the  vegetation  on  these 
terraces  is  not  seen,  so  that  the  whole  mountain  side  ap- 
pears as  if  composed  of  immense  rugged  masses  of  naked 
whitish  rock,  severed  by  deep  ■wild  ravines,  running 
down  precipitously  to  the  plain.  No  one  would  suspect 
among  these  rocks  the  existence  of  a  vast  multitude  of 
thrifty  villages,  and  a  numerous  population  of  moun- 
taineers, hardy,  industrious,  and  brave"  (Robinson,  ii, 
493;  comp.  Volney,  Travels,  i,  272  sq.). 

On  looking  down  the  western  slopes  from  the  brow 
of  one  of  the  projecting  bluffs,  or  through  the  vista  of 
one  of  the  glens,  the  scenery  is  totally  different ;  it  is 
now  rich  and  picturesque.  The  tops  of  the  little  stair- 
like terraces  are  seen,  all  green  with  corn,  or  straggling 
vinos,  or  the  dark  foliage  of  the  mulberrj'.  The  steeper 
banks  and  ridge-tops  have  their  forests  of  pine  and  oak, 
while  far  away  down  in  the  bottom  of  the  glens,  and 
round  the  villages  and  castellated  convents,  are  large 
groves  of  gray  olives.  The  aspect  of  the  various  sec- 
tions of  the  mountains  is,  however,  very  different,  the 
rocks  and  strata  often  assuming  strange,  fantastic  shapes. 
At  the  head  of  the  ^•alley  of  the  Dog  river  are  some  of 
the  most  remarkable  rock  formations  in  Lebanon.  Here 
numbers  of  little  ravines  fall  into  the  main  glen,  and 
their  sides,  with  the  intervening  ridges,  are  thickly  cov- 
ered with  high  peaks  of  naked  limestone,  sometimes 
rising  in  solitary  grandeur  like  obelisks,  but  generally 
grouped  together,  and  connected  by  narrow  ledges  like 
arched  viaducts.  In  one  place  the  horizontal  strata  in 
the  side  of  a  lofty  cliff  are  worn  away  at  the  edges,  giv- 
ing the  whole  the  appearance  of  a  large  pile  of  cushions. 
In  other  jjlaces  there  are  tall  stalks,  with  broad  tops  like 
tables.  In  many  places  the  cliffs  are  ribbed,  resembling 
the  pipes  of  an  organ,  or  columnar  basalt.  A  single 
perch  of  clear  soil  can  scarcely  be  found  in  one  spot 
throughout  the  whole  region,  but  every  minute  patch  is 
cultivated,  even  in  grottoes  and  under  natural  arches 
(Porter's  Bamascvs,  ii,  2H'.)).  The  highest  peaks  of  the 
range  are  naked,  white,  and  barren.  A  line  drawn  at 
the  altitude  of  about  6000  feet  would  mark  the  limits 
of  cultivation.  Above  that  line  the  shelving  sides  and 
rounded  tops  are  covered  with  loose  limestone  debris, 
and  are  almost  entirely  destitute  of  vegetable  life. 

The  western  base  of  Lebanon  does  not  correspond 
with  the  shore-line.  In  some  cases  bold  spurs  shoot  out 
from  the  mountains,  and  dip  perpendicularly  into  the 
sen.  forming  Ijluff  promontories,  such  as  the  "Ladder  of 
Tyre,"  Tromontorium  Album,  or  "  White  Cape,"  the  well- 


knowTi  pass  of  the  Dog  River,  and  the  Theoprosopon, 
now  called  Ras  esh-Shuk'ah.  In  other  places  the  momi- 
tains  retire,  or  the  shore-line  advances  (as  at  Eeyrnt 
and  Tripolis),  leaving  little  sections  of  fertile  plain,  va- 
rying from  half  a  mile  to  three  miles  in  width.  This 
was  the  territory  of  the  old  Phoenicians,  and  on  it  still 
lie  the  scattered  remains  of  their  once  great  cities.  See 
Phcenicia.  From  the  promontory  of  Theoprosopon  a 
low  ridge  strikes  northward  along  the  shore  past  Tripo- 
lis, separated  from  the  main  chain  by  a  narrow  valley. 
When  it  terminates,  the  coast -plain  becomes  much 
wider,  and  gradually  expands,  till  it  opens  at  the  north- 
ern base  of  Lebanon  into  the  valley  leading  to  the  "  en- 
trance of  Hamath"  (Robinson,  iii,  385). 

(3.)  Eastern  Declivities.- — From  the  east  Lebanon 
presents  a  totally  different  aspect.  It  does  not  seem 
much  more  than  half  as  high  as  when  seen  from  the 
west.  This  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  great  elevation  of  the 
plain  extending  along  its  base,  which  is  on  an  average 
about  3000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  175).  The  ridge  resembles  a  colossal  wall, 
its  sides  precipitous,  and  thinly  covered,  in  most  places, 
with  oak  forests.  There  arc  very  few — only  some  two 
or  three — glens  furrowing  them.  The  summit  of  the 
ridge,  or  backbone,  is  much  nearer  the  eastern  than  the 
western  side;  and  extending  in  gentle  undulations,  white 
with  snow,  far  as  the  eye  can  see  to  the  riglit  and  left, 
it  forms  a  grand  object  from  the  ruins  of  Ba'albek,  and 
still  more  so  from  the  heights  of  Anti-Lebanon.  A  near- 
er approach  to  the  chain  reveals  a  ne^v  feature.  A  side 
ridge  runs  along  the  base  of  the  central  chain  from  the 
town  of  Zahleh  to  its  northern  extremity,  and  is  thinly 
covered  throughout  with  forests  of  oak  intermixed  with  a 
wild  plum,  hawthorn,  jmiiper,  and  other  trees.  A  little 
south  of  the  parallel  of  Sunnin  this  ridge  is  low  and  nar- 
row, and  the  Buka'a  is  there  widest.  Advancing  north- 
wards the  ridge  increases  in  height,  and  encroaches  on 
the  plain,  until,  at  the  fountain  of  the  Orontes  ('Ain  el- 
'Asy),  it  attains  its  greatest  elevation,  and  there  the 
plain  is  narrowest.  From  this  point  southwards  to 
where  the  road  crosses  from  Ba'albek  to  the  Cedars,  the 
central  chain  is  steep,  naked,  and  destitute  of  vegetation, 
except  here  and  there  a  solitarj^  oak  or  blasted  pine 
clinging  to  the  rocks  (Porter's  Damascus,  ii,  303  sq. ; 
Robinson,  iii,  530  sq,). 

The  side  ridge  above  described  sinks  down  in  grace- 
ful wooded  slopes  into  wady  Khalcd,  ■which  drains  a 
part  of  the  plain  of  Hums,  and  falls  into  Nahr  el-Kebir. 
The  main  chain  also  terminates  abru]itly  a  little  farther 
west,  and  its  base  is  swept  by  the  waters  of  the  Kebir, 
the  ancient  river  Eloutherus  (Robinson,  iii,  558-GO). 

(4.)  Rivers. — Lebanon  is  rich  in  rivers  and  for.ntains, 
fed  by  the  eternal  snows  that  crown  its  summit,  and  the 
vapors  which  they  condense.  The  '•  streams  from  Leb- 
anon" were  proverbial  for  their  abundance  and  beauty 
in  the  days  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  (Cant,  iv,  15),  and 
its  "  cold-flowing  waters"  were  types  of  richness  and 
luxury  (Jcr.  xviii,  14).  Some  of  them,  too,  have  ob- 
tained a  classic  celebrity  (sceRcland./V//rr.<i'.p.  209,437). 
They  arc  all  small  mountain  torrents  ratlicr  than  riv- 
ers. The  following  are  the  more  imjiortant :  1.  The  Eleu- 
therus  (now  Nahr  el-Keblr),  rising  in  the  plain  of  Emesa, 
west  of  the  Orontes,  sweeps  round  the  northern  base  of 
Lebanon,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  midway  be- 
tween Tripolis  and  Aradus.  Strabo  states  that  it  form- 
ed the  northern  border  of  Phcenicia  and  Coele-Syria  (xvi, 
753;  Robinson,  iii.  57C).  2.  The  Kadisha,  or  '-sacred 
river,"  now  generally  called  Nahr  Abu-Aly,  has  its  high- 
est sources  around  the  little  cedar  grove,  and  descends 
through  a  sublime  ravine  to  the  coast  near  Tripolis.  At 
one  spot  its  glen  has  perpendicular  walls  of  rock  on  each 
side  nearly  1000  feet  high.  Here,  on  opposite  banks, 
are  two  villages,  the  peojile  of  which  can  converse  across 
the  chasm,  but  to  reach  each  other  requires  a  toilsome 
walk  of  two  hours.  In  a  wild  cleft  of  the  ravine  is  the 
convent  of  Kanobin,  the  chief  residence  of  the  Maronite 
patriarch  {Handbook/or  Syr.  and  Pal.  p,  586).     3.  The 


LEBAXON^ 


312 


LEBANON 


Adonis  (Nahr  Ibrahim),  famous  in  ancient  fable  as  the 
scene  of  the  romantic  story  of  Venns  and  Adonis.  Kill- 
ed by  a  boar  on  its  banks,  Adonis  dyed  with  his  blood  the 
waters,  which  ever  since,  on  the  anniversary  of  his  death, 
are  said  to  run  red  to  the  sea  (Lucian,  De  Stjria  l>ea,  (5 ; 
Strabo,  XV,  170).  Adonis  is  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  Tammuz,  for  whom  Ezekiel  represents  the  Jewish 
women  as  weeping  (viii,  14).  The  source  is  a  noble 
fountain  beside  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  Venus,  and  near 
the  site  of  Apheca,  now  marked  by  the  little  village  of 
Afka  (Eusebius,riV.  Const,  iii,  55;  Porter,  Damascus,  ii, 
297;  Kitter,  Pal.  unci  Syr.  iv,  558).  'J'he  Adonis  falls 
into  the  sea  a  few  miles  soutli  of  the  Biblical  Gebal.  4. 
The  Lyons  flumcn,  now  Nahr  el-Kelb,  or  "  Dog  Kiver," 
rises  high  up  on  the  flank  of  Sunnin,  and'breaks  down 
through  a  picturesque  glen.  At  its  mouth  is  that  fa- 
mous jiass  on  whose  scidptured  rocks  Assyrian,  Egyp- 
tian, Koman,  and  French  (! )  generals  have  left  records 
of  their  expeditions  and  victories  (Robinson,  iii,  G18; 
Jfaiulbool;  p.  407  sq. ;  Strabo,  xvi,  755).  5.  The  jMagoras 
of  Pliny  (v,  17)  is  probably  the  modern  Nahr  Beyriit. 
6.  The  Tamyras  or  Damuras  (Strabo,  xvi,  756 ;  Polyb- 
ius,  V,  (58)  rises  near  Deir  el-Kamr,  the  capital  of  Leba- 
non. It  is  now  called  Nahr  ed-Dammiir.  7.  The  Bos- 
trenus  of  ancient  authors  appears  to  be  identical  with 
Nahr  el-Awaley,  though  some  doubt  this.  8.  The  Le- 
ontes  has  already  been'  mentioned.  The  lower  section 
of  it  is  now  generally  termed  Kasimiyeh,  and  the  upper 
section  Litany.  Its  chief  sources  are  at  Chalcis  and 
Baalbek  ;  but  a  large  tributary  flows  down  from  the  ra- 
vine of  Zahleh,  and  is  the  only  stream  which  descends 
the  eastern  slopes  of  Lebanon.  See  Lkontks. 
^  2.  Anti-Lebanon. —  (l.)  Peals. — The  centre   and  cul- 

minating point  of  Anti-Lebanon  is  Herjiox.  Erom  it 
a  number  of  ranges  radiate,  like  the  ribs  of  a  half-open 
fan.  The  rirst  and  loftiest  runs  north-east,  parallel  to 
Lebanon,  and  separated  from  it  by  the  valley  of  Ccele- 
Syria,  whose  average  breadth  is  about  six  miles.  This 
ridge  is  the  backbone  of  Anti-Lebanon.  Where  it  joins 
Hermon  it  is  broad,  irregular,  intersected  by  numerous 
valleys  and  little  fertile  plains,  and  covered  with  thin 
forests  of  dwarf  oak  Its  elevation  is  not  more  than 
4500  feet.  Advancing  northwards,  its  features  become 
wilder  and  grander,  oak-trees  give  place  to  juniper,  and 
tlie  elevation  increases  until,  above  the  beautiful  plain 
of  Zebedany — which  lies  embosomed  in  its  very  centre 
—it  attains  a  height  of  about  7000  feet  (Van  de  Velde, 
Memoir,  p.  175).  Erom  this  point  to  the  parallel  of 
Ba'albek  tliere  is  little  change  in  the  elevation  or  scen- 
ery. Beyond  the  latter  it  begins  to  fall,  and  declines 
gradually  until  at  length  it  sinks  down  into  the  great 
plain  of  llamath,  eight  miles  east  of  Klblah,  and  sixteen 
south  of  Emesa.  With  the  exception  of  the  Uttle  up- 
land jilains,  and  a  few  of  the  deeper  valleys,  this  ridge 
is  incajjable  of  cultivation.  The  sides  are  steep  and 
rugged,  in  many  places  sheer  precipices  of  naked,  jagged 
rock,  nearly  1000  feet  high.  They  are  not  so  bare  or 
bleak,  however,  as  the  higher  summits  of  Lebanon.  Veg- 
etation is  abundant  among  the  rocks;  and  though  the 
inhabitants  are  few  and  far  between,  immense  flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats  arc  pastured  upon  the  mountains,  and 
wild  beasts— bears,  boars,  wolves,  jackals,  hya-nas,  foxes 
—are  far  more  abundant  tlian  in  any  other  "part  of  Syria 
or  Palestine  (Porter,  Damascus,  ii,  315). 

The  lowest  and  last  of  the  ridges  that  radiate  from 
Hermon  rinis  nearly  due  east  along  the  magnificent 
plain  of  Damascus,  and  continues  onward  to  Palmvra. 
Its  average  elevation  is  not  more  than  3000  feet,  and  it 
does  not  rise  more  than  about  7()0  feet  above  the  plain, 
though  some  of  its  peaks  are  much  higher.  Its  rock  is 
chalky,  almost  jnire  white,  and  entirely  naked— not  a 
tree,  or  slirul).  or  patch  of  verdure  is  anywhere  seon  upon 
it.  It  thus  forms  a  remarkable  contrast  to  the  rich 
green  of  the  ])lain  of  Damascus.  Erom  tlie  central 
range  to  this  ridge  there  is  a  descent,  by  a  series  of 
l)road.bare  terraces  or  plateaus,  supported  by  long,  con- 
tinuoua  walls  of  bare,  whitish  limestone,  varving  from 


100  to  1000  feet  in  height.  Nothing  could  be  more 
dreary  and  desolate  than  the  scenery  on  these  stejtpes. 
The  graveUy  soil,  in  many  places  tliickly  strewn  with 
flints,  is  as  bare  as  the  clift's  that  bound  them.  Yet  they 
are  intersected  by  several  rich  and  beautiful  glens,  so 
deep,  however,  that  their  verdure  and  foliage  can  not  be 
seen  from  a  distance.  Towards  the  east  these  steppes 
gradually  expand  into  broad  upland  plains,  and  portions 
of  tliem  are  irrigated  and  tilled.  (Jn  them  stand  the 
small  but  ancient  towns  of  Yabrud,  Nebk,  Jerud,  etc., 
around  which  madder  is  successfully  cultivated. 

(2.)  Ricers. — Anti-Lebanon  is  the  source  of  the  four 
great  rivers  of  Syria  :  1.  The  Orontes  (q.  v.),  springing 
irom  the  western  base  of  the  main  ridge,  beside  the  ruins 
of  Lybo,  flows  away  northward  through  a  broad,  rich 
vale,  laving  in  its  course  the  walls  of  Emesa,  Hamath, 
Apamea,  and  Antioch.  2.  The  Jordan  (q.  v.),  Palestine's 
sacred  river,  bursting  from  the  side  of  Hermon,  rolls 
down  its  deep,  mysterious  valley  into  the  Sea  of  Death. 
3.  The  Abana,  the  "  golden-flowing"  stream  of  Damas- 
cus {ChrijsorrliQas,  Pliny,  v,  IG ;  also  called  Dardines, 
Steph.  Byz. ;  see  Abaxa),  rises  on  the  western  side  of 
the  main  ridge,  cuts  through  it  and  the  others,  and  falls 
into  the  lake  east  of  the  city.  3.  The  Leontes  (q.  v.), 
Phoenicia's  nameless  stream,  has  its  two  principal  foun- 
tains at  the  western  base  of  Anti-Lebanon,  beside  Chal- 
cis and  Ba'albek  (Porter,  Damascus,  i,  11 ;  Robinson,  iii, 
498, 506).  The  oidy  other  streams  of  Anti-Lebanon  are 
(4)  the  Pharpar,  now  called  el-'Awaj,  rising  on  the  east- 
ern flank  of  Hermon  (see  Pharpar),  and  (5)  the  torrent 
wliicii  flows  down  the  fertile  glen  of  Helbon  (q.  v.)  into 
the  plain  of  Damascus. 

3.  These  parallel  ranges  enclose  between  them  a  fer- 
tile and  well- watered  vallej-,  averaging  about  rifteen 
miles  in  width,  which  is  the  Ccele-Syria  (Hollow  Syria) 
of  the  ancients,  but  is  called  by  the  present  inhabitants, 
by  w-ay  of  pre-eminence,  el-Bekaa,  or  "the  Valley." 
This  is  traversed  through  the  greater  portion  of  its 
length  by  the  river  Litany,  the  ancient  Leontes.  It 
is  the  "  vaUey  of  Lebanon"  ('(i^sri  r^'pS)  mentioned 
in  Josh,  xi,  17 ;  xii,  7,  and  later  '•  the  plain  of  Aveii" 
Ci'lNTS'pa)  alluded  to  by  Amos  (i,  5),  where  also  Sol- 
omon constructed  one  of  his  palaces  (1  Kings  vij,  2;  ix, 
0;  X,  17;  Cant,  vii,  4).     See  Ccele-Syria. 

III.  Natural  Science. — 1.  Tlie  geolofjtj  of  Lebanon  has 
never  been  thoroughly  investigated.  Dr.  Anderson,  who 
accompanied  the  United  States  expedition  under  lieu- 
tenant Lynch,  is  the  only  man  who  has  attempted  any- 
thing like  a  scientitic  examination  of  the  mountains. 
We  are  much  indebted  to  his  lieconnaissance,  embodied 
in  Lynch's  Official  lieporf.  The  German  traveller  lius- 
segger  also  supplies  some  facts  in  his  lieiscn  (vol.  iii). 
Tristram,  in  his  Land  of  Israel  (s.  f.)  has  considerably 
enlarged  our  knowledge  of  the  geologj'  as  well  as  natu- 
ral history  of  Lebanon. 

The  main  ridges  of  Lebanon  and  .Vnti-Lebanon  are 
composed  of  Jura  limestone,  hard,  partially  crystallized, 
and  containing  few  fossils.  The  strata  have  been  great- 
ly disturbed.  In  some  places  they  are  almost  perpen- 
dicular ;  in  others  tilted  over,  laying  bare  veins  and  de- 
tached masses  of  trap.  In  the  southern  part  of  Leba- 
non, near  Kedesh  and  Safed,  are  many  traces  of  recent 
disturbance.  Erom  the  earliest  ages  earthquakes  have 
been  frequent  and  most  destructive  in  that  region.  The 
earthcpiake  of  1837  buried  thousands  of  the  inhabitants 
of  .Safed  beneath  the  ruins  of  their  houses  i  Robinson,  ii, 
422  sq. ;  Ilandb.  p.  43!S).  In  tlie  ujipcr  basin  iif  the  Jor- 
dan, and  along  the  eastern  flank  of  llernion,  trap  rock 
abounds;  the  latter  is  the  conniieaccment  of  the  great 
trap-fields  of  Hauran  (Porter,  Damascus,  ii,  240  sq.). 

Over  the  Jura  limestone  there  is  in  many  places  a 
more  recent  cretaceous  deposit ;  its  color  is  gray,  and 
sometimes  pure  white.  It  is  soft,  and  abounds  in  flints 
and  fossils,  ammonites,  echiiiites,  ostr«a,  chenopus,  ne- 
rinea,  etc.,  often  occurring  in  large  beds,  as  at  Bhamdun 
above  BevrCit.     Fossil  flsh  are  also  found  imbedded  in 


LEBANON 


313 


LEBANON 


the  rock  near  the  ancient  Gebal  (Reland,  Palo'st.  p.  321). 
Tliese  cretaceous  deposits  occur  along  the  whole  western 
Hank  of  Lebanon,  and  the  lower  eastern  ranges  of  Anti- 
Lebanon  are  wholly  composed  of  them  (D'Arvieux,  J/«- 
moires,  ii,  393 ;  Elliot,  Travels,  ii,  257  ;  Yolney,  ii,  280). 

Extensive  beds  of  soft,  friable  sandstone  are  met  with 
both  in  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  According  to  An- 
derson, the  sandstone  is  of  a  more  recent  period  than  the 
cretaceous  strata.  This  change  in  the  geological  struct- 
ure gives  great  variety  to  the  scenery  of  Lebanon.  The 
regular  and  gracefid  outlines  of  the  sandstone  ridges 
contrast  well  with  tlie  bolder  and  more  abrupt  limestone 
cliffs  and  peaks,  while  the  ruddy  hue  and  sombre  pine 
forests  of  the  former  relieve  the  intense  whiteness  of  the 
latter. 

Coal  has  been  found  in  the  district  of  Metn,  east  of 
Beyrut,  but  it  is  impure,  and  the  veins  are  too  thin  to 
rci)ay  mining.  Iron  is  found  in  the  central  and  south- 
ern portions  of  Lebanon,  and  there  is  an  extensive  salt 
marsh  on  one  of  the  eastern  steppes  of  Anti-Lebanon 
(Vorter,  JJamascus,  i,  IGl ;  Ilandboo!:,  p.  3G3;  Yolney,  i, 
281  ;  P.urckhardt,  p.  27). 

2.  The  Botam/  of  Lebanon,  like  the  geology,  is  to  a 
great  extent  unknown.  It  appears  to  be  very  rich  in 
the  abundance,  the  variety,  and  the  beauty  of  the  trees, 
shrubs,  and  flowers  of  these  noble  mountains.  The 
great  variety  of  climate,  from  the  tropical  heat  of  the 
Jordan  valley  at  the  base  of  Hermon,  to  the  eternal 
snows  on  its  summit,  affords  space  and  fitting  home  for 
the  vegetable  products  of  nearly  every  part  of  the  globe. 
The  forests  of  Lebanon  were  celebrated  throughout  the 
ancient  world.  Its  cedars  were  used  in  the  temples  and 
palaces  of  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  vi;  2  Sam.  v,  11;  Ezra 
iii,  7 ;  Isa.  xiv,  8 ;  Josephus,  War,  v,  5, 2),  Kome  (Pliny, 
//.  N.  xiii,  11),  and  Assyria  (Layard,  N'm.  and  Bab.  p. 
356,  G44) ;  and  the  pine  and  oak  were  extensively  em- 
ployed in  ship-building  (Ezek.xxvii,4-G).  See  Cedah. 
On  these  mountains  we  have  still  the  cedar,  pine,  oak 
of  several  varieties,  terebinth,juniper,  walnut,  plane,  pop- 
lar, willow,  arbutus,  olive,  mulljefry,  carob,  tig,  pistachio, 
sycamore,  hawthorn,  ajjricot,  plum,  pear,  apple,  quince, 
pomegranate,  orange,  lemon,  palm,  and  banana.  The 
vine  abounds  everywhere.  Oleanders  line  the  streams, 
and  rhododendrons  crown  the  peaks  liigher  up,  with  the 
rock-rose,  ivy,  berberry,  and  honeysuckle.  The  loftiest 
summits  are  almost  bare,  owing  to  the  cold  and  extreme 
dryness.  There  are  even  here,  however,  some  varieties 
of  low  prickly  shrubs,  which  lie  on  the  ground  like  cush- 
ions, and  look  almost  as  sapless  as  the  gravel  from  which 
they  spring.  Many  of  the  flowers  are  bright  and  beau- 
tiful— the  anemone,  tulip,  pink,  ranunculus,  geranium, 
crocus,  lily,  star  of  Bethlehem,  convolvulus,  etc.  This- 
tles abound  in  immense  variety.  Tlie  cereab  and  rer/f- 
lahks  include  wheat,  barley,  maize,  lentils,  beans,  peas, 
carrots,  turnips,  potatoes,  melons,  pumpkins,  cucumbers, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  numerous  others. 

Irrigation  is  extensively  practiced,  and  wherever  v/a- 
ter  is  abundant  the  crops  are  luxuriant.  Probably  in  no 
part  of  the  world  are  there  more  striking  examples  of 
the  triumpli  of  industry  over  rugged  and  intractable 
nature  than  along  the  western  slopes  of  Lebanon.  The 
steepest  banks  are  terraced  ;  every  Tittle  shelf  and  cran- 
ny in  the  cliffs  is  occupied  by  the  thrifty  husbandman, 
and  planted  with  vine  or  mulberrj'  (Pobinson,  iii,  14,21, 
615 ;  Porter,  Damasrns,  ii,  283  ;  Handbook,  p.  410, 413). 

3.  Zoohir/ij. — Considerable  numbers  of  wild  beasts  still 
inhabit  the  retired  glens  and  higher  peaks  of  Lebanon, 
including  jackals,  hyenas,  wolves,  bears,  and  panthers  (2 
Kings  xiv,  9 ;  Cant,  iv,  8 ;  Hal),  ii,  17).    See  Palestine. 

Anti-Libanus  is  more  thinly  peopled  than  its  sister 
range,  and  it  is  more  abundantly  stocked  with  wild 
beasts.  Eagles,  vultures,  and  other  birds  of  prey  may 
be  seen  day  after  day  sweeping  in  circles  round  the 
beetliug  cliffs.  Wild  swine  are  numerous,  and  vast 
herds  of  gazelles  roam  over  tlie  bleak  eastern  steppes. 
See  Zooi.OfiV. 

IV.  Climate.  —  There  are  great  varieties  of  climate 


and  temperature  in  Lebanon.  In  the  plain  of  Dan,  at 
the  f<juntain  of  the  Jordan,  the  heat  and  vegetation  are 
almost  tropical,  and  the  exhalations  from  the  marshy 
plain  render  the  whole  region  unhealthy.  The  semi- 
nomads  who  inhabit  it  are  as  dark  in  complexion  as 
Egyptians.  The  thermometer  often  stands  at  98°  Fahr. 
in  the  shade  on  the  site  of  Dan,  while  it  does  not  rise 
above  32^  on  the  top  of  Hermon.  The  coast  along  the 
western  base  of  Lebanon,  though  very  sultry  during  the 
summer  months,  is  not  unhealthy.  The  fresh  sea-breeze 
which  sets  in  in  the  evening  keeps  the  night  compara- 
tively cool,  and  the  air  is  drj'  and  free  from  miasma. 
Snow  never  falls  on  the  coast,  and  it  is  very  rarely  seen 
at  a  lower  elevation  than  2000  feet.  Frost" is  unknown. 
In  the  plains  of  Coele-Syria  (3000  feet)  and  Damascus 
(about  2300  feet),  snow  falls  more  or  less  every  winter, 
sometimes  eight  inches  deep  on  the  streets  and  terraced 
roofs  of  Damascus,  while  the  roads  are  too  rough  and 
hard  with  frost  for  travelling.  The  main  ridges  of 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  are  generally  covered  with 
snow  from  December  to  March,  sometimes  so  deeply 
that  the  roads  are  for  weeks  together  impassable.  Dur- 
ing the  whole  summer  the  higher  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains are  cool  and  pleasant,  the  air  is  extremely  diy, 
and  malaria  is  unknown.  From  the  beginning  of  June 
till  about  the  20th  of  September  rain  never  falls,  and 
clouds  are  rarely  seen.  At  the  latter  date  the  autumn 
rains  begin,  generally  accompanied  with  storms  of  thun- 
der and  vivid  lightning.  January  and  February  are 
the  coldest  months.  The  barley  har\-est  begins,  on  the 
plain  of  Phoenicia,  about  the  end  of  April,  but  in  the 
upper  altitudes  it  is  not  gathered  in  till  the  beginning 
of  August.  During  the  summer,  in  the  village  of  Shum- 
lan,  on  the  western  declivity  of  Lebanon,  at  an  elevation 
of  2000  feet,  in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  the  thermom- 
eter does  not  rise  above  83°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  night  it 
usually  goes  down  to  76°.  From  June  20th  to  August 
20tn  the  barometer  often  does  not  vary  a  quarter  of  an 
inch;  there  are  few  cloudy  days,  and  scarcely  even  a 
slight  shower.  At  Bludan,  in  Anti-Lebanon,  with  an 
elevation  of  4800  feet,  the  air  is  extremely  dry,  and  the 
thermometer  never  rises  in  summer  above  82°  Fahr.  in 
the  shade.  The  nights  are  cool  and  pleasant.  The  si- 
rocco wind  is  severely  felt  along  the  coast  and  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Lebanon,  but  not  so  much  in  Anti- 
Lebanon.  It  blows  occasionally  during  IMarch  and 
April.  L'dc  is  almost  unknown  along  the  mountain 
ridges,  but  in  the  low  plains,  and  especially  at  the  base 
of  Hermon,  it  is  very  abundant  (Psa.  cxxxiii,  3). 

y.  Historical  Notices. — Lebanon  is  first  mentioned  as 
a  boundary  of  the  country  given  by  the  Lord  in  cove- 
nant promise  to  Israel  (Dent,  i,  7;  xi,  24).  To  the 
dwellers  in  the  parched  and  thirsty  south,  or  on  the  sul- 
try banks  of  the  Nile,  the  snows,  and  streams,  and  ver- 
dant forests  of  Lebanon  must  have  seemed  an  earthly 
paradise.  By  such  a  contrast  we  can  understand  JIo- 
ses's  touching  petition,  "  I  pray  thee  let  me  go  over  and 
see  the  good  land  that  is  beyond  Jordan,  that  goodly 
mountain,  and  Lebanon"  (Dent,  iii,  25).  The  mountains 
were  originally  inhabited  by  a  number  of  warlike,  inde- 
pendent tribes,  some  of  whom  Joshua  concpicred  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Merom  (xi,2-18).  Thej-  are  said  to  have 
been  of  Phoenician  stock  (Pliny,  v,  17 ;  Euscbius,  Oiiom. 
s.  V. ;  compare  1  Kings  v).  Further  north  were  tlie  Hi- 
vites  (Judg.  iii,  3),  and  the  Giblites,  and  Arkitcs,  whose 
names  still  cling  to  the  ruins  of  their  ancient  strong- 
holds. See  (JiiiLiTE,  Akkite.  The  Israelites  never 
completely  subdued  them,  but  the  enterprising  Phoeni- 
cians appear  to  have  had  them  under  their  jiower,  or  in 
their  pay,  for  they  got  timber  for  their  fleets  from  the 
mountains,  and  they  were  able  to  supply  Solomon  from 
the  same  forests  when  building  the  'lemple  (1  Kings  v, 
9-11 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  9  sq.).  At  a  later  period  we  find  the 
king  of  Assyria  felling  its  timber  for  his  military'  en- 
gines (Isa.  xiv,  8 ;  xxxvii,  24 ,  Ezek.  xxxi,  ](>),  and  it  is 
mentioned  on  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  (([.v.).  Dio- 
clorus  Siculus  relates  that  in  like  manner  Antigonus, 


LEBANON 


3U 


LEBAOTH 


G^Siiil 


having  collected  from  all  quarters 
hewers  of  wood,  and  sawyers,  and 
ship -builders,  brouglit  down  an 
immense  (juantity  of  timber  from 
Libanus  to  the  sea  to  build  himself 
a  navy  (xix,  58).  The  same  fact 
that  this  mountain  was  the  famous 
resort  for  timber,  whether  for  ar- 
chitectural, naval,  or  military  pur- 
poses, api)ears  from  the  Egyptian 
monuments,  where  the  name  is 
found  in  the  corrupted  form  of 
Lemanon  (Wilkinson,  Egyptians,  i, 
403).  It  is  there  represented  as  a 
mountainous  country,  inaccessible 
to  chariots,  and  abounding  in 
lofty  trees,  which  the  affrighted 
mountaineers,  having  fled  thith- 
A  suppliant  Native  of       f         j-  engaged  in  fell- 

Lebanon  (the  hiero-  .        .         »  '         .         ,      ,         , 
glyph  reads  Z-?)i-n-«).  "'S'  "^  order  to  impede  the  ad- 
Froni  the  Egyptian  vance  of  the  invading  Egyptian 
Moniimeuts.  army. 

During  the  conquests  of  David  and  the  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  nation  under  Solomon,  the  Jews  be- 
came fully  acquainted  with  the  richness,  the  grandeur, 


Natives  felliu 


:  Trees  in  Lebanon. 
Monuments. 


From  the  Egyptian 


and  the  luxuriant  foliage  of  Lebanon,  and  ever  after 
that  mountain  was  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  n-ealth 
and  majesty.  Thus  the  Psalmist  savs  of  the  Blessiah's 
kingdom,  "The  fruit  thereof  shall  sliake  like  Lebanon" 
(Ixxii,  10) ;  and  Solomon,  praising  the  beauty  of  the 
Bridegroom,  writes,  "His  countenance  is  as  Lebanon, 
excellent  as  the  cedars"  (Cant,  v,  15).  Isaiah  also  pre- 
dicts of  the  Church,  "  The  glory  of  Lebanon  shall  be 
given  to  it"  (xxxv,  2;  compare  Ix,  13;  Hos.  xiv,  5,  6). 
Indeed,  in  Scripture,  Lebanon  is  very  generally  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  cedar-trees  with  which  it 
abounded;  but  its  wines  are  also  noticed  (Hos.  xiv,  8) ; 
and  in  Cant,  iv,  11 ;  IIos.  xiv,  7,  it  is  celebrated  for  va- 
rious kinds  of  fragrant  plants.  Lebanon  is  greatly  cele- 
brated both  iu  sacred  and  classical  writers,  and  much  of 
the  sublime  imagery  of  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Test,  is 
borrowed  from  this  mountain  (e.  g.  I'sa.  xxix,  5,  G;  civ 
lG-18;  Cant,  iv,  8, 15;  Isa.  ii,  13;  Zech.  xi.  1.  2).  ■ 

Anti-Lebanon  seems  to  liave  Ijecu  early  l)rought  un- 
der the  sway  of  Damascus,  though  amid  its  southern 
strongholds  were  some  tierce  tribes  who  preserved  their 
independence  down  to  a  late  period  (1  Chron.  v,  19-23; 
Josephus,  Ant.  xiii,  11.  3;  Strabo,  xvi,  p.  755,  756). 


During  the  reign  of  the  Seleucidae  several  large  cities 
were  founded  or  rebuilt  in  these  mountains,  as  Laodi- 
cea  at  the  northern  end  of  Anti-Lebanon,  Chalcis  at  its 
eastern  base,  Abila  in  the  wild  glen  of  the  Abana  (Luke 
iii,  1).  See  Abila.  At  the  commencement  of  our  ;era, 
Lebanon,  with  the  rest  of  Syria,  passed  into  the  hands 
of  Rome,  and  under  its  fostering  rule  great  cities  were 
built  and  beautiful  temples  erected.  The  heights  on 
v/hich  Baal-tires  had  burned  in  primeval  times,  and  the 
groves  where  the  rude  moinitain  tribes  worshipped  their 
idols,  became  the  sites  of  noble  buikUngs,  wliose  ruins  to 
this  day  excite  the  admiration  of  every  traveller.  Greece 
itself  cannot  surpass  in  grandeur  the  temples  of  Ba'albek 
and  Chalcis.  There  are  more  than  thirty  temples  in 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  (Porter,  Handbook,  p.  454, 
457,  557, 411 ;  comp.  Kobinson,  iii,  438,  G25). 

During  the  wars  of  the  Seleucidffi,  the  Romans,  and 
the  Saracens,  the  inhabitants  of  Lebanon  probably  re- 
mained in  comparative  seciu-ity.  "When,  under  the 
jMuslem  rule,  Christianity  was  almost  extirpated  from 
the  rest  of  SjTia,  it  retained  its  hold  there;  and  the 
Maronites  (q.  v.),  who  still  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
the  range,  are  doubtless  the  lineal  descendants  of  the  old 
Syrians.  The  sect  originated  in  the  7th  century,  when 
the  monk  Maron  taught  them  the  JMonothelitic  heresy. 
In  the  12th  century  they  submitted  to  the  pope,  and 
have  ever  since  remained  devoted  Papists.  They  num- 
ber about  200,000.  The  Druses  (q.  v.),  their  hereditary 
foes,  dwell  in  the  southern  section  of  the  range,  and 
number  about  80,000.  The  jealousies  and  feuds  of  the 
rival  sects,  fanned  by  a  cruel  and  corrupt  government, 
often  desolate  "that  goodly  mountain"  with  fire  and 
sword.  Anti-Lebanon  has  a  considerable  Christian  pop- 
ulation, but  they  are  mixed  with  Mohammedans,  and 
have  no  political  status.  The  whole  range  is  under  the 
authority  of  the  pasha  of  Damascus. 

The  American  missionaries  have  established  several 
schools  among  the  people  of  Lebanon,  and  for  some 
years  past  pleasing  success  has  attended  their  efforts  in 
the  mountain,  winch,  however,  were  almost  wholly  in- 
terrupted by  the  violent  outbreak  among  the  Druses  in 
18G0,  ending  in  a  wholesale  massacre  of  the  Christians. 
On  the  suppression  of  this,  a  Maronite  governor  was 
appointed  over  the  district  by  the  Turkish  government, 
under  the  protectorate  of  the  live  great  European  powers, 
V.  Literature. — Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  iii,  344, 
345,  439  ;  Kitto,  Pictorial  Jlistori/  of  Palestine,  Introd. 
p.  xxxii-xxxv,  Iv ;  Reland,  Palcestina,  i,  311;  Rosen- 
miiUer,  Biblisch.  Alterthuni.  ii,  236  ;  Raumer,  Palastina, 
p.  29-35 ;  D'ArvieiLX,  Memoii-es,  ii,  250 ;  Vohiey,  Voi/cif/e 
en  Syrie,  i,  243  ;  Seetzen,  in  Zach's  Monatl.  Correspond. 
June,  1806  ;  Burckhardt,  Travels  in  Syr.  p.  1  sq. ;  Rich- 
ter,  Wallfahrtcn,  j).  102,  etc.;  Irby  and  Mangles,  Travels, 
p.  20G-220 ;  Buckingham,  .1  rab  Tribes,  p.  468  sq. ;  Fi_sk, 
in  j\Iissionary  Herald,  1824 ;  EUiot,  Travels,  ii,  27G ; 
Hogg,  Visit  to  Alexandria,  Jerusalem,  etc.,  i,  219  sq. ,  ii. 
81  sq.;  Addison,  Palmyra  and Ba7nascus,  ii, 43-82  ;  Rit- 
ter's  Erdkunde,  xvii,  div.  1 ;  Robinson's  Researches,  new 
edit.,  iii,  584-625 ;  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1843,  p.  205-253 ; 
1848,  p.  1-23,  243-262, 447-480,  663-700 ;  Schwarz,  Pal- 
est, p.  55;  Kelly's  Syria  and  Holy  Land,  p.  76-165;  Por- 
ter, Damascus  (Lond.  1855) ;  Thomson,  Land  and  Book, 
vol.  i ;  Van  de  Velde,  Travels,  etc.,  vol.  i  ;  Churchill, Leb- 
anon (Loiulon,  1853,1862);  also  Druses  and  Maronites 
(Lond.  18G2; ;  Tristram,  LAind  of  Israel  (London,  1865)  ; 
Palmer,  in  the  Quarterly  Statement  of  the  "  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,"  April,  1871,  p.  107  sq.  See  Pales- 
tin  k. 

Leb'aoth  (Heb.  Lebaoth',  riiX3P,  lionesses;  Sept. 
Art/3aw^),  a  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Judah,  i.  e. 
Simeon  (.Josh.  xv.  32)  ;  elsewliere  more  fully  Betii-le- 
I5AOTH  (Josh,  xix,  6) ;  also  Bpith-birei  (1  Chron.  iv, 
31).  The  associated  names  in  all  these  passages  sug- 
gest a  location  in  the  wild  south-western  part  of  the 
tribe,  possibly  at  the  ruined  site  marked  on  Van  de 
Velde's  Map  as  Sbeta,  on  wady  Simiyeh,  not  very  far 
from  Elusa,  towards  Gaza. 


LEBB^US 


315 


LEBRTJA 


Lebbse'us  (Af/S/Saloc),  a  surname  of  Judas  or  Jude 
(Matt.  X,  3),  one  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  a  member,  to- 
gether with  his  namesake  "  Iscariot,"  James  the  son  of 
Alphicus,  and  Simon  Zelotes,  of  the  last  of  the  three  sec- 
tions of  the  apostolic  body.  The  name  Judas  only, 
without  any  distinguishing  mark,  occurs  in  the  lists 
given  in  Luke  vi,  16 ;  Acts  i,  13 ;  and  in  John  xiv,  '22 
(where  we  tind  "  Judas  not  Iscariot"  among  the  apos- 
tles), but  the  apostle  has  been  generally  identified  with 
"Lebbiiius  whose  surname  wasThaddajus"  (Af/3/3a7oc  o 
iTTi/cXj/jf (t;  Ba^onlof)  (Matt,  x,  3 ;  Mark  iii,  18),  though 
Schleiermacher  (Critical  Essay  on  St. Luke,  p.  93)  treats 
with  scorn  any  such  attempt  to  reconcile  the  lists.  In 
botli  tlie  last  quoted  places  there  is  considerable  variety 
of  reading,  some  MSS.  having  both  in  Matt,  and  Mark 
AtjiftcnoQ  or  fdaoSaloQ  alone,  others  introducing  the 
name  'louCaQ,  or  Judas  Zelotes,  in  Matt.,  where  the  Vul- 
gate reads  Thadckeus  alone,  which  is  adopted  by  Lach- 
mann  in  his  Berlin  edition  of  1832.  This  confusion  is 
still  I'urther  increased  by  the  tradition  preserved  by  Eu- 
sebius  ( //.  K.  i,  13)  that  the  true  name  of  Thomas  (the 
twin)  was  Judas  (lovcaQ  6  Kcd  GwyuacOj  ^ii'l  that  Thad- 
dreus  was  one  of  the  "  seventy,"  identified  by  Jerome  in 
Mutt.  X  with  "  Judas  Jacobi,"  as  well  as  by  the  theories 
of  modern  scholars,  who  regard  the  "Levi"(Ae?;(c  6  -ov 
'AXfaiov)  of  iMark  ii,  1-4 :  Luke  v,  27,  who  is  called  "Le- 
bes"  (Af/,//)(j)  by  Origen  {Cont.  Cels.  1.  i,  §  62),  as  the 
same  with  Lebboeus.  The  safest  way  out  of  these  ac- 
knowledged difficulties  is  to  hold  fast  to  the  ordinarily 
received  oi)inion  that  Jude,  Lcl:)b;i?us,  and  Thadda;us 
were  three  names  for  the  same  apostle,  who  is  therefore 
said  by  Jerome  (/«  Matt,  x)  to  have  been  "  trionimus," 
rather  than  introduce  confusion  into  the  apostolic  cata- 
logues, and  render  them  erroneous  either  in  excess  or  de- 
fect.    See  THADD.12US. 

The  interpretation  of  the  names  Lebbseus  and  Thad- 
doeus  is  a  question  beset  with  almost  equal  difficulty. 
The  former  is  interpreted  by  Jerome  "  hearty,"  corcu- 
lum,  as  from  ;ib,  coi;  and  Thadda^us  has  been  erroneous- 
ly supposed  to  have  a  cognate  signification,  homo  pecto- 
rosus,  as  from  the  Syriac  'IP),  jjectus  (Lightfoot,  IIor(B 
Ihh.  p.  235;  Bengel,  Matt,  x,  3),  the  true  signification 
of  TO  being  mamma  (Angl.  teat)  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Talm. 
p.  2505 ).  Winer  [Realwurterh.  s.  v.)  would  combine  the 
two,  and  interpret  them  as  meaning  Herzenshind.  An- 
other interpretation  of  Lebbreus  is  the  young  lion  (leuii- 
adiis),  as  from  N'^nb,  leo  (Schleusner,  s.  v.),  while  Light- 
foot  and  Baumg.-Crusius  woidd  derive  it  from  Lehba,  a 
maritime  town  of  Galilee  mentioned  by  Pliny  (Ilisi.  Nat. 
v,  19).  where,  however,  the  ordinary  reading  is  Jebba. 
Thadda'us  appears  in  Syriac  under  the  form  Adai ;  hence 
IMichaelis  admits  the  idea  that  Adai,  Thaddteus,  and  Ju- 
das may  be  different  representations  of  the  same  word 
(iv,  37(1),  and  Wordsworth  (Gr.  Test,  in  j\Iatt.  x,  3)  iden- 
tifies Thaddicus  with  Judas,  as  both  from  ri"nn,  "  to 
praise."  Chrs'sostoni  (De  Prod.  Jud.  1.  i,  c.  ii)  sa3's  that 
there  was  a  "Judas  Zelotes"  among  the  disciples  of  our 
Lord,  whom  he  identifies  with  the  apostle. — Smith.  See 
Jude. 

Lebetif,  Jean,  a  French  priest  and  antiquary,  was 
born  at  Auxerre  INIarch  6, 1687,  and  became  a  priest  in 
the  cathedral  of  his  native  place.  Later  he  made  an 
antiquarian  visit  through  France,  and  in  1740  was  cho- 
sen a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions,  for  which 
he  wrf)te  many  memoirs.  He  died  in  1700.  Lebeuf 
published  several  dissertations  on  French  history,  for  a 
hst  of  which,  see  Iloefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Gin.  xxx,  84. 

Lebi,  Lebiyah.     See  Lton. 

Leblond,  Gaspakd  jMichei-,  a  noted  French  eccle- 
siastic and  antiquary,  was  born  at  Caen  Nov.  24, 1738, 
and,  after  entering  the  priesthood,  became  abbot  of  Ver- 
mort.  Later  he  lived  in  Paris  as  keeper  of  the  Jlaza- 
rin  Library.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
and  wrote  several  archaeological  treatises.  He  died  June 
17, 1S09.     See  Hocfer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gen,  xxx,  97. 


Leboii,  JosKPir,  a  noted  French  priest  and  politi- 
cian, was  born  Sept.25, 1765,  at  Arras;  pursued  his  stud- 
ies under  the  Brethren  of  the  Oratory,  and  entered  their 
order  afterwards;  then  taught  rhetoric  at  one  of  their 
colleges;  but  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  he 
caught  the  intoxication  of  the  hour,  and  finally  became 
one  of  the  worst  Terrorists,  mingling  beastly  profligacy 
with  unquenchable  bloodthirstiness.  He  w'as  particu- 
larly severe  upon  the  clergy,  more  especially  monastics ; 
but  when  the  reaction  set  in  he  suffered  for  his  conduct 
death-punishment  by  the  guillotine  in  1795,  at  Amiens. 
See  Lacroix's  Pressense,  Ileliyion  and  the  litiyn  of  Ter- 
ror, p.  200, 407. 

Lebonah.     See  Fuanivincense. 

Lebo'nah  (Heb.  Lehonah',  tMi'^zb,  frankincense,  as 
often ;  Sept.  Af/Swva),  a  town  near  Shiloh,  north  of  the 
spot  where  the  Benjamite  youth  were  directed  to  cap- 
ture the  Shilonite  maidens  at  the  yearly  festival  held 
"  on  the  north  side  of  Bethel,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
highway  that  goeth  up  from  Bethel  to  Shechem"  (Judg. 
xxi,  19).  The  earliest  modern  mention  of  it  is  in  the 
Itinerary  of  the  Jewish  traveller  hap-Parchi  (A.D.  cir. 
1320),  who  describes  it  under  the  name  of  Lubin,  and 
refers  especially  to  its  correspondence  with  the  passage 
in  Judges  (see  Asher's  j5e?!/«7«2«  ofTudela,n,i3b).  Bro- 
cardus  mentions  it  as  a  very  handsome  village,  by  the 
name  of  Leinna,  four  leagues  south  of  Nablus,  on  the 
right  hand  of  the  road  to  Jerusalem  (chap,  vii,  p.  178). 
The  identity  of  this  place  was  again  suggested  by  Maun- 
drell,  who  calls  it  Leban  {Trav.  p.  86).  It  is  no  doubt 
the  Lubban  visited  by  Dr.  Eobinson  on  his  way  from  Je- 
rusalem to  Nablus  (Bib.  Researches,  iii,  90).  He  de- 
scribes the  khan  el-Lubban  as  being  now  in  ruins ;  but 
near  by  is  a  fine  fountain  of  running  water.  From  it  a 
beautiful  oval  plain  extends  north  about  fifteen  minutes, 
with  perhaps  half  that  breadth,  h'ing  here  deep  among 
the  high  rocky  hills.  About  the  middle  of  the  western 
side,  a  narrow  chasm  through  the  mountain,  called  wady 
el-Lubban,  carries  off  the  waters  of  the  plain  and  sur- 
rounding tract.  The  village  of  Lubban  is  situated  on 
the  north-west  acclivity,  considerably  above  the  plain. 
It  is  inhabited;  has  the  appearance  of  an  old  place ;  and 
in  the  rocks  above  it  are  excavated  sepulchres  (comp. 
De  Saulcy,  Nurratice,  i,  94,  95;  Schwarz,  Palest,  p.  130; 
Wilson,  ii,  292  sq. ;  Bonar,  p.  303  ;  Mislin,  iii,  319  ;  Por- 
ter, Handbook,  p.  330;  Van  de  Yelde,  Memoir,  p.  330; 
Tristram,  p.  160). 

Lebrija,  /Elius  Antonius  of  (or  Lebrixa.  vul- 
garly Xeb}-issensis,  from  Lebrixa  or  Lebrija,  the  old  Ne- 
brissa,  on  the  Guadalquivir),  "un  humanista  de  prima 
nota,"  the  Erasmus  of  Spain,  was  born  at  that  place  in 
1442  according  to  Munnoz  (Nichol.  Anton  and  Cave  spy 
1444).  He  studied  in  his  native  city,  and  afterwards 
went  to  the  University  of  Salamanca.  In  1461  he  went 
to  Italy  to  perfect  himself  in  the  classics.  He  visited 
the  best  schools,  heard  the  most  renowned  teachers,  and 
made  great  proficiency  in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  etc., 
and  even  in  theology,  jurisprudence,  and  medicine.  Af- 
ter ten  years  thus  employed  he  returned  to  Spain,  in- 
tending to  effect  a  reformation,  and  with  the  special  aim 
of  promoting  classical  learning,  in  the  universities  of  that 
country.  He  first  labored  in  an  unofficial  way,  and  as 
teacher  in  the  coUege  of  San  Miguel  at  Seville ;  but  Sal- 
amanca was  the  object  of  his  ambition.  His  lessons  met 
with  great  success,  and  he  soon  became  popular  through- 
out Spain.  He  contributed  very  largely  to  the  expulsion 
of  barbarism  from  the  seats  of  education,  and  to  the  diffu- 
sion of  a  taste  for  elegant  and  useful  studies.  He  also 
published  a  large  ntmiber  of  philological  works,  such  as 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  grammars,  and  especially  a 
Latin  lexicon,  which  was  enthusiastically  received  by 
the  universities  of  all  countries.  He  likewise  ajiplicd 
philology  to  theology,  and  by  that  means  caused  it  to 
make  a  great  progress:  in  order  to  correct  the  text  of 
the  Vulgate,  he  compared  it  with  the  older  texts,  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  originals,  and  was  one  of  the  chief 


LEBRUN 


316 


LECLERC 


writers  on  the  Polyglot  of  the  Alcala,  prepared  under 
the  direction  of  cardinal  Xiinenes.  Tliis  course  natu- 
rally brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  scholastics, 
whose  system  had  to  his  day  prevailed.  He  was  charged 
with  having  approached  the  intricate  subject  of  theol- 
ogy without  any  knowledge  of  it,  and  to  have  under- 
taken an  unprecedented  labor  on  the  mere  strength  of 
his  philological  talents.  The  Inquisition  interfered,  and 
part  of  his  BibUcal  works  were  prohibited.  He,  how- 
ever, protested  against  this  measure  in  his  Apologia, 
addressed  to  his  protector,  cardinal  Ximenes,  and  had 
it  not  been  for  the  interference  of  the  latter,  and  of  oth- 
er intluential  friends  at  the  court,  he  vrould  no  doubt 
have  suffered  severely  (compare  his  Apulor/kt,  in  An- 
tonii  Bihl,  Hisp.  Vet.  ii,  310  sq.)  ;  as  it  was,  he  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1513,  professor  of  Latin  literature  at  the  newly 
established  University  of  Alcala  de  Henares  (^Complti- 
iuni),  and  here  was  suffered  to  end  his  days  in  peace. 
He  died  Jul}'  2, 1522,  according  to  Munnoz.  Most  of 
his  v.'orks  are  still  extant,  among  them  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  made  by  order  of  that 
prince,  under  the  title  Decades  dace,  etc.  (posthumously 
edited,  15i5).  See  Nicolai  Antonii  Bihliotheca  Hispana 
(Rom.  1672),  p.  104  A,  109  B;  Du  Pin,  Nora:  Bibl.  des 
Auteurs  Eccles.  xiv,  120-123  ;  Guil.  Cave,  Scj-iptor.  eccl. 
Jlistoria  litter.  (Geneva;,  1094),  Appendix,  p.  116  B,  118 
A;  Hefele,  Cardinal  Ximenes,  \x  116, 124, 379, 458 ;  Islnn- 
noz,  Elogio  de  Antonio  de  Lebriju,  in  the  Memorias  de  la 
real  Academia  de  la  Ilistoria,  iii,  1-30;  Herzog,  Real- 
Eiici/klop.  viii,  265 ;  ]\I'Crie,  Reformation  in  Spain,  p.  61, 
75,  i05.    '(J.H.W.) 

Lebrun,  Pierre,  a  French  theologian,  born  at 
Brignolles  in  1661,  was  professor  in  several  colleges,  and 
died  in  1729.  He  wrote,  among  other  works,  a  Critical 
History  of  superstitious  Practices  which  have  seduced  the 
People  (1702). — Thomas,  Bior/.  Dictionary,  p.  1388. 

Lebuin  or  Liafv^in,  a  noted  colleague  of  Gregory 
in  his  mission  among  the  inhabitants  of  Friesland.  Ac- 
cording to  his  painstaking  biographer,  Huncbald,  a 
monk  of  the  convent  of  Elnon  in  the  10th  century  (in 
Surius,  vi,  277,  and  in  Pertz,  ii,  360),  Lebuin  was  a  na- 
tive of  Brittany,  and  joined  Gregory-  at  Lffrecht,  ha\ing 
been  directed  to  do  so  in  a  dream.  Gregory  sent  him 
on  a  mission  to  the  neighboring  people,  and  gave  him 
the  Anglo-Saxon  IMarcheliu  or  Marcellin  as  assistant. 
They  preached  with  great  success,  and  soon  established 
a  church  at  Wulpen,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Yssel, 
and  another  at  Deventer.  Tliese  churches  afterwards 
closing  by  an  invasion  of  the  Saxons,  Lebuin  coura- 
geously resolved  to  go  as  a  missionary  among  that  na- 
tion, and  went  to  Marklo,  one  of  their  principal  cities: 
later  he  went  further  north,  towards  the  Weser,  and 
there  was  well  received  by  an  influential  chief  named 
Folkbert,  who  seems  to  have  been  a  Christian.  Folk- 
bcrt  advised  him  not  to  visit  Marklo  during  the  reunion 
■which  was  held  there  yearly  to  discuss  the  general  in- 
terests of  the  nation,  but  to  conceal  himself  in  the  house 
of  one  of  his  friends,  Davo.  Lebuin,  however,  did  not 
abiile  by  this  counsel,  and  went  to  the  assembly.  Being 
aware  how  "omnis  concionis  illius  multitude  ex  diversis 
partibus  coacta  primo  suorum  proavorum  servare  con- 
tendit  instituta,  numinibus  videlicet  suis  vota  solvens 
ac  sacrificia,"  he  aiipeared  in  tlie  midst  of  the  assembled 
warriors  dressed  in  his  priestly  rol)es,  the  cross  in  one 
hand  and  the  Gospel  in  the  cttlior,  and  announced  him- 
self as  an  envoy  of  the  Most  High,  the  one  true  God 
anrl  creator  of  all  things,  to  whom  all  must  turn,  forsak- 
ing our  idols :  "  but,"  said  he,  at  the  close  of  \m  address, 
"  if  you  wickedly  persist  in  your  errors,  you  will  soon 
repent  it  bitterly,  for  in  a  short  time  there  will  come  a 
c;>urageous,  prudent,  and  strong  nionarcli  of  ilw  neigh- 
borhodil  who  will  overwhelm  vou  like  a  tornMit,  destrov- 
ing  all  with  tire  and  sword,  taking  your  wives  and  chil- 
dren to  be  his  servants,  and  subjecting  all  wlio  are  left 
to  his  rule."  This  discourse  greatly  excited  the  Saxons 
against  him ;  but  one  of  them,  Bute,  took  his  part,  and 


Lebuin  was  permitted  to  depart  unharmed.  He  now 
returned  to  Friesland,  and  rebuilt  the  church  of  Deven- 
ter, where  lie  remained  until  his  death.  When  Liudger 
built  a  third  time  the  church  which  had  been  again  de- 
stroyed during  an  invasion  of  the  Saxons  in  776,  the 
remains  of  Lebuin  were  discovered.  Lebuin  is  not  to 
be  mistaken  for  Livin,  the  pupil  of  Augustine,  who  went 
to  evangelize  Brabant  towards  the  middle  of  the  7th 
century.  The  biography  of  Livin,  believed  to  have 
been  written  by  Boniface,  cannot  for  a  moment  be  con- 
sidered as  referring  to  the  apostle  of  Germany.  It  is 
full  of  legends,  and  of  no  historical  value.  See  F.  W. 
Rettberg,  K.  Gesch.  Dentschlands,  ii,  405, 536,  509. — Her- 
zog, Real-Encyllop.  viii,  266 ;  Wetzer  u. >yelte,  Kircheur- 
Le.rikon,  vi,  401  sq. 

Le'cah  (Heb.  Lecah',  fl-P,  perh.  for  il-5%  a.  jour- 
ney, but  according  to  Fiirst,  annexation ;  Sept.  \)jxu  v.  r. 
Ar;X«'^  *"*l  A'/X"/^i  ^  i^Llg'  Lecha'),  a  place  in  the  tribe 
of  Judah  founded  by  Er  (or  rather,  perhaps,  by  a  son  of 
his  named  Lecah),  the  first -named  son  of  Shelah  (1 
Chron.  iv,  21).  As  Mareshah  is  stated  in  the  same  con- 
nection to  have  been  founded  by  a  member  of  the  same 
family,  we  may  conjecture  that  Lecah  (if  indeed  a  town) 
lay  in  the  same  vicinity,  perhaps  westerly. 

Leceue,  Charles,  a  French  Protestant  theologian, 
was  born  in  1647  at  Caen,  in  Normandy.  After  study- 
ing theology  at  Sedan,  Geneva,  and  Saumur,  he  was  in 
1672  appointed  pastor  at  Honfleur.  In  1682  he  supplied 
for  one  year  the  Cliurch  of  Charenton,  but  was  accused 
of  Pelagianism  by  Sartre,  pastor  of  Montpellier.  Una- 
ble to  obtain  from  the  Consistory  of  Charenton  a  certifi- 
cate of  orthodoxy  such  as  he  desired,  he  appealed  to  the 
next  national  synod,  where  he  was  warmly  sustained 
by  Allix,  but  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  sud- 
denly put  an  end  to  the  discussion.  Lecene  went  to 
Holland,  and  there  connected  himself  with  the  Armin- 
ians.  He  then  went  to  England,  but,  refusing  to  be  re- 
ordained,  and  being,  moreover,  strongly  suspected  of  So- 
cinianism,  he  was  unable  to  accomplish  anything  there, 
and  returned  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  until  1697. 
He  then  went  again  to  J^ngland,  and  settled  at  London. 
He  vainly  tried  to  found  an  Arminian  Church  in  the 
English  metropolis.  He  died  in  1703.  Lecene  was, 
e\'en  by  his  theological  adversaries,  considered  a  very 
learned  theologian.  A  plan  of  his  for  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  was  taken  up  by  his  son,  Michel  Lecene  ( Amst. 
1741,  2  vols,  folio)  :  Projet  dhine  nouvelle  version  Fran- 
foise  de  la  Bible  (Rotterdam,  1696,  8vo ;  translated,^?} 
Essay  for  a  new  Translation  of  the  Bible,  wherein  is 
shown  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  a  new  Translation,  2d 
ed.,  to  which  is  added  a  table  of  the  texts  of  Scripture 
[Loud.  1727, 8  vo]  ).  He  wrote  De  I'Etat  de  Vhomme  apres 
le pech'e  et  de  sa  predestination  au  salut  (Amsterd.  1684, 
12mo)  : — Entretiens  siir  direrses  matieres  de  theoloffie, 
etc.  (1685, 12mo): — Conversations  sur  divei-ses  matieres 
de  1-elifjion  (1687, 12mo).  See  Colani,  in  Revue  de  The- 
olof/ie,  vii,  343  sq.,  1857  ;  Hoefer,  Xouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxix, 
185 ;  and  the  sketch  in  the  A  vertissement  de  sa  traduc- 
tion de  la  Bible  (Amst.  1742,  2  vols,  folio).     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leckey,  Williaji,  a  Presbyterian  minister  in  Ire- 
land, flourished  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  centurj'. 
He  made  himself  conspicuous  by  the  part  he  took  in  the 
Blood  plot — an  attempt,  after  the  Restoration,  to  compli- 
cate the  Nonconformists  and  the  government  by  Avar- 
ring  against  Romanism,  He  was  imprisoned  i\Iay  22, 
1663,  and,  refusing  to  conform,  was  condemned  to  death, 
and  executed  on  July  15  at  Gallows  Green,  near  Dublin. 
Leckey  was  a  line  preacher  and  an  able  scholar,  a  fellow 
of  the  College  of  Dublin,  which  high  school  petitioned 
for  his  life.  This  roipiest  was  granted  upon  the  con- 
formity of  Leckey,  which,  as  we  have  seen  above,  he  re- 
fused. See  Reid,  Hist,  of  the  Presbyterian  Ch.  in  Ireland, 
ii,  275-282, 

Lecleic,  David,  a  Protestant  theologian,  was  born 
at  Geneva  Feb.  19.  1591.  He  studied  at  Geneva,  Stras- 
burg,  and  Heidelberg,  and  in  1615  went  to  England  to 


LECLERC 


317 


LECTIONAPJUM 


perfect  himself  in  the  study  of  Hebrew.  He  subse- 
quently returned  to  his  native  place,  and  in  1618  was 
appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  university.  He 
was  ordained  for  the  ministry  in  1G28,  and  died  April 
21,  11)54.  He  wrote  Qucesiiones  saci'a,  in  quibus  mitlta 
Scripturce  loca  variaque  lingucB  sacra  idiomata  expli- 
cantur,  etc.;  accesserunt  similium  argumentoruvi  diatri- 
bce  Steph.Clerici  (Amst,  1685,  8vo)  : — Oraliones  (^riii), 
conspectus  ecclesiasticus  et poemuta  ;  acceduni  Steph.  Cle- 
rici  Dissertationes  philologica  (Arasterd.  1687,  8vo) : — a 
Latin  translation  of  Buxtorf 's  Synagogue  (Basle,  1641, 
8vo  and  4to) ;  etc.  See  Tm  Vie  de  David  Leclerc,  in  his 
Qucesiiones  sucrce  ;  Senebier,  I/isi.  Lilteraire  de  Geneve ; 
Haag,  La  France  Protestunte ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ge- 
ne rede,  XXX,  195. 

Leclerc,  James  Theodore,  a  Swiss  Protestant 
theologian  and  Orientalist,  ;vas  born  at  Geneva  Nov.  25, 
1692.  He  became  pastor  and  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  city  in  1725,  and  died  in  1758.  He 
wrote,  Preservaiif  contre  le  Fanaiisme,  ou  Refutation 
des  j)retendus  Inspires  de  ce  Steele,  trad,  du  Latin  de 
Sam.  Turretin  (Gen.  1723, 8vo) :  it  is  a  work  against  the 
prophets  of  the  Cevennes : — Supplement  au  Preservaiif 
conire  le  Fanaiisme  (Gen.  1723,  8vo)  : — Les  Psaumes  fra- 
duits  en  Fran^ais  sur  Voriginal  Uebreu  (Gen.  1740  and 
1761,  8vo).  See  Senehier,  Hist.  Litterait'e  de  Geneve; 
Haag,  Zu  France  Pi-otestante ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Ge- 
nercde,  xxx,  200.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Le  Clerc,  John  (1),  first  martyr  of  the  Ecforma- 
tioii  in  France,  a  mechanic  by  trade,  was  born  at  Meaux 
towartls  the  close  of  the  15th  centurj'.  He  was  brought 
to  the  knowledge  of  divine  truth  by  reading  the  N.  T. 
translated  into  FrcncVi  by  Lefevre  d'Ltaples,  and  in  his 
zeal  for  the  cause  he  dared  to  post  on  the  door  of  the 
cathedral  a  1)111  in  which  the  pope  was  called  antichrist. 
For  this  offence  he  was  condemned  to  be  whipped  in 
Paris  and  at  INIeaux,  was  branded  on  the  forehead,  and 
exiled.  He  retired  to  Rosoy,  then  to  Metz  in  1525, 
where  he  continued  to  work  at  his  trade,  wool-carding. 
Here  he  one  day  broke  the  images  which  the  Romanists 
intended  to  carry  in  procession.  Instead  of  trying  to 
hide  himself,  he  boldly  confessed  his  deed,  and  was  con- 
demned to  fearful  bodily  punishment.  His  right  hand 
was  cut  off,  his  nose  torn  out,  his  arm  and  breast  torn 
with  red-hot  pincers,  and  his  head  encircled  with  two 
or  three  bands  of  red-hot  iron ;  amid  all  his  torments  he 
sung  aloud  the  verse  of  Psa.  cxv,  "  Their  idols  are  silver 
and  gold,  the  work  of  men's  hands."  He  was  finally 
thrown  into  the  fire,  and  thus  died.  His  brother  Peter, 
also  a  wool-carder,  was  chosen  by  the  Protestants  of 
Meaux  for  their  pastor,  and  fell  a  victim  to  persecution 
in  1546.  See  Haag,  La  France  Protestante,  vol.  vi ;  Hoe- 
fer, Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  193 ;  Browning.  IJistory 
of  the  Huguenots,  i,  23. 

Le  Clerc,  John  (2).     See  Clerc,  Le. 

Leclerc,  Laurent  Jose,  a  French  priest,  was  born 
in  Paris  Aug.  22,  1677,  studied  theology,  and  was  then 
admitted  into  the  community  of  the  preachers  of  St.  Sul- 
])ice,  was  licensed  by  the  Sorbonne  in  1704,  and  taught 
theology  at  Tulle  and  at  Orleans.  In  1722  he  became 
princii)al  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Orleans,  and 
died  May  6, 1736.  He  published,  besides  other  works,  .4 
Critical  Letter  on  Buylt's  Dictionary.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  201. 

Lecomte,  Louis,  a  French  Jesuit,  was  born  at  Bor- 
deaux about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  He  was 
sent  as  missionary  to  China  in  1685,  and,  after  a  stay 
of  some  years  in  the  mission  of  Shensee  (Chensi),  re- 
turned to  France,  and  published  in  1696  Memoirs  on  the 
present  Slate  of  China,  a  work  which  was  censured  bj' 
the  faculty  of  theology.  He  died  in  1729.— Thomas, 
Biog.  Did.  p.  1390. 

Lectern,  or  Lettern  (Lat. leciorium  or  lectriciuni), 
a  reading-desk  or  stand,  properly  movable,  from  which 
the  Scripture  "lessons"  (leciiones),  which  form  a  portion 


of  the  various  church- 
services,  are  chanted  or 
read  in  many  churches. 
The  lectern  (also  called 
pulpitum,  arnbo,  sugges- 
ius,pyrgus,  tribunal,  lec- 
tricium,  or,  most  fre- 
quently, leciorium),  of 
very  ancient  use,  is  of 
various  forms  and  of 
different  materials,  and 
is  found  both  in  Roman 
Catholic  churches  and 
in  the  cathedrals  and 
college-chapels  of  the 
Church  of  F^ngland. 
Originally  they  were 
made  of  wood,  but  later 
they  were  frequently 
also  made  of  stone  or 
metal,  and  sometimes 
in  the  form  of  an  eagle 
(the  symbol  of  St.  John 
the  Evangelist),  the 
outspread  wings  of 

T     ,        .    „  r,x.      1,       which  form  the  frame 

Lectern  ui  Ramsay  Church,  .        , 

Huntingdonshire  (about  1450).   supportmg  the  volume. 

In  Scotland,  during  the 

last  centun,',  the  precentor's  desk  was  commonly  called 

by  that  name,  and  pronounced  lettern.     See  Chambers, 

Cyclopadia,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Walcott,  Sac.  A  rchceol.  p.  345. 

See  Eagle. 

Lecticarii,  the  same  as  the  copiatce.  They  were 
called  lecticarii  from  the  fact  that  they  carried  the  corpse 
or  bier  at  funerals.     See  Copiat^. 

Lectionarium,  or  Lessons.     Of  the  many  real 

and  supposcil  meanings  of  the  expression  lectio  (avay- 
voiaic,  di'dyrwrrpa),  we  have  here  only  to  consider  the 
liturgical.  In  this  sense  it  is  used  to  designate  the  read- 
ing, which,  together  with  singing,  prayers,  prcacliing, 
and  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  constitutes 
public  worship. 

This  part  cjf  worship  is  adopted  from  the  Jews,  and, 
like  that  of  the  synagogues,  was  at  first  restricted  to  the 
reading  of  their  sacred  books  (O.  T.).  The  first  record 
we  find  of  the  reading  of  the  N.-Test.  Scriptures  in  the 
churches  is  in  Justin,  Apol.  i,  cap.  67.  But  the  fact  of 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  general  from  the  earliest 
times  is  clearly  established  by  passages  of  Tertnllian 
{Apolog.  cap.  39;  De  anima,  cap.  9),  Cyprian  {Fp.  24, 33, 
edit.  Oberth.  34),  Origen  {Contra  Cel-s.  iii,  45,  ed.  Oberth. 
50),  etc.  It  is  self-evident  that  the  canonical  books 
and  the  homologoumena  were  those  most  gcnerallv  read. 
But  that  lessons  were  occasionally  read  also  from  the 
Apocrypha  and  Antilegomena  is  shown  by  the  vet  re- 
maining lists  of  libri  ecclesiastici  and  uvayivwc^icoptva, 
i.  e.  of  such  books  as,  although  not  recognised  as  au- 
thorities in  matters  of  faith,  are  still  permitted  to  be 
read  in  the  churches.  Other  writings,  especially  acta 
martyrum,  and  sermons  of  some  of  the  most  distin- 
guished fathers,  came  afterwards  to  be  also  read  to  the 
people.  The  number  of  pieces  (leciiones)  read  at  each 
service  varied;  the  author  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions (ii,  c.  57)  mentions  four;  two  was  the  minimum — 
one  from  the  Gospels,  the  other  from  the  epistles  or  oth- 
er books,  including  those  of  the  O.  T.  See  Peiucop^e. 
At  first  the  portions  to  be  read,  at  least  on  every  ordi- 
nary Sunday,  were  taken  in  succession  in  the  sacred 
books  (lectio  contimai),  but  afterwards  special  ]iortions 
were  appointed  to  be  read  on  certain  Sundays,  and  the 
selection  was  made  by  the  bishop,  until  at  last  a  regular 
system  of  lessons  was  contrived,  which  is  the  base  of  the 
one  still  used  at  present  in  churches  where  the  strictly 
liturgical  service  is  adhered  to.  For  feast-days,  at  first, 
special  lessons  were  appointed  (for  instance,  the  ac- 
count of  the  resurrection  on  Easter :  see  Augustine,  Serm, 


LECTISTERXIUM 


ilS 


LECTURES 


139, 140).  But  it  is  not  known  at  what  time  the  plan 
^vllic■ll  forms  the  basis  of  the  present  sj'stem  was  first 
adopted.  Yet  Kanke  {Das  Kirchl.  Pertkojieiisi/iitc-m,  Berl. 
1847)  gives  us  good  reasons  for  tliinkini;'  that  tradition 
may  be  correct  in  representing  Jerome  as  the  author  of 
the  ancient  list  of  lessons  known  under  the  name  of 
'•comes,"  and  as  the  originator  of  the  S3-stem  in  the 
"Western  Church. 

Such  lists,  indicating  the  portions  of  Scripture  to  be 
read  in  public  assemblies  on  the  different  days  of  the 
year,  are  named  lectionaria  (sc.  volumina)  or  lectionarii 
(libri) ;  Greek,  avayvoiaTiKu,  tvayytXiaragia,  tKKoya- 
via  (they  are  also  called  evangeliarium  ef  (pisiolare ; 
evangelia  cum  epistolis ;  comes).  In  Latin  the  principal 
are  the  "  Led.  Gallicanum,"  in  Mabillon,  Litur;/.  Gallic., 
the  "comes"  of  Jerome;  the  "Calendarium  Homanum" 
(edit.  Fronto,  Par.  1652) ;  the  "  Tabula  aiifiquarum  lec- 
tionum,''  in  Pauli,  .4cZ  missas,  in  Gerbert,  J/on(Hft.  Uturg. 
^4^e??i.i,409.  See  ±\xign&t\,l)enkwurdifjk.\o\.\i;  Handb. 
del-  chr.  A  rch.W, 6 ;  Kanke,  Das  Kirchl. Perikojjensi/stem ; 
Palmer,  Orii/.  Lit.  I,  i,  10;  Bingham,  Orig.  Eccles,  xiv,  3, 
§  2;  Procter,  History  of  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  2U) 
sq. ;  Martene,  De  Ant. Eccles.  Hit.  iv,  5, 1  sq. ;  Freeman, 
Principles  of  Divine  Service,  i,  125  sq.     See  Liturgy. 

The  reading  of  the  lesson  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Church  was  intrusted  to  the  lector  (q.  v.).  At  present, 
in  the  Komish  mass,  when  the  number  of  officiating 
priests  is  complete,  the  epistle  is  read  by  the  subdeacou 
and  the  Gospel  by  the  deacon.  See  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
Moj).  viii,  268;  Blunt.  Z>;c^  of  Docir.  and  IJist.  Theol.  p. 
408  sq.     Sec  Lesson.     (J.H.W.) 

Lectisternium  (Lat.  lectus,  a  couch,  and  sternere, 
to  spread),  a  religious  festival  ceremony  among  the  an- 
cient Komans.  It  was  celebrated  during  times  of  public 
calamity,  when  the  gods  were  invited  to  the  entertain- 
ment, and  their  statues  taken  from  their  pedestals  and 
laid  on  couches.  The  lectisternium,  according  to  Livy 
(v,  13),  was  first  celebrated  in  the  year  of  Home  354  (on 
the  occasion  of  a  contagious  disease  which  committed 
frightful  ravages  among  the  cattle),  and  lasted  for  eight 
successive  days.  On  the  celebration  of  this  festival  en- 
emies were  said  to  forget  their  animosities,  and  all  pris- 
oners were  liberated.  —  Brando  and  Cox,  Dictionary  of 
A  rt  and  Sciences,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lector  {avayvioanjo)  or  Reader  was  the  name  of 
an  officer  in  the  ancient  Church  whose  place  it  was  to 
read  the  holy  Scriptures  and  other  lessons  (for  instance, 
the.4c/rt  martyrum)  in  public  worship.  He  was  also 
intrusted  with  the  keeping  of  the  sacred  volumes.  This 
reading  of  the  Word  of  God  formed  an  important  part 
in  the  service  of  the  Jewish  synagogues  (see  Luke  iv, 
16;  Acts  xiii,  15,  27;  2  Cor.  iii,  14),  and  was  introduced 
ijito  the  Christian  Church  from  thence.  But  we  do  not 
know  at  what  period  the  performance  of  it  became  a 
special  office.  Yet  Tertullian,  De  prcescr.  Imr.  c.  41,  ex- 
pressly sjjeaks  of  the  lector  as  a  special  officer  in  the 
Church,  and  Cyprian  {Kp.  33,  and  edit.  Oberth.  34)  men- 
tions the  ordination  of  two  readers.  The  early  Church 
councils  (C'oncil.  Chalcedon.  a.  451,  c.  13, 14 ;  folet.  7,  2 ; 
Vasense,  ii,  2 ;  Valentin,  c.  1 ;  A  rausial,  i,  18)  give  direc- 
tions about  the  duties  of  readers.  Still,  although  the 
most  eminent  fathers  laid  great  stress  on  the  reading  of 
Scripture  in  the  churches,  and  Cyprian  declares  their 
otBcc  one  of  great  honor  {Kpist.  .34),  it  was  yet  classed 
among  the  ordines  inferiores.  This  is  easily  accoimted 
for  from  the  fact  that  the  simple  reading,  without  any 
exegetical  or  liomiletical  explanations  (which  are  not 
in  the  province  of  the  reader),  was  a  mere  mechanical 
performance,  and  in  after  times  often  intrusted  to  cliil- 
(Iren.  After  the  form  of  the  liturgy  of  the  mass  was  final- 
ly settled,  the  lectors  were  forbidden  to  read  the  peri- 
copes  occurring  in  the  missa  (idclium.  They  were  also 
thereafter  exchuied  from  the  alt'ar,  and  suffered  to  read 
only  at  the  pu/pilum,  and  finally  were  obliged  to  leave 
to  the  deacon  or  presbyter  the  pronouncing  of  the  for- 
mula solennis.  i)robably  because  the  reader  was  of  lower 


degree  in  the  hierarchy.  Y'et  in  some  churches  the  or- 
dination of  readers  was  a  very  solemn  affair,  especially 
among  the  Greeks,  where  it  was  accompanied  by  impo- 
sition of  hands.  In  course  of  time  the  office  of  reader 
in  the  Komish  Church  came  to  be  absorbed  in  the  dea- 
con's,  and  identified  with  it.  See  C.  Schone,  Geschickts- 
forschungen  ii.  d. Kirchl.  Gebr.  iii,  108  (Berlin,  1822) ;  Jo. 
Andr.  Schmidt,  De  primitiuoR  eccles.  lectoribus  illustribus 
(Helmstadt,  1696)  ;  Bingham,  iJe  origin,  eccles.  ii,  29; 
Suicer  and  Du  Fresne,  Lexica ;  Augusti,  Denkwiird.  vol. 
vi;  Handb.  d.  chr.  Arch.  \,  262;  Herzog,  Peal-Encyklop. 
viii,  268. 

Lectorium.     See  Lectern. 

Lecturers,  an  order  of  preachers  in  the  Church  of 
England,  distinct  from  the  incumbent  or  curate,  usually 
chosen  by  the  vestry  or  chief  inhabitants  of  the  parish, 
and  supported  either  bj'  voluntary  contributions  or  leg- 
acies. They  preach  on  the  Sunday  afternoon  or  even- 
ing, and  in  some  instances  on  a  stated  day  in  the  week. 
The  lecturers  are  generally  appointed  without  any  in- 
terposition of  the  incumbent,  though  his  consent,  as 
possessor  of  the  freehold  of  the  Church,  is  necessary  be- 
fore any  lecturer  can  officiate :  when  such  consent  has 
been  obtained  (but  not  before),  the  bishop,  if  lie  ap- 
prove of  the  nominee,  licenses  him  to  the  lecture. 
Where  there  are  lectures  founded  by  the  donations  of 
pious  persons,  the  lecturers  are  appointed  by  the  found- 
ers, -without  any  interposition  or  consent  of  the  rectors 
of  the  churches,  though  with  the  leave  and  approbation 
of  the  bishop,  and  after  the  candidate's  subscription  to 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the  Act  of  Uniformity, 
such  .as  that  of  lady  Moyer  at  St.  Paul's,  etc.  ^\'llel^ 
the  office  of  lecturer  first  originated  in  the  English 
Church  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  It  is  manifest  from 
the  statute  (13  and  14  Car.  II,  c.  4,  §  19),  commonly 
known  as  the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  that  the  office 
was  generally  recognised  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
centur\'.  Even  as  early  as  1589,  however,  an  evening 
lecture  on  Fridays  was  endowed  in  the  London  jjarish 
of  St.  Michael  Koj-al,  and  at  about  the  same  time  three 
lecture-sermons  were  established  in  St.JMichael's,  Corn- 
hill— t\vo  on  Sundays  after  evening  prayers,  and  a  third 
at  the  same  time  on  Christmas  day.  During  the  Great 
Kebellion  lecturers  used  their  influence  and  opportuni- 
ties for  the  overthrow  of  the  State  Church  and  the  mon- 
archy.—Eden,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet.  p.  371. 

Lectures,  Bampton.     See  Bajipton  Lectures. 

Lectures,  Boyle.     See  Boyle  Lectures. 

Lectures,  Congregational.  See  Congrega- 
tional Lectures. 

Lectures,  Hulsean.  See  Hulsean  Lectures- 
Lectures,  Merchants',  a  lecture  set  up  in  Pin- 
ner's Hall  in  the  year  1672,  by  the  Presbyterians  and  In- 
dependents, to  show  their  agreement  among  themselves, 
as  well  as  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the  Keformation 
against  the  prevailing  errors  of  Popery,  Socinianism, 
and  infidelity'.  The  principal  ministers  for  learning  and 
popularity  v.-ere  chosen  as  lecturers,  such  as  Dr.  Bates, 
Dr.  IManton,  Dr.  Owen,  Mr.  Baxter,  IMessrs.  Collins,  Jen- 
kins, JNIead,  and  afterwards  ]\Iessrs.  Alsop,  Howe,  Cole, 
and  others.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported  by  some 
of  the  principal  merchants  and  tradesmen  of  the  city. 
Some  misunderstanding  taking  place,  the  Presbyterians 
removed  to  Salter's  Hall  and  the  Independents  remain- 
ed at  Pinner's  Hall,  and  each  party  filled  up  their  num- 
bers out  of  their  respective  denominations.  This  lecture 
is  kept  np  to  the  present  day,  and  is  now  held  at  Broad 
Street  meeting  every  Tuesday  morning. — Buck,  Theol, 
Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Monthly.  A  lecture  preached  month- 
ly by  the  Congregational  ministers  of  London  in  their 
different  chapels,  taken  in  rotation.  These  lectures  have 
of  late  been  systematically  arranged,  so  as  to  form  a 
connected  course  of  one  or  more  vcars.    A  valuable  vol- 


LECTURES 


319 


LEE 


ume  on  the  evidences  of  Eevelation,  published  in  1827, 
is  one  of  the  fruits  of  these  monthly  exercises. — Buck, 
Theoloffical  Dictionanj,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Morning,  certain  casuistical  lectures, 
•which  were  preached  by  some  of  the  most  able  di\"ines 
in  London.  The  occasion  of  these  lectures  seems  to  be 
this  :  During  the  troublesome  times  of  Charles  I.,  most 
of  the  citizens  having  some  near  relation  or  friend  in  the 
army  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  so  many  bills  were  sent  up  to 
the  pulpit  everj-  Lord's  day  for  their  preservation  that 
the  minister  had  neither  time  to  read  them  nor  to  rec- 
ommend their  cases  to  God  in  prayer ;  several  London 
divines  therefore  agreed  to  set  apart  a  morning  hour  for 
this  purpose,  one  half  to  be  spent  in  prayer,  and  the  oth- 
er in  a  suitable  exhortation  to  the  people.  When  the 
heat  of  the  war  was  over,  it  became  a  casuistical  lecture, 
and  was  carried  on  till  the  restoration  of  Charles  IL 
These  sermons  were  afterwards  published  in  several  vol- 
umes quarto,  under  the  title  of  the  Morning  Ej-ercises. 
The  authors  were  the  most  eminent  preachers  of  the 
day ;  among  them  was,  e.  g.  archbishop  Tillotson.  It  ap- 
pears that  these  lectures  were  held  every  morning  i'or 
one  month  only,  and,  from  the  preface  to  the  volume, 
dated  1689,  the  time  was  afterwards  contracted  to  a  fort- 
night. Slost  of  these  were  delivered  at  Cripplegate 
Church,  some  at  St.  Giles's,  and  a  volume  against  popery 
in  Southwark.  jMr.  Ncale  observes  that  this  lecture  was 
afterwards  revived  in  a  different  form,  and  continued  in 
his  day.  It  was  kept  up  long  afterwards  at  several 
places  in  the  summer,  a  week  at  each  place,  but  latterly 
the  time  was  exchanged  for  the  evening. — Buck,  Thcvl. 
Dictionari/,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Moyer's,  a  course  of  eight  sermons, 
preached  annually,  founded  by  the  beneficence  of  lady 
Jloyer  about  17"20,  who  left  by  \vi\\  a  rich  legacy  as  a 
foundation  lor  the  same.  A  great  number  of  English 
■writers  having  endeavored  in  a  varietj-  of  ways  to  in- 
validate the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  this  opulent  and 
ortliodox  lady  was  influenced  to  think  of  an  institution 
■which  should  provide  for  posterity  an  ample  collection 
of  productions  in  defence  of  this  branch  of  the  Christian 
faith.  The  first  course  of  these  lectures  was  preached 
by  Dr.Waterland,  on  the  divinity  of  Christ.  These  lec- 
tures were  discontinued  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
centur}'. — Buck,  Tk.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Eadie,  JlccL  Diet.  p.  450. 

Lectures,  Religious,  arc  discourses  or  sermons 
delivered  by  ministers  on  any  subject  in  theology.  Be- 
sides lectures  on  the  Sabbath  day,  many  think  proper  to 
]ireach  on  week-days ;  sometimes  at  five  in  the  morning, 
before  people  go  to  M'ork,  and  at  seven  in  the  evening, 
after  they  have  done.  In  London  there  is  preaching  al- 
most every  forenoon  and  evening  in  the  week  at  some 
place  or  other. — Buck,  TheoL  Dirtiunary,  s.  v. 

Lectures,  Warburtonian,  a  lecture  founded  by 
bishop  Warburton  to  prove  the  truth  of  revealed  relig- 
ion in  general,  and  the  Christian  in  (larticular,  from  the 
completion  of  the  prophecies  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment which  relate  to  the  Christian  Church,  especially 
to  the  apostas}-  of  papal  liome.  To  this  foundation  we 
o^.ve  the  admirable  discourses  of  Hurd,  Halifax,  Bagot, 
Apthorp,  and  many  others. — Buck,  Thcol.  Bid.  s.  v. 

Lecturn.     See  Lectern. 

Ledge  (only  in  the  plural  C^sVlJ,  shelahbim',  from 
jb'j,  to  mortice  together  ;  Sept.  tt,txi)IJ-tvct,  Yiilg.jtmc- 
ti(r(t>),  \iToii.joints,  e.  g.  at  the  corners  of  a  base  or  pedes- 
tal ;  hence  perhaps  an  ornament  overlaying  these  angles 
to  hide  the  juncture  (1  Kings  vii,  28,  29).  In  verses  35, 
36,  the  term  thus  rendered  is  different,  namely  T^,  yad, 
lit.  a  hand,  i.  e.  a  lateral  projection,  probably  referring  to 
side-borders  to  the  same  pedestals.  The  description  is 
too  brief  and  the  terms  too  vague  to  all<>w  a  more  defi- 
nite idea  of  these  appendages  to  the  bases  in  question. 
See  Laveu. 

Ledieu,  Fran9ois,  abbe,  a  French  ecclesiastic,  noted 


as  a  writer,  was  born  at  Peronne  about  the  middle  of 
the  17th  centuni'.  In  1()84  he  became  private  secretary 
of  the  celebrated  French  pulpit  orator  Bossuet,  bishop 
of  Meaux,  and  was  by  this  prelate  made  canon  of  the 
church  at  Meaux.  He  died  at  Paris  Oct.  7, 1713.  He 
wrote  Memoires  et  Journal  de  I'A  bbe  Ledieu  sur  la  vie  tt 
les  ouvrages  de  Bossuet  (Paris.  1856-57,4  vols.  8 vo),  upon 
which  the  late  Sainte-Beuve  thus  comments:  "L'abbe 
Ledieu  n'a  pas  le  dessein  de  diminuer  Bossuet,  mais  il 
souvient  son  illustre  maitre  a  une  epreuve  a  laquelle  pas 
une  grande  figure  ne  resisterait ;  il  note  jour  par  jour  a 
I'epoque  de  la  raaladie  derniere  et  du  declin  tons  les  ac- 
tes  et  toutes  les  paroles  de  faiblesse  qui  lui  echappent, 
jusqu'aux  plaintes  et  doleances  aux  quelles  on  se  laisse 
aller  la  nuit  quand  on  se  croit  seul,  et  dans  cette  obser- 
\-ation  il  porte  un  esprit  de  petitesse  qui  se  prononce 
de  plus  en  plus  en  avan^ant,  un  esprit  bas,  qui  n'est  pas 
moins  dangereux  que  ne  le  serait  une  malignite  sub- 
tile" {Moniteur,  Mar.  31, 1856).  Ledieu  also  left  in  MS. 
Memoires  sur  VHistoire  et  les  Antiquites  du  diocese  de 
Meaux.    See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  262. 

Ledru,  Axdue  Pierre,  a  French  priest  and  natu- 
ralist, was  born  at  Chantenay,  INIain,  January  22, 1761. 
When  quite  young  he  entered  the  priesthood,  and  dur- 
ing the  Kevolution  adopted  its  principles,  and  was  ap- 
pointed curate  at  Pre-au-Mans.  Later  he  was  employed 
as  botanist  in  Baudin's  expedition  to  the  Canaries  and 
the  Antilles  (in  1796).  He  died  July  11, 1825.  Ledru 
wrote  several  Avorks,  for  a  list  of  Avhich  see  Hoefer,  Nouc. 
Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  267. 

Ledwicli,  Edward,  D.D.,  an  Irish  antiquarA'.  fel- 
low of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  subsequently  vicar  of 
Aghaboe,  Queens  County,  Ireland,  was  born  in  1739,  and 
died  in  1823,  He  published  The  Antiquities  of  Ireland 
(179-1),  a  very  valuable  vrork.  He  offended  many  of 
his  countrymen  by  denying  the  truth  of  the  legend  of 
St.  Patrick. 

Lee,  Andre'W,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  May  7,  1745  (O,  S,),  at  Lyme,  Conn.:  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College  in  1766;  entered  the  ministry  in 
1768;  was  ordained  pastor  at  Lisbon,  Conn.,  Oct.  26, 1768; 
and  died  Aug.  25,1832.  He  was  made  a  member  of 
Yale  College  corporation  in  1807.  Dr,  Lee  published 
An  Inqidrij  whether  it  he  the  Duty  of  Man  to  be  willing 
to  suffer  JJumnution  for  the  Divine  Glory  (1786)  : — Ser- 
mons on  viD'ious  important  Subjects  (8vo,  1803) ;  and  sev- 
eral occasional  sermons, — Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  668. 

Lee,  Ann,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Shakers,  was 
born  in  Manchester,  England,  Feb.  29,  1736.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  poor  mechanic,  a  blacksmith  by  trade, 
and  a  sister  of  general  Charles  Lee  of  Revolutionary 
fame.  When  yet  a  young  girl  she  married  Abraham 
Standlcy,  of  like  trade  as  her  father,  and  she  became  the 
mother  of  four  children,  who  all  died  in  infancy.  When 
about  twenty-two  years  of  age  Jane  came  under  the  in- 
fluence of  James  Wardley.  at  this  time  the  great  expo- 
nent of  the  Millenarian  doctrines  of  the  Caniisa?-ds  and 
French  Prophets.  These  religious  fanatics,  after  endur- 
ing much  persecution  and  great  suffering  in  their  na- 
tive country,  had  sought  a  refuge  in  England  in  1705, 
Gradually  they  spread  their  views — communicating  in- 
spiration, as  they  thouglit — finding  ready  followers,  par- 
ticularly among  the  Quakers,  and  one  of  this  number — 
James  Wardlev— in  1747  actuallj'  formed  a  separate 
society,  consisting  mainly  of  Quakers,  claiming  to  be 
led  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  indulging  in  all  manner 
of  religious  excesses,  similar  to  those  of  the  Camisards 
(q,  V,)  and  French  Prophets  (q.  v.).  AVardley  claimed 
to  have  supernatural  visions  and  revelations,  and  as 
both  he  and  his  adherents  were  noted  for  their  bodily 
agitations,  they  came  to  be  known  as  Shaling  Quakers. 
Of  this  sect  Ann  Lee,  now  jMrs.  Standley,  became  one 
of  the  leading  spirits.  From  the  time  of  her  admission 
she  seems  to  have  been  particularly  inspired  for  leader- 
ship and  action.  Naturally  of  an  excitable  temper,  her 
experience  in  the  performance  of  the  peculiar  religious 


LEE 


320 


LEE 


duties  of  this  society — by  them  termetl  "  religious  ex- 
ercises"— was  most  singular  ami  painful.  ()(  a  pious 
nature,  she  hesitated  not  to  subject  herself  to  all  the 
torments  of  the  tlesh.  Often  in  her  fits  or  paroxysms, 
as  she  clinched  her  hands,  it  is  said,  the  blood  would 
flow  through  the  pores  of  her  skin  in  a  kind  of  san- 
gianary  perspiration.  This  her  followers  believe  was 
a  miraculous  phenomenon,  and  they  liken  it  to  the 
"bloody  sweat"  of  our  Saviour  in  the  garden.  Her 
flesh  wasted  away  under  these  exercises,  and  she  be- 
came so  weak  that  her  friends  were  obliged  to  feed  her 
like  an  infant.  Then,  again,  according  to  the  account 
given  by  her  followers,  she  would  have  "  intervals  of 
releasement,  in  which  her  bodily  strength  and  vigor 
were  sometimes  miraculously  renewed,  and  her  soul 
filled  with  heavenly  visions  and  divine  revelations." 
All  these  mortifications  of  the  flesh  were  by  her  sect 
accepted  not  only  as  evidences  ot  great  spiritual  fervor, 
but  as  proofs  of  the  indwelling  of  the  divine  spirit  in 
Ann  in  an  uncommon  measure.  She  rose  rapidly  in 
the  favor  and  confidence  of  her  brethren,  and  we  need 
not  wonder  that  soon  she  came  to  have  visions  and  rev- 
elations, and  that  they  frequently  and  gladly  "attested" 
them  as  manifestations  of  God  to  the  believers.  By  the 
year  1770  she  had  grown  so  much  in  favor  among  her 
people  that  her  revelations  and  visions  were  looked  upon 
with  more  than  ordinary  interest ;  and  when  in  this  year 
she  was  subjected  to  persecution  and  imprisonment  by 
the  secular  authorities,  her  followers  claim  that  the  Lord 
Jesus  manifested  himself  to  her  in  an  especial  manner, 
and  from  this  time  dates  the  beginning  of  that  "latter 
day  of  glory"  in  which  they  are  now  rejoicing.  Imme- 
diately after  her  release  from  prison  she  professed  su- 
pernatural powers  in  the  midst  of  the  little  societ}' 
gathered  about  her,  and  she  was  acknowledged  as  their 
spiritual  mother  in  Christ.  Ann  was  thereafter  accepted 
as  the  only  true  leader  of  the  Church  of  Christ — not  in  the 
common  acceptation  of  that  term,  but  as  the  incarnation 
of  infinite  wisdom  and  the  "second  appearing  of  Christ," 
as  really  and  fully  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the  incar- 
nation of  infinite  power,  or  Christ's  first  appearing,  and 
she  now  hesitated  not  to  style  herself  ".4«»,  the  Wor, '," 
signifying  that  in  her  dwelt  the  Word.  Among  other 
things  revealed  to  her  at  this  time  was  the  displeasure 
of  the  Almighty  against  the  matrimonial  state,  and  she 
opened  her  testimony  on  the  wickedness  of  marriage. 
If  nothing  else  could  have  provoked  the  secular  powers 
to  put  a  stop  to  her  fanatic  excesses  in  the  garb  of  re- 
ligion, her  attack  on  one  of  the  most  sacred  institutions 
of  the  civilized  state  demanded  immediate  action,  and 
she  was  again  imprisoned,  this  time  for  misdemeanor. 
Set  free  once  more,  she  began  to  spread  her  revelations 
more  generally,  and  actually  entered  upon  an  open  war- 
fare against  -the  root  of  human  depravity,"  as  she 
called  the  matrimonial  act,  and  the  people  of  Manches- 
ter were  so  enraged  that  she  was  shut  up  in  a  mad- 
house, and  was  kept  there  several  weeks.  Thus  harassed 
and  persecuted  on  English  soil,  .she  finally  decided  to 
seek  quiet  and  peace  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  and  in 
1773  professed  to  have  a  "special  revelation"  to  emi- 
grate to  America.  Several  of  her  congregation  asserted 
that  they  also  had  had  revelations  of  a  like  nature,  and 
she  accordingly  set  out  for  this  country.  She  came 
to  America  in  the  shi]i  ^laria.  Captain  Smith,  and  ar- 
rived at  New  York  in  May.  1774,  having  as  her  com- 
panions her  brother,  William  Lee,  James  Whitaker,  John 
Hocknell,  called  elders,  and  others.  In  the  spring  of 
1776  she  went  to  All)any,  and  thence  to  Niskayuna,  now 
Watervliet,  eight  miles  from  Albany.  Here  she  suc- 
cessfully established  a  congregation,  Avhich  she  called 
"^Ae  Church  of  Chrisfs  STond  appeai-im;"  formally  dis- 
solved her  connection  with  the  man  to  whom  she  had 
in  her  youth  given  her  h;uid  and  heart,  and  became 
their  recognised  head.  It  was  not,  however,  until  17X0 
that  Ann  Lee  succeeded  in  gathering  about  her  a  very 
large  fiock.  At  the  beginning  of  this  year  an  unusually 
great  religious  revival  occurred  at  New  Lebanon,  and. 


improving  this  opportunity,  she  went  prominently  be- 
fore the  people,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  religious 
commotion.  This  proved  to  her  cause  a  fine  harvest 
indeed,  and  the  number  of  her  deluded  followers  greatly 
increased,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  now 
fiourishing  society  of  New  Lebanon.  See  SnAKiiits. 
One  of  these  New  Lebanon  converts,  Valentine  Itath- 
bun,  previously  a  Baptist  minister,  who,  however,  after 
the  short  period  of  about  three  months,  recovered  his 
senses,  and  published  a  pamphlet  against  the  imposture, 
says  that  "  there  attended  this  infatuation  an  inexpli- 
cable agency  upon  the  body,  to  which  he  himself  Avas 
subjected,  that  affected  the  nerves  suddenly  and  forcibly 
like  the  electric  fluid,  and  was  followed  by  tremblings 
and  the  complete  deprivation  of  strength.  When  the 
good  mother  had  somewhat  established  her  authority 
with  her  new  disciples,  she  warned  them  of  the  great 
sin  of  following  the  vain  customs  of  the  world,  and,  hav- 
ing fleeced  them  of  their  ear-rings,  necklaces,  buckles, 
and  everything  which  might  nourish  pride,  and  hav- 
ing cut'off  their  hair  close  by  their  ears,  she  admitted 
them  into  her  Church.  Thus  metamorphosed,  they  were 
ashamed  to  be  seen  by  their  f)ld  acquaintances,  and 
would  be  induced  to  contiiuie  Shakers  to  save  them- 
selves from  further  humiliation."  But  whether  it  was 
the  success  of  their  unworthy  cause,  or  their  religious 
excesses,  or  their  unwillingness  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  State  of  New  York,  they  made  them- 
selves obnoxious  here  also  to  the  secular  authorities, 
and,  as  in  her  native  countr}-,  Ann  Lee  was  subjected  to 
imprisonment,  and  escaped  trial  and  punishment  only 
by  the  kind  offices  of  the  governor,  George  Clinton. 
In  1781  she  set  out,  in  company  with  her  ciders,  on  a 
quite  extended  preaching  tour  through  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  in  the  course  of  which  societies  were  found- 
ed at  Harvard,  Jlass.,  and  sundry  other  places.  She 
had  always  asserted  that  she  was  not  liable  to  the  as- 
saults of  death,  and  that,  when  she  left  this  world,  she 
shoidd  ascend  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  to  heaven ; 
but,  imhappih'  for  her  claims,  "the  mighty  power  of 
(Jod,  the  second  heir  of  the  covenant  of  promise"  and 
"  the  Lamb's  bride,"  or,  as  she  styled  herself, "  the  spir- 
itual mother  of  the  new  creation,  the  queen  of  Mount 
Zion,  the  second  appearing  of  Christ,"  died  a  natural 
death  at  Watervliet,  September  8, 1784. 

Strange  as  must  ever  ajipear  the  fanatical  excesses 
of  Ann  Lee,  and  her  willingness  to  lead  men  to  acts  of 
depravity,  to  blasphemous  religious  pretensions,  it  must 
be  conceded  that  she  was  certainly  a  wonderful  woman. 
Deprived  of  all  the  advantages  of  education,  she  never- 
theless, by  the  power  of  a  will  wholly  unyielding  and  a 
mind  of  no  commfin  order,  succeeded  in  establishing  a 
religious  sect,  liy  which,  at  present  consisting  of  more 
than  four  thousand  people,  some  of  them  of  marked  in- 
telligence and  superior  talents,  possessing,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, wealth  to  the  amount  of  more  than  ten  millions  of 
dollars,  she  is  considered  as  the  very  Christ — standing 
in  the  Church  as  God  himself,  and  at  whose  triijunal 
the  world  is  to  be  judged.  Over  this  society  her  influ- 
ence is  spoken  of  as  complete.  Her  word  was  a  law 
from  which  there  was  no  appeal.  Obedience  then,  as 
now,  was  the  one  lesson  that  a  Shaker  was  retpiired  to 
learn  perfectly — an  obedience  unquestioned  and  entire; 
and  all  this  when  the  very  foundation  upon  which  they 
rested  their  faith,  namely,  her  dii-ine  mission,  was  no- 
toriously antagonized  by  a  life  accused,  and  nut  without 
some  show  of  truthfidncss,  as  openly  and  shamefully 
impure.  See  II.  P.  Andrews  in  the  Ladies'  Repository, 
18,58,  p.  046  scj. ;  ]Marsdcn  (Rev.  J.  B.),  Hist,  of  Christian 
Churches  and  Sects,  ii,  320  sq. ;  Galaxy,  1872  (Jan.  and 
April),     See  Shakkus. 

Lee,  Charles,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  w.as  born 
near  Flemingsburg,  Ky,,  May  12,  1818;  was  converted 
when  about  twenty  years  of  age,  and,  though  hitherto 
a  farmer  by  employment,  he  decided  at  once  upon  the 
ministry-,  entered  the  college  at  Hanover,  Ind.,  and,  after 
graduating  in  1853,  studied  theology  with  the  president 


LEE 


321 


LEE 


of  his  alma  mater.  Ho  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Madison  in  1855,  and  became  pastor  at  Graham,  Ind. 
He  died  May  27,  18(53.  "With  fair  talents,  and  yet 
amid  many  discouragements  both  in  himself  and  from 
without,  he  was  still  not  only  a  faithfid,  but  a  successful 
pastor  of  the  chiu-ches  committed  to  his  care.  God 
gave  him  the  witness  of  approval  in  the  conversion  of 
many  under  his  ministry." — Wilson,  Presb.  Hist,  Alniu- 
Kfff,"l8G4,p.  IGO. 

Lee,  Cliauncey,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  at  Salisbur}',  Conn.,  1763 ;  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1784;  entered  the  ministry  June  3, 1789;  and 
was  ordained  pastor  in  Sunderland,  Vt.,  Blarch  18, 1790, 
where  he  remained  a  few  years,  and  in  Jan.,  1800,  be- 
came pastor  in  Colebrook,  Conn.  This  connection  he 
dissolved  in  1827,  to  become  pastor  at  Marlborough, Conn., 
Nov.  18, 1828,  which  place  he  held  untQ  Jan.  11. 1837. 
He  died  in  Hartwick,  N.  Y.,  Dec,  1842.  Lee  published 
the  A  merican  A ccomptant :  an  A  rithmetic  (1797) : — The 
Trial  of  Virtue :  a  metrical  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job 
(1807)  : — Se7-mons  especiull//  desir/nedfor  Tlevivals  (12mo, 
1824): — Letters  f-om  Aristarchus  to  Philemon  (1833); 
and  two  or  three  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  A  nnals, 
ii,  288. 

Lee,  Edward,  an  English  prelate,  was  born  in  Kent 
in  1482;  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  be- 
came chaplain  of  Henry  VHI,  and  was  finally  employed 
by  him  in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In  1529  he  was 
sent  to  PJome  to  negotiate  for  the  divorce  of  the  king, 
and  in  1531  was  appointed  archbishop  of  York.  He 
opposed  the  Eeform  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  favored 
the  innovations  which  Henry  VIII  made  in  the  Church. 
Lee  died  in  1544.  He  wrote,  Apologia  adversus  qiio- 
runidam  calumnias  (Louvain,  1520) : — Epistola  nuncu- 
jmtoria  ad  Des.  Erasmiun  (Louvain,  1520): — Annota- 
tionum  Libri  duo  in  annotationes  Novi  Testamenti  Erasmi 
(Biile,  1520):  —  Ej)istola  apologetica  qua  respondet  D. 
Erasmi  Epistolis. — AUibone,  Diet,  ef  Biit.  and  A  m.  A  u- 
thors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lee,  Jason,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  pioneer 
missionary  to  Oregon,  was  born  at  Stanstead,  Lower  Can- 
ada, in  1803 ;  labored  with  the  Wcsleyan  missionaries 
there  until  1833 ;  joined  the  New  England  Conference 
in  that  year,  and  was  ordained  missionary  to  Oregon. 
Here  he  labored  nobly,  buried  two  wives,  and  in  1844 
returned  to  New  York  to  raise  funds  for  the  Oregon  In- 
stitute, for  which  he  was  made  agent  bj'  the  New  Eng- 
land Conference,  but  he  died  at  his  birthplace,  March 
12, 1845.  His  loss  was  a  blow  to  the  mission,  but  it  is 
his  glorious  monument  for  two  worlds. — Minutes  of  Con- 
ferences, iii,  617.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Lee,  Jesse,  one  of  the  most  eminent  preachers  in 
the  early  history  of  the  American  Methodist  Church, 
and  recognised  as  the  founder  of  IMethodism  in  New 
England,  was  born  in  Prince  (ieorge's  County,  Virginia, 
March  12, 1758.  He  received  a  fair  education,  was  dil- 
igently instructed  in  the  Prayer-book  and  Catechism, 
and  early  acquired  skill  in  vocal  music,  which  served 
him  in  all  his  subsequent  labors.  His  early  life  was 
moral.  "  I  believe  I  never  did  anything  in  my  youth 
that  the  people  generally  call  wicked,"  is  the  record  in 
his  journal.  His  father  was  led  to  a  more  serious  mode 
of  life  than  prevailed  generally  in  that  community 
chictly  by  the  intluence  of  Mr.  Jarratt,  an  Episcopal 
clergyman.  Jesse's  parents,  however,  finally,  in  1773, 
joined  the  Methodist  Society  then  formed  under  Rob- 
ert Williams,  one  of  Wesley's  preachers,  the  promoter  of 
Methodism  in  those  parts.  In  this  very  year  Jesse  ex- 
perienced in  a  marked  manner  the  sense  of  pardoned  sin, 
and  continued  to  benefit  by  the  powerful  revival  influ- 
ences which  for  some  years  prevailed  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. In  1776  he  experienced  a  state  of  grace  which 
he  calletl  "perfect  love."  "At  length  I  could  say, 'I 
have  nothing  but  the  love  of  Christ  in  my  heart,'"  is  his 
record.  In  1777  he  removed  from  his  home  into  the 
bounds  of  Roanoke  Circuit,  North  Carolina,  where  the 
v.— X 


next  year  he  was  appointed  a  class-leader.  He  preach- 
ed his  first  sermon  November  17,  1779,  and  for  a  time 
supplied  the  preacher's  place.  In  the  summer  of  1780 
he  was  drafted  into  the  militia  to  meet  the  approach  of 
the  British  army  in  South  Carohna.  Excused  from 
bearing  arms  on  account  of  his  religious  scruples,  he 
rendered  various  other  services,  especially  by  preach- 
ing. Soon  obtaining  a  discharge,  he  was  eamestly  so- 
licited to  enter  the  itinerant  ministry,  but  shrank  from 
the  responsibility, "  fearing  lest  he  should  injure  the 
work  of  God."  At  the  tenth  Conference,  held  at  Ellis 
Meeting-house,  Sussex  County, Virginia,  April  17,1782, 
Lee  was  deeply  impressed  with  "  the  union  and  brother- 
ly love"  prevalent  among  the  preachers,  notwithstand- 
ing the  warm  difference  that  had  of  late  existed  among 
the  Methodist  preachers  on  the  subject  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments,  and  at  a  quarterly  meeting  in 
November  he  was  prevailed  upon  to  take  charge,  togeth- 
er with  Mr.  Dromgoolc,  of  a  circuit  near  f3denton.  North 
Carolina  —  the  Amelia  Circuit.  At  the  Ellis  Meeting- 
house Conference,  IMay  0, 1783,  he  was  received  on  trial. 
This  year  he  preached  with  marked  success.  He  writes, 
"  I  preached  at  Mr.  Spain's  with  great  liberty  .  .  .  the 
Spirit  of  the  Lord  came  upon  us,  and  we  were  bathed  in 
tears."  "  I  preached  at  Ilowel's  Chapel  from  Ezek.  xxxiii, 

11 I  saw  so  clearly  that  the  Lord  was  willing  to 

bless  the  people,  even  while  I  was  speaking,  that  I  be- 
gan to  feel  distressed  for  them.  .  .  .  After  stopping  and 
weeping  for  some  time,  I  began  again,  but  had  spoken 
but  a  little  while  before  the  cries  of  the  people  overcame 
me,  and  I  wept  with  them  so  that  I  could  not  speak.  I 
found  that  love  had  tears  as  well  as  grief."  Under  ap- 
pointment of  the  Conference,  which  beffan  at  Ellis  Preach- 
ing-house, Virginia,  April  30,  1784,  and  ended  at  Balti- 
more Ma^'  28  following  (see  minute  for  that  year),  he  la- 
bored in  different  circuits  with  like  success,  and  was  no^v 
regardedas  an  important  man  in  the  connection.  Decem- 
ber 12  he  was  invited  to  meet  Coke.Whatcoat,  and  Vasey 
at  the  celebrated  Christmas  Conference  of  1784  at  Balti- 
more, where,  with  the  aid  of  these  persons,  ordained  and 
sent  out  for  the  purpose  by  Sir.  Wesley,  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized.  Lee  could  not  attend 
the  Conference  from  his  distant  circuit  on  so  short  a  no- 
tice and  at  that  season  of  the  year,  but  was  immediately 
after  requested  by  bishop  Asbury  to  travel  with  him  in 
a  Southern  tour.  This  was  an  important  event  for  Lee. 
He  preached  with  the-bishop  at  Georgetown  and  Charles- 
ton. At  Cheraw  he  met  with  a  merchant  who  gave 
him  such  information  of  New  England  as  awakened  in 
him  an  eager  desire  to  transfer  his  field  of  labor  to  that 
region.  At  the  Southern  Conference,  held  in  North 
Carolina  April  20, 1785,  Lee,  in  ardent  controversy  with 
Coke,  who  was  still  in  the  countrj-,  sought  the  abroga- 
tion of  certain  stringent  rules  on  slavery  adopted  in  1784, 
which  required  of  each  member  of  the  society  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  his  slaves.  His  views  soon  prevailed. 
He  preached,  1786,  in  Kent  Circuit,  Maryland ;  1787,  in 
Baltimore;  1788,  in  Flanders  Circuit,  embracing  a  por- 
tion of  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  Previously  to  the 
General  Conference  of  1796  there  were  no  prescribed  lim- 
its to  the  several  conferences, but  they  were  held  at  (he 
discretion  of  the  bishop  as  to  time  and  place,  the  same 
preacher  being  sometimes  appointed  from  different  Con- 
ferences in  the  same  year.  At  the  Conference  held  in 
New  York,  May  28, 1789,  Lee  was  appointed  to  Stam- 
ford Circidt,  in  Connecticut,  and  now  began  his  career  in 
New  England,  which  continued  for  eleven  years.  Ne^^" 
England,  from  the  natural  temperament  of  its  inhabit- 
ants, and  their  previous  theological  education,  was  a 
hard  field  for  the  introduction  of  Methodism,  into  which 
— though  spread  into  all  the  other  Atlantic  States,  far 
into  the  West,  to  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia — it  had  not 
hitherto  ventured  with  a  set  purpose  of  permanent  oc- 
cupancy. Tlie  dearth  of  earnest  religious  interest  which 
succeeded  the  revivals  under  Edwards,  Whitefield,  and 
Tennant,  as  well  as  the  prevalent  reactionary  tendency 
to  rationalism,  furnished  sufficient  demand  for  the  zeal- 


LEE 


322 


LEE 


ous  preaching  of  the  Methodists.  They  felt  themselves 
called  also  to  a  special  mission  in  upholding  their  form 
of  doctrine  concerning  entire  sanctirtcation  in  this  life; 
but  tlieir  views  on  the  subject  oi'free  will  were  greatly 
misunderstood,  the  Methodist  Arminianism  being  con- 
founded with  Pelagianisra.  "  The  argument,"  says  John 
Edwards,  "most  constantly  used  against  Arminianism  in 
those  days  was  its  tendency  to  prepare  the  way  for 
Popery"  (as  being  a  doctrine  of  salvation  by  good  works). 
The  dominant  theology,  therefore,  gave  the  Methodist 
preachers  but  a  cold  reception.  Lee  preached  at  Nor- 
walk  tirst  in  the  street,  but  was  subsequently  allowed, 
both  in  this  and  other  places,  the  use  of  the  court- 
house, and  sometimes  of  the  meeting-house.  Thomas 
Ware,  who  heard  Lee  about  this  time,  wTites, "  When  he 
stood  up  in  the  open  air  and  began  to  sing,  I  knew  not 
what  it  meant.  I  drew  near,  however,  to  listen,  and 
thought  the  prayer  was  the  best  I  had  ever  heard.  .  .  . 
When  he  entered  upon  the  subject-matter  of  his  text,  it 
was  with  such  an  easy,  natural  flow  of  expression,  and 
in  such  a  tone  of  voice,  that  I  could  not  refrain  from 
weeping,  and  many  others  were  affected  in  the  same 
way.  When  he  was  done,  and  we  had  an  opportunity 
of  expressing  our  views  to  each  other,  it  was  agreed  that 
such  a  man  had  not  visited  New  England  since  the  days 
of  Whitelield."  At  Stratfield  he  formed  the  first  cldss, 
consisting  of  three  women,  September  26,  1787.  At 
Reading,  December  28,  he  formed  another  class  of  two. 
Thus,  at  the  end  of  seven  months'  labor,  he  had  secured 
Jiee  members  in  society.  But  the  spirit  with  which  he 
labored  appears  in  his  journal  as  follows :  "  I  love  to 
break  up  new  ground,  aiul  hunt  the  lost  souls  in  New 
England,  though  it  is  hartl  work ;  but  when  Christ  is 
with  me,  hard  things  are  made  easy,  and  rough  ways 
made  smooth."  After  preaching  to  a  large  congrega- 
tion on  one  occasion,  he  was,  as  usual,  left  to  find  shelter 
where  he  could,  and,  as  he  records,  rode  through  storm, 
"  my  soul  transplanted  with  joy,  the  snow  falling,  the 
wind  blowing,  prayer  ascending,  faith  increasing,  grace 
descending,  heaven  smiling,  and  love  abounding." 

In  February,  1790,  he  received  three  helpers.  Brush, 
Roberts,  and  Smith,  and  formed  the  New  Haven  Cir- 
cuit, He  passed  through  Rhode  Island,  and  appeared 
in  Boston  July  9.  Boardman  and  Garrettson  had  before 
preached  there,  but  no  permanent  fruit  remained  of  their 
labors.  Lee,  finding  no  house  opened,  preached  on  the 
Common  to  3000  hearers.  Though  Lee  often  returned 
to  the  city,  no  society  was  formed  there  till  July  13, 1792. 
He  had  better  success  elsewhere,  and  constantly  labored 
throughout  New  England  in  supervision  of  the  work, 
till  the  General  Conference  of  1796.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  began  to  travel  at  large  with  bishop  Asburj',  as 
his  authorized  assistant  in  preaching  and  iu  holding 
Conferences.  Thus  employed,  he  revisited  the  scenes  of 
his  former  labors  in  the  South,  and  travelled  also  through 
New  England.  The  period  of  his  labors  in  that  section 
closed  in  1800.  It  had  continued  for  eleven  years,  amid 
great  dithculties,  frequent  theological  controversies,  and 
no  small  degree  of  persecution.  The  statistical  result  at 
this  date  was  50  preachers  and  6001)  members.  At  the 
General  Conference  held  ]\Iay  6, 1800,  at  Baltimore,  Lee 
was  nearly  elected  a  bishop, W'hatcoat  being  chosen  over 
him  by  four  votes.  The  subse(iuent  portion  of  his  life 
was  spent  mostly  in  the  South,  in  earnest  and  successful 
labor  as  pastor  and  presiding  elder.  He  preferred,  says 
his  biographer,  the  former  position.  At  the  Virginia 
Conference  of  1807  his  influence  defeated,  from  an  opin- 
ion of  its  unconstitutionality,  the  proposition  to  call  an 
extraordinary  General  Conference,  iu  order  to  elect  a 
bishop  in  place  of  bishop  Whatcoat,  deceased.  He  had, 
for  like  reason,  opposed  his  own  ordination  as  assistant 
bishop  in  1796.  In  the  Virginia  Conference  of  1808  he 
advocated  a  petition  to  the  following  General  Confer- 
ence of  May  20,  1808,  to  establish  a  delegated  General 
Conference.  This  proposition  had  been  urged  by  Lee  as 
early  as  1792.  Such  action  was  tjiken  by  the  Confer- 
ence of  1808,  and  the  powers  of  the  General  Conference, 


as  the  supreme  authority  of  the  Church,  were  defined  in 
what  are  termed  the  Kestrictive  Rules.  In  the  same 
year  Lee  maile  a  last  visit  and  journey  tliroughout  New 
England,  which  was  "an  humble  but  exultant  religious 
ovation."  In  the  summer  of  1807  he  published  at  Bal- 
timore his  History  of  Methodism  in  America,  which  was 
the  first  work  of  the  kind.  During  that  year  he  served 
the  House  of  Representatives  at  Washington  as  chap- 
lain, as  he  did  also  in  1812  and  1S13.  In  1814  he  was 
chaplain  of  the  Senate.  At  the  General  Conference  of 
1812,  in  New  York,  Lee  strongly  advocated,  as  he  had 
previously  done,  the  proposition  to  make  the  office  of 
presiding  elder  elective.  He  opposed  with  equal  zeal 
the  principle  of  advancing  local  preachers  to  elders'  or- 
ders. He  continued  his  faithful  career  as  circuit  preach- 
er and  as  chaplain  to  Congress  till  1816.  He  was  present 
at  the  funeral  services  of  his  veteran  colaborer,  bishop 
Asbury,  held  by  the  General  Conference  of  1816  at  Bal- 
timore, and  did  not  long  survive  himself,  but  died  at  the 
age  of  fifty-eight,  Sept.  12,  1816.  Dr.  Stevens  closes 
his  history  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Chiu-ch  with  the 
following  characterization  of  Jesse  Lee :  "  A  man  of  vig- 
orous, though  unpolished  mind,  of  rare  popular  elo- 
quence and  tireless  energy,  an  itinerant  evangelist  from 
the  British  Provinces  to  Florida  for  thirty-five  j'ears,  a 
chief  counsellor  of  the  Church  in  its  annual  and  general 
conferences," "  founder  of  Methodism  in  New  England 
...  he  lacked  only  the  episcopal  oflice  to  give  him  rank 
with  Asbury  and  Coke.  Asbury  early  chose  him  for  the 
position  of  bishop.  Some  two  or  three  times  it  seemed 
likely  that  he  would  be  elected  to  it,  but  liis  manly  in- 
dependence and  firmness  of  opinion  in  times  of  party 
strife  were  made  the  occasion  of  his  defeat."  "In  public 
services  he  may  fairly  be  ranked  next  to  Asbury,  and  as 
founder  and  apostle  of  Eastern  Methodism  he  is  above 
any  other  official  rank.  In  this  respect  his  historic  honor 
is  quite  unique;  for, though  individual  men  have  in  sev- 
eral other  sections  initiated  the  denomination,  no  other 
founder  has,  so  completely  as  he,  introduced,  conducted, 
and  concluded  his  work,  and  from  no  other  one  man's 
similar  work  have  proceeded  equal  advantages  to  Amer- 
ican Methodism"  (iv,  610,  511).  The  same  author,  in 
another  place,  thus  presents  his  qualities  as  a  preach- 
er: "  Pathos  was  natural  to  him.  Humor  seems,  in  some 
temperaments,  to  be  the  natural  counterpart,  or,  at  least, 
reaction  of  pathos.  Lee  became  noted  for  his  wit;  we 
shall  see  it  serving  him  Avith  a  felicitous  advantage  in 
his  encounters  with  opponents,  especially  in  the  North- 
eastern States.  It  flowed  in  a  genial  and  permanent 
stream  from  his  large  heart,  and  played  most  vividlj'  in 
his  severest  itinerant  hardships;  but  he  was  fidl  offen- 
der humanity  and  affectionate  piety.  His  rich  sensibili- 
ties, rather  than  any  remarkable  inttllectual  powers, 
made  him  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  popular  preach- 
ers of  his  day.  One  of  his  fellow-laborers,  a  man  of  ex- 
cellent judgment,  says  that  he  possessed  uncommon  col- 
loquial powers  and  a  fascinating  address;  that  his  readi- 
ness at  repartee  was  scarcely  equalled,  and  by  the  skill- 
ful use  of  this  talent  he  often  taught  those  who  were 
disposed  to  be  witty  at  his  expense  that  the  safest  way 
to  deal  with  him  was  to  be  civil.  He  was  fired  with  mis- 
sionary zeal,  and,  moreover,  was  a  man  of  great  moral 
courage"  (i,  413).  "  It  was  a  kind  of  fixed  priiuiple  with 
him,"  says  his  biographer  Lee  (p.  350),  "never  to  let  a 
congregation  go  from  his  preaching  entirely  unatfccted. 
He  would  excite  them  in  some  way.  He  would  make 
them  weep  if  he  could.  If  he  failed  in  this,  he  would 
essay  to  alarm  them  with  deep  and  solemn  warning  of 
words  and  manner;  and,  if  all  failed,  he  would  shake 
their  sides  with  some  pertinent  illustration  or  anecdote, 
and  then,  having  moved  them,  seek.  l)y  all  the  appli- 
ances of  truth,  earnestness,  and  affection,  to  guide  their 
stirred-up  thoughts  and  sympathies  to  the  fountains  of 
living  waters." — See  Life  and  Times  of  Jesse  Lee,  by  Le- 
roy  M.Lee  (Richmond,  Va.,  1848);  Stevens,  Bistort/  of 
Ike  M.  E.  Church  ;  Memoirs  of  Rev.  T.  Ware.  (E.  B.  O.) 
Lee,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  noted  Scotch  Presbyterian 


LEE 


323 


LEEK 


divine,  was  born  at  Tweedmouth  about  17%;  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  Andrew's  University,  and  became  a  minis- 
ter of  the  Gospel.  After  occupying  two  other  charges, 
he  became,  witli  Chahners  and  others,  minister  of  old 
(irayfriars,  Edinburgh.  He  died  in  aiarch,  1868,  at  Tor- 
quay, Devonshire.  Dr.  Robert  Lee  published  a  transla- 
tion' of  the  Thesis  o/Erastiis  (184-1)  :— Prayers  foi-  Pub- 
lic Worship:  —  Handbook  of  Devotion: — Prai/crs  for 
Family  Worship  : — The  Bible,  with  New  Marijinal  Ref- 
erences; a  work  which  brought  upon  liim  severe  condem- 
nation for  Rationalistic  tendency.  It  is,  however,  by  no 
means  to  be  inferred  from  this  that  Dr.  Lee  was  not  of 
the  evangelical  school;  he  fought  the  Socinians  with 
the  utmost  exertion,  and,  as  a  Scotchman  expressed  it, 
"  Dr.  Lee  emptied  the  Unitarian  chapel"  at  Edinburgh. 
Dr.  Lee  was  the  leader  in  innovations  and  changes  in 
the  Church  Establishment  of  Scotland.  His  views  were 
ultra-liberal;  and  from  the  year  1858,  when  the  innova- 
tions were  complained  of  before  the  Low-Church  courts, 
till  the  commencement  of  his  last  illness,  he  fought  a 
great  battle,  as  the  Bail;)  Review  expresses  it,  far  what 
he  deemed  a  more  liberal  construction  of  the  laws  of  the 
Church  in  the  matter  of  public  worship — in  other  words, 
publishing,  using,  defending  written  prayers — and  by  his 
own  force  of  character,  his  ingenuity  and  power  as  a 
controversialist,  and  his  influence  over  the  younger  min- 
isters of  the  Church,  he  probably  did  more  to  carry  for- 
ward the  movement  with  which  his  name  is  identified 
than  all  the  rest  of  his  brethren  who  took  part  with 
him.     See  Scotland,  Chukcii  of.     (.J.  H.  W.) 

Lee,  Robert  P.,D.D.,  a  (Dutch)  Reformed  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  1803,  at  Yorktown,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  in  1824,  and  at  the  theological  semi- 
nary at  New  Brunswick  in  1828.  The  first  year  of  his 
ministry,  1828-9,  was  spent  as  a  missionary  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
of  Montgomery,  in  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y.,  from  1829  to  1858, 
Avhen  he  died,  in  the  midst  of  his  usefulness.  Dr.  Lee 
was  a  rare  man,  a  close  student,  a  diligent  and  accu- 
rate theologian,  an  impressive,  but  not  showy  preacher. 
His  mind  was  remarkably  clear,  comprehensive,  and 
acute.  His  judgment  was  ripe  and  instinctively  right. 
Decided  in  bis  theology,  he  loved  its  truths,  and  ex- 
pounded and  defended  them  with  tenacity  and  power. 
In  the  classis  and  synods  of  his  Church  lie  was  a  repre- 
sentative man;  among  his  brethren  and  neighboring 
congregations  he  was  a  trusted  counsellor  and  a  peace- 
maker. Without  haste  or  prejudices,  calm  and  wise,  of 
positive  character  and  noted  piety,  lie  was  always  influ- 
ential, and  yet  singularly  modest  and  retiring.  His  per- 
sonal presence  was  commanding,  his  fine  countenance 
beamed  with  intelligence  and  benevolence,  and  his  whole 
demeanor  was  such  as  became  the  true  minister  of  Christ. 
His  death  was  a  great  loss  to  the  whole  denomination, 
of  which  he  Avas  a  noble  representative. — Corwin,  lUun- 
iial  of  Personal  Recollections,  p.  1.36.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Lee,  Samuel  (1),  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
Orientalist  and  Biblical  scholar,  was  born  at  Longnor, 
in  Shropshire,  May  14, 1783 ;  was  educated  but  moder- 
ately, and  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter.  His  aptitude  for 
learning,  however,  led  him  to  continue  his  studies  pri- 
vateh-,  and  he  thus  accpiired  the  Latin  language.  He 
next  mastered  the  Greek,  and  from  that  he  advanced 
to  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  all  of  which 
he  acquired  by  his  own  unaided  efforts  before  he  was 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  By  this  time  he  had  mar- 
ried, and  exchanged  his  former  occupation  for  that  of  a 
schoolmaster.  Attracting  the  notice  of  archdeacon  Cor- 
bett  and  Dr.  .Jon.  Scott,  he  was,  by  their  aid,  enabled 
to  add  to  his  other  acquisitions  a  knowledge  of  Arabic, 
Persic,  and  Hindustanee,  as  well  as  some  European  and 
other  tongues.  In  1815  he  accepted  an  engagement 
with  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  and  became  a  stu- 
dent of  Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  B.A.  in  1817.  At  this  time  he  edited  portions 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  of  the  I'rayer-book,  in  several  Ori- 
ental languages.     In  1818  he  took  orders,  and  preached 


at  Shrewsbury,  still  carrying  on  his  Oriental  studies;  at 
this  time  he  is  said  to  have  had  the  mastery  over  eigh- 
teen languages.  In  1819  he  was  honored,  as  his  talents 
certainly  deserved,  with  the  professorship  of  Arabic,  and 
in  1834  was  made  regius  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Cam- 
bridge University,  besides  receiving  some  pieces  of 
Church  preferment,  and  the  title  of  D.D.,  first  from  the 
University  of  Halle,  and  then  from  that  of  Cambridge. 
Shortly  before  his  death,  Dec.  16, 1852.  he  was  made  rec- 
tor of  Barley,  in  Somersetshire,  where  he  died.  Besides 
the  editions  of  the  Scriptures  which  he  carried  through 
the  press,  he  published  several  valuable  linguistical 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  are.  Grammar  of 
the  Hebreio  Lanyuuf/e,  compiled  from  the  best  authorities, 
chiefly  Oriental,  which  has  passed  through  several  edi- 
tions : — A  Lexicon,  Ileb.,  Chald.,  and  Engl.  (Lond.  1840) : 
—  The  Book  of  the  Patriarch  Job  translated,  icith  Intro- 
duction and  Commentary  (Lond.  1837)  : — An  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature,  Progress,  and  End  of  Prophecy  (Camb.  1849) : 
—Prolegomena  in  Bib.  Polygl.  Londinens.  Minora  (Lond. 
1828).  He  also  published  an  edition  of  the  controver- 
sial tracts  of  INIartyn  and  his  opponents;  edited  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones's  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language,  with  an 
addition  of  his  own,  containing  a  synopsis  of  Arabic 
grammar ;  and  translated  and  annotated  the  travels  of 
Ibn-Batuta  from  the  Arabic.  A  minor  work  of  his, 
Dissent  Unscriptural  and  Unreasonable,  led  to  a  contro- 
versy with  Dr.  J.  Pye  Smith  (in  1834;  the  pamphlets 
were  published  in  1835).  Dr.  Lee  has  generally  been 
recognised  not  only  iis  a  great  scholar,  but  also  as  the 
greatest  British  Orientalist  of  his  day,  and  his  writings 
bear  evident  traces  of  a  vigorous,  earnest,  and  independ- 
ent mind,  loving  truth,  and  boldly  pursuing  it.  See 
Lond.  Genii.  Magazine,  1853,  pt.  i,  203  sq.;  BlackivooWs 
Magaziiie,  xlix,  597  sq. ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ; 
AHibone,  Diet.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lee,  Samtiel  (2),  a  minister  of  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church,  born  at  Jericho,  Yt.,  July  20, 1805,  was 
converted  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  and  educated  at  Ver- 
mont University.  He  studied  theology  at  Auburn 
Seminary,  and  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  Oneida 
Congregational  Council  Sept.  23, 1834.  He  spent  one 
year  of  his  ministry  at  Cazenovia,  N.  Y'.,  and  then  went 
to  Northern  Ohio,  and  took  charge  of  the  Church  in  Me- 
dina, Ohio.  Afterwards  his  labors  were  divided  between 
the  churches  of  Mantua  and  Streetsborough,  Ohio.  He 
died  Jan.  28, 18GG.— Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1867,  p.  310. 
Lee,  "Wilson,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  Sussex  County,  Del.,  in  1761 ;  entered 
the  itinerancy  in  1784;  labored  extensively  in  the  West, 
mostly  in  Kentucky,  until  1794,  when  he  was  appointed 
to  New  London,  Conn. ;  to  New  York  in  1795 ;  to  Phil- 
adelphia in  1796-7-8 ;  to  Baltimore  District  in  1801-2-3  ; 
superannuated  in  1804,  and  died  in  Arundel  County, 
Md.,  Oct.  1 1  of  the  same  year.  Mr.  Lee  was  '-one  of  the 
most  laborious  and  successful  jNIethodist  preachers  of  his 
time."  He  was  eminently  shi'ewd  and  circumspect,  and 
deeply  pious.  He  was  '■  a  witness  of  the  perfect  love  of 
God  for  many  years  before  he  died.  He  was  an  excel- 
lent presiding  elder,  and  an  eloquent,  argumentative, 
and  often  overpowering  preacher.  His  labors  in  the 
West  were  very  heroic,  and  contributed  largely  to  the 
evangelization  of  Kentuckj'  and  Tennessee." — Minutes 
of  Conferences,  i,  127;  i^{Q\e\vi,  Memorials  of  Methodism, 
ch.  xviii ;  Bangs,  Hist.  Meth.  Episc.  Ch.  vol.  i.  (G.  L.  T.) 
Leech.     See  Horse-lef.ch. 

Leek  ("I'^^n,  chatsir',  from  '^^'n,  to  enclose,  also  to 
grow  green ;  occurs  in  several  places  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, where  it  is  variously  translated,  as  gi-ass  in  1 
Kings  xviii,  5 ;  2  Kings  xix,  26 ;  Job  xl,  1 5 ;  Psa.  xxxvii, 
2,  etc.;  Isa.  xv,  6,  etc.;  herb  in  Job  viii,  12;  hay  in 
Prov.  xxvii,  25,  and  Isa.  xv,  6 ;  and  court  in  Isa.  xxxiv, 
13;  but  in  Numb,  xi,  5  it  is  translated  '-leeks;"  Sept.  to. 
■rpc'iaa,  Yii\g.  porri).  Hebrew  scholars  state  that  the 
\\OTd  signifies  '•  greens"  or  '•  grass"  in  general ;  and  it  is 
no  doubt  clear,  from  the  context  of  most  of  the  above 


LEEK 


324 


LEEK* 


passages,  that  this  must  be  its  meaning.  See  Grass. 
There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  so 
translated  in  all  the  passages  where  it  occurs,  except  in 
tlie  last.  It  is  evidently  incorrect  to  translate  it  hay,  as 
in  the  above  passages  of  Proverbs  and  Isaiah,  because 
the  people  of  Eastern  countries,  as  it  has  been  observed, 
do  not  make  hay.  The  author  of  Fragments,  in  contin- 
uation of  Calmet,  has  justly  remarked  on  the  incorrect- 
ness of  our  version,  '•  The  hay  appeareth,  and  the  tender 
yrass  showeth  itself,  and  the  heibs  of  the  mountains  are 
gathered''  (Prov.  xxvii,  25) :  "  Now  certainly,''  says  he, 
'■if  the  tender  ffiriss  is  but  just  beginning  to  show  itself, 
the  hay,  which  is  grass  cut  and  dried  after  it  has  arrived 
at  maturity,  ought  by  no  means  to  be  associated  with 
it;  still  less  ought  it  to  be  placed  before  it."  The  au- 
thor continues:  "The  word,  I  apprehend,  means  the 
tirst  shoots,  the  rising,  just  budding  spires  of  grass."  So 
in  Isa.  XV,  G.     See  Hay. 

In  the  passage  at  Numb,  xi,  5,  where  the  Israelites  in 
the  desert  long  for  '•  the  cucumbers,  and  the  melons,  and 
the  leeks,  and  the  onions,  and  the  garlic"  of  Egypt,  it  is 
evident  that  it  was  not  grass  which  they  desired  for 
food,  but  some  green,  perhaps  grass-like  vegetable,  for 
wliich  the  word  chatsir  is  used.  In  the  same  way  that 
in  this  country  the  word  greens  is  applied  to  many  vari- 


The  Leek  {Allium Porrum). 

eties  of  succulent  plants  as  food,  in  India  suhzi,  from 
suhz,  '•  green,"  is  used  as  a  general  term  for  herbs  cooked 
as  kitchen  vegetables.  It  is  more  tlian  probable,  there- 
fore, that  chatsir  is  here  similarly  employed,  though 
this  does  not  ])rove  that  leeks- are  intended.  Ludolphus, 
as  quoted  by  Celsius  {Ilierohot.  ii,  2G4),  supposes  that  it 
may  mean  lettuce,  or  salads  in  general,  and  others  that 
the  succory  or  endive  may  be  the  true  plant.  But  Eo- 
senmiiUer  states,  "  Tlie  most  ancient  Greek  and  the 
Clialdee  translators  unanimously  interpret  the  Hebrew 
l)y  the  Greek  -iroaaa,  or  leeks."  The  name,  moreover, 
seems  to  have  been  specially  applied  to  leeks  from  the 
resemblance  of  their  leaves  to  grass,  and  from  their  be- 
ing conspicuous  for  their  green  color.  This  is  evident 
from  minerals  even  having  been  named  from  Trpaaov 
on  account  of  their  color,  as  prasius,  prasites,  and  chry- 
soprasium.  Tlie  Arabs  use  the  wortl  h'lras,  or  Jcuraf/i, 
as  tlie  translation  of  the  -pcKrof  of  the  Greeks,  and 
with  tliem  it  signifies  the  leek,  both  at  the  present  dav 
and  in  their  older  works.  It  is  curious  that  of  tlic  dif- 
ferent kinds  described,  one  is  called  kurusal-bukl,  or 
leek  used  as  a  vegetable.  That  the  leek  is  esteemed  in 
Egypt  we  have  the  testimony' of  Hasschpitst,  who  says 
{Travels,  p.  291),  '•  The  kind  called  karrat  by  the  Arabs 
must  certainly  have  been  one  of  those  desired  by  the 
children  of  Israel,  as  it  has  been  cultivated  and  esteemed 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present  time  m  Egypt." 


The  Romans  employed  it  much  as  a  seasoning  to  their 
dishes  (Horace,  Ej).  i,  12,  21 ;  Martial,  iii,  47,  8),  and  it 
is  an  ingredient  in  a  number  of  recipes  in  Ajiicius  re- 
ferred to  by  Celsius  {Hierobot.  ii,  2G3 ;  comp.  Pliny,  IJist. 
Nat.  xix,  G  ;  HiUer,  JJierophyi.  pt.  ii,  p.  3G ;  Diosc.  ii,  4; 
Athen.  iv,  137, 170).  The  leek  (.4  lliian  porrum)  was  in- 
troduced into  England  about  the  year  1562,  and  thence, 
ill  due  time,  into  America ;  and,  as  is  well  known,  it  con- 
tinues to  be  esteemed  as  a  seasoning  to  soups  and  stews 
in  most  civilized  countries. — Kitto. 

There  is,  however,  another  and  a  very  ingenious  in- 
terpretation of  chatsir,  first  proposed  by  HengstenLerg, 
and  received  by  Dr.  Kitto  {Pictorial  Bible,  Numb,  xi,  b), 
which  adopts  a  more  literal  translation  of  the  original 
word,  for,  says  Kitto,  "  among  the  wonders  in  the  natu- 
ral history  of  Egypt,  it  is  mentioned  by  travellers  that 
the  common  people  there  eat  with  special  relish  a  kind 
of  grass  similar  to  clover."  Mayer  {Reise  nach  ^Egyp- 
tien,  p.  22G)  says  of  this  plant  (whose  scientific  name  is 
Trigonella  Fonnum- gracum,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce)  that  it  is  similar  to  clover,  but  its 
leaves  more  pointed,  and  that  great  quantities  of  it  are 
eaten  by  the  people.  Forskal  mentions  the  Trigonella 
as  being  grown  in  the  gardens  at  Cairo ;  its  native  name 
is Ilalbeh  {Flor.  yEgyptiaca,  p. 81).  Somiini  {Voyage,  i, 
379)  says,  "In  this  fertile  country  the  Egyptians  them- 
selves eat  thQ  fmu-grec  so  largely  that  it  may  be  prop- 


A<h 


Trigonella  Foenum-grcccum. 

erly  called  the  food  of  man.  In  the  month  of  Novem- 
ber they  cry  '  Green  halbeli  for  sale !'  in  the  streets  of 
the  town ;  it  is  tied  up  in  large  bunches,  which  the  in- 
habitants purchase  at  a  low  price,  and  which  they  eat 
with  incredible  greediness  without  any  kind  of  season- 
ing." The  seeds  of  this  plant,  which  is  also  cultivated 
in  Greece,  are  often  used ;  the}'  are  eaten  boiled  or  raw, 
mixed  with  honey.  Forskal  includes  it  in  the  materia 
medica  of  Egypt  {Mctt.  ^[ed.  Kahir.  p.  155).  There  does 
not  appear,  however,  sufficient  reason  for  ignoring  the 
old  versions,  which  all  seem  agreed  that  the  leek  is  the 
plant  denoted  by  chatsir,  a  vegetable  from  the  earliest 
times  a  great  favorite  with  the  Egyptians,  as  both  a 
nourishing  and  savory  food.  Some  have  objected  that, 
as  the  Egyptians  held  the  leek;  onion,  etc.,  sacred,  they 
would  abstain  from  eating  these  vegetables  themselves, 
and  woiUd  not  allow  the  Israelites  to  use  them  (compare 
Juvenal,  Sat.  xv,  9).  We  have,  however,  the  testimony 
of  Herodotus  (ii,  125)  to  show  that  onions  were  eaten  by 
the  Egj-ptian  poor,  for  he  says  that  on  one  of  the  pyra- 
mids is  shown  an  inscription,  which  was  exjilained  to 
him  by  an  interpreter,  showing  how  much  money  was 
spent  in  jiroviding  radishes,  onions,  and  garlic  fur  the 
workmen.  The  priests  were  not  allowed  to  eat  these 
things,  and  Plutarch  {De  Is.  et  Osir.  ii,  p.  353)  tells  us 
the  reasons.  The  Welshman  reverences  his  leek,  and 
wears  one  on  St.  David's  day ;  he  eats  the  leek  neverthe- 
less, and  doubtless  the  Egyptians  were  not  overscrupu- 
lous {Script.  Herbal,  p.  230). — Smith. 


LEES 


325 


LEGALISTS 


Lees  (only  ill  the  plural  D'^"i'?3'J,  sliemarim',  from 
l^'IJ,  to  keep  [Jer.  xlviii,  11  ;  Zcph.  i,  12;  rendered 
"  wines  on  tlie  lees"  in  Isa.  xxv,  G ;  "  dregs"  in  Psa.  Ixxv, 
8];  Sept.  rpDyiat ;  Vulgate ytfces).  The  Hebrew  term 
^■^'ly,  sheinei-  (the  presumed  singular  form  of  the  above), 
bears  the  radical  sense  of pi-eservaiion,  and  was  applied 
to  "  lees"  from  the  custom  of  allowing  the  wine  to  stand 
on  the  lees  in  order  that  its  color  and  body  might  be 
better  preserved;  hence  the  expression  "wine  on  the 
lees,"  as  meaning  a  generous,  fidl- bodied  liquor  (Isa. 
xxv,  G ;  see  Henderson,  ad  loc).  The  wine  in  this  state 
remained,  of  course,  undisturbed  in  its  cask,  and  became 
thick  and  sirupy ;  hence  the  proverb  "  to  settle  upon 
one's  lees,"  to  express  the  sloth,  indifference,  and  gross 
stupidity  of  the  ungodly  (Jer.  xlviii,  11;  Zeph,  i,  12). 
Before  the  wine  was  consumed  it  was  necessary  to  strain 
off  the  lees ;  such  ^vine  was  then  termed  "  well  refined" 
(Isa.  xxv,  G).  To  drink  the  lees  or  "  dregs"  was  an  ex- 
pression for  the  endurance  of  extreme  punishment  (Psa. 
Ixxv,  8). — Smith.  An  ingenious  writer  in  Kitto's  Ci/- 
chpcedia  (s.  v.  Shemarim)  thinks  that  some  kind  ofjjfe- 
serves  from  grapes  are  meant  in  Isa.  xxv,  G,  as  the  ety- 
mology of  the  word  suggests ;  but  this  supposition,  al- 
though it  clears  the  passage  from  some  difficulties,  is  op- 
jiosetl  to  the  usage  of  the  term  in  the  other  places.  See 
Wine. 

Leaser,  Isaac,  a  noted  Jewish  theologian  and  re- 
ligious writer,  was  born  at  Neukirch,  in  Westphalia,  in 
180G.  In  1825  he  emigrated  to  America,  and  became  in 
1829  rabbi  of  the  prmtipal  synagogue  of  Philadelphia. 
This  position  he  resigned  in  1850,  and  died  in  that  city 
in  18G8.  Leeser  \vas  a  superior  scholar  and  preacher, 
and  among  his  people  his  memory  will  ever  be  resjiected 
and  honored.  His  works,  which  are  completely  cited  in 
Alllbone,  iJicf.  of  British  aiul  American  Authors, yo\.  ii, 
s.  v.,  are  mainly  contributions  to  Jewish  literature — prin- 
cipaDy  Jewish  history  and  theology.  In  1843  he  as- 
sumed the  editorship  of  the  Jewish  Adrocaie  (or  Occi- 
dent). Very  valuable  is  his  edition  of  the  O.-T.  Scrip- 
tures in  the  original,  based  on  the  labors  of  I7ni  der 
Hooght,  and  published  by  Lippincott  and  Co.  (Philadel. 
18G8,8vo). 

Le  Fevre.     See  Faber  Stapulexsis. 

Left  (prop.  PIN^b,  semol',  a  primitive  word ;  Gr. 
evwi'vixog,  lit.  well-named,  i.  e.  lucky,  by  euphemism  for 
(\piarep6c,  as  opposed  to  'p'3'^,  ^t^ioc,  the  right).  The 
left  hand,  like  tlie  Latin  Iwrus,  was  esteemed  of  iU  omen, 
hence  the  term  sinister  as  equivalent  to  unfortunate. 
This  was  especialh'  the  case  among  the  superstitious 
Greeks  and  Romans  (see  Potter's  Gr.  Ant.  i,  323;  Adams, 
Bom.  Ant.  p.  301).  Among  the  Hebrews  the  left  like- 
wise indicated  the  no7-th  (Job  xxiii,  9 ;  Gen.  xiv,  15), 
the  person's  face  being  supposed  to  be  turned  towards 
the  east.  In  all  these  respects  it  was  precisely  the  op- 
posite of  the  rif/ht  (q.  v.). 

LEFT-HANDED  Oi^T^'^  l'^!  I^X,  shut  as  to  his 
right  hand  [Judg.ui,!^;  xx,  16];  Sept.  6^i(poTSpo()t'^ioc, 
Vulgate  q7,i  utraque  mann  pro  dextera  utehatur,  and  ita 
sinistra  lit  dextra  prcelians),  properly  one  that  is  imable 
skilfully  to  use  his  right  hand,  and  hence  employs  the 
left ;  but  also,  as  is  usual,  ambidexter,  i.  e.  one  who  can 
use  the  left  hand  as  well  as  the  right,  or,  more  literally, 
one  Avhose  hands  are  both  right  hands.  It  was  long 
supposed  that  both  hands  are  naturally  equal,  and  that 
the  preference  of  the  right  hand,  and  comparative  inca- 
pacity of  the  left,  are  the  result  of  education  and  habit. 
]5ut  it  is  now  known  that  the  difference  is  really  phys- 
ical (see  Bell's  Bridgewater  Treatise  on  the  IlaiuV),  and 
that  the  ambidexterous  condition  of  the  hands  is  not  a 
natural  development.     See  Ambidexter. 

The  capacity  of  equal  action  with  both  hands  was 
highly  prized  in  ancient  times,  especially  in  war. 
Among  the  Hebrews  this  quality  seems  to  have  been 
most  common  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  for  all  the  per- 
sons noticed  as  being  endued  with  it  were  of  that  tribe. 


By  comparing  Judg.  iii,  15;  xx,  IG,  with  1  Chron.  xii, 
2,  we  may  gather  that  the  persons  mentioned  in  the 
two  former  texts  as  '•  left-handed"  were  really  ambidex- 
ters. In  the  latter  text  we  learn  that  the  Benjaraites 
who  joined  David  at  Ziklag  were  "  mighty  men,  helpers 
of  the  war.  They  were  armed  with  bows,  and  could 
use  both  the  right  hand  and  the  left  in  hurling  [sling- 
ing] and  shooting  arrows  out  of  a  bow."  There  were 
thirty  of  them  ;  and  as  they  appear  to  have  been  all  of 
one  family,  it  might  almost  seem  as  if  the  greater  com- 
monness of  this  power  among  the  Benjamites  arose  from 
its  being  a  hereditary  peculiarity  of  certain  families  in 
that  tribe.  It  may  also  partly  have  been  the  result  of 
cultivation ;  for,  although  the  left  hand  is  not  naturally 
an  equally  strong  and  ready  instrument  as  the  right 
hand,  it  may  doubtless  be  often  rendered  such  by  early 
and  suitable  training. — Kit  to.     See  Hand. 

Leg  is  the  rendering  of  several  words  in  the  A.  V. 
Usually  the  Heb.  term  is  i'^S,  lara'  (only  in  the  dual 
B"'^'13),  the  lower  limb  or  shank  of  an  animal  (Exod. 
xii,  9  ;'  xxix,  17  ;  Lev.  i,  9, 13 ;  iv,  11 ;  viii,  21 ;  ix,  14 ; 
Amos  iii,  12)  or  a  locust  (Lev.  xi,  21) ;  the  oKiXoc,  of  a 
man  (John  xix,  31,  32,  33).  pid,  shuk  (Chald.  plj, 
shak,  of  an  image,  Dan.  ii,  33),  is  properly  the  shin  or 
lower  part  of  the  leg,  but  used  of  the  whole  limb,  e.  g. 
of  a  person  (Deut.  xxviii,  13 ;  Psa.  cxlvii,  10 ;  Prov. 
xxv'i,  7;  "thigh,"  Isa.  xlvii,  2;  in  the  phrase  "/»})  [q. 
v.]  and  thigh,"  Judg.  xv,  7 ;  spoken  also  of  the  drawers 
or  leggins,  Cant,  v,  15) ;  also  the  "  heave  shoulder"  (q.  v.) 
of  the  sacrifice  (Exod.  xxix,  22,  etc. ;  1  Sam.  ix,  24). 
Once  by  an  extension  of  PS"!,  i-e'gel  (1  Sam.  xvii,  G), 
properly  a  foot  (as  usually  rendered).  Elsewhere  im- 
properly for  ?!2uj,  sho'bel,  the  train  or  trailing  dress  of 
a  female  (Isa.  xlvii,  2) ;  and  In'n"^,  tsedda',  a  step-chain 
for  the  feet,  or  perh.  bracelet  for  the  wrist  ("  ornament 
of  the  leg,"  Isa.  iii,  20).     See  Thigh. 

Goliath's  greaves  for  his  legs  doubtless  extended  from 
the  knee  to  the  foot  (1  Sam.  xvii,  G).  See  Gkeaa'es. 
The  bones  of  the  legs  of  persons  crucified  were  broken 
to  hasten  their  death  (John  xix, 31).    See  Ckccifixion. 

Legalists.  Properly  speaking,  a  legalist  is  one 
who  "  acts  according  to  the  law ;"  but  in  general  tlic 
term  is  made  use  of  to  denote  one  who  seeks  salralion  by 
u-o}-ks  of  law  (not  of  the  law,  but  of  "law"  generally, 
whether  moral  or  ceremonial,  t4'  ipyeov  ropov,  Eom.  v, 
20)  instead  of  by  the  merits  of  Christ.  Manj^  who  are 
alive  to  the  truth  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  anything 
that  can  purchase  salvation,  and  who  desire  that  thLi 
doctrine  should  be  earnestly  and  constantly  incidcated 
by  Christian  ministers  in  their  teaching,  conceive  that 
there  is  a  danger  also  on  the  opposite  side';  and  that 
while  plain  Antinomian  teaching  would  disgust  most 
hearers,  there  is  a  kind  of  doctrine  scarcely  less  mis- 
chievous in  its  consequences,  that  which  only  uiciden- 
tally  touches  on  good  works.  They  think  that  what- 
ever leads  or  leaves  men,  without  distinctly  rejecting 
Christian  virtue,  to  feel  little  anxiety  and  take  little 
pains  about  it;  anything  which,  though  perhaps  not  so 
meant,  is  liable  to  be  so  understood  by  those  who  have 
the  wish  as  to  leave  them  without  any  feeling  of  real 
shame,  or  mortification,  or  alarm  on  account  of  their 
own  faults  and  moral  deficiencies,  so  as  to  make  them 
anxiously  watchful  onl//  against  seeking  salvation  bg 
good  works,  and  not  at  all  against  seeking  salvation 
without  good  works — all  this  (they  consider)  is  likely  to 
be  much  more  acceptable  to  the  corrupt  disposition  of 
the  natural  man  than  that  which  urges  the  necessity  of 
being  '■•careful  to  maintain  good  works."  Those  who 
take  such  a  view  of  the  danger  of  the  case  thiuk  that 
Christian  teachers  should  not  shrink,  through  fear  of 
incurring  the  wrongful  imputation  of  ''legalism,"  from 
earnestly  inculcating  the  points  Avhich  the  apoftlts  found 
it  necessarv  to  dwell  on  with  such  continual  watchful- 
ness and  frecjuent  repetition.  But  in  general  the  term 
is  made  use  of  to  denote  one  who  expects  salvation  by 


LEGATES 


326 


LEGATES 


his  own  works.  "We  may  further  consider  a  legalist  as 
one  who  has  no  proper  conviction  of  the  evil  of  sin; 
who,  although  he  pretends  to  abide  by  the  law,  yet  has 
not  a  just  idea  of  its  spirituality  and  demands,  lie  is 
ignonint  of  the  grand  scheme  of  salvation  by  free  grace: 
proud  of  his  own  fancied  righteousness,  he  submits  not 
to  the  righteousness  of  God;  he  derogates  from  the 
honor  of  Christ  by  mixing  his  own  works  with  his ;  and, 
in  fact,  denies  the  necessity  of  the  work  of  the  Spirit  by 
supposing  that  he  has  ability  in  himself  to  perform  all 
those  duties  which  God  has  required.  Such  is  the 
character  of  the  legalist,  a  character  diametrically  op- 
posite to  that  of  the  true  Christian,  whose  sentiment 
corresponds  with  that  of  the  apostle,  who  justly  observes, 
"  By  grace  are  j'e  saved,  through  faith,  and  that  not  of 
yourselves :  it  is  the  gift  of  God.  Not  of  works,  lest  any 
man  should  boast"  (Eph.  ii,  S,  9).— Eden,  Thcol.  Did.  s. 
v.;  Buck,  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Buchanan,  Dodrine  ofjus- 
tijiciition,  Lect.  vi,  especially  p.  153  sq. 

Legates   and  Nuncios   of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  AVith  reference  to  the  endeavors  of  that  Church 
to  unite  all  the  congregations  into  one  vast  system,  and 
to  rule  over  them  successfully,  preventing  all  heresy 
and  division,  the  Council  of  Sardica   (343)    expressly 
stated :  '•  Quod  si  is,  qui  rogat  causam  suam  iterum  au- 
diri,  deprecatione  sua  moverit  episcopum  Romanum,  ut 
de  latere  suo  jjresbyteros  mittat,  erit  in  potestate  ejus,"  etc. 
{Con.  Sardic.  c.  7,  in  c.  3(>,  can.  ii,  qu.  vi).     The  Romish 
clergy  was  therefore  sent  abroad  everywhere.     In  tlie 
African  churches,  however,  they  refused  to  admit  into 
fellowship  those  "qui  ad  transmarina  (concilia)  putave- 
rit  appellandum"  (Codex  ecdes.  Afric.  c.  125),  and  wrote 
to  Celestine  at  Rome, "  Ut  aliqui  tanquam  a  tu;i3  sancti- 
tatis  latere  mittantur,  nulla  invenimus  patrum  synodo 
constitutum"  (ibid.  c.  13o).     Thomassin  (  Veins  ac  nova 
ecdesicB  disciplina,  p.  i,  lib.  ii,  cap.  117)  has  collected  in- 
stances of  delegations  having  been  sent  in  various  cases 
during  the  4th  and  5th  centuries.     But,  as  vicars  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  we  find  in  Western  Illyria  the  bishops 
of  Thessalonica  after  Damasus  (a.  3G7) ;   in  Gaul,  the 
bishops  of  Aries  after  Zosimus  (a.  417) ;  in  Spain,  the 
bishops  of  Seville  after  Simplicius  (a.  467)  (Constant, 
De  aiiiiquis  canonum  colledionibus,  No.  23-25;  GaUande, 
De  vetuslig  canonum  colledionibus  dissert,  i,  23  sq. ;  Pe- 
trus  de  Marca,  De  concordia  sacerdotii  ac  imperii,  lib. 
V,  cap.  19  sq.,  30  sq.).     Among  the  delegates  of  the 
bishop  of  Rome  we  must  also  put  the  Apocrisiarii  [see 
Apockisiarius]  sent  to  the  imperial  court  at  Constan- 
tinople.    Leo  I,  and  particularly   Gregory  I,  carefully 
continued  the  relations  established  by  their  legates,  and 
created  more,  in  order  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
churches,  and  to  increase  the  influence  of  Rome.    Greg- 
ory appointed  bishop  Maximus  of  Syracuse  over  all  the 
churches  of  Sicily  (•'  super  cunctas  ecclesias  Siciliaj  te . . . 
vices  sedis  apostolicic  ministrare  decernimus"),  with  the 
right  of  deciding  on  all  except  the  caii.fcp.  majores.    This 
office  was,  however,  vested  only  in  the  individual,  not 
in  the  see  ("  Quas  vices  non  loco  tribuimus,  sed  perso- 
naj,'"  c.  6,  X.  De  prcesumtionibus,  ii,  23,  a.  592;  c.  3,  can. 
vii,  qu.  i,  30  [a.  591],  c.  39;  can.xi,qu.i,  and  Gonzalez 
Tellez  to  c.  1,  X.  De  oplcio  legati,  i,  30,  a.  9).    To  England 
Gregory  sent  Augustine  (a. (501),  with  the  mission  of  im- 
proving the  Church  organization  of  that  country,  and 
particularly  of  upholding  the  episcopacy  (Kpist.  64,  a. 
601, in  c.3,can.  xxv,(iu.ii);  and  Agathon  (678)  also  sent 
the  Roman  abbot  .JdIiii  to  that  country  to  organize  wor- 
ship, convoke  a  council  to  intpurc  into  the  state  of  re- 
ligion, and  report  thereon  at  his  return  (Beda, ///x/. /scrZ. 
lib.  iv,  cap.  18).    Augustine  is  said  to  have  himself  taken 
part  in  settling  ecclesiastical  affairs  during  a  journey 
through  Gaul,  and  conferred  with  the  bislioji  of  Aries  as 
his  legate.     (Jregory  I  sent  also  other  special -delegates 
to  (iaul,  in  order  to  imi)roveJhe  state  of  the  churches 
there,  with  the  aid  of  the  bishops  and  Ih'o  king  (Tho- 
massin, c.  118).    In  the  course  of  time  the  legates  were 
empowered  to  act  by  themselves  on  the  orders  commu- 
nicated to  them  at  Rome.     The  vicariates  became  con- 


nected with  some  of  the  ancient  bishoprics,  by  whoso  in- 
cumbents they  had  long  been  exercised,  and  it  became 
difficult  to  erect  new  jiermanent  ones  on  account  of  the 
opposition  of  the  other  dignitaries  of  the  Church ;  so 
that  special  delegates  were  only  sent  when  affairs  of  im- 
portance rendered  such  a  step  necessarj'.  Even  then  it 
became  customary  to  await  the  wish,  or  at  least  to  se- 
cure the  sanction,  of  the  governments  into  whose  states 
they  were  sent.  There  were,  then,  two  kinds  of  legates, 
the  legati  nati,  and  the  legati  dati  or  missi. 

1.  Legati  nati,  in  cases  where  the  legation  was  con- 
nected with  a  bishopric.  The  rights  of  such  a  legate 
were  at  first  very  large;  his  jurisdiction  had  the  char- 
acter o{  jurisdictio  ordinaria  ;  it  also  appears  as  ordi- 
narii  ordimirioiiim,  and  formed  a  court  of  last  resort  for 
those  who  voluntarily  appealed  to  it.  After  the  16th 
century  their  prerogatives  were  gradually  restricted, 
and  finally,  after  the  introduction  of  the  legati  a  latere, 
the  title  became  merely  a  nominal  one,  the  metropolitan 
not  being  even  entitled  to  having  the  cross  borne  before 
him  where  there  was  a  legatus  a  latere  (c.  23,  X.  De 
privilegiis,  v,  33 ;  Innocent  III,  in  c.  5,  Cone.  Lateran, 
a.  1215). 

2.  Legati  missi  or  dati.  These  are  divided  into,  (1) 
Delegati,  appointed  for  one  specific  object.  It  was  al- 
ready forbidden  in  the  INIiddle  Ages  to  appoint  members 
of  the  clergy  in  their, place.  (2)  Xunrii  (ipDStoIifi.  \\\\o 
are  empowered  to  enforce  the  commands  contained  in 
their  mandates.  In  order  to  effect  this  object  they 
were  given  a  right  of  jurisdiction  until  the  IQth  centu- 
ry. To  enable  them  to  legislate  in  reserved  cases,  they 
Avere  invested  with  a  mandatum  spedcde,  making  the 
reservations  generaliter  for  them.  They  could  grant 
indulgences  for  anj^  period  not  exceeding  a  year.  All 
other  legates  were  subject  to  them  except  such  as  had 
special  j>rivileges  granted  them  by  the  pope.  The  in- 
signia of  the  nuncio  comprised  a  red  dress,  a  white 
horse,  and  golden  spurs.  (3)  Legati  ah  latere.  Special 
delegates  who  acted  as  actual  representatives  of  the 
popes,  and  who  possessed  all  the  highest  prerogatives. 
Their  plenarj'  power  is  thus  expressed :  "  Nostra  vice, 
qua3  corrigenda  sunt  corrigat,  qua:  statuenda  constituat" 
(Gregor.  ATI, Kji. lil >. iv, ep. 26).  They  exercised  ajuris- 
dictio  ordinaria  in  the  provinces,  had  power  to  suspend 
the  bishops,  and  to  dispose  of  all  reserved  cases.  The 
manifold  complaints  which  arose  in  the  course  of  time 
led  the  popes  to  alter  some  points  of  the  system.  Leo 
X,  in  the  Lateran  Council  of  1515,  caused  it  to  be  ruled 
that  the  cardinal  legate  should  have  a  settled  residence; 
and  the  Congrcgatio  pro  interpretatione  Cone.  Trid.  con- 
strued the  resolutions  of  the  councils  so  as  to  make  them 
very  favorable  to  the  bishops. 

The  Reformation  gave  occasion  for  the  sending  of  a 
large  number  of  legates,  and  also  for  the  nomination  of 
permanent  nuncios  at  Lucerne.  1579;  Vienna,  1581 ;  Co- 
logne, 1582;  Brussels,  1588  :  this,  howe^-er,  gave  rise  to 
fresh  disturbances  in  the  Church.     The  troubles  caused 
by  the  nuncios  were  the  cause  of  the  adoption  of  a  new 
article  under  the  gravamina  tiationis  Germaniccv.     In 
the  mean  time  the  French  Revolution  broke  out,  dis- 
turbing all  iireconceived  plans.     After  the  restoration 
of  order  in  the  hierarchy  the  system  of  legations  was 
revived,  but  with  many  modifications,  altering  its  ;Mid- 
dle-Age  features.     The  second  article  of  the  French 
Concordat  of  1801  states  expressly:  '-Aucun  individu  se 
disant  nonce,  legat,  vicaire  ou  commissaire  aiiostoliquc, 
ou  se  prevalant  de  toute  autre  denomination,  nc  pourra, 
sans  Tautorisation  du  gouvernement,  exerccr  sur  lo  sol 
Franc^^ais  ni  ailleurs,  aucune  fonction  relative  aux  affaires 
I  de  I'eglise  Gallicane."    This  clearly  removed  the  original 
\  foundation  of  the  intercourse  formerly  existing  between 
i  the  ])ai)al  see  and  these  countries.     Moreover,  several 
1  Roman  Catholic  governments,  such  as  Austria,  France, 
Spain,  etc.,  reserved  to  themselves  the  right  to  point 
out  the  parties  who  should  be  accredited  to  their  courts 
i  as  nuncios  {\s\\:\\xr,  ICuropdischesVolkerr.  §  186,  Anm. 
!  a.).     The  formula  of  the  oath  of  obedience  to  tlir  pope. 


LEGEND 


327 


LEGEND 


which,  since  Gregory  VII,  is  taken  by  bishops  at  their 
ordination,  says:  "  Legatum  apostolicffl  sedis  .  .  .  hono- 
ritife  tractabo  et  in  suis  necessitatibus  adjuvabo"  (c.  4, 
X.  Be  jurejurando,  ii,  24).  This  involves  the  duty  of 
supporting  the  procurations.  But  the  state  is  also  en- 
listed on  account  of  its  power. 

The  usual  envoys  of  the  pope  have  now  the  titles  of, 
1.  Lerjati  nati,  no  longer  invested  with  an  inherent  right 
to  the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  2.  Leguli 
duti,  mksi,  which  are  divided  into  (1)  Lefjati  a  latere 
or  de  latere,  who,  it  is  stated,  are  entitled  to  be  canoni- 
cally  designated  as  cardinals  a  latere  or  legates  de  la- 
tere. This  is  incorrect,  for  cardinals  are  now  seldom 
sent  on  such  missions,  if  ever,  but,  on  the  contrary,  other 
members  of  the  clergy,  cum  jwtestate  legati  a  latere.  (2) 
Nuncii  apostolici,  bearers  of  apostolic  mandates.  ^Vlule 
the  ibrmer  are  looked  upon  as  ambassadors,  it  is  a  nice 
question  whether  the  latter  occupy  the  second  position, 
that  of  envoys.  They  are  either  ordinary  permanent 
nuncios,  as  in  Germany,  or  extraordinarj',  sent  for  some 
special  purpose.  (3)  Internuncii  (residentes),  considered 
by  some  as  forming  a  third  class,  by  others  as  belonging 
to  the  second.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  1815,  it  was 
decided  by  the  first  article  of  the  Rhjlement  sur  le  rang 
entre  ks  A  gens  diplomatiques  that  the  first  class  would 
be  formed  oi  A7nbat!sudeiirs,  Legats  ou  Nonces;  and  in 
article  fourth,  that  no  change  would  be  made  in  regard 
to  papal  representatives.  See  YAixhax^Volkerrecht ;  Ileff- 
tex,Vulkerrecht ;  MhuiH', Das Eui-opaiscke Gesamlschqfts- 
rechf;  Schulte,  Katliolisch.  Kirchenrecht  (Giessen,  1856) ; 
Walter,  Kirchenrecht  (11th  edit.  Bonn,  18.54)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii.  269  sq. ;  Wetzer  und  AVelte,  Kirchen- 
Lexikon,  vi,  409  sq. 

Legend  (Lat.  legemla, "  things  to  be  read,"  lessons) 
was  the  name  given  in  early  times,  in  the  lloman  Cath- 
olic Church,  to  a  book  containing  the  daily  lessons  which 
were  wont  to  be  read  as  part  of  divine  service.  This 
name,  however,  in  process  of  time,  was  used  to  designate 
the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs,  as  well  as  the  collection 
of  such  narratives,  from  the  fact  that  these  were  read  by 
the  monks  at  matins,  and  after  dinner  in  the  refectories. 
Among  numerous  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the  le- 
gends, the  following  is  the  most  probable.  Before  col- 
leges were  established  in  the  monasteries  where  the 
schools  were  held,  the  professors  in  rhetoric  frequently 
gave  their  pupils  the  life  of  some  saint  for  a  trial  of  their 
talent  for  awplijication.  The  students,  being  constant- 
ly at  a  loss  to  furnish  out  their  pages,  invented  most  of 
these  wonderful  adventures.  Jortin  observes  that  the 
Cliristians  used  to  collect,  out  of  Ovid,  Livy,  and  other 
pagan  poets  and  historians,  the  miracles  and  portents  to 
be  found  there,  and  accommodated  them  to  their  own 
monks  and  saints.  The  good  fethers  of  that  age,  whose 
simplicity  was  not  inferior  to  their  devotion,  were  so  de- 
lighted with  these  tlo-\vers  of  rhetoric  that  they  were  in- 
duced to  make  a  collection  of  these  miraculous  composi- 
tions, not  imagining  that  at  some  distant  period  they 
would  become  matters  of  faith.  Yet,  when  Jacob  de  Vo- 
ragine,  Peter  de  Natalibus,  and  Peter  Pdbadeneira  wrote 
the  lives  of  the  saints,  they  sought  for  their  materials  in 
the  libraries  of  the  monasteries ;  and,  awakening  from 
tlie  dust  these  manuscripts  of  amplification,  imagined 
they  made  an  invaluable  present  to  the  world  by  laying 
before  them  these  voluminous  absiudities.  The  people 
received  these  pious  fictions  with  all  imaginable  sim- 
plicity, and,  as  few  were  able  to  read,  the  books  con- 
taining them  were  amply  illustrated  with  cuts  which 
rendered  the  story  intelligible. 

IMany  of  these  legends,  the  production  of  monastics, 
were  invented,  especially  in  the  Middle  Ages,  with  a 
view  to  sers-c  the  interests  of  monasticism,  particularly 
to  exalt  the  character  of  the  monastic  orders,  and  to 
represent  their  voluntary  austerities  as  purchasing  the 
peculiar  fjxvor  of  heaven.  For  this  purpose  they  un- 
scrupulously ascribe  to  their  patrons  and  founders  the 
power  of  working  miracles  on  the  most  trifiing  occa- 
sions.    Many  of  these  miracles  are  blasphemous  paro- 


dies on  those  of  our  blessed  Lord;  not  a  few  are  bor- 
rowed from  the  pagan  mythology ;  but  some  are  so  ex- 
quisitely absurd  that  no  one  but  a  monk  coulil  have 
dreamed  of  imposing  such  nonsense  on  the  most  besotted 
of  mankind.     "  It  would  be  easy  to  accumulate  proofs 
of  the  ready  belief  which  the  lower  orders  of  Irish  Ro- 
manists give  to  tales  of  miracles  worked  by  their  priests; 
but  it  is  remarkable  that  in  the  earlier  legends  we  very 
rarely  find  supernatural  po\vers  attributed  to  the  secular 
ecclesiastics ;  the  heroes  of  most  of  the  tales  are  monks 
and  hermits,  whose  voluntary  poverty  seemed  to  bring 
them  down  to  a  level  of  sympathy  with  the  lower  or- 
ders.    Indiscriminate  alms,  which  have  often  been  dem- 
onstrated to  be  the  source  of  great  evils,  are  always  pop- 
ular with  the  uninstructed,  and  hence  we  find  that  many 
of  the  heroes  of  the  legends  are  celebrated  for  the  prod- 
igahty  of  their  benevolence.    .The  miracles  attributed 
to  the  Irish  saints  are  even  more  extravagant  than  those 
in  the  Continental  martyrologies.     We  find  St.  Patrick 
performing  the  miracle  of  raising  the  dead  to  life  no  less 
than  seventeen  times,  and  on  one  occasion  he  restores 
animation  to  thirty-four  persons  at  once.     Gerald, bish- 
op of  Mayo,  however,  surpassed  St.  Patrick,  for  he  not 
onlj'  resuscitated  the  dead  daughter  of  the  king  of  Con- 
naught,  but  miraculously  changed  her  sex,  that  she 
might  inherit  the  crown  of  the  province,  in  which  the 
Salic  law  was  then  established.     We  find,  also,  in  the 
ecclesiastical  writers,  many  miracles  specially  worked  to 
support  individual  doctrines,  particularly  the  mystery 
of  transubstantiation.    Indeed,  a  miracle  appears  to  have 
been  no  unusual  resource  of  a  puzzled  controversialist. 
On  one  occasion  the  sanctitj'  of  the  wafer  is  stated  to 
have  been  proved  by  a  mule's  kneeling  to  worship  it; 
at  another  time  a  pet  lamb  kneels  down  at  the  elevation 
of  the  host ;  a  spider,  which  St.  Francis  d'Ariano  acci- 
dentally swallowed  while  receiving  the  sacrament,  came 
out  of  his  thigh ;  and  when  St.  Elmo  Avas  pining  at  be- 
ing too  long  excluded  from  a  participation  in  the  sacra- 
mental mysteries,  the  holy  elements  were  bro;  ^ht  to 
him  by  a  pigeon.    But  the  principal  legends  devised  for 
the  general  exaltation  of  the  Eomish  Church  refer  to 
the  exercise  of  power  over  the  devil.     In  the  south  of 
Ireland  nothing  is  more  common  than  to  hear  of  Satan's 
appearance  in  proper  person,  his  resistance  to  all  the  ef- 
forts of  the  Protestant  minister,  and  his  prompt  obedi- 
ence to  the  exorcisms  of  the  parish  priest.     In  general, 
the  localities  of  the  stories  are  laid  at  some  neighboring 
village ;  yet,  easy  as  this  renders  refutation,  it  is  won- 
derful to  find  how  generally  such  a  tale  is  credited. 
From  the  archives  of  the  Silesian  Church,  we  find  that 
some  German  Protestants  seem  to  believe  in  the  exor- 
cising powers  of  the  Eomish  priests.     Next  to  the  le- 
gends of  miracles  rank  those  of  extraordinary  austeri- 
ties, such  as  that  St.  Polycronus  always  took  up  a  huge 
tree  on  his  shoulders  when  he  went  to  pray;  that  St. 
Barnadatus  shut  himself  up  in  a  narrow  iron  cage ;  that 
St.  Adhelm   exposed  himself  to  the  most  stimiUating 
temptations,  and  then  defied  the  devil  to  make  him 
yield;  and  that  St. IMacarius  undertook  a  penance  for 
sin  six  months,  because  he  had  so  far  yielded  to  passion 
as  to  kill  a  tlca.     It  is  unnecessarj'  to  dwell  ujion  tlnrse, 
because  they  are  manifestly  derived  from  the  habits 
of  the  Oriental  fanatics,  and  are  evident  exaggerations 
made  without  taste  or  judgment.     See  History  of  Pop- 
erij  (Loud.  1838, 8 vo). 

The  most  celebrated  of  these  popular  medi.fval  fi'c^ 
tions  is  the  Legemla  Avrea,  or  Golden  Legend,  origi- 
nally written  in  Latin,  in  the  13th  centurj-,  by  Jacob  de 
Voragine  (q.  v.),  a  Dominican  friar,  who  afterwards  be- 
came archbishop  of  Genoa,  and  died  in  1298.  This  work 
was  the  great  text-book  of  legendary-  lore  cf  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  It  was  translated  into  French  in  the  14th 
century  by  Jean  de  Vigny,  and  in  the  15th  into  Eng- 
lish by  William  Caxton,  "  It  has  lately  been  made  more 
accessible  by  a  new  French  translation  :  La  Legende 
Doree,  traduite  dn  Latin,  par  jM.  G.  B.  (Par.  1850).  There 
is  a  copy  of  the  original,  with  the  Gesta  Longobardoruvi 


LEGEND 


328 


LEGEND 


appendetl,  in  the  Harvard  College  Library,  Cambridge, 
{)riiitL'd  at  Strasbiirg  in  1-1'JG.  Longt'ellow,  in  a  note 
to  his  beautiful  poem,  says,  "  I  have  called  this  poem 
the  (ioldeii  Legend,  because  the  story  upon  which  it  is 
foundetl  seems  to  me  to  surpass  all  other  legends  in  beau- 
tv  and  significance.  It  exhibits,  amid  the  corruptions 
of  the  ^Middle  Ages,  the  virtue  of  disinterestedness  and 
selt-sacritice,  and  the  power  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity 
sutlicient  for  all  the  exigencies  of  life  and  death."  The 
story  is  told,  and  perhaps  invented,  by  Hartmann  von 
der  Aue,  a  Minnesinger  of  the  I'ith  century.  The  orig- 
inal may  be  found  in  IMarlath's  Alt-deiUsche  Gtdichte, 
with  a  modern  Cierman  version.  There  is  another  in 
Marbach's  Volksbucher,  No.  3"2.  We  may  mention  also, 
among  other  productions,  the  Kaiserchronik  (Imperial 
Chronicle),  where  the  legendary  element  forms  a  very 
important  part  of  the  whole,  and  Werner's  versified 
Marienlehen  (Life  of  Mary),  written  in  1173,  etc.  The 
authors  of  these  works  were  ecclesiastics,  but  in  the  fol- 
lowing age,  when  the  mediasval  poetry  of  Germany  was 
in  its  richest  bloom,  and  the  fosterers  of  the  poetic  art 
were  emperors  and  princes,  the  legend  was  employed  by 
laymen  on  a  grand  scale,  and  formed  the  subject-matter 
of  ejiic  narratives.  Thus  Hartmann  von  der  Aue  work- 
ed up  into  a  poem  the  religious  legends  about  Gregory; 
Konrad  von  Fussesbrunnen  those  concerning  the  child- 
hood of  .Jesus ;  liudolph  von  Ems  those  about  Barlaam 
and  Josaphat ;  and  liimbat  von  Durne  those  about  St. 
George.  Letween  the  14th  and  16th  centuries  legends  in 
prose  began  also  to  appear,  such  as  Hermann  von  Fritz- 
lar's  ]'oii  (kni  Ileilir/en  Leben  (written  about  1343),  and 
gradually  supplanted  the  others. 

Much  of  this  legendary  rubbish  was  cleared  away 
by  Tillcmont,  Fleury,  Baillet,  Launoi,  and  Bollandus,  but 
the  faith  in  many  of  them  still  remains  strong  in  the 
more  ignorant  minds  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  re- 
peated and  still  continued  editions  of  the  Acta  /Sancto- 
rum (q.  V.)  afford  sufficient  evidence  of  this. 

The  most  comprehensive  and  valuable  work  on  the 
subject  of  the  legends  is  that  commenced  by  the  Bollan- 
dists  in  the  17th  century, /I  cto  Sanctorum,  and  still  in 
process  of  publication.  Legends  are  found  not  only  in 
tlie  IiLiman  Catholic,  but  also  in  the  Greek  Church. 
They  also  found  an  entrance  into  the  national  literature 
of  Christian  nations.  Among  the  Germans  especially 
was  this  the  case,  particularly  in  the  12th  century,  al- 
though specimens  of  legendary  poems  are  not  altogether 
wanting  at  an  earlier  period.  In  Great  Britain,  also,  the 
legends  of  Iving  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table  have  sprung 
afresh  into  popular  favor,  after  centuries  of  comparative 
obscurity,  and  have  once  more  become  the  treasure-house 
from  wliich  poet  and  painter  draw  subjects  for  their  pic- 
tures, and  in  which  essayists,  weary  of  the  old  heathen 
classics,  seek  for  illustrations  and  allusions.  The  first  of 
the  recent  poets,  however,  who  clearly  apprehended  the 
poetic  and  spiritual  elements  of  the  old  Christian  legend 
was  Herder,  and  his  example  has  been  followed  by  oth- 
er poets,  for  example,  the  romantic  school  in  German}-, 
and  IJiihver  and  Tennyson  in  England.  The  tendency 
to  mytliic  embellishment  showed  itself  more  particularly 
in  regard  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  later  saints,  and  holy 
men  and  women.  Of  all  these,  the  most  captivating, 
as  an  amiable  weakness,  was  the  devotion  to  the  Virgin. 
The  (ItMiial  of  the  title  "The  Mother  of  God"  bj-  Nes- 
torins  was  that  which  sounded  most  offensive  to  the 
general  ear;  it  was  the  intelligible,  odious  point  in  his 
heresy,  and  contributed,  no  doubt,  to  the  passionate  vio- 
lence with  which  that  controversy  was  agitated ;  and 
the  favorable  issue  to  those  who  might  seem  most  zeal- 
ous for  the  Virgin's  glory  gave  a  strong  impulse  to  the 
worsliip;  for,  from  that  time,  the  worship  of  tiie Virgin 
became  in  the  East  an  integral  part  of  Christianity. 
Among  .Justinian's  splendid  edifices  arose  mqny  church- 
es dedicated  to  the  Alothcr  of  (Jod.  The  feast  of  the 
Annunciation  was  celebrated  both  under  Justin  and  Jus- 
tinian. Heraclius  had  images  of  the  Virgin  on  his  masts 
when  he  sailed  to  Constantinople  to  overthrow  Phocas; 


and  before  the  end  of  the  century  the  Virgin  is  become 
the  tutelar  deity  of  that  city,  which  is  saved  by  her  in- 
tercession from  the  Saracens.  "  The  history  of  Chris- 
tianity," says  dean  Milman,  "cannot  be  understood  with- 
out pausing  at  stated  periods  to  survey  the  progress 
and  development  of  the  Christian  mythology,  which, 
gradually  growing  up,  and  springing  as  it  did  from  nat- 
ural anil  universal  instincts,  took  a  more  perfect  and 
systematic  form,  and  at  length,  at  the  height  of  the 
Mitldle  Ages,  was  as  much  a  part  of  Latin  Christiani- 
tj'  as  the  primal  truths  of  the  Gospel.  This  religion 
gradually  moidded  together  all  whicli  arose  out  of  the 
natural  instincts  of  man,  the  undying  reminiscences  of 
all  the  older  religions — the  Jewish,  the  Pagan,  and  the 
Platonic — with  the  few  and  indistinct  glimpses  of  the 
invisible  world,  and  the  future  state  of  being  in  the  New 
Testament,  into  a  vast  system,  more  sublime,  perhaps,  for 
its  indefiniteness,  which,  being  necessary  in  that  condi- 
tion of  mankind,  could  not  but  grow  up  out  of  the  kin- 
dled imagination  and  religious  faith  of  Christendom. 
The  historian  who  should  presume  to  condemn  such  a 
religion  as  a  vast  plan  of  fraud,  or  a  philosopher  who 
shoidd  venture  to  disdain  it  as  a  fabric  of  folly  only  de- 
serving to  be  forgotten,  would  be  equally  unjust,  equally 
blind  to  its  real  uses,  assuredly  ignorant  of  its  importance 
and  its  significance  in  the  history  of  man ;  for  on  this, 
the  popidar  Christianity  —  popular,  as  comprehending 
the  highest  as  well  as  the  lowest  in  rank,  and  even  in 
intellectual  estimation — turns  the  whole  history  of  man 
for  many  centuries.  It  is  at  once  the  cause  and  the  con- 
sequence of  the  sacerd»tal  dominion  over  mankind,  the 
groundwork  of  authority  at  which  the  world  trembled, 
which  founded  and  overthrew  kingdoms,  bound  togeth- 
er or  set  in  antagonistic  array  nations,  classes,  ranks, 
orders  of  society.  Of  this,  the  parent,  when  the  time  ar- 
rived, of  poetrj',  of  art,  the  Christian  historian  must 
watch  the  growth  and  mark  the  gradations  by  which  it 
gathered  into  itself  the  whole  activity  of  the  human 
mind,  and  quickened  that  activity  till  at  length  the  mind 
outgrew  that  which  had  been  so  long  almost  its  sole  oc- 
cupation. It  endured  till  faith,  with  the  schoolmen, 
led  into  the  fathomless  depths  of  metaphysics,  began  to 
aspire  after  higher  truths;  with  the  Reformers,  attempt- 
ing to  refine  religion  to  its  primary  spiritual  simplicity, 
this  even  yet  prolific  legendary  Christianity,  which  had 
been  the  accessory  and  supplementary  Bible,  the  author- 
itative and  accepted,  though  often  unwritten  Gospel  of 
centuries,  was  gradually  dropped,  or  left  but  to  the  hum- 
blest and  most  ignorant,  at  least  to  the  more  imaginative 
and  less  practical  part  of  mankind."  "The  influence 
that  these  works  exerted  on  the  medi;T>val  mind,"  says 
Hardwick,  "was  deep  and  universal.  Wliile  they  fed 
almost  every  stream  of  superstition,  and  excited  an  un- 
healthy craving  for  the  marvellous  and  the  romantic, 
they  were  nearly  always  tending,  in  their  moral,  to  enlist 
the  affections  of  the  reader  on  the  side  of  gentleness  and 
virtue,  more  especially  by  setting  forth  the  necessity  of 
patience,  and  extolling  the  heroic  energy  of  faith.  One 
class  of  those  biographies  deserve  a  high  amount  of 
credit ;  they  are  written  by  some  friend  or  pupil  of  their 
subject;  they  are  natural  and  life-like  pictures  of  the 
times,  preserving  an  instructive  portrait  of  the  mission- 
ar}-,  the  recluse,  the  bishop,  or  the  man  of  business;  yet 
most  commonly  the  acts  and  sufferings  of  the  mediaeval 
saint  have  no  claim  to  a  place  in  the  sphere  of  history, 
or  at  best  they  have  been  so  wantonly  embellished  by 
the  fancy  of  the  author  that  we  can  distinguish  very 
few  of  the  particles  of  truth  from  an  interminable  mass 
of  fiction.  As  these  '  Lives'  were  circulated  freely  in  the 
language  of  the  people,  they  would  constitute  important 
items  in  the  fireside  reading  of  the  age;  and  so  w^arm 
was  the  response  they  found  in  men  of  every  grade,  that, 
notwithstanding  feeble  efforts  to  reform  them,  or  at  least 
to  eliminate  a  few  of  the  more  monstrous  and  abstu-d, 
they  kept  their  hold  on  Christendom  at  large,  and  are 
subsisting  even  now  in  the  creations  of  the  medijeval 
artist"  (Ch.  Hist.  Middle  Ages), 


LEGEND 


329 


LEGION 


On  the  origin  of  these  legends  there  is  a  great  diver- 
sity of  opinion  among  the  learned.  Some  trace  it  to  the 
northern  Skalds,  who,  accompanying  the  army  of  Kollo 
in  his  warlike  migrations  southward,  carried  with  them 
the  lays  of  their  own  mythology,  but  replaced  their  pa- 
gan heroes  by  Christian  kings  and  warriors.  Salmasius 
adopted  the  theory,  which  was  indorsed  by  Warton,  that 
the  germs  of  romantic  fiction  originated  with  the  Sara- 
cens and  Arabians,  and  ascribes  its  introduction  into  Eu- 
rope to  the  effects  of  the  Crusades,  or,  according  to  War- 
ton  himself,  to  the  Arab  conquests  in  Spain ;  that  from 
thence  they  passed  into  France,  and  took  deepest  root  in 
Brittany.  Others,  again,  have  seen  in  the  tales  of  chiv- 
alry only  a  new  development  of  the  classic  legends  of 
Greece  and  Italy.  As  Christianity  unquestionably  bor- 
rowed and  modified  to  its  own  use  many  of  the  outward 
ceremonies  of  paganism,  so  they  held  that  the  Christian 
iroureiir  only  adopted  and  transmuted  the  heroes  of 
classical  poetry.  The  researches  of  count  Villemarque 
and  lady  Charlotte  Schreiber,  however,  to  which  the  at- 
tention of  the  learned  world  had  been  directed  before  by 
Leyden,  Douce,  and  Sharon  Turner,  conclusively  prove 
that  the  true  theory  as  to  their  origin  is  that  they  are 
Cymric  or  Armorican,  or  both.  The  wealth  of  the  old 
Cymric  literature  in  this  particular  respect  was  never 
even  suspected  until  lady  Charlotte  Schreiber,  with  the 
aid  of  an  eminent  Welsh  scholar,  the  Kev.  Thomas  Price, 
brought  to  light  in  their  original  form,  accompanied  by 
an  English  version,  the  collection  of  early  Cymric  tales 
known  as  the  Mabinorjion.  M.  de  la  Villemarque,  for  his 
own  side  of  the  Channel,  not  only  confirms  the  evidence 
of  lady  Schreiber,  but  brings  forward  additional  items  of 
proof,  from  fragments  of  Breton  songs  and  poems,  that 
the  roots  of  their  renowned  fiction  lie  deep  in  their  lit- 
erature also.  Their  very  form  —  the  eight  -  syllabled 
rhyme,  in  which  the  French  metrical  version  is  written 
— he  claims,  and  apparently  with  justice,  as  Cymric. 
See  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  C'ljvlop.  Brit.  s.  v. ;  Herzog, 
Reul-Kncijl:  viii,  274  sq. ;  Vogel,  lersMc/i.  einer  Gesch.  v. 
Wuriliguiirj  der  Ler/enden,  in  lllgeu's  Hist,  theol.  Ahhandl. 
(Lpz.  lS"24),p.  141  sq.;  Mrs.  Jameson,  Lf^ew/s  oftheMo- 
ncistic  Orders,  and  her  Legends  of  the  Madonna.  See 
Myth.     (E.  de  P.) 

Legend,  Golden.  A  renowned  collection  of  le- 
gends written  in  the  loth  century  by  Jacob  de  Voragine 
(q.  v.).     See  Legend. 

Leger,  Antoine  (1),  a  French  Protestant  divine, 
was  burn  in  Savoy  in  1594.  He  was  professor  of  theol- 
ogy and  Oriental  languages  at  Geneva  from  llJ45  until 
his  death  in  1G61.  He  edited  the  Greek  text  of  the 
New  Testament  (1G38). 

Leger,  Antoine  (2),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1652.  He  also  became  a  Protestant 
minister,  and  afterwards  filled  the  chair  of  philosophy 
for  twenty-four  years  at  Geneva  with  eminent  success. 


He  died  in  1719.     He  published  several  scientific  trea- 
tises and  many  sermons. 

Leger,  Jean,  a  French  Protestant  minister,  was 
born  in  Savoy  in  1615.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Church 
of  the  Waldenses,  but  fortunately  escaped  from  the  mas- 
sacre of  1655.  He  afterwards  went  to  France,  and  so- 
licited the  intervention  of  the  court  for  his  countrj'men. 
In  1G63  he  went  to  Holland,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
'\\'aUoon  Church  in  Leyden.  He  died  in  1670.  Leger 
wrote  a  I/istoii/  of  the  Churches  of  the  Vcdleys  of  Pied- 
mont (1669 ).  See  Wai.dexses. 
Legerdemain.  See  Magic. 
Le'gion  (\tytm',  GrKcizcd  from  the  Latin  legio'),  a 
main  division  of  the  Koraan  army,  correspondmg  nearly 
to  the  modern  rec/iment.  It  always  comprised  a  large 
body  of  men,  but  the  number  varied  so  much  at  differ- 
ent times  that  there  is  considerable  discrepancy  in  the 
statements  with  reference  to  it.  The  legion  appears  to 
have  originally  contained  about  3000  men,  and  to  have 
risen  gradually  to  twice  that  number,  or  even  more.  In 
and  about  the  time  of  Christ  it  seems  to  have  consisted 
of  6000  men,  and  this  was  exclusive  of  horsemen,  who 
usually  formed  ao  additional  body  amountuig  to  one 
tenth  of  the  infantry.  As  all  the  divisions  of  the  Ro- 
man army  are  noticed  in  Scripture,  we  may  add  that 
each  legion  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts  or  regiments, 
each  cohort  into  three  maniples  or  bands,  and  each  man- 
iple into  two  centuries  or  companies  of  100  each.  This 
smaller  division  into  centuries  or  hundreds,  from  the 
form  in  which  it  is  exhibited  as  a  constituent  of  the 
larger  divisions,  clearly  shows  that  GOOO  had  become  at 
least  the  formal  number  of  a  legion.  See  Smith's  Diet, 
of  Class.  A  nt.  s.  v.  Army,  Roman. 

The  word  legion  came  to  be  used  to  express  a  great 
number  or  multitude  (e.  g.  of  angels,  Matt,  xxvi,  53). 
Thus  the  unclean  spirit  (Mark  v,  9;  compare  15),  when 
asked  his  name,  answers,  "  jMy  name  is  Legion,  for  we 
are  many."  Many  illustrations  of  tlys  use  of  the  word 
might  be  cited  from  the  Rabbinical  writers,  who  even 
apply  it  ("i'l"?^  or  "i'^sb)  to  inanimate  objects,  as  when 
they  speak  of  ''a  legion  of  olives,"  etc.  (see  Lightfoot, 
Nor.  Ifebr.  et  rtz/w. ;  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Tulm.  s.  v.).— Kitto. 
See  Ai4MV. 

Legion,  Theban,  according  to  Eucherlus,  was  a 
legion  of  6600  men  (the  usual  number)  which  had  come 
from  the  East  to  render  assistance  to  Maximian.  The 
latter  having  issued  orders  to  his  whole  army  to  perse- 
cute the  Christians,  this  legion  alone  refused  to  obey. 
The  emperor  was  in  the  neighborhood,  at  Octodurum 
(Martinach,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  St.  Bernard) ;  irri- 
tated when  he  heard  of  the  refusal  of  the  Theban  le- 
gion, he  had  it  decimated  twice,  and  finally,  as  he  fail- 
ed to  secure  its  members  to  join  in  persecuting  their 
Christian  brethren,  he  ordered  their  extermmation  by 


Ancient  Legionary  Soldiers.     (From  Titus's  Cuhnnu  at  Komc.) 


LEGION 


530 


LEHABIM 


the  remainder  of  his  army.  Another  account,  fciving 
substantially  the  same  version  of  this  event,  embellishes 
it  bv  what  seems  to  have  taken  place  about  the  year 
28G,  although  it  mentions  a  pope  Marcelliuus  as  having 
advised  them  rather  to  submit  to  death  than  to  act 
against  the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  while  this  Mar- 
cellinus  only  became  pope  ten  years  after  the  above 
time.  This  second  version  appears  to  be  but  a  rear- 
rangement of  the  legend  of  Eucherius,  just  as  there  have 
been  others  until  the  time  of  the  Keformation  (by  Pe- 
trus  Canisius  and  Gulielmus  Baldesanus).  This  legend 
was  first  treated  as  untrue  in  Magdeburg;  then  Jean 
Armand  Duljourdieu,  a  French  Reformed  minister  at 
London,  midertook  to  prove  that  the  number  of  the  le- 
gion did  not  by  any  means  amount  to  GGGG  (the  figures 
given  in  the  second  version).  This  led  to  a  protracted 
controversy.  The  silence  of  the  leading  early  ecclesias- 
tical historians  —  Eusebius,  Lactantius,  Sulpicius  Seve- 
rus,  and  Orosius — over  the  event  some  have  advanced 
to  prove  that  it  is  simply  a  fable,  but  their  silence  does 
not,  in  our  mind,  go  far  to  disprove  it.  Eusebius  says 
little  of  the  Western  martyrs,  yet  mentions  that  an  of- 
ficer picked  out  the  Christians  in  the  Roman  army  be- 
fore the  beginning  of  the  great  persecution,  and  gave 
them  the  choice  of  renouncing  their  religion  or  of  leav- 
ing the  arm}',  adding  that  many  Christians  were  killed 
by  his  orders.  The  others  either  do  not  mention  the 
martyrs  of  that  period,  or  were  by  other  circumstances 
prevented  from  becoming  acquainted  with  much  of  their 
history.  On  the  other  hand,  Ambrose  (f  397)  says, "  Ev- 
ery city  prides  itself  that  has  had  one  martyr;  how 
much  more,  then,  can  jNIilan  pride  herself,  who  had  a 
whole  army  of  divine  soldiers  V"  Eucherius  takes  this 
as  an  allusion  to  the  Theban  legion.  Another  testi- 
monj'  to  the  same  effect  is  contained  in  St.Victricius's 
work,  De  laudibus  martijrum  (390).  The  third  is  the 
discovery  of  a  shield  in  the  bed  of  the  Arve,  near  Ge- 
neva, representing  the  Thebans,  with  the  inscription 
Larffitds  D.  M.  Valentiniani  A  Ufjunti.  A  fourth  is  found 
in  the  life  of  St.  Romanus  (520),  who  mentions,  among 
others,  his  journey  to  Agaunum  {Custra  martijrum), 
probably  between  the  j^ears  460  and  470.  It  also  cor- 
roborates Eucherius's  figures  (6600).  The  fifth  is  that 
of  Avitus,  archbishop  of  Vienna,  a  breastplate  originally 
belonging  to  whom  is  yet  kept  in  the  convent :  this 
dates  from  the  year  517.  A  sixth  is  given  in  the  Vita 
of  Victor  of  Marseilles.  It  is  most  probable,  however, 
that  while  the  legend  rests  on  a  foundation  of  facts,  these 
facts  were  generalized  and  amplified,  so  that  a  number 
of  Christian  soldiers  in  the  Roman  army  became  a  le- 
gion first  of  6600,  then  of  G666.  Those  who  deny  the 
truth  of  the  legend  take  their  stand  on  its  similarity 
with  that  of  a  certain  Simeon  Metaphrastes,  according 
to  whom,  also,  one  Jlauritius,  under  the  same  emperor,  is 
said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  with  Fhotinus,  Theo- 
dorus,  riiilippus,  and  sixtj'-seven  others,  all  of  the  mili- 
tary order.  Rut,  aside  from  the  name  of  Mauritius,  all 
the  others  have  diiferent  names,  while  the  details  of  the 
event  also  vary.  Among  the  writers  who  have  con- 
tested the  truthfidness  of  the  legend  concerning  the 
Tiieban  legion,  the  most  important  are  Dubourdieu^ Hot- 
finger,  Movie,  Burnet,  and  INIosheim;  it  has  been  de- 
fended by  George  Ilickes,  JM.  Felix  de  Balthasar  {De- 
fcnse  de  Id  Ler/ion  Thebk-nne,  Lucerne,  17G0,  8vo),  Dom 
Joseph  de  Lisle  (Dj/'cn.se  de  la  Verite  du  Martyre  de  la 
Letjion^  Thebeenne,  1737, Svo).  Rossignoli  (Historia  di  San 
Maiirizio),  and  1'.  de  Rivaz  {Erlaircigsements  sitr  les 
Marti/res  de  la  IJr/ioii  Thebeenne,  Paris,  1779, 8vo).  See 
llerzog,  Real-Encijklopd.di(',  vol.  ix,  s.  v.  Mauritius.  See 
IMAUKirifs. 

Legion,  Thundering  (LerpofidnniHitrir).  the  ti- 
tle of  a  lioman  legion  in  the  time  of  the  emperor"  Marcus 
Aurelins,  which,  after  the  expalsion  of  the  J^Farcomanni 
and  (^uadi  from  Hungary,  while  the  emperor  Aurclius 
was  pursiung  tliese  (ierman  tribes  Mith  a  detachment  of 
his  forces  (A.D.  174),  was  shut  up  in  a  valley  sun-ound- 
cd  on  every  side  by  high  mountains,  and  both  bv  the 


heat  of  the  weather  and  the  want  of  water  was  suffering 
more  cruelly  than  from  the  attacks  of  the  enemy,  when 
suddenly,  in  this  crisis,  a  shower  of  rain  reanimated  the 
Roman  soldiers,  while  at  the  same  time  a  storm  of  hail, 
attended  with  thunder,  assailed  the  enemy,  who  were 
then  easily  repulsed  and  conquered.  Both  heathen  and 
Christian  authors  agree  in  their  relation  of  the  principal 
circumstances  of  this  event.  The  adherents  of  each 
religion  saw  in  it  the  infiuence  of  the  prayers  of  their 
brethren.  According  to  Dio  Cassius  {Excerpta  Xiphilin. 
I,  Ixxi,  cap.  8),  the  miracle  was  wrought  by  an  Egyp- 
tian sorcerer  in  the  train  of  the  emperor;  according  to 
Capitolinus  (^Vila  Marc.  Aurel.  cap.  24),  it  was  the  ef- 
fect of  the  emperor's  prayers ;  but  according  to  Tertul- 
lian  {Apologet.  cap.  5;  Ad  Scopul.  cap.  4)  and  Eusebius 
{Hist,  Eccles.  lib.  v,  cap.  5),  it  was  brought  about  by  the 
prayers  of  the  Christians  in  his  army ;  hence  the  legion 
to  which  these  Christians  belonged  was  denominated 
fuliniiiatrix.  The  letter  of  the  emperor  Marcus  Aureli- 
us,  commonly  printed  in  Greek  in  the  first  Apology  of 
Justin  ]\Iartyr,  gives  the  same  account  with  the  Cliris- 
tian  writers,  but  it  is  spurious.  The  marble  pillar  erect- 
ed at  Rome  in  honor  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  still  stand- 
ing, represents  this  deliverance  of  the  Roman  army — 
the  Roman  soldiers  catching  the  falling  rain,  and  a  war- 
rior praying  for  its  descent.  It  is  not,  however,  to  be 
considered  as  a  memorial  of  any  influence  exercised  by 
the  Christians  in  that  event.  See  iMUman,  History  of 
Christianity,  ii,  145  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  I,  bk.  i, 
cent,  ii,  part  i,  chap,  i,  §  9 ;  Presseuse,  History  of  Early 
Christianity,  p.  129.      (J.  II.  W.) 

Legists  and  DecretistSj  the  interpreters  and  ed- 
itors {(jlossatores)  of  the  Roman  law.  See  Glosses  and 
Decretals. 

Legrand,  Antoine,  a  French  wTiter  and  monk, 
born  at  Douay,  lived  aliout  1650-80.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  and  theology  in  Douay,  and  was  a  disci- 
ple of  the  Cartesian  philosophy,  on  which  he  wrote  sev- 
eral treatises.  He  published  a  Sacred  History  from  the 
Creation  to  Constantine  the  Great  (1685),  and  other  works. 
— Thomas,  Biorj.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Legrand,  Joachim,  a  French  historian  and  abbe, 
born  at  Salnt-Lo  in  1653,  was  a  person  of  great  erudition. 
He  was  secretary  of  legation  in  Spain  about  1702,  and 
was  afterwards  employed  in  the  foreign  office.  He  died 
in  1733.  He  puljlished  a  History  of  the  Divorce  of  Hen- 
ry VIII  of  Emjland  (1G88),  and  a  few  other  historical 
works. 

Legrand,  Louis,  a  French  theologian,  was  born  in 
Burgundy  in  1711,  became  professor  in  the  seminary  of 
Sain t-Svd pice,  Paris,  and  died  in  1780.  He  published, 
besides  other  works,  a  Treatise  on  the  Incarnation  of  the 
Word  (1751).  He  composed  the  censures  which  the 
faculty  of  theology  published  against  Rousseau's  Emile 
(1762)  and  Buifon's  Ejjoques  de  la  Nature  (Diedin,  1780). 
— Thomas,  Bior/.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Legris- Duval,  Rene  Michel,  a  French  priest, 
who  was  born  at  Bretagne  in  1705,  and  died  in  1816,  is 
noted  as  a  zealous  and  efficient  promoter  of  benevolent 
institutions. 

Legros,  Antoine,  a  French  scholar  and  writer, 
who  was  born  in  Paris  .about  1680,  and  died  in  175], 
published,  besides  other  works.  The  Woils  of  the  Fathers 
who  llrid  in  the  Time  of  the  Ajwstles,  with  Xotes  (1717). 

Legros,  Nicolas,  a  French  Jansenist  theologian, 
was  born  at  Rhelms  in  1G75.  He  passed  the  last  twen- 
ty-five years  of  his  life  in  Holland,  to  which  he  retired 
for  refuge  from  persecution.  He  died  in  1751.  Among 
his  works  are  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible  (1739), 
which  is  esteemed  for  fidelity;  and  a  Manual  for  the 
Christian  (174(1). 

Le'habim(Hcb, /,(7(r/iim',C'^2iip,prob,forC"2^?, 
Luhim  ;  Sept,  Art/^ifi/i,  v.  r.  in  Chron.  Aa/?f(i';  Vulg. 
Laahim),  a  people  reckoned  among  the  Midianitish 
stock  (Gen.  X,  13;  1  Chron.  i,  11).     See  Ethnology. 


LEHI 


331 


LEHNIN 


The  word  is  in  the  plural,  and  evidently  signifies  a  tribe, 
doubtless  taking  the  name  of  Le/iab,Mizr&iin's  third  son 
((ien.  X,  13).  Bochart  affirms  that  the  Lehabim  are  not, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  identical  with  the  Libyans. 
His  reasons  are.  That  Libya  was  much  too  large  a 
country  to  have  been  peopled  by  one  son  of  Mizraim ; 
and  that  in  other  parts  of  Scripture  Libya  is  either  call- 
ed Phut  (;:1S,  Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Ezek.  xxx,  &),  or  Lubim 
D^m?,  "2  Chron.  xii,  3;  Nahum  iii,  9),  and  Phut  was  a 
brother,  and  not  a  son  of  Mizraim  (Gen.  x,  6;  Bochart, 
Opei'a,  i,  "279).  These  arguments  do  not  stand  the  test 
of  historical  criticism.  Phut  and  Lubim  are  not  identi- 
cal (Nahum  iii,  9) ;  and  the  Lehabim  may  have  been 
joined  by  other  tribes  in  colonizing  Libya.  It  is  quite 
true  there  is  no  direct  evidence  to  identify  the  Lehabim 
and  Lubim  ;  yet  tliere  seems  a  high  probability  that  the 
words  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  name — the 
former  being  the  more  ancient,  the  middle  radical  n  was 
afterwards  softened  (as  is  not  unusual  in  Hebrew,  Gesc- 
nius,  Thesaur.  p.  743, 360)  into  1  quiescent.  The  Le- 
habim are  not  again  mentioned  in  Scripture,  but  we  find 
the  Lubim  connected  with  Mizraim  (2  Chron.  xii,  3), 
and  the  Kushites  or  Ethiopians  (xvi,  8).  We  may 
therefore  safely  infer  that  the  Lehabim  were  the  ancient 
Lubim  or  Libyans,  who  perhaps  first  settled  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  Nile,  among  or  beside  the  Mizraim  ;  but,  as 
they  increased  in  number,  migrated  to  the  wide  regions 
south-west,  and  occupied  the  vast  territory  known  to 
classical  geographers  as  Libya  (Kalisch  On  Gen.  x,  13 ; 
see  also  Michaelis,  Spicileri.  Geogr. ;  Knobel  Vulkertaftl 
des  Pent.').  Dr.  Beke  maintains  that  the  Lehabim,  as 
well  as  the  IMizraim,  were  a  people  of  north-western 
Arabia;  but  his  views  are  opposed  alike  to  the  opinions 
of  ancient  and  modern  geographers,  and  his  arguments 
do  not  appear  of  sufficient  weight  to  command  accept- 
ance (Qjir/iiies  Biblicw,  p.  107, 198  sq.). — Kitto.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  Lubim  arc  the  same  as  the 
ReBU  or  LeBU  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions,  and  that 
from  them  Libya  and  the  Libyans  derived  their  name. 
These  primitive  Libyans  appear,  in  the  period  at  wliich 
they  are  mentioned  in  these  two  liistorical  sources,  that 
is,  from  the  time  of  jMenptah,  B.C.  cir.  1250,  to  that  of 
Jeremiali's  notice  of  them  late  in  the  Gth  century  B.C., 
and  |)robably  in  the  case  of  Daniel's,  prophetically  to 
the  earlier  part  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  to  have  in- 
habited the  northern  part  of  Africa  to  the  west  of  Egypt, 
though  latterly  driven  from  the  coast  by  the  Greek  col- 
onists of  the  Cyrenaica,  as  is  more  fully  shown  under 
Ll'bi.m.  Geographically,  the  position  of  the  Lehabim 
in  the  enumeration  of  the  Mizraites  immediately  before 
the  Naphtuhim  suggests  that  they  at  first  settled  to  the 
westward  of  Egypt,  and  nearer  to  it,  or  not  more  distant 
from  it  than  the  tribes  or  peoples  mentioned  before  them. 
See  MizRAur.  Historically  and  ethnologically,  the  con- 
nection of  the  ReBU  and  Lil)yans  witli  Egypt  and  its 
people  suggests  their  kindred  origin  with  the  Egyptians. 
— Smith.     See  Libya. 

Le'hi  (Heb.  Lechi',  "^nb,  in  pause  Le'chi,  ^tfs,  a 
cheek  or  jaw-bone  [usually  with  the  art.  '^riSil];  Sept. 
Afyi  V.  r.  Aivi),  a  place  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  where 
Samson  achieved  one  of  his  single-handed  victories  over 
the  Philistines(Judg.xv,9, 14,  19,  in  which  last  passages 
the  Sept.  translates  (ndyioi',Yu\g.  mnxillu).  It  contain- 
ed an  eminence — Ramath-lehi,  and  a  spring  of  great  and 
lasting  repute  (see  Oxilob,  De  font  e  tSiineonis,lA\iS.\lf)o) 
— En  hak-kore  (ver.  17).  The  name  of  the  place  before 
the  confiict  was  evidently  Lehi,  as  apjiears  from  verses 
9  and  1 4 ;  perhaps  so  called  from  the  form  of  some  hill 
or  rock  ((iesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  752).  After  the  slaughter 
of  the  Philistines,  Samson,  with  a  characteristic  play 
upon  the  name,  makes  it  descriptive  of  his  signal  and 
singular  victory.  Lehi  is  possibly  mentioned  in  2  Sam. 
^^i'i'  |1 — the  relation  of  another  encounter  with  the 
Philistines  hardly  less  disastrous  than  that  of  Samson. 
The  Heb.  there  has  t^^n5,  as  if  n^n,  from  the  root  i" 


(Gesenius,  Thesaui:  p.  470).  In  this  sense  the  word 
very  rarely  occurs  (see  A.  V.  of  Psa.  Ixviii,  10,  30 ;  Ixxiv, 
19).  It  elsewhere  has  the  sense  of  "living,"  and  thence 
of  wild  animals,  which  is  adopted  by  the  Sept.  in  this 
place,  as  remarked  above.  In  ver.  13  it  is  again  ren- 
dered "troop."  In  the  parallel  narrative  of  1  Chron. 
(xi,  15),  the  word  nsn-i,  a  "  camp,"  is  substituted.  In 
the  passage  2  Sam.,  it  is  rendered  in  the  A.  Y.  "into  a 
troop,"  but  by  alteration  of  the  vowel-points  becomes 
"  to  Lehi,"  which  gives  a  new  and  certainly  an  appro- 
priate sense.  This  reading  first  appears  in  Josephus 
(A  nt.  vii,  12,  4),  who  gives  it  "  a  place  called  Siagona" 
— the  jaw — the  word  which  he  employs  in  the  story  of 
Samson  {Ant.  v,  8,  9).  It  is  also  given  in  the  Complu- 
tensian  Sept.,  and  among  modern  interpreters  by  Bochart 
{Hieroz.  i,  2,  ch.  xiii),  Kennicott  {Dissert,  p.  140),  J.  D. 
aiichaelis  {Bibelfur  Um/elehrt.),  Ewald  {Geschichle,  iii, 
180,  note).  The  great  similarity  between  the  two 
names  in  the  original  (Gesenius,  Thesaur.  p.  175  6),  has 
led  to  the  supposition  that  Beer-Lahai-roi  was  the  same 
as  Lehi.  But  the  situations  do  not  suit.  The  well  La- 
hai-roi  was  below  Kadesh,  very  far  from  the  locality  to 
which  Samson's  adventures  seem  to  have  been  confined. 
Jerome  states  that  Paula,  when  on  her  way  from  Beth- 
lehem to  Egypt,  passed  from  Sochoth  to  the  fountain 
of  Samson  {Opera,  i,  705,  ed.  Migne).  Later  writers  lo- 
cate it  beside  Eleutheropolis  (Anton.  Mar.  Itin.  30  ;  Re- 
land,  p.  872) ;  but  the  tradition  appears  to  have  been 
vague  and  uncertain  (Robinson,  ii,  C4  sq.).  There  is 
only  a  deep  old  well,  which  woidd  not  answer  to  the 
Scripture  narrative  (Robinson,  ii,  2(5  sq.). — Smith ;  Kit- 
to.  Van  de  Yelde  {Narrative,  ii,  140,  141)  proposes  to 
identify  Ramoth-Lehi  with  Ramoth  Nekeb  (1  Sam.  xxx, 
27),  as  well  as  with  Baalath  (1  Kings  ix,  18 ;  2  Chron. 
viii,  G),  Baalath-bcer  (Josh,  xix,  8),  or  Bealoth  (Josh. 
XV,  24) ;  and  all  these  with  some  ruins  on  tell  Lekiyeh, 
three  or  four  miles  north  of  Bir  es-Seba  (comp.  Memoir, 
p.  343),  a  view  to  which  we  yield  an  assent,  reluctant- 
ly, however,  owing  to  its  great  distance  from  the  Phil- 
istine territor}',  and  the  want  of  exact  agreement  in 
the  Arabic  name  {Lechi  and  Le//ii/eh').  The  Bcil-Liki- 
yeh,  mentioned  by  Tobler  {Dritie  Wandermif/,  p.  189)  as 
a  village  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  great  wady  Su- 
leiman, about  two  miles  below  tlie  upper  Beth-horon,  is 
a  position  at  once  on  the  borders  of  both  Judah  and 
the  Philistines,  and  within  reasonable  proximity  to  Zo- 
rah,  Eshtaol,  Timnath,  and  other  places  familiar  to  the 
history  of  the  great  Danite  hero.  But  this,  again,  is 
too  far  north  for  any  luiown  position  of  the  adjoining 
rock  Etain  (([.  v.). 

Lehmann,  Christian  Abraiiaji,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Tiitenbock  Jan.  4, 1735,  and  was  ed- 
ucated at  the  University  of  Wittenberg  (1754-58).  In 
1760  he  became  deacon,  in  1764  pastor  at  Lockwitz,  and 
in  1806  senior  of  the  district  of  the  Dresden  diocese. 
He  died  Dec.  30, 1813.  He  spent  his  life  in  practical  ac- 
tivity. He  was  remarkably  successful  in  an  attempt  to 
hold  prayer-meetings,  connected  with  Bible  instruction, 
thus  influencing  and  affecting  the  heart  in  a  time  when 
the  great  majority  of  the  pulpits  of  Germany  Avcre  oc- 
cupied by  rationalism.  Of  the  few  books  he  composed, 
we  mention  Kimzer  Entwurf  der  Glaubenslehre f'lir  er- 
warhsene  Kinder,  etc.  (1772, 8vo ;  new  and  enlarged  edit., 
1797,  8vo). — Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lehnberg,  IMagnus,  a  Swedish  prelate,  noted  as  a 
pulpit  orator,  was  born  in  1758,  and  became  bishop  of 
Linkiiping.     He  died  in  1809. 

Lehuin,  Herjiann  vox,  a  monk  of  the  convent  of 
that  name,  said  to  have  flourished  about  the  close  of  the 
13th  centur}-,  as  the  author  of  a  prophetic  poem,  in  100 
Latin  hexameter  verses,  concerning  his  convent  and 
the  house  of  Brandenlaurg,  entitled  Vaticinium  Lehnin- 
ense.  According  to  the  legend,  the  IMS^was  discovered 
in  an  old  wall,  in  the  17th  century,  by  the  elector,  when 
the  latter  intended  to  build  a  palace  on  the  ruins  of  the 
convent.     The  poem  is  written  in  the  interest  of  the 


LEIBNITZ 


332 


LEIBNITZ 


hierarchy;  it  deplores  the  heresy  of  the  former  house 
of  Ih-aiitleiiburi,'  in  the  ascendant  house  of  Hohenzollern 
(the  latter  family  adhering  to  Frotestanti-sm),  and  proijh- 
esies  the  downfall  of  the  now  nding'  family,  to  be  followed 
bv  the  restoration  of  the  unity  of  Germany  and  the  re- 
establishment  of  the  Koman  Catholic  Church.  Tlie  ex- 
istence of  this  poem  is  not,  however,  to  be  traced  with 
any  certainty  further  back  than  the  j-ear  1G03.  It  was 
first  published  in  Lilienthal  (Konigsb.  1723,  1741),  then 
at  Ik-rlin  and  Vienna,  1745;  IJern,  1758;  Leipsic,  1807; 
also  in  France,  in  1827  and  1830,  by  W.  Meinhold,  with 
a  metrical  translation,  Leips.  1849 ;  C.  Rosch,  Stuttgard, 
1849;  Gicseler,  Z)/e  Lehiihische  Weissagung  (Erf.  1849); 
Guhrauer,  Die  Weissayungen  v.  Lehnin  (Bresl.  1850) ;  J\I. 
Heffter,  Geschichte  cles  Klosters  Lehnin  (Brandenburg, 
1851).  Those  who  consider  this  poem  a  mere  mystical- 
ly-shaped narrative  of  past  events,  name  as  its  author 
51.  F.  Seidel,  assessor  of  the  privy  council  (f  at  Berlin  in 
1693);  or  Andrew  Fromm,  counsellor  of  the  Consistory 
(t  at  Frague  in  1G88) ;  or  Nicolas  vou  Zitzwitz,  abbot 
of  Huysburg,  who,  they  say,  composed  it  about  1G92;  or 
the  Jesuit  Frederick  Wolf,  chaplain  to  the  Austrian  em- 
bassy at  Berlin  in  16S5-8G  (f  1708) ;  or  (Elven,  captain 
of  cavalry  at  Stettiii  (f  1727).  See  L.  dc  Bouverois, 
Extrait  d'un  manuscrit  relatifa  la propMtie  dufr'ere  St. 
de  Lehnin  (German  transl.  by  W.  von  Schiitz  (Wiirzb. 
1847) ;  J.  A.  Boost,  Die  Weissagnngen  des  MOnchs  H.  z. 
Lehnin  (Augsb.  1848). — Pierer,  Universal-Lexikon,  viii, 
273 ;  Ilerzog,  Real-EncgHopddie,  v,  757  sq. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfiued  WiLHEor,  Baron  von — phi- 
losopher, theologian,  jurist,  historian,  poet,  mathemati- 
cian, mechanician,  naturalist,  and  votary  of  all  arts  and 
all  sciences — was  the  most  brilliant,  profound,  and  ver- 
satile scholar  of  the  century  following  the  death  of  Des 
Cartes — perhaps  of  modern  times.  He  is  among  the 
few  who  have  earned  the  honors  of  all-embracing  eru- 
dition— ultra  progredi  nefas  est.  As  the  opponent  of 
Spinoza,  Bayle,  and  Locke ;  as  the  conciliator  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle ;  as  the  reverential  follower  of  the  discred- 
ited schoolmen;  as  the  precursor  of  Kant,  and  as  the 
vindicator  "  of  the  ways  of  God  to  man,"  Leibnitz  occu- 
pies an  equally  eminent  and  important  position  in  the 
history  of  philosophic  opinion.  His  metaphysical  spec- 
ulations were,  however,  but  a  small  portion  of  his  labors. 
His  greatest  achievements  in  nearly  all  cases  were  onl}- 
the  liberal  recreations  of  his  idle  hours.  He  rendered 
all  learning  and  nearly  all  knowledge  tributary  to  his 
genius,  and  deserved  the  happy  eulogy  of  Fontenelle, 
that  '•  he  drove  all  the  sciences  abreast."  He  reformed 
and  enlarged  old  systems  of  doctrine,  he  added  new 
provinces  to  them,  he  improved  their  methods,  he  sup- 
plied them  with  keener  instruments,  he  discovered  new 
continents  of  study,  and  delineated  them  for  future  oc- 
cupation and  culture.  Whatever  region  he  visited  in 
the  wide  circuit  of  his  explorations  was  qiuckened  into 
bloom  and  fruitage  beneath  his  feet — 

"Siiaveis  Da;dala  tellus 
Summittit  flores."  * 

Life. — Leibnitz  was  the  son  of  Frederick  Leibnitz, 
professor  of  ethics  in  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  was 
born  there  July  3, 164G.  He  was  early  placed  at  school. 
At  six  years  of  age  he  lost  his  father,  from  M-hom 
he  inherited  a  small  fortune  and  an  extensive  library. 
This  library  inspired,  moiilrled,  and  furnished  forth  his 
career.  He  buried  himself  in  his  young  years  amid  its 
volumes,  and  delighted  in  the  unaided  perusal  of  the 
ancient  classics.  His  attention  was  not  confined  to  the 
great  masters  of  stj-le,  nor  to  linguistic  pursuits.  He 
read  with  like  diligence  poets,  orators,  jurists,  travellers 
—works  of  science,  medicine,  philosojihy,  and  general 
information.  Nothing  came  amiss  to  his  insatiable  ap- 
petite and  incredible  industry.  At  fifteen  he  jentered 
the  University  of  Leii)sic,  and  was  directed  by  Jacobus 
Thomasius  to  mathematical  and  philosophTcal  studies. 
He  applied  hirSself  assiduously  to  the  writings  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  and  already,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  was 
endeavoring  to  harmonize  and  combine  their  antago- 


nistic systems.  One  year  he  spent  at  the  University  of 
Jena,  but  he  returned  to  his  own  citj'  to  prosecute  his 
professional  studies.  Applying  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  law  when  he  had  scarcely  attained  his  twentieth 
year,  he  was  refused  the  diploma  on  the  pretext  of  his 
youth.  It  was  cheerfully  accorded  by  the  University 
of  Altdorf,  which  tendered  him  a  professorship;  but  this 
was  declined.  To  this  period  belong  his  A  I's  Comhina- 
toria — a  curious  adaptation  of  IJaymond  Lully's  Art  of 
Meditation  and  Logical  Invention — and  his  Mathemat- 
ical Demonstration  of  the  Existence  of  God.  His  esti- 
mate in  declining  life  of  the  former  treatise  may  be  seen 
from  his  fourth  letter  to  Remond  de  Montmort-in  1714. 
From  Altdorf  Leibnitz  proceeded  to  Nuremberg,  where, 
in  consequence  of  an  application  filled  with  cabalistic 
terms,  unmeaning  to  himself  and  to  every  one  else,  he 
was  admitted  into  an  association  for  the  pursuit  of  the 
philosopher's  stone,  and  was  appointed  its  secretarj-. 
Half  a  century  before,  Des  Cartes  had  been  similarly  se- 
duced in  the  same  regions.  I'rom  these  visionary  oc- 
cupations the  young  alchemist  was  soon  withdrawn  by 
the  baron  De  Boineburg,  chancellor  of  the  elector  of 
Mayence,  who  recommended  him  to  prosecute  history 
and  jurisprudence,  and  invited  him  to  Frankfort,  with 
the  promise  of  preferment.  He  illustrated  his  change 
of  abode  by  publishing  Nova  methodus  discendce  docen- 
dccque  Jurisprudentice.  (1GG7),  to  which  was  appended  a 
Catalogus  Desideratorum.  The  unsystematic  treatment 
of  jurisprudence  had  long  needed  reform.  Leibnitz  con- 
tinued his  efforts  in  this  direction  by  an  essay,  De  Cor- 
])ore  Juris  reconcinnando.  He  contemplated  at  this 
time  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  Alsted's  Encyclopa;- 
dia,  and  never  abandoned,  but  never  commenced  his  de- 
sign. From  these  vast  projects  he  was  di\-erted  by 
Boineburg,  at  whose  instance  he  composed  a  diplomatic 
exposition  of  the  claims  of  Philip  William,  duke  pala- 
tine of  Neuburg,  to  the  vacant  throne  of  Poland.  He 
declined  an  invitation  to  the  duke's  court,  remained  at 
Frankfort,  and  brought  out  a  new  edition  of  the  forgot- 
ten work  of  jNIarius  Nizolius,  De  Vciis  Principiis  et  Vera 
Ratione  Philosophundi.  He  added  notes,  and  prefixed 
two  dissertations;  one  on  The  Philosophical  Style  of 
Composition,  the  other  On  Writing  the  History  of  Phi- 
losojihy. In  the  latter  he  treated  of  Des  Cartes,  Aristo- 
tle, and  the  schoolmen,  and  on  the  mode  of  harmonizing 
the  Peripatetic  with  later  philosophy.  All  his  writings 
exhibit  pronounced  Cartesianism.  His  first  approaches 
to  physical  science  were  made  in  his  Theoria  31otus  Ab- 
stracti,  containing  the  germs  of  his  Calculus,  and  his 
Theoria  Mottis  Concreti  (1G71).  I'hcy  were  not  favor- 
ably received ;  but  Leibnitz  was  still  only  twenty-five 
years  old.  Next  year  appeared  his  Sacrosancta  Trini- 
tas  per  nova  argumenta  defensa,  directed  against  Wis- 
sowatius,  a  Polish  Unitarian.  Thus,  say  the  writers  in 
the  Biographie  Universelle,  "each  year  brought  a  new 
title  of  glory  to  Leibnitz,  and  gave  him  rank  among  the 
masters  of  the  different  sciences."  He  was  already  a 
counsellor  of  the  chancery  of  Maj-ence.  At  length  his 
desire  of  seeing  Paris  was  gratified.  Boineburg  sent 
him  thither  as  tutor  to  his  sons,  and  in  charge  of  some 
public  affairs.  He  was  at  once  admitted  into  the  most 
brilliant  scientific  circles,  in  the  most  brilliant  period  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  Here  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Huyghens,  and  improved  the  calculating  ma- 
chine of  Pascal.  He  was  also  induced  to  aid  in  pre- 
paring the  Latin  classics  in  usuni  Delphini.  On  the 
death  of  Boineburg  (1G73)  he  passed  over  into  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  distinction  by  Boyle,  Olden- 
burg, and  other  members  of  the  recent  Royal  Society. 
Intelligence  of  the  demise  of  the  elector  of  Mayence 
reached  him  in  London.  He  was  thus  deprived  of  the 
means  of  support.  Flattering  proposals  had  been  made 
to  him  by  Louis  XIV,  but  they  had  been  re-fused,  as 
they  required  adhesion  to  the  Catholic  communion.  In 
his  anxiety  and  distress,  he  was  appointed  by  the  duke 
of  Brunswick  a  counsellor,  with  an  adequate  pension, 
and  with  the  privilege  of  remainuig  abroad.     He  re- 


LEIBNITZ 


333 


LEIBNITZ 


turned  to  Paris,  hnd  remained  there  fifteen  months.     In 
l(i7G  he   revisited  England,  and  thence   proceeded  to 
Hanover  by  way  of  Holland.    Here  he  entered  upon  his 
duties  as  counsellor,  and — strange  duties  for  a  minister 
of  state ! — employed  himself  in  arranging  and  enlarging 
the  library  of  his  protector,  and  improving  the  drainage 
of  his  mines.     His  services  were  rewarded  with  a  con- 
siderable salary,  but  the  duke  soon  died  (1G79).     He 
found  other  employment,  for  he  was  never  idle,  and  com- 
posed a  treatise  on  The  Eights  o/Ainbassadorg,  arguing 
the  question  of  States'  Eights,  which  has  assumed  such 
prominence  in  Germany  in  recent  years.    The  new  duke 
of  Brunswick  engaged  Leibnitz  to  compose  the  History 
of  the  House  of  Brunswich.     To  prepare  for  the  task, 
he  visited  southern  Germany  and  Italy,  consulting  the 
learned,  exploring  monasteries,  ransacking  libraries,  ex- 
amining old  charters,  deciphering  mouldy  manuscripts, 
and  transcribing  worm-eaten  documents.    Whatever  he 
undertook  he  projected  on  a  scale  proportionate  to  his 
own  vast  comprehension  and  various  knowledge,  with 
little  regard  to  the  legitimate  magnitude  of  the  subject, 
or  to  the  brevity  of  human  life.     He  brought  back  from 
his  wanderings  an  abundant  supply  of  diplomatic  mate- 
rials, which  he  arranged,  and  from  -svliich  he  extracted 
extensive  works,  sometimes  having  little  direct  connec- 
tion with  the  Chronicles  of  Brunswick.     The  first-fruits 
of  these  collections  were  the  Codex  Juris  Gentium  Diplo- 
mat icus,  of  which  the  first  volume  was  issued  in  1693,  in 
folio;  the  second  in  1700, with  the  title  Mantissa  Codicis. 
Valualjle  as  w=ere  the  documents,  the  most  valuable  part 
of  the  work  was  the  Introduction,  reviewing  the  princi- 
ples of  natural  and  international  law,  and  sketching  the 
reform  of  civil  jurisprudence  vdtimately  achieved  by  Na- 
poleon.    Other  works  of  wide  comprehension  were  due 
to  these  archajological  researches :  the  demonstration  of 
the  descent  of  the  Guelphic  line  from  the  Italian  house 
of  Estc ;   the  Accessiones  Historic^   (1698,  2  vols.  4to, 
containing  a  multitude  of  unpublished  papers),  and  the 
iScripto?-es  Rerum  Bitinsvireusinm.     The  first  volume  of 
this  historical  collection  appeared  iir  1707,  folio ;  the  sec- 
ond in  1710;  the  third  in  1711.     These  extensive  accu- 
mulations were  only  materials  to  be  employed  for  The 
Histori/  of  the  House  of  Brunstrich.     In  the  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Corpus  Scripiorvm  Leibnitz  discussed  everj-- 
thing  connected  with  the  family,  the  realm,  and  the 
country  of  the  Guelphs,  investigating  the  traditions  of 
the  early  tribes  that  dwelt  on  the  Elbe  and  the  Weser, 
tracing  their  changes  and  migrations,  marshalling  the 
passages  of  the  ancient  authors  in  which  they  were  men- 
tioned, and  examining  their  language  and  the  mixture 
of  their  dialects.     It  inaugurated  ethnological  science 
and  comparative  philology.     His  inquiries,  however, 
stretched  far  beyond  the  incunabula  r/entis,  and  contem- 
plated the  primitive  condition  of  the  abode  of  the  race. 
This  preliminary  outline  is  given  in  the  Protogwa  (1693), 
■\vliieli  founded  the  modern  sciences  of  geology  and  jihys- 
ical  geography.     It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  frag- 
mentary sketch  with  the  Vvkjur  Errors  of  Sir  Thom- 
as Hrowne,  and  to  note  the  immense  stride  which  was 
made  by  Leibnitz.    Of  the  main  worl^,  to  which  this  es- 
say was  to  be  introductor}- — the  History  of  the  House  of 
Jhinisirick — only  a  brief  and  imperfect  outline  was  ever 
drawn  by  the  accomplished  author.     It  was  published 
after  his  death  by  Eccard,  in  the  A  eta  Eruditorum,  in 
1717. 

These  historical  labors  were  the  real  task  of  the  life 
of  Leibnitz.  But  the  long  years  of  plodding  industry 
were  abundantly  fiUed  with  other  enterprises,  and  it  is 
to  them  that  his  reputation  is  mainly  due. 

By  his  exertions  chiefly,  the  A  eta  Ertiditorum — a  sci- 
entific and  philosophical  periodical  —  was  established 
(vol.  i,  Leipsic,  1682).  To  this  he  contributed  largely, 
and  in  its  pages  appeared  many  of  his  most  luminous 
discoveries  and  suggestions.  In  it  was  published  his 
Meditationes  de  Coc/nitione,  Veritate  et  Idiis  (1681\  pro- 
pounding his  modifications  of  the  Cartesian  doctrine  of 
knowledge.     In  the  same  year,  and  in  the  same  work, 


appeared  his  rules  for  the  Differential  Calculus,  the  germs 
of  which  had  been  indicated  in  his  Theoria  Motus  Ab- 
stract thirteen  years  before.  He  gave  no  demonstra- 
tions ;  these  were  divined  with  wonderfid  ingenuity,  and 
promulgated  by  the  Bernouilli  brothers.  In  1687  the 
world  was  enriched  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Princijna 
Mathematica  Fhilosophice  Naturulis,  which  employed  a 
mathematical  device  closely  analogous  to  the  Calculus 
of  Leibnitz.  A  bitter  controversy  jn  regard  to  priority 
of  discovery  and  originality  of  invention  sprung  up  be- 
tween the  partisans  of  these  great  mathematicians.  It 
is  scarcely  yet  terminated.  The  rigorous  and  repeated 
examination  of  the  question  justifies  the  conclusion  that 
both  had  independently  discovered  corresponding  pro- 
cedures. The  histor)^  of  inventions  is  full  of  such  coin- 
cidences. There  is  sufficient  difference  between  the  Flu- 
ents and  Fluxions  of  Newton  and  the  Calculus  of  Leib- 
nitz to  indicate  the  originality  of  each.  Neither  was 
the  first  to  enter  upon  this  line  of  inquiry.  To  Leibnitz 
is  specially  due  the  acquisition  of  the  powerful  instru- 
ment by  which  so  many  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  sci- 
ence have  been  won.  In  this  connection  a  passing  ref- 
erence may  be  made  to  his  Arithmetica  Binuria  (1697) 
— a  method  of  notation  and  computation  employing  only 
the  symbols  1  and  0;  and  also  to  the  Philosophy  of  Iit- 
fnity,  long  meditated,  but  never  made  pidjlic. 

The  conception  of  dynamical  science  continually  oc- 
cupied the  mind  of  Leibnitz,  and  was  the  natural  tend- 
ency of  his  philosophical  method.  The  A  eta  Erudito- 
rum for  1695  contained  his  Specimen  Dynamicum  ;  and 
in  the  same  year  he  gave  to  the  world,  through  the 
Journal  des  Sgavans,  his  Systema  de  Natura  et  Commu- 
nicatione  Substantiarum,  itemque  Unione  inter  Corpus  et 
Animam  intercedente.  In  the  latter  he  propounded  his 
celebrated  dogma  of  Pre-established  Harmony.  The  con- 
nection between  mind  and  body,  between  force  and  mat- 
ter, between  the  natura  naturans  and  the  natura  nat- 
nrata,  is  still  an  insoluble  enigma,  after  all  the  specula- 
tions of  transcendental  philosojdiv,  and  all  the  research- 
es of  modern  philosoidiy  and  modern  chemistry.  \^'e 
still  grope  for  life  in  the  dust  and  ashes  of  death.  The 
ved  of  Isis  has  not  been  raised.  Spencer,  and  Huxley, 
and  Tj-ndall,  et  id  yeniis  omne,  are  compelled  to  aclvnowl- 
edge  their  inability  to  penetrate  the  mysterj'  of  the  con- 
nection. However  untenable,  however  hazardous,  how- 
ever absurd  the  Pre-cstabhshed  Harmony  of  Leibnitz 
may  be,  it  was  a  beautiful  dream,  generated  in  some  sort 
by  the  atmosphere  of  the  time,  and  certainly  a  bold  and 
ingenious  attempt  to  escape  fiom  the  brute  mechanism 
of  Des  Cartes,  the  pantheism  of  Spinoza,  the  puppetry  of 
Malebranche,  and  the  materialism  of  the  Sensationalists. 
The  doctrine  was  illustrated,  explained,  and  expanded 
in  the  Theodicee,  and  in  many  short  essays  and  letters. 
So  much,  indeed,  of  the  philosophy  of  Leibnitz  was  com- 
municated only  by  occasional  papers  and  correspond- 
ence, so  little  by  sj'stematic  works,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  trace  the  course  and  development  of  his  views  in  any 
brief  notice.  His  two  formal  meta]diysical  works  be- 
long to  the  last  ])criod  of  his  life.  The  Nouvecmx  Es- 
sais,  in  reply  to  Locke,  answering  the  English  philoso- 
pher chapter  l)y  chapter,  and  section  by  section,  were 
completed  in  1701,  but  were  not  published  for  more  than 
half  a  century.  They  were  withheld  from  the  press  in 
consequence  of  Locke's  death  in  that  year,  and  were  first 
published  byRaspe  in  1763.  The  Theodicee,  which  was 
designed  as  a  refutation  of  Bayle,  and  was  undertaken 
at  the  request  of  the  queen  of  Prussia,  was  completed 
two  years  after  the  death  of  that  princess  and  of  Bayle, 
but  w^s  not  published  till  1710,  six  years  before  Leib- 
nitz's own  decease.  Like  the  Nouvecmx  Essais,  it  was 
composed  in  French,  of  which  language  Leibnitz  was  a 
perfect  master.  It  is  exquisitely  written,  and  is  the 
finest  specimen  of  philosophical  literature  since  the  Di- 
alogues of  Plato.  A  very  large  portion  of  the  meta- 
physical and  other  writings  of  Leibnitz  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  only  by  posthumous  publication. 

Though  Leibnitz   composed  only  these  two  formal 


LEir,XITZ 


334 


LEIBNITZ 


treatises,  his  pliilosopliiral  and  scientific  labors  were  mul- 
titiuUufius  and  multilarious.  He  was  indef'atiiiahle  in 
labor,  and  his  mind  ranged  with  eijiial  rapidit\'  and 
s])lendor  over  the  whole  domain  of  knowledfj;e.  Noth- 
in-jc  was  too  vast  for  his  comprehension,  too  dark  for  his 
penetration,  too  humble  for  his  notice.  He  correspond- 
ed with  Pclisson  on  the  conciliation  and  union  of  the 
Protestant  and  Catholic  communions,  and  was  thus 
broui^ht  into  connection  with  Bossuet.  With  Burnet 
be  discussed  the  project  of  uniting  the  Anglicans  and 
the  Continental  Protestants.  He  expended  much  time 
over  the  invention  of  a  universal  language.  He  wrote 
extensively  on  etymology,  and  the  improvement  of  the 
German  language,  which  he  so  rarely  emploj'ed.  ]\Ied- 
icine,  botany,  and  other  branches  of  natural  history  at- 
tracted his  earnest  regards.  He  addressed  a  memoir  to 
Louis  XIV  on  the  Conquest  and  Colonization  of  Egyj)t, 
with  the  rietv  to  establishimj  a  Supi-emacy  over  Europe. 
The  age  of  chivalry  and  the  Crusades  was  not  over  with 
him.  He  certainly  pointed  out  the  road  to  Napoleon. 
He  was  deeply  interested  in  the  accounts  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  in  the  Jesuit  missions  for  their  conversion. 
He  wrote  much  upon  the  philosophia  Sinenjiis,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  delusion  of  the  age.  He  engaged  in  an 
active  but  courteous  controversy  with  Samuel  Clarke, 
in  which  the  highest  and  most  abstruse  riddles  of  meta- 
physics were  discussed.  From  his  historical  researches 
he  drew  the  materials  for  an  instructive  essay,  De  Ori- 
ffiiie  Francontm  (1715) ;  and  so  various  was  the  range  of 
topics  that  engaged  his  attention,  that  he  commented 
on  the  political  position  and  rights  of  English  freehold- 
ers. His  mind,  like  the  sun,  surveyed  all  things,  and 
brightened  all  that  it  shone  upon.  This  enumeration  of 
his  incpiiries  gives  a  very  imperfect  view  of  either  the 
number  or  the  variety  of  his  productions.  The  cata- 
logue of  his  writings  lills  thirty-three  pages  in  the  4to 
edition  of  his  works  by  Dutens. 

The  literary  fecundity  of  Leibnitz  was  equalled  by  his 
activity  in  promoting  the  practical  interests  of  intelli- 
gence. His  correspondence  linked  together  the  schol- 
ars of  all  countries,  furnished  a  bond  of  connection  be- 
tween all  learning  and  science,  and  created  for  the  11. ot 
time  a  universal  republic  of  letters.  He  thus  communi- 
cated an  impulse  to  the  dissemination  of  knowledge  not 
less  potent  than  that  given  by  Bacon's  New  Atlaiitui, 
and  by  the  institution  of  the  lioyal  Societj'  of  England. 
Of  that  society  he  was  an  adjunct  member,  as  he  was 
the  chief  of  the  foreign  associates  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  of  France.  He  suggested  to  the  first  king  of 
Prussia  the  foundation  of  the  Koyal  Academy  of  Berlin, 
aided  in  its  establishment,  and  became  its  first  jiresident 
(17011).  He  proposed  a  like  institution  for  Dresden,  but 
\\as  frustrated  by  the  wars  in  I'oland,  for  his  zeal  for 
lil)eral  studies  was  contemporaneous  with  the  conquer- 
ing campaigns  of  Charles  XH  of  Sweden.  When  the 
Berlin  Academy  was  endangered  by  the  death  of  its 
royal  founder,  Leibnitz  sought  to  open  a  new  home  for 
learning  l)y  establishing  a  similar  society  at  Vienna 
(171o).  The  design  was  not  carried  into  effect.  The 
exhaustion  of  the  finances  by  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  which  was  scarcely  closed,  was  unfavorable 
to  the  scheme.  I^eibnitz  was  warmh'  received,  was  en- 
couraged by  iirince  Kugene,  was  created  a  baron  of  the 
empire,  and  was  appointed  aulic  counsellor,  with  a  sal- 
ary of  -20110  fiorius.  Two  years  previously  he  had  been 
consultet!  at  Torgau,  in  regard  to  the  civilization  of 
Russia,  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  had  made  him  a  coun- 
sellor of  the  Russian  empire,  and  had  conceded  a  hand- 
some jiension  to  him.  All  the  while  he  remained  histo- 
riogra|ihcr  of  Brunswick.  It  is  rejiorted  that  the  elector 
of  linmswick  was  much  dissatisfied  with  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  the  history  of  his  house.  When  tlie  electorbecame 
king  of  England  (1714),  Leibnitz  hastened  f;-om  Vienna 
to  [lay  his  court  to  the  monarch,  but  his  new  majesty  had 
departed  for  liis  new  dominions.  He  met  tlie  sovereign, 
however,  on  his  return  to  his  paternal  domain.  The 
years  of  Leibnitz  were  now  drawing  to  an  end.    He  suf- 


fered from  acute  rheumatism  and  other  painful  disor- 
ders. Having  much  acquaintance  with  medicine,  he 
tried  novel  remedies  iipon  himself,  with  no  good  result. 
He  prolonged  his  studies  almost  to  his  last  days,  and 
died  tranquilly,  with  scarcely  a  word,  on  Nov.  14, 171(5, 
having  reached  the  age  of  "  threescore  and  ten  years." 
His  monument  at  the  gates  of  Hanover,  erected  by  king 
George,  bears  the  modest  inscription  Ossa  Leihnitii. 

Leibnitz  was  of  medium  height,  and  slender.  He 
liad  a  large  head,  black  hair,  M'hich  soon  left  him  bald, 
and  small  ej^es.  He  was  very  short-sighted,  but  his 
vision  was  otherwise  sound  to  the  end  of  his  days.  His 
constitution  was  remarkably  good,  for  he  reached  old 
age  without  serious  malady,  notwithstanding  the  strain 
to  which  it  was  subjected.  He  drank  moderately,  but 
ate  much,  especially  at  supper,  and  immediately  after 
this  heavy  meal  retired  to  rest.  He  was  wholly  irregu- 
lar in  eating.  He  took  his  food  whenever  he  was  him- 
gry,  usually  in  his  library,  without  abandoning  his 
books.  Frequently  he  took  his  only  repose  in  his  chair, 
and  occasionaUy  pursued  his  reflections  or  researches, 
without  change  of  place,  for  weeks — Fontenelle  sa}-s  for 
months.  He  read  everj'thing  —  good  books  and  bad 
books,  and  books  on  aU  manner  of  subjects.  He  ex- 
tracted largely  from  the  authors  perused,  and  made  co- 
pious annotations  upon  them.  His  memory  was  so  te- 
nacious that  he  rarely  recurred  to  these  Adversaria. 
He  sought  intercourse  with  men  of  all  occupations  and 
of  all  grades  of  intelligence.  Every  work  of  God  or 
man  was  an  object  of  interest  and  regard  to  him.  He 
stretched  forth  his  hand  to  everything — the  election  of 
a  king  of  Poland,  the  revival  of  the  Crusades,  the  con- 
version of  the  heathen,  the  reunion  of  the  churches,  the 
codification  of  laws,  the  history  of  a  dynasty  and  people, 
the  constitution  of  the  universe,  the  creation  of  new 
sciences,  tlie  derivation  of  words,  the  invention  of  a  cal- 
culating machine,  the  projection  of  a  universal  language, 
the  construction  of  wintlmills,  or  the  improvement  of 
pleasure  carriages.  The  extent  -of  his  correspondence 
was  amazing,  and  may  be  conjectured  from  the  list  of 
distinguished  correspondents  culled  by  Brucker  from 
the  ampler  catalogues  of  Feller  and  Ludovici.  The 
courtesy  of  his  epistles  was  as  notable  as  their  multitude. 
They  were  scattered  over  all  civilized  nations,  and  were 
on  an  endless  diversity  of  topics,  but  they  were  uni- 
formly marked  by  deference  for  the  persons  and  opin- 
ions of  others.  This  gentleness  sprung  from  an  amiable 
and  cheerful  nature.  It  was  cultivated  and  refined  by 
intercourse  with  princes,  and  statesmen,  and  philoso- 
phers, and  scholars,  and  also  with  the  humblest  classes 
of  society.  It  was  confirmed  by  his  belief  that  no  hon- 
est conviction  can  be  entirely  wrong.  His  conversation 
was  easy  and  abundant — as  full  of  charm  as  of  instruc- 
tion. It  may  be  conceded  to  Gibbon  that  completeness 
was  sacrificed  by  Leibnitz  to  universality  of  acquire- 
ment; but,  when  aU  bis  gifts  and  accomplishments  are 
embraced  in  one  view,  he  may  be  justly  deemed  to  merit 
the  eulogy  of  his  French  editor,  Jacques :  "  In  point  of 
speculative  philosophy  he  is  the  greatest  intellect  of 
modern  times ;  and  had  but  two  equals,  but  no  superiors, 
in  antiquity." 

Leibnitz  was  never  married.  He  contemplated  the 
experiment  once,  when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age  ('•  de 
quo  scmel  tantum  in  vita,  aetate  jam  provectior,  sed 
f^ustra  cogitavit").  The  lady  asked  time  for  reflection. 
The  opportunity  for  reflection  cooled  the  ardor  of  the 
jjhilosopher — the  match  was  not  decreed  by  any  pre- 
established  harmony,  and  the  suit  was  not  pressed. 

The  religious  fervor  of  Leibnitz  was  undoubted,  but 
he  was  negligent  of  the  offices  of  religion.  In  his  efforts 
to  promote  Cliristian  unity,  and  to  recognise  only  "  one 
Lord,  one  faith,  one  baptism,"  he  may  have  felt  too  keenly 
the  defects  of  rival  creeds,  so  as  to  accept  from  none  the 
truth  which  seemed  mutilated  and  imperfect  in  each. 

Philosophi).  —  Tlic  matliematical  and  scientific,  the 
historical  and  juridical,  the  linguistic  and  miscellaneous 
speculations  of  Leibnitz  have  been  noticed  very  inade- 


LEIBNITZ 


335 


LEIBNITZ 


quately,  but  as  fully  as  comports  vrith  the  desig^i  of  this 
Cyclop«dia.     His  philosophy  awaits  and  merits  more 
precise  coiisidoratioij.     It  must  be  premised  that  all  his 
labors,  however  remote  in  appearaoce  from  philosophical 
speculation,  were  inspired  and  animated  by  his  own  pe- 
culiar scheme  of  doctrine,  and  were  really  fragmentary 
applications  of  his  distinctive  principles.     Hence  pro- 
ceeded that  pervading  spirit  of  reform  which  is  mani- 
fested in  all  the  departments  of  knowledge  handled  by 
him,  and  which  was  rewarded  by  numerous  great  tri- 
umphs in  so  many  and  such  dissimilar  directions.    When 
details  are  neglected,  the  whole  body  of  his  writings  is 
found  to  be  connected  by  many  lines  of  interdependence, 
and  to  be  harmonized  into  unity  by  a  common  relation 
to  the  central  thought  around  which  his  own  reflections 
incessantly  revolved.     God  is  one,  and  there  must  be 
consistency,  and  concord  in  the  creation  of  God.     It  is 
no  easy  task  to  discern  this  unity,  and  to  detect  the 
general  scheme  of  the  Leibnitzian  philosophy.    Leibnitz 
nowhere  presents  a  symmetrical  exposition  of  his  whole 
doctrine.     His  ifomuldldijie,  or  rriitripia  Pliilosophice, 
seu  Theses  in  GratUtm  Principis  Euf/eidi,  furnishes  a  clew 
to  his  system,  but  it  is  only  a  slender  clew.    Even  if  the 
Principes  de  la  Nature  et  de  la  Grace  be  added  as  a  sup- 
plement, the  guiding  thread  is  very  frail.     His  views 
must  be  painfully  gathered  from   elaborate  treatises, 
from  occasional  essays,  from  scientific  papers,  from  pass- 
ing hints,  from  explanations  of  controverted  pouits, 
from  elucidations  of  obscure  or  misapprehended  state- 
ments, and  from  the  series  of  his  multifarious  epistles. 
Here  a  principle  is  thrown  out,  there  its  applications 
are  illustrated ;  in  one  place  an  erroneous  conclusion  or 
a  mistaken  inference  is  corrected,  in  another,  or  in  many 
others,  fresh  limitations  or  further  expansions  of  a  hy- 
pothesis are  proposed.     These  different  members  of  the 
imperfect  whole  are  separated  by  months  or  years  in  the 
life  of  the  author,  or  by  hundreds  of  pages,  or  whole 
volumes  in  his  collected  works.    It  required  the  patient 
diligence  of  Christian  Wolf  to  combine,  complete,  and 
organize  in  cumbrous  quartos  leaves  scattered  like  the 
oracles  of  the  Sibyl.     Leibnitz  had,  indeed,  no  system 
to  propound ;  he  had  no  thought  of  proraidgating  a  sys- 
tem or  of  establishing  a  sect.     Yet  his  mind  was  thor- 
oughly systematic.     The  system  which  resulted  from 
perfect  coherence  of  thought  was  latent  in  his  own  mind 
from  the  beginning,  and  was  consistently  evolved  as  the 
occasion  furnished  the  opportimity  of  presenting  its 
several  parts.     The  highest  intellect  attaches  itself  in- 
stinctivel}'  to  a  principle,  and  allows  accident  to  deter- 
mine ho^v  far  and  when  its  consequences  shall  be  im- 
rolk'd.     Leibnitz  only  desired  to  reconcile  the  opinions 
of  his  illustrious  predecessors  ;  to  correct  the  errors  and 
to  supply  the  deficiencies  which  he  recognised  in  the 
theory  of  his  chief  leader,  Des  Cartes,  and  to  redress 
the  evils  which  had  flowed  logically  from  those  errors. 
The  main  design  of  his  profound  investigations  was  to 
give  precision,  harmony,  and  veracity  to  the  immense 
stock  of  his  own  acquisitions  and  meditations.     Had  he 
reached  the  years  of  Methuselah  he  might  have  pro- 
posed a  system,  but  it  would  have  been  simjily  the  rec- 
titication  of  Cartesianism,  or  the  conciliation  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  of  Buonaventura  and  Aquinas.     It  must 
be  remembered  that,  of  his  two  systematic  treatises,  one 
was  published  towards  the  close  of  his  life,  the  other 
not  till  half  a  century  after  his  death.     His  natural  dis- 
position apparently  inclined  him  to  accumulate  knowl- 
edge for  its  own  sake,  and  to  reflect  uimn  his  acquisi- 
tions for  his  own  satisfaction.    He  seemed  to  be  impelled 
to  jiul'lication  only  by  some  accidental  stimulus.     His 
wliole  Ufe  was  a  discipline  and  preparation  for  what  he 
never  found  time  to  execute — never,  perhaps,  seriously 
thought  of  executing — a  vast  encyclopaidia  embracing 
all  that  could  be  known  by  man.     The  hints  thrown 
out  in  his  long  career,  apt  as  they  are  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  c<insistent  globe  of  speculation,  only  indicate 
an  inideveloped  system,  which  is  revealed  by  glimpses 
as  the  need  or  provocation  of  the  moment  inspired. 


From  such  lirokcn  and  dispersed  lights  his  philosophy 
must  be  divined. 

Leibnitz  was  essentially  a  Cartesian.     He  was  Carte- 
sian in  his  method,  and  Cartesian  in  his  fundamental 
principles.     He  never  revolted  from  his  great  teacher. 
He  pursued  the  Cartesian  mode  of  analysis  and  abstrac- 
tion, he  employed  the  Cartesian  procedure  by  mathe- 
matical demonstration,  he  reasoned,  like  Des  Cartes, 
from  presumptive  principles,  he  accepted  the  Cartesian 
indicia  of  truth;  but  he  rendered  them  more  precise, 
and  was  not  wholly  negligent  of  experience.     He  also 
rehabilitated  the  Scholastic  or  Aristotelian  logic.     He 
endeavored  to  combine  with  the  dominant  doctrine  all 
that  seemed  valuable  in  elder  systems,  and  he  found 
some  truth  in  all  the  schemes  that  he  rejected.     His 
imagination  was  too  bold  and  too  active  to  permit  him 
to  be  the  servile  follower  of  anj^  master,  and  his  perspi- 
cacity was  too  acute  to  overlook  the  fatal  defects  of  the 
principles  and  conclusions  of  Des  Cartes.     The  main 
errors  to  be  corrected  spnmg  from  the  distinction  made 
by  the  French  reformer  between  mind  and  matter.     Ac- 
cording to  his  theorj^,  the  one  could  not  act  upon  the 
other.     The  intelligent  and  the  material  universe  were 
thus  hopelessly  divorced.     Mind  was  pure  thought; 
matter  was  simjjle  extension ;  the  apparent  concurrence 
of  the  two  in  the  phenomena  of  existence  was  due  to 
divine  assistancy.    See  Des  Cartes.    Beasts  were  ma- 
chines galvanized  into  the  semblance  of  voluntary  ac- 
tion by  the  intervention  of  divine  power.    PLvery  move- 
ment was  a  nodus  rindice  dignus.     If  mind  is  pure 
thought,  aU  mental  action  must  be  an  effluence,  an  ef- 
fect, or  a  manifestation  of  the  one  sole  Intelligence. 
The   distinction   of  minds  was  an  impossibility.     To 
Leibnitz  the  want  of  any  princijnum  indiriduutionis — 
that  old  war-cry  of  the  schoolmeri — was  apparent.    He 
discussed  this  topic  in  a  public  thesis  before  he  was  sev- 
enteen (May  30, 1GG3,  Opera,  torn,  ii,  part  i,  p.  4(J0,  ed. 
Dutens).     He  ascribed  entitalive  activity  to  matter,  and 
a  distinct  entity  to  each  individual  mind.    He  regarded 
the  human  mind  as  an  assemblage  of  dormant  capacities 
{ivTi\i\tiai),  to  be  called  into  action  by  the  stimulation 
of  sensations  from  without,  and  of  promptings  from 
within.     He  departed  so  far  from  the  teachings  of  Des 
Cartes  that  he  ascribed  soul  and  reason  to  brutes,  and 
in  some  sort  to  all  matter  also  {Leihniiiana,  §  c.  Opera, 
t.  vi,  part  i,  p.  315 ;  comp.  §  clxxxi,  p.  331 ;  see  Bayle, 
Diet.  Hist.  Crit.  tit.  Rorarius,  Pereira).      If  matter  is 
mere  extension,  it  must  be  identical  with  space,  and  is 
"  without  form   and  void,"  impalpable,  inconceivable, 
unreal.    To  give  shape  to  "  that  which  shape  had  none," 
motion  must  be  recognised  as  an  essential  quality  of 
matter,  because  form  is  produced  by  movement  in  space. 
Leibnitz  at  times  goes  so  far  as  to  suspect  that  all  space 
is  matter.     For  the  production  of  motion,  force — deter- 
minate power  in  action — is  necessary.     Of  the  real  ex- 
istence of  force  the  human  consciousness  affords  assu- 
rance.    From  these  corrections  of  the  Cartesian  postu- 
lates proceeded  the  mathematical  and  philosophical  spec- 
ulations of  Leibnitz  in  regard  to  vis  viva,  his  Tluory  of 
Motion,  Abstract  and  Concrete,  his  Dynamics,  and  even 
his  Calculus  of  Infinitesimals.     All  internal  and  external 
change,  all  properties  and  accidents  of  matter,  are  only 
"modes  of  motion."     The  latest  science  is  returning  to 
similar  hypotheses,  though  the  language  of  science  is 
altered.     Observed  phenomena  appeared  to  be  contra- 
dicted by  the  definition  of  body,  as  the  conjunction  of  ex- 
tension and  motion.     Bodies  were  often  at  rest,  under- 
going no  sensible  change.     Motion  could  not  belong  to 
them  essentially  as  aggregates,  but  onlj'  to  the  constitu- 
ents from  whose  conjoint  operation  the  external  or  the 
internal  movements  of  the  mass  proceeded.    If  a  jiroper- 
ty  was  to  inhere  in  such  constituents,  matter  could  not 
be  infinitely  divisible  :  the  process  of  division  must  be 
ultimately  arrested  by  reaching  an  irreducible  atom : 

"  Fateare  uecesse  'st, 
Esse  en,  quiE  inillis  jam  prneditu  partibus  exstent, 
Et  minima  cousieut  uatura." 


LEIBNITZ 


336 


LiiiBNITZ 


The  motion  attributed  to  these  primordial  particles  is 
due  to  an  indwelliii!?  force.  Thus,  from  liis  definition 
of  matter  as  the  union  of  motion  with  extension,  Leib- 
nitz was  led  to  recognise  as  tlie  iirlmary  units  of  the 
universe  an  infinity  of  simple  elementary  substances  or 
forces,  which  he  designated  jionads.  These  monads 
have  some  resemblance  to  those  of  Pythagoras,  Democ- 
ritus,  and  Epicurus,  and  also  to  the  Ideas  of  Plato ;  but, 
unlike  the  Ei)icurean  atoms,  they  are  not  solida,  though 
they  are  (efenia.  They  are  not  material,  but  they  are 
the  souLs  of  matter.  This  vaporous  dematerialization 
of  matter  may  be  illustrated  by  Plotinus's  definition  of 
matter  by  the  successive  segregation  of  all  the  proper- 
ties of  specific  body.  Is  not  the  theory  of  Boscovich, 
that  matter  is  only  an  assemblage  of  points  of  force,  an 
adaptation  of  Leibnitz's  conception  ?  Has  not  the  the- 
ory of  Boscovich  won  atlmiration  and  hesitating  ap- 
proval from  manj'  distinguished  men  of  science? 

The  consequences  of  the  rectification  of  the  Cartesian 
conception  of  matter  do  not  end  here.  As  the  motions 
or  manifestations  of  force  constitute  the  difference  be- 
tween the  several  simple  substances  or  monads,  when 
there  is  no  diversity  of  motion  there  is  no  difference  of 
properties  and  no  distinction  of  nature.  Hence  follows 
another  dogma  of  Leibnitz,  the  Idenlitij  of  Indiscerni- 
bles.  The  monads  are  infinite  in  number,  but  they  are 
unlilce,  and  present  an  infinite  diversity  of  forces.  There 
is  also  an  infinite  variety  of  gradations,  from  the  lowest 
atoms  of  matter  up  through  human  souls  to  the  supreme 
monad,  or  God.  Each  monad  is  in  some  sort  the  mirror 
of  the  universe  of  things;  each  possesses  spontaneous 
energy  or  life  within  itself,  and,  in  consequence  of  these 
characteristics,  each  has  its  own  peculiar  kind  of  reason, 
passive  in  matter  unorganized,  rudimentary  in  crystals 
and  vegetable  existence,  unreflecting  and  instinctive  in 
brutes,  self-conscious  and  introspective  in  man,  and  as- 
cending through  numberless  orders  of  angelic  intelli- 
gences. As  motion  is  the  principle  oi  quiddity  ("the 
ghosts  of  defunct"  terms  must  be  evoked),  force  is  an  es- 
sential quality  of  all  existence';  and  is  as  imperishable 
as  the  monad  is  indestructible,  unless  both  are  annilii- 
lated  by  the  same  Power  by  which  they  were  created. 
Here  is  another  anticipation  of  recent  scientific  deduc- 
tions. As  these  forces  are  immutable,  their  separate 
spheres  of  action  must  be  exempt  from  intrusion.  There 
may  be  composition  of  motions,  or  equilibrium  of  an- 
tagonisms, but  there  can  be  no  interaction  or  reciprocal 
influence. 

Here  presents  itself  the  ancient  insoluble  enigma. 
How  can  bodies  act  upon  each  other  ?  How  can  matter 
be  moulded  or  modified  by  vital  action?  How  can  it 
be  subdued  or  directed  by  the  inteUigent  volition  of 
man  ?  How  can  it  be  conjoined  with  spirit  in  any  form 
of  animate  existence  ?  Des  Cartes  so  completely  con- 
tradistinguished mind  and  matter  that  it  was  impossi- 
ble for  mind  to  act  upon  matter  or  matter  upon  mind — 
frustrnferro  dicerberat  uinbms.  Leibnitz  so  complete- 
ly assimilated  material  to  spiritual  existence,  giving 
body  to  spirit,  and  spirit  to  body  {Theod.  §  124),  that 
they  were  indistinguishable  except  by  their  properties 
—the  one  possessing  perception  only,  the  other  having 
apperception  also.  There  could  be  no  intercommunion, 
no  reciprocal  influence  between  them,  or  between  any 
monads.  ^  To  cut  rather  than  to  loose  the  intellectual 
knot,  which  was  only  rendered  more  intricate,  Leibnitz 
proposed  an  explanation  in  his  Systema  Naturm  (1(395). 
It  is  his  celebrated  doctrine  oi  Pre-established  Harmomj. 
The  monatls  are  forces,  sometimes  active,  sometimes 
suspended,  tvipyeini  and  SvvdjUK;,  governed  by  their 
ovm  inherent  tendencies,  and  without  i)ower  of  acting 
upon  each  other;  but  their  separate  actions  are  so  fore- 
known on  one  side,  and  predetermined  (in  the. other,  in 
the  moment  of  creation,  that  their  concurrent  evolutions 
reciprocally  correspond,  and  effectuate  all  the  phenom- 
ena of  the  universe.  ]\Iind,  therefore,  does  not  coerce 
matter,  nor  does  one  form  of  matter  control  another,  but 
the  inclination  of  the  will  and  the  disposition  of  the 


matter,  or  the  diverse  evolutions  of  different  monads, 
conjoin  independently  and  without  connection  in  the 
production  of  one  result,  in  consequence  of  the  pread- 
aptation of  all  the  elementary  forces  to  that  particular 
change,  at  that  particular  moment,  in  that  particular 
composition,  and  with  that  particular  consequence.  Du- 
gald  Stewart  illustrates  this  harmony  by  the  supposi- 
tion of  two  clocks  so  regulated  and  adjusted  as  to  strike 
the  hours  in  unison.  It  may  be  an  illustration;  it  is 
scarcely  an  elucidation  of  the  doctrine.  The  agreement 
is  only  in  time  and  performance :  there  is  no  concord- 
ance of  dissimilar  processes.  The  machinery  of  Divine 
A  ssistance,  which  Des  Cartes  had  employed  for  the  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomena  of  animal  life,  was  general- 
ized by  Leibnitz,  applied  to  the  whole  order  of  things, 
and  transferred  to  the  original  of  all  creation.  There  is 
thus  much  more  than  a  poetic  symbolism — there  is  a 
tUstinctive  philosoi:)hical  tenet  involved  in  his  fine  ex- 
pression that  "  the  iniiverse  is  the  knowledge  of  God." 
This  preordination  of  concurrences,  apt  for  each  occa- 
sion, between  monadic  developments,  each  of  which  is 
determined  by  its  own  inherent  force,  which  is  will  in 
intelligences  and  nature  in  material  things,  makes  the 
whole  endless  series  of  change  the  reahzation  of  fore- 
seen and  prearranged  correspondences.  It  is  the  con- 
tinual evolution  of  the  immeasurable  plan  entertained 
by  the  Creator  before  the  beginning  of  the  ages,  and 
brought  into  act  at  the  appointed  time  and  in  the  ap- 
pointed order,  with  mathematical  precision,  though  be- 
yond the  calculation  of  mathematical  devices.  Certain 
fabrics  are  curiously  woven  with  colors  so  arranged  in 
the  yarn  that  when  the  weaving  is  performed  each  col- 
or falls  with  exact  propriety  into  its  due  place,  and  con- 
tributes accurately  to  form,  to  tint,  to  perfect  the  con- 
templated pattern.  So,  in  the  system  of  pre-established 
harmony,  "  the  web  of  creation  is  woven  in  the  loom  of 
time,"  with  threads  prepared  from  the  beginning  to  fall 
into  the  requisite  connections,  and  to  produce  a  fore- 
known design.  Each  concurrent  movement  arrives  at 
the  appropriate  time  and  place  in  consequence  of  the 
whole  antecedent  series  of  changes  in  each  case,  for  no- 
\vhere  is  there  any  solution  of  continuity,  and  the  pres- 
ent is  alwaj's  the  jirogeny  of  the  past  and  the  parent  of 
the  future.  The  innumerable  lines  of  evolution  contin- 
ually interosculate  with  each  other,  but  never  are  blend- 
ed together.  It  wiU  readily  be  perceived  that  the  whole 
intricate  phantasmagoria  of  these  unconnected  monads 
is  only  a  grand  and  beautiful  variation  of  the  Cartesian 
hypothesis,  and  is  neither  more  valid  nor  more  satisfac- 
tory than  the  fantasy  it  was  designed  to  supplant. 

This  doctrine  of  pre-established  harmony  is  in  per- 
fect consonance  with  Leibnitz's  vindication  of  the  ways 
of  God  to  man,  if  it  did  not  necessitate  his  theological 
expositions.  The  Tkeodicee  is  the  most  exquisite,  the 
most  brilliant,  the  most  profound,  the  most  learned,  and, 
in  some  respects,  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  treatises  of 
philosophical  theology.  Many  of  its  conclusions  are 
either  true,  or  as  near  the  truth  as  the  human  intellect 
can  attain  in  such  inquiries.  Others  are  merely  con- 
jectural, and  are  sometimes  fantastic,  as  they  lie  beyond 
the  domain  of  possible  knowledge.  Several  of  its  posi- 
tions have  furnished  pretexts  for  sweeping  censures; 
but  in  such  speculations  error  is  inevitable,  and  a  slight 
error  opens  the  way  for  a  host  of  pernicious  and  unde- 
signed heresies.  The  most  notable  and  characteristic 
of  Leibnitz's  theological  dogmas,  which  provoked  the 
malicious  wit  of  Voltaire's  Candide,  is  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  explanation  of  the  combined  action  of 
monads.  This  is  the  theory  known  as  Optimism.  With- 
out absolutely  asserting  that  "Whatever  is.  is  best,"  it 
alleges  that  the  actual  world  is  the  best  of  all  possible 
worlds,  despite  of  acknowledged  evils  and  defects.  This 
is  suppose(l  to  be  "proved,  among  other  evidences,  by  the 
Leibnitzian  principle  of  the  sufficient  reason,  suice,  if 
any  better  world  had  been  possible,  it  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  it  would  have  been  selected  by  God  in 
preference  to  that  which  He  actually  created.  The  acute 


LEIBNITZ 


337 


LEIDRADT 


conceptions,  the  ingenious  arguments,  the  various  illus- 
trations, the  abundant  analogies  by  which  this  thesis  is 
maintained  and  adorned,  can  receive  here  only  their 
merited  tribute  of  admiration.  When  (iod  looked  upon 
the  work  of  each  of  the  six  days  of  creation,  "  He  saw 
that  it  was  good."  More  than  this  it  is  not  given  man 
to  know  :  "  that  which  is  wanting  cannot  be  numbered." 
But,  if  all  events,  if  all  changes,  if  all  composite  actions 
occur  by  divine  preadaptation,  it  must  be  presumed  that 
this  is  the  best  of  worlds.  There  is  wonderful  coherence 
in  the  views  of  Leibnitz,  interrupted  and  fragmentary  as 
is  their  exposition.  This  dialectical  consistency  is  so 
perfect,  and  in  its  evolution  so  s|)lendid  and  imposuig, 
that  his  scheme  presents,  both  in  the  process  of  its  con- 
struction and  in  its  structure,  the  charm  of  a  dream  of 
the  imagination.  Nothing  a])proaches  it  in  magnifi- 
cence but  the  ideal  universe  of  Plato. 

Of  course,  if  this  is  the  best  of  possible  worlds,  and  if 
its  phenomena  are  determined  by  the  divine  preordina- 
tion or  preorganization,  evil,  too  apparent  everyAvhere, 
must  be  merely  contingent — a  negative  characteristic,  a 
nonentity  in  itself.  Leibnitz  accordingly  regards  evil 
simply  as  imperfection — the  privation  of  good.  God  is 
perfect :  anything  less  than  God  must  be  imperfect.  All 
limitation  is  imperfection ;  all  imperfection  is  defect  of 
good — is  evil.  The  evil  increases  in  quality  and  in  de- 
gree with  each  remove  from  the  perfection  of  the  Su- 
preme Existence.  Hence,  in  this  best  of  worlds,  the 
taint  of  evil  is  over  the  whole  creation : 

"The  trail  of  the  serpent  is  over  it  all." 

All  this  may  be  admitted,  but  it  affords  only  an  inade- 
quate explanation.  It  does  not  justify  the  retribution 
which  is  merited  by  all  evil :  it  does  not  recognise  the 
positive  character  of  evil  as  the  violation  of  the  divine 
law  and  order ;  it  hardly  permits  the  notion  of  such  vio- 
lation. Leibnitz  denies  the  existence  of  physical  evil 
except  as  a  consequence  of  moral  evil ;  and  moral  evil 
consists  in  voluntary  increase  of  imperfection,  in  wilful 
estrangement  from  the  Supreme  Monad.  Even  thus,  no 
sufficient  reason  can  be  assigned  for  ascribing  sin,  and 
for  attaching  a  material  or  moral  penalty  to  wliat  is  the 
result  of  a  natural  and  inevitable  imperfection.  This 
defect  in  the  system  is  clearly  pointed  out  by  Kant. 

The  unfathomable  immensity  of  the  creation  can  be 
but  diml}^  apprehended  by  the  finite  and  fallible  mind 
of  man.  The  mighty  plan  and  purpose  of  (iod  cannot 
be  compressed  within  the  compass  of  human  intelligence. 
"  We  see  as  through  a  glass  darkly."  Schemes  of  the 
universe  framed  from  broken  and  darkling  glimpses  be- 
come more  delusive  as  they  become  more  systematic. 
Leibnitz's  intuitive  principles,  abstract  analysis,  and 
scholastic  deduction  were  peculiarly  apt  to  produce  hal- 
lucinations. 

Analysis  for  the  discovery  of  vltimafe  ahsfracts  ;  in- 
tuition for  the  acceptance  of  clear,  distinct,  and  adequate 
ideas;  the  principle  of  contradiction  as  the  test  of  ver- 
ity; the  principle  of  the  sufficient  reason  as  the  canon 
of  actuality — these  are  the  metaphysical  principles  or 
postulates  of  Leibnitz.  The  residtmg  philosophy,  both 
in  conception  and  in  construction,  is  exposed  to  "  such 
tricks  as  hath  strong  imagination,"  and  wants  firm  and 
assured  foundation.  It  is  a  complex  fantasy,  a  mathe- 
matical romance,  a  universe  of  shadows.  Still,  it  is 
marked  by  -wonderful  acuteness,  logical  coherence,  and 
purity  of  spirit.  It  preludes,  if  it  does  not  anticipate, 
the  main  doctrines  of  Kant,  and  is  the  fruitful  parent  of 
all  the  subsequent  philosophy  of  Germany. 

This  exposition  presents  the  leading  tenets,  the  idees 
meres  of  Leibnitz,  but  it  affords  no  image  of  the  splen- 
did completeness  of  the  entire  theory,  in  which  God  is 
presented  as  the  first  beginning  and"  the  last  end— the 
Alpha  and  Omega  of  the  whole  order  of  things  in  time 
and  out  of  time.  Nor  does  it  do  justice  to  the  vigorous 
thought,  the  profound  reflection,  the  comprehensive  in- 
telligence, the  keen  penetration,  the  exhaustless  learn- 
ing, the  wealth  of  knowledge,  the  varietv  of  illustration, 
v.— Y 


the  fervent  and  lofty  morality,  which  give  grace,  and 
dignity,  and  grandeur  to  the  whole  and  to  all  its  parts. 
Jididi  qua  potui,  non  ut  voliii,  sed  ut  me  spafii  avgusti<e 
co'erjerunt.  FuUer  information  must  be  sought  from  his 
own  extensive  works,  and  from  the  elucidations  afforded 
by  the  numerous  commentators  on  them.  . 

Literature. — Leibnitii  Opera  (ed.  Dutens,  Gen.  17C8, 
6  vols.  4to).  A  complete  edition  of  all  his  works  is  that 
by  Pertz  (Hamburg,  1845-47, 1st  series ;  1847, 2d  series ; 
1853-62,  3d  series).  The  latest  is  by  Onno  Klopp,  1st 
series,  1864-GG  (5  vols.  8vo).  Other  editions  are :  O'lu- 
vres  (ed.  Foucher  de  Careil,  Paris,  1854  sq.,  20  vols.) ; 
Deutsche  /ScA ?//?<=«  (ed.  Guhrauer,  Berlin,  1838);  Opera 
P/iUosopkica  (ed.  Erdmann,  Berl.  1839-40) ;  Opera  Math- 
etnatica  (ed.  Gerhardt,  Berlin,  1849-50) ;  OLuvres  (ed. 
Jacques,  Par.  1842. 2  vols.  12mo) ;  CEitrres philosophiqves 
(ed.  Janet,  Par.  1866,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Raspe,  (Euvres  Phil- 
osophiqnes  de  feu  M.  Leibniz  (Amsterd.  et  Leips.  1765, 
4to)  ;  Feder,  Lettres  Choisies  de  la  Correspondance  de  M, 
Leibniz  (Hanover,  1805) ;  "Lnhmtz,  Memoir  recommend- 
ing the  Conquest  of  Egypt  to  Louis  XIV,  etc.  (London, 
1801);  Eccard,  Lf6««  f/esZfzJwzVz  (Berl.  1740);  Jancourt, 
Vie  de  Leibniz  (Amsterdam,  1756)  ;  Guhrauer,  Leben  des 
Leibnitz  (Bresl.  1842 ;  enlarged  1846) ;  Yogel,  Leben  des 
Leibnitz  (Leipsic,  1846) ;  Mackie,  Z/»/e  of  Leibnitz  (Bos- 
ton, 1845).  Leibnitz  transmitted  an  Autobiography  to 
his  friend  Pelisson,  but  it  has  never  seen  the  light.  See 
also  Fontenelle,  Eloge  de  I^eibniz  (Paris,  1716) ;  Bailly, 
Eloge  de  Leibniz  (Paris,  1769);  Kiistner,  Lobsch?-ift  avf 
Leibnitz  (Altenb.  1769);  V{a.nscivLS,G.G.  Leibnitii  Pi-in- 
cipia  Philosophice  more  Geometrico  demonstrata  (1728, 
4to)  ;  Ludovici,  Principia  Leibnitiana  (Lips.  1737,  2  vols. 
8vo) ;  Bayle,  Hist.  Crit.  Diet.,  may  be  consulted,  especial- 
ly under  the  title  Rorarius;  EmeTy,  Esprit  de  Leilmiz, 
etc.  (Lj-ons,  1772,  2  vols.  8vo  ;  reprinted,  Paris,  1803)  ; 
Emery,  Exposition  de  la  Doctrine  de  Leilniz  sur  la  B(- 
ligion  (Paris,  1819,  8vo) ;  Brucker,  Hist.  Crit,  Philosophic 
(Lips.  1767 ;  stiU  an  indispensable  authority  for  Leib- 
nitz) ;  Dugald  Stewart,  Supjjl.  Encyclop.  Britannica  ;  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  ibid. ;  Morell,  Hist.  Phil.  XlXth  Cen- 
tury (New  York,  1848,  8vo) ;  Lewes,  Hist,  of  Philosophy 
(new  edition,  2  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii;  and  the  other  histo- 
rians of  modern  philosophy ;  Biographie  Universclle,  s. 
V.  Leibniz,  by  Biot,  Duvau,  Maine  de  Biran,  and  Stapfer ; 
ScheUing, /.Mfrmfe  als  Denl-er ;  Helferich,  Spinoza  und 
Leibnitz;  TAravaeTma.nn,  Leibnitz  und  Herhart  (Wien, 
1849)  ;  Feucrbach,  Darstelluitg,  Entu-ickelung  und.  Kritik 
der  Leibnitzschen  Philosophie  (Anspach,  1837) ;  Leckej', 
Hist,  of  Morals,  i,  25 ;  Baumgarten-Crusius,  Dogmen- 
gesch. ,-  Hunt,  Pantheism,  p.  247  ;  Gass,  Dogmengesch.  vol. 
ii  andiii;  l\\iXiX, Hist,  of  Rationalism, ]i.&,\0^;  Saintes, 
Rationcdism,  p.  56;  Farrar,  Crit.  Hist,  of  Eree  Thought, 
p.  56  sq. ;  Dorner,  Gesch.  d.jn'Otest.  Theol.  p.  684  sq. ;  Jour- 
nal of  Spec.  Philos.  vol.  i.  No.  3,  art.  i ;  vol.  iii.  No.  1,  art. 
v;  Revue  Chret.  1868,  p.  9;  Brewster,  Life  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton;  Ediiib.  Rev.  ISiG  (July);  Atlantic  Monthly, lib^ 
(June)  ;  Christian  Examiner,  xxviii,  418  sq. ;  Contemp. 
Review;  May,  i867,  art.  iii ;  Mtth.  Qu.  Rev.  1851  ( April\ 
p.  189,  211;"  1862  (April),  p.  335;  Revve  des  d.  Moiides, 
1861  { Jan. ).  p.  15 ;  also  (Sept.),  p.  81.     (G.  F.  H.) 

Leidradt,  a  noted  Roman  Catholic  prelate,  proba- 
bly a  Bavarian,  flourished  in  the  8th  centurj'.  He  was 
librarian  to  Charlemagne  until  798,  when  he  was  made 
archbishop  of  Lyons.  He  was  sent  soon  after  by  Char- 
lemagne, together  with  the  bishop  of  Orleans  and  other 
prelates,  into  the  southern  provinces  of  France,  to  sup- 
press by  moral  means  the  spreading  heresy  of  Adop- 
tianism,  and  they  succeeded  in  bringing  the  chief  teach- 
er of  this  doctrine,  Felix,  to  acknowledge  his  error  before 
the  council  held  at  Aix  in  799.  In  800  Leidradt  was 
successfid  Avith  his  co-laborers  in  restoring  20,000  Adop- 
tianists.  The  zeal  which  he  everywhere  displayed  ap- 
pears in  a  letter  written  to  Charlemagne  not  long  before 
the  latter's  death.  He  writes:  "I  have  done  my  best 
to  increase  as  far  as  necessary  the  number  of  priests.  I 
have  established  the  Psalm  service  after  the  model  of 
that  observed  in  your  palace,  and  have  erected  singing- 


LEIFCHILD 


338 


LEIGHLIN 


schools  by  which  the  instruction  may  be  continued.  1 
have  reading-schools  ^^•llere  not  only  the  appointed 
services  are  repeated,  but  where  the  holy  Scriiititres  in 
general  are  studied  and  explained,  and  in  which  are 
those  who  understand  the  spiritual  meaning  not  only  of 
the  Gospels,  but  also  of  the  prophets,  the  books  of  Sam- 
uel, the  Psalms,  and  Job.  I  have  had  as  many  books 
as  possible  transcribed  for  the  churches  in  Lyons,  pro- 
cured vestments  and  other  necessary  ai)pointments  for 
divine  service,  and  have  repaired  the  churches."  After 
Charlemagne's  death,  in  the  subscrijition  to  whose  will 
the  name  of  Leidradt  appears,  he  resigned  the  bishopric 
and  retired  to  the  convent  of  the  Holy  Medardus,  where 
he  died.  Neither  the  year  of  his  death  nor  of  his  birth 
are  knowTi,  He  ^vrote  in  a  clear  and  concise  style  some 
works  which  have  since  been  edited.  Of  special  value 
is  a  treatise  of  his  on  baptism,  which  was  published  by 
Mabillon  (.-1  nnaks,  vol.  ii).  See  Herzog,  Real-EncyUop, 
art.  Baluze ;  Wetzer  u.  Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  vol.  vi,  s.  v. 
Leifchild,  Johx,  D.D.,  an  eminent  English  Inde- 
pendent minister,  was  born  in  1780  of  jMethodist  parent- 
age, and  was  brought  up,  and  began  to  preach  among 
the  ]\Iethodists ;  but  afterwards  embracing  Calvinistic 
opinions,  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  continue  preach- 
ing among  them,  and  he  was  advised  bj'  Mr.  Bunting, 
then  the  junior  preacher  in  the  circuit,  to  seek  other 
associations.  Accordingly,  in  1804,  he  entered  Hoxton 
Academy,  but  he  retained  tlirough  life  a  friendly  feel- 
ing for  the  friends  of  his  youth,  and  profited  largely  by 
what  he  learned  among  them.  He  died  in  June,  1862. 
Without  possessing  any  very  extraordinary  natural  en- 
dowments, he  attained  bj'  faithful,  earnest,  and  diligent 
labor  a  most  successful  and  honorable  career,  and  his 
life  is  a  noble  example  of  what  may  be  eifected  by  the 
right  cultivation  of  the  powers  a  man  possesses  within 
himself.  Irreproachable  in  character,  faithful  in  pas- 
toral attentions,  powerful  in  the  pulpit,  he  filled  every 
chapel  he  occupied,  built  up  every  Church  he  was  the 
pastor  of,  and,  when  enfeebled  by  age,  retired  from  his 
work  laden  with  honors,  and  not  without  very  substan- 
tial tokens  of  the  love  and  gratitude  of  those  Avhom  he 
had  served  in  the  Gospel.  One  of  the  deacons  of  Cra- 
ven Chapel  states  that,  during  tlie  twenty-tliree  years 
of  his  ministry  there,  more  than  fifteen  hundred  persons 
had  been  brought  to  decision  and  added  to  the  Church 
through  his  faithful  ministry.  Tlie  catholic  spirit  of 
Dr.  Leifchild  was  almost  as  prominent  a  feature  in  liis 
character  as  his  intense  and  pervading  earnestness.  He 
was  well  known  and  well  liked  by  Christians  of  various 
denominations,  witli  whom  he  mingled  freely,  and  whom 
he  loved  for  the  truth's  sake.  See  J.  R.  Leifchild,  John 
Leifchild,  his  J)  ubllc  Labors,  private  Usefulness,  and  per- 
sonal Characteristics  (Loud.  1860)  ;  Grant,  Metropolitan 
Pulpit  (1839),  ii,  152;  Pen  Pictures  of  Popular  EnglUh 
Preachers  (1852),  p.  130:  AMione,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  mer.  A  ulhors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leigh,  Edward,  a  learned  English -layman,  was 
born  in  1()(»2,  and  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College. 
Oxford,  lie  was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament,  but 
was  expelled  on  account  of  his  intercession  in  behalf  of 
the  life  of  king  Charles.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  of  Divines,  and  held  the  oflSce  of  parliamenta- 
ry general.  He  died  in  1071.  Edward  Leigh  wote 
largely.  Of  his  Greek  works,  one  of  the  best  is  Critica 
Sacra  (1630,  4to,  and  often  ;  best  ed.  1662,  folio),  which 
not  only  gives  tlu;  literal  sense  of  every  word  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  but  enriches  the  definitions  with 
philological  and  ihcdogical  notes.  It  was  held  in  high 
esteem  unlil  supplanted  by  the  more  fundamental  worlds 
of  later  Hebrew  lexicographers.  He  also  wrote  Anno- 
tations on  the  Xew  Testament,  which  are  short  and  judi- 
cious, and  other  theological  works  of  considerable  value. 
See  Allibone,  iJict.  of  Brit,  anrl  A  m.  A  uthoivt,  ii,  1079. 

Leigh,  Sir  Egerton,  an  English  nobleman,  who 
flourished  towards  tlio  close  of  the  last  century,  is  noted 
for  his  piety  and  charitable  acts.    He  was  a  member  of 


the  "  London  Missionary  Society"  from  its  very  infancy 
(1795),  as  he  was,  indeed,  the  friend  of  every  cause  con- 
necteil  with  the  glory  of  God  and  the  good  of  soids. 
"He  devoted,"  says  Morison  {Fathers  and  Founders  of 
the  Loudon  Miss.  Hoc.  p.  554),  "  much  of  his  time,  ]jrop- 
erty,  and  influence  to  the  spread  of  evangelical  religion 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  was  so  zealous  in  the 
cause  of  his  divine  Master  as  occasionally  to  merge  the 
baronet  in  the  humble  preacher  of  the  cross  of  Christ." 

Leigh,  Hezekiah  G.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  minister 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South,  was  born  in 
Perquimas  County,  N.  C,  Nov.  23, 1795,  was  converted 
in  1817,  joined  the  Virginia  Conference  in  1818,  was  set 
off  with  the  N.  C.  Conference  in  1836,  was  a  delegate  to 
every  (ieneral  Conference  from  1824  to  his  death,  and 
died  in  Mecklenburg  Co.,  Ya.,  Sept.  18, 1853.  He  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Louisville  Convention  at  the  or- 
ganization of  the  M.  E.  Church  South,  and  as  one  of  the 
founders  and  first  agents  of  Randolph  Slacon  College, 
and  one  of  the  organizing  committee  of  Greensboro'  Fe- 
male College,  N.  C,  he  rendered  long  and  very  important 
service  to  the  cause  of  education  in  the  Church.  He  re- 
ceived a  good  academical  education  while  young,  and 
throughout  his  life  was  a  diligent  general  student.  Most 
of  his  ministry  was  spent  in  the  office  of  presiding  elder 
in  Virginia  and  N.  Carolina.  His  character  was  noble 
and  attractive,  and  his  mind  fuU  of  lofty  ardor  for  the 
welfare  of  Christianitj'.  His  influence  was  wide  and 
controlling  for  many  years.  He  was  an  earnest  and  use- 
ful minister  of  the  Gospel,  and  will  long  be  remembered 
in  the  Carolinas. — Summers's  Biograp)h.  Sketches,  p.  165. 
(G.L.T.) 

Leighlin,  Synod  of,  was  held  in  Campo-Lene, 
Ireland,  near  Old  Leighlin,  A.D.  633,  with  the  purpose 
of  settling  the  time  as  to  the  observance  of  Easter.  A 
few  years  before  (630),  Honorius  I  had  addressed  an  ex- 
postulatory  letter  to  the  Irish  olergy  on  the  paschal 
question  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  this  was  the 
first  notice  taken  by  the  bishops  of  Rome  in  regard  to 
the  Church  founded  by  St.  Patrick,  and  was  about  200 
years  after  its  commencement.  At  this  period  the  Irish 
were  divided  on  the  time  of  keeping  Easter,  some  advo- 
cating the  Roman  practice,  others  the  Irish  way  of  ob- 
serving the  14th  day  of  the  first  vernal  month  (if  a  Sun- 
day), instead  of  adopting  its  celebration  on  the  Sunday 
following  the  14th,  and  the  matter  even  resulted  in  a 
controversy.  Laurentius  of  Canterbiu-y  relates  that  Du- 
gan,  an  Irish  bishop,  when  in  North  Britain,  declared 
that  he  woidd  neither  eat,  drink,  or  slec]i  under  the 
same  roof  with  those  Avho  held  to  the  Roman  practice. 
Cummian,  who  for  twelve  years  had  been  an  abbot  of 
lona,  was  greatly  troubled  about  it.  and  in  its  investiga- 
tion he  said,  "  I  turned  over  the  holy  Scriptures,  studied 
history  and  aU  the  cycles  I  could  find.  I  inquired  dili- 
gently what  were  the  sentiments  of  the  Hebrews,  Gre- 
cians, Latins,  and  the  Egyptians  concerning  this  solem- 
nity." A  deputation  was  sent  from  this  synod,  of  which 
most  probably  Cummijin  was  one,  to  ascertain  from  per- 
sonal inspection  whether,  as  they  had  heartl  in  Ireland, 
other  nations  kept  Easter  at  the  same  time  that  the 
Romans  did.  The  object  of  this  deputation  has  been 
greatly  perverted  in  the  interest  of  Romanism.  It  was 
not  to  get  a  decision  from  the  pope,  for  this  they  had 
had  for  years,  and  had  not  obeyed  it;  but  it  was,  as  be- 
fore stated,  simply  to  determine  for  tliemsclves.  They 
remained  at  Rome  or  in  the  East  about  two  years.  On 
their  return  they  reported  that  all  they  had  heard  in 
Ireland  they  had  seen  in  Rome — even  more  (ralde  certi- 
ora)  than  tliey  had  heard.  But  even  this  report  was 
not  decisive,  for  the  \"encrable  Bede  says,  "  Though  the 
south  of  Ireland  partially  conformed,  the  northern  prov- 
inces and  all  loiia  adiicred  to  their  former  practice." 
This  and  other  questions  of  nonconformity  were  for  a 
long  time  jiressed  and  resisted.  In  A.D.  664.  when  The- 
odore, the  Italian  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  by  order  of 
the  pope,  came  to  establish  the  entire  regime  of  Roman 


LEIGHTOX 


339 


LEIPSIC 


Catholicism  in  North  Britain,  the  paschal  and  many 
other  questions  were  again  so  fiercely  lu'ged  that  Col- 
man  and  most  of  the  former  clergy  left  and  returned 
to  Ireland.  Agam,  in  1070,  when  Malcolm  Canmore 
brought  Margaret,  his  Saxon  wife,  to  Scotland,  she  was 
shocked  to  find  the  faith  and  public  worship  of  her  new 
subjects  so  different  from  the  Catholic  Church  of  Eng- 
land. After  laboring  long  to  induce  her  husband  to 
ado[>t  the  rites  and  order  of  the  Saxon  Catholics,  she 
had  a  three  days'  discussion  with  the  existing  clergy 
and  the  Culdees  of  lona,  she  speaking  in  Saxon  and  her 
husband  interpreting  in  Irish.  See  Todd,  Irish  Church, 
chaii.  vi;  Usher,  Brit.  Eccles.  Antiq.  cap.  xvii  {Worlcs, 
vi,  492-510), 

Leighton,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  divine,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  luG<S.  He  was  professor  of  moral  phi- 
losophy in  that  city  for  several  years  prior  to  1613,  when 
he  removed  to  London,  and  obtauied  a  lectureship.  For 
libellous  or  offensive  expressions  against  the  king,  queen, 
and  the  bishops,  in  his  book  called  Zion^s  Plea  (1G29), 
he  \\as  piuiished  by  the  Star  Chamber  with  mutilation, 
the  pillory,  and  long  imprisonment.  He  was  released 
in  1040,  and  died  about  1()4G.  Archbishop  Laud  was 
no  doubt  responsible  for  the  cruel  and  inhuman  treat- 
ment of  Leighton.     See  Laud. 

Leighton,  Robert,  a  Scottish  prelate,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  preachers  and  theologians  of  the  17th 
centiny,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  or,  as  others  think,  in 
London,  in  the  year  1611.  He  was  educated  at  the  uni- 
versity of  the  former  city,  and  there  took  his  degree  of 
M.A.  in  1631,  when  he  went  to  the  Continent  to  study, 
especially  in  France.  Here  he  resided  with  some  rela- 
tives at  Douay,  and  formed  the  acquaintance  of  several 
Roman  Catholic  students,  whose  Christian  virtues  made 
him  a  charitable  Christian  towards  all  who  bore  the 
name  of  his  Master.  "  Gentle,  tender,  and  pious  from 
his  earliest  years,  he  shrunk  from  all  violence  and  intol- 
erance; but  his  intercourse  with  men  whose  opinions 
were  so  different  from  his  own  convinced  his  reason  of 
the  folly  and  sinfulness  of  '  thinking  too  rigidly  of  doc- 
trine.'" He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1641,  and  was  im- 
mediately appointed  to  the  parish  of  Ncwbattle,  near 
Edinburgh;  but  as  Leighton  identified  himself  with  the 
cause  of  Charles  I  when  the  latter  was  confined,  by  the 
commissioners  of  the  Parliament,  in  Holmby  House,  he 
brought  upon  his  head  the  displeasure  of  the  Presbyte- 
rians, and,  according  to  bishop  Piiirnet,  "  he  soon  came 
to  dislike  their  Covenant,  particularly  their  imposing  it, 
and  their  fury  against  all  who  differed  from  them.  He 
found  they  were  not  capable  of  large  thoughts;  theirs 
were  narrow  as  their  tempers  were  sour;  so  he  grew 
weary  of  mixing  Avith  them,"  and  became  an  Episco- 
palian. For  this  change,  however,  there  were  serious 
obstacles  in  Leighton's  case,  and  it  has  therefore  been  a 
matter  of  general  disapprobation.  Certainly  the  facility 
with  which  he  fraternized  with  the  party  that  had  in- 
flicted such  horrid  cruelties  on  his  excellent  father.  Dr. 
Alexander  Leighton,  in  1630,  for  merely  publishing  a 
boolc  in  favor  of  Presbyterianism,  cannot  be  altogether 
approved  (com-p.  Proceedi7if/s  of  the  Societij  of  Antiqua- 
ries o_f  Scotland,  iv,  463  sq.).  In  1652  he  resigned  his 
charge,  and  in  the  following  year  was  elected  principal 
of  the  ITniversitj'  of  Edinburgh,  a  dignity  which  he  re- 
tained for  ten  years.  Earnest,  spiritual,  and  utterl}-  free 
from  all  selfish  ambition,  he  labored  without  ceasing  for 
the  welfare  of  the  students.  He  delivered  lectures  es- 
pecially to  the  students  of  theologj',  and  occasionally 
supplied  the  place  of  divinity  professor.  His  theolog- 
ical lectures  are  known  to  the  learned  world,  and  have 
been  translated  into  English.  For  pure  Latin,  sublime 
thought,  and  warm  diction,  they  have  never  been  sur- 
passed, and  seldom  equalled.  In  that  office  Dr.  Leigh- 
ton was  truly  the  ornament  and  delight  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  a  blessing  to  studious  youth.  After  the  resto- 
ration of  Charles  II  and  the  re -establishment  of  the 
episcopacy  in  Scotland,  Leighton,  after  much  reluctance. 


accepted  the  bishopric  of  Dunblane,  a  small  and  poor 
diocese,  and  was  consecrated  at  Westminster  Dec.  15, 
1661.  Unfortunately  for  his  peace,  the  men  with  whom 
he  was  now  allied  were  even  more  intolerant  and  un- 
scrupulous than  the  Presbyterians.  The  despotic  meas- 
ures of  Sharpe  and  Lauderdale  sickened  him.  Twice  he 
proceeded  to  London  (in  1665  and  1669)  to  implore  the 
king  to  adoj)t  a  milder  course — on  the  former  of  these 
occasions  declaring  "that  he  could  not  concur  in  the 
planting  of  the  Christian  religion  in  such  a  manner,  much 
less  as  a  form  of  government."  Nothing  was  reaUy 
done,  though  much  was  promised,  and  Leighton  had  to 
endure  the  misery  of  seeing  an  ecclesiastical  system 
which  he  believed  to  be  intrinsically  the  best,  perverted 
to  the  worst  of  purposes,  and  himself  the  accomplice  of 
the  worst  of  men.  In  1670,  on  the  resignation  of  Dr. 
Alexander  I5urnet,  he  was  made,  quite  agabist  his  per- 
sonal wishes,  archbishop  of  Glasgow,  and  he  finally  ac- 
cepted this  great  distinction  only  on  the  condition  that 
he  should  be  assisted  in  his  attempts  to  carry  out  a  lib- 
eral measure  for  "  the  comprehension  of  the  Presbyteri- 
ans." But  finding,  after  a  time,  that  his  efforts  to  unite 
the  different  parties  were  all  in  vain,  and  that  he  could 
not  stay  the  high-handed  tyranny  of  his  colleagues,  he 
finally  determined  to  resign  the  ecclesiastical  dignity  (in 
1673).  After  a  short  residence  in  Edinburgh,  he  went 
to  live  with  his  sister  at  Broadhurst,  in  Sussex,  where 
he  spent  the  rest  of  bis  days  in  a  retired  manner,  devoted 
chiefly  to  works  of  religion.  He  died  at  London  June 
25, 1684.  Leighton  published  nothing  during  his  life- 
time. His  great  worlv  is  his  P7-actical  Commentary  iipon 
the  First  General  Epistle  of  St.  Peter  ;  not  a  learned  ex- 
position by  any  means,  for  the  writer  hardly  notices 
questions  of  philology  at  all,  but  perhaps  no  more  re- 
markable instance  is  extant  of  the  power  which  sympa- 
thy with  the  writer  gives  in  enabling  an  expositor  to 
bring  out  and  elucidate  his  meaning.  Another  able 
work  of  his  is  Pr(dectiones  Theologice.,  of  which  an  edi- 
tion was  published  a  few  years  ago  by  the  late  profess- 
or Scholetield  of  Cambridge;  also  some  sermons  and 
charges.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  work  in  4  vols.  8vo, 
Lond.  1819 ;  but  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Pearson  (Lond. 
1828 ;  N.  Y.  1859,  8vo).  Another  good  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1871,  in  6  vols.  8vo.  All  of  Leighton's  writ- 
ings have  received  the  highest  commendations  liecause 
of  the  lofty  and  evangelical  spirit  that  pervades  them. 
They  present  the  truths  of  Christianity  in  the  spirit  of 
Plato,  and  it  was  this  that  recommended  them  so  much 
to  Coleridge,  whose  Aids  to  Reflection  are  simply  com- 
mentaries on  the  teachings  of  archbishop  Leighton. 
'•  Few  uninspired  writings,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  ''  are 
better  adapted  to  mend  the  world :  they  continually 
overflow  with  love  to  God  and  man."  See  Hethering- 
ton,  Ch.  of  Scotland,  ii,  22  sq.,  70  sq. ;  Burnet's  History 
of  his  Own  Times;  Burnet's  Pastoral  Care ;  Doddridge's 
Preface  to  Leie/htoiis  Works  ;  The  Remains  of  A  rchbish- 
op  Leighton,  by  Jerraent  (1808);  his  Select  Works,  by 
Cheever  (Boston,  1832);  Vearson,  Life  of  Rohert  Leighton 
(1832)  ;  Kitto,  Cycl.  Bihl.  Liter,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Chambers, 
Cyclop,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  I^iog.  Diet,  of  Eminent 
Scotsmen,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Lict.  Brit,  and  A  mer.  A  uthois, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Leipsic,  Colloquy  of,  in  1631.  The  disputes 
which  occurred  in  the  16th  century,  when  the  two  evan- 
gelical churches  framed  their  confession  of  faith,  had 
produced  great  bitterness  between  the  Lutherans  and 
Calvinists.  Attempts  at  reconciliation  had  already  been 
made  by  pious  individuals  in  the  16th  century,  and  stiU 
others  in  the  17th,  as,  for  instance,  by  the  indefatigable 
Scotchman  Dur»us,  and  by  Rupcrtus  Jleldenius,  but 
with  little  success.  It  was  the  trial  which  the  evan- 
gelical churches  of  Germany  underwent  during  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  that  really  first  made  the  two  sister 
communions  forsake  their  former  hostility.  They  saw 
that  they  were  both  standing  on  the  brink  of  a  preci- 
pice, and  the  ties  which  bound  them  to  each  other  were 
strengthened.     Both  the  authorities   and  the   people 


LEIPSIC 


340 


LEITOMYSL 


now  used  their  utmost  eiforts  to  secure,  if  not  unity, 
yet  at  least  peace  and  liarmony  between  tlie  two 
cluirches.  In  tlie  early  part  of  1G31,  after  Gustavus 
Ailoljdius,  the  champion  of  evangelical  liberty,  had  al- 
ready come  to  Germany,  the  landgrave  William  of 
Hesse  and  the  elector  Christian  William  of  Brandenburg 
joined  the  elector  George  of  Saxony  at  Leipsic,  and  they 
resolved  to  oppose,  by  main  force  if  necessary,  the  car- 
rying out  of  the  Edict  of  Restitution.  The  landgrave 
AVilliam  had  brought  with  him  the  professor  of  theology 
Crocius  and  the  court  preacher  Theophilus  Neuberger ; 
the  elector  Christian  William  was  accompanied  by  the 
court  preacher  John  Bergius.  The  theologians  of  Hesse 
and  Brandenburg  invited  those  of  Leipsic  to  a  confer- 
ence in  order  to  attempt  a  reconciliation  between  the 
evangelical  churches,  or,  at  least,  to  promote  a  better 
understanding  between  them.  It  was  intended  that  this 
conference  should  be  of  a  private  character,  yet  with 
the  hope  that  the  other  parts  of  Germany  would  follow 
the  example.  The  Reformed  party  demanded  only  that 
the  court  preacher  Matthias  Hoe,  of  Hohenegg,  should 
iu  the  discussions  abstain  from  the  vehemence  which 
distinguished  his  writings,  and  the  theologians  of  Leip- 
sic failed  not  to  grant  this  request,  with  the  assurance 
that  Hoe  was  very  gentle  in  convcrsatiuite.  The  elector 
George  having  sanctioned  the  plan  of  a  private  confer- 
ence, the  meetings  commenced,  March  3,  at  the  resi- 
dence of  the  upper  court  preacher,  and  under  his  presi- 
dency. They  were  held  daily,  and  continued  until 
IMarch  23.  On  motion  of  the  Reformed  party  the  Con- 
fession of  Augsburg  was  taken  as  a  basis,  they  announ- 
cing their  willingness  to  sign  it,  such  as  it  then  was  in 
the  Saxon  form  (published  by  order  of  the  elector  George, 
in  1G28).  They  also  thought  that  the  princes  of  their 
different  provinces  were  ready  to  do  the  same,  without, 
however,  undertaking  to  vouch  for  it.  They  stated 
furthermore  that  they  would  neither  reject  the  altered 
edition  of  the  Colloquy  of  ^^'orms  (in  1540)  nor  that  of 
Regensburg  (in  1541) ;  they  referred  to  the  position 
taken  at  the  convention  of  Naumburger  in  1561,  and  by 
the  Saxons  in  the  preface  to  the  Book  of  Concord.  The 
Confession  of  Augsburg  being  thus  adopted  as  a  whole, 
every  article  was  taken  up  separately  and  exammed. 
They  thus  found  that  both  parties  fully  coincided  in  the 
articles  v-vii  and  xii-xxviii,  while  their  differences  on 
tlie  articles  i  and  ii  were  comparatively  unimportant. 
■\Vitli  regard  to  the  iiid  article,  they  all  agreed  as  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  words,  but  the  Saxon  theologians 
maintained  that  not  only  the  divine,  but  also  the  human 
nature  of  Christ  possessed  omniscience,  omnipotence, 
etc.,  by  virtue  of  the  union  of  the  two  natures  in  his 
personality,  and  that  all  the  ji;lory  which  Christ  re- 
ceived was  only  received  by  his  human  nature.  The 
Reformed  theologians,  on  the  contrary,  denied  that 
Christ,  as  man,  was  omnipresent,  or  that  in  him  the 
human  nature  had  become  omniscient  and  omnipotent. 
They  agreed  also  in  the  ivth  article,  and  tlie  Reformed 
theologians  affirmed  that  they  did  not  believe  Christ 
had  come  to  save  all  men.  Tliey  also  agreed  in  the 
ixth  article,  to  which  they  made  some  addition  on  the 
necessity  of  baptism,  and  on  infant  baptism.  The  xth 
article,  concerning  the  Eucharist,  came  up  on  jMarch  7. 
Here  they  could  not  agree,  tlie  Reformed  theologians 
denying  the  physical  participation  in  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  and  asserting  a  sjiiritual  participation 
through  faith  ;  of  unworthy  communicants,  they  assert- 
ed that  these  partook  only  of  simple  bread  and  wine. 
The  Reformed  theologians,  however,  maintained  that  if 
it;  Avas  impossible  to  agree  on  tins  point,  it  was  at  least 
possible  for  the  two  parties  to  bear  charitably  with  each 
other,  and  to  unite  in  opposing  Romanism.  The  Sax- 
ons, wlio  did  not  wish  to  bind  themselves  by  any  prom- 
ises in  a  private  conference,  said  that  t,his  proposition 
would  have  to  be  further  considtired  in  the  fear  of  the 
Lord.  After  all  the  remaining  articles  had  been  agreed 
to,  they  came  to  the  question  of  election,  although  this 
doctrine  is  not  expressly  presented  in  the  Confession  of 


Augsburg.  Both  Lutherans  and  Reformed  agreed  in 
the  doctrine  that  only  a  part  of  mankind  will  be  saved, 
the  lieformed  theologians  basing  election  on  the  abso- 
lute will  of  God,  and  reprobation  on  the  unbelief  of 
man.  The  Lutherans,  on  the  other  hand,  considered 
election  as  the  result  of  God's  prescience  of  the  faith  of 
the  elect.  The  fact  that  the  theologians  of  the  contend- 
ing churches  had  been  brought  to  meet  together  peace- 
ably, and  to  explain  to  each  other  their  respective  doc- 
trines, was  not  without  a  great  influence  for  good,  al- 
though the  greater  hopes  for  the  future  to  which  it  gave 
rise  were  not  destined  to  be  fulfilled.  As  the  colloquy 
was  a  private  conference,  it  was  thought  best  nt)t  to 
give  its  proceedings  an  undue  publicity,  and  only  four 
copies  of  its  protocols  were  published,  and  delivered  one 
to  each  of  the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg,  fine 
to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  and  one  to  the  theological 
faculty  of  Leipsic.  A  full  account,  however,  was  subse- 
quently published  in  England,  France,  Switzerland,  Hol- 
land, and  Sweden,  The  suspicions  of  both  parties  made 
any  decided  advance  impossible,  and  resulted  finally  in 
greater  estrangement  of  both,  and  in  renewed  attacks 
by  the  able  Lutheran  polemic  Hoe  (q.  v.),  of  which  a 
new  and  le;igthy  controversy  was  the  result.  See  C. 
W.  Hering,  Gesch.  d.  Kirchlichen  Unionsversuche,  etc. 
(Lpz.  1836),  i,  327  sq. ;  Alex.  Schweizer,  B.  jirotesfan- 
tischen  Centraldogmen,  part  ii,  p.  525;  Kurtzer  Discurs 
von  d.  z.  Leipzic  1631  mense  Blartio  angestellten  Relig- 
ionsvergleychung,  etc.  (Berlin,  1635) ;  Niemeyer,  Cullec- 
tio  confessiomim  in  ecclesiis  reformaiis  jmhlicaiurum 
(Lpz.  1840),  p.  653  sq.;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist,  book  iv, 
cent,  xvii,  sect,  ii,  pt.  ii,  ch,  i,  §  4 ;  Herzog,  Real-Ency- 
klojmdie,  viii,  286. 

Leipsic,   Discussion  of.      See   Ecic;    Carl- 

STADT,  etc. 

Leipsic,  Interim  of.     See  Interim  (III). 

Leitch,  William,  D.D.,  a  Scotch  divine,  was  born 
in  1814  in  the  town  of  Rothesay,  a  famous  ^vatering- 
place  on  the  island  of  Bute,  Scotland,  and  Avas  educated 
at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  which  he  entered  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  and  graduated  as  master  in  1836  with  the 
highest  honors  in  the  departments  of  mathematical  and 
physical  science.  While  a  student  he  also  lectured  in  the 
university  on  astronomy,  and  as  a  result  of  his  studies  in 
this  department  we  have  from  him  a  work  entitled  Cod^s 
Glorij  in  the  Heavens ;  o?;  Contributions  to  A  stro-t/ieoloffi/, 
which  contains  the  most  recent  astronomical  discoveries 
stated  Avith  special  reference  to  theological  questions. 
In  1838  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel  in 
the  Church  of  Scotland  by  the  Presbj'tery  of  Dunoon. 
In  1843  he  received  a  presentation  to  the  parish  of  !Mon- 
imail.  lie  continued  minister  of  this  parish  until  1859, 
when  he  was  selected  as  j^rincipal  of  Queen's  LTniversity. 
He  is  Avell  known  to  have  been  the  author  of  certain  ar- 
ticles in  which,  in  a  masterly  manner,  the  views  of  the 
late  Dr.  Wardlaw,  of  (Jlasgow,  on  the  subject  of  miracles, 
are  controverted.  For  several  years  he  conducted  a  se- 
ries of  investigations  on  the  subject  of  partheno-genesis 
and  alternate  generations,  as  illustrated  by  the  phenom- 
ena of  sexual  development  iu  hymenoptera.  The  result 
of  these  researches,  which  conflicts  with  that  of  tlie  Ger- 
man physiologist  Siebald  in  the  same  field,  is  given  in 
the  Transactions  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement  of  Science,  and  in  the  Annals  of  the  Botanical 
Societij  of  Canada.  Several  separate  publications  of 
his  also  appeared  on  the  subject  of  education.  In  1860 
he  became  principal  of  Queen's  University,  and  this 
connection  afforded  him  a  seat  in  the  Presbytery  of 
Kingston,  and,  in  consequence,  in  the  synod  also.  His 
position  also  gave  him  a  seat  in  the  senatus  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  and  he  was  appointed  an  examiner 
of  that  university.  -He  died  in  1862.  See  Appleton's 
Amer.  Ann.  Cyclop.  1864,  p.  625. 

Leitomysl  orLeitomischel,  John,  a  Bohemian 
]irchne  noted  for  liis  energetic  character  and  his  unre- 
lenting hostility  to  the  Hussites,  flourished  in  the  latter 


LEJAY 


341 


LELAND 


part  of  the  14th  and  the  early  years  of  the  1.5th  centiirj-. 
He  first  comes  under  our  notice  as  one  of  the  two  prel- 
ates— the  archbishop  of  Prague  being  the  other — before 
whom  John  Iluss  was  to  be  cited  for  heresy.  His  posi- 
tion and  influence  in  Bohemia  were  such  that  Stephen 
Paletz,  writing  against  Huss,  dedicated  to  him  liis  Dia- 
logue ]'okitUi.9.  As  the  troubles  at  Prague  increased,  he 
was  one  of  those  to  whom  the  archbishop  of  Prague  ap- 
plied for  advice,  and  his  response  was  in  accordance  with 
ills  notoriously  stern  and  unbending  character.  Wlien 
the  Council  of  Constance  met  in  1414,  he  was  present  as 
a  member,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  its  proceedings. 
He  was  the  first  to  denounce  the  Calixtine  practice, 
recently  introduced  by  Jacobel  at  Prague,  and  he  was 
commissioned  by  the  council  to  take  measures  for  its 
suppression.  His  enmity  to  Huss  -was  signalized  by  the 
language  used  by  him  in  the  council,  and  excited  the 
deep  indignation  of  the  friends  of  the  Keformer,  who  did 
not  hesitate  to  reprehend  his  course  publicly  in  severe 
terms.  His  persistent  energy,  however,  merited  the  eu- 
logiums  of  the  council,  and  by  them  he  was  appointed  to 
bear  their  threatening  letter  to  Bohemia,  in  which  they 
attemi>tod  to  terrify  the  followers  of  Huss  into  submis- 
sion. Tlie  mission,  however,  proved  a  failure.  The 
person  of  the  bishop  was  no  longer  safe  in  his  own  coun- 
trj',  and  he  returned  to  the  comicil.  The  first  reward 
of  his  diUgence  was  his  promotion,  about  A.D.  1416,  to 
the  bishopric  of  Olmutz,  in  Moravia.  On  the  secession 
of  Conrad,  archbishop  of  Prague,  to  the  Calixtines  a 
sliort  time  afterwanls,  he  was  promoted  to  the  vacant 
dignity.  This,  however,  he  was  not  destined  to  enjoy. 
The  ascendencj'  of  the  Calixtines  must  have  excluded 
him  from  Prague,  if  not  from  Bohemia ;  and  perhaps 
among  all  the  enemies  of  the  Hussites,  during  the  pe- 
riod of  their  religious  wars,  there  was  no  one  who  could 
have  been  sooner  made  the  victim  of  their  vengeance 
than  the  obnoxious  bishop.  But  as  no  mention  is  made 
of  him  at  a  subsequent  date,  and  as  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Hussite  leaders,  we 
may  presume  that  his  life  must  have  closed  soon  after 
the  dissolution  of  the  Council  of  Constance.  He  was 
eminently  a  martial  prelate,  and  was  known  by  the 
sobriquet  of  "John  the  Iron."  Notices  of  him  will  be 
found  in  many  histories  of  his  times.  See  Von  der  Hardt, 
A  uthoriiies  on  the  Council  of  Constance ;  Lenfant,  Coun- 
cil of  Constance ;  Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss, 
vols,  i  and  ii ;  F.  Polacky,  Maij.  J.  IIus  Documenta. — Ne- 
andcr,  Ch.  Illst.  v,  296  sq.     (E.  H.  G.) 

Lejay,  Gui-Michel,  a  noted  French  scholar  in  ex- 
egetical  theology,  was  born  at  Paris  in  l.'JSS.  While  at 
the  high  school  he  paid  particular  attention  to  the  East- 
ern languages,  and  in  1615  projected  a  polyglot  of  the 
Bible,  known  as  the  Paiis  Polyglot  (Paris,  1620-45,  10 
vols,  fdlii)),  and  entitled  Biblia  llebraica,  Samaritana, 
( 'halihilcd.  ilra'ca,  Syriaca,  Latina,  Arabica,  quibus  tex- 
tus  orifjiiKiks  totius  Scripturae  sacrce,  quarum  pars  in 
tditione  Complutensi,  deinde  in  A  ntwerpiensi  regiis  sump- 
tibus  extat,  nunc  integri  ex  manuscriptis  toto  fere  orbe 
qiicesitis  exeinplaribus  exhibentur.  The  first  four  vols, 
contain  the  Heb.,  Chald.,  Sept.,  and  Vulg.  texts  of  the 
O.  T. ;  vols.  V  and  vi  the  N.  T.  in  Gr.,  Syr.,  Arab.,  and 
Lat. ;  vol.  vii,  the  Heb.  Samar.  Pent.,  the  Sam.  version, 
with  translation  by  Morinus,  the  Arab,  and  Syr.  Pent. ; 
vols,  viii-x,  the  rest  of  the  books  of  the  O.  Test,  in  Syr. 
and  Arab.  Lejay  lost  largely  by  this  publication ;  but, 
as  a  reward  for  his  labor  and  cost,  he  was  ennobled. 
The  work  was  the  best  of  its  kind  till  the  London  Poly- 
glot appeared,  by  which  it  was  soon  superseded.  See 
Lolong,  IHscours  historique  sur  les  pi-ineipales  editions 
des  Bibles pohiglottes  (Paris,  1713,  12mo),  p.  104  sq.,  379, 
399  sij.,  545,  546  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxx, 
512  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lejbowicz.     See  Frank. 

Lejuive,  Paul,  a  French  Jesuit  missionary,  was 
horn  in  1592,  entered  the  Jesuitical  order,  and  labored  in 
Canada  for  seventeen  vears.     He  returned  to  France  in 


1  G.02,  and  died  Aug.  7. 1GG4.  He  published  a  descriptive 
work  on  Canada  and  its  native  tribes  (7  vols.,  1640). — 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  518. 

Leland,  Aaron,  a  Baptist  minister,  sixth  in  de- 
scent from  Henry  Leland,  the  Puritan  ancestor  of  all  the 
Lelands  in  America,  but  in  a  different  line  from  his  more 
noted  contemporary,  Kev.  John  Leland,  was  bom  in  Hol- 
liston,  Mass.,  Jlay  28, 1761.  Of  a  naturally  vigorous  and 
inquisitive  mind,  he  grew  up  with  a  larger  measure  of 
intelligence  than  his  limited  means  of  early  culture 
would  have  indicated  as  jirobable.  He  united  in  1785 
with  the  Baptist  Cliurch  in  BelUngham,  by  which 
Church  he  was  Ucensed  to  preach,  and  subsequently  or" 
dained.  He  soon  after  removed  to  Chester,  Vt.,  where 
he  gathered  a  small  Church,  which  in  thirteen  years 
had  become  five— in  Chester,  Andover,  Grafton,  Weth- 
ersfield,  and  Cavendish.  From  Chester  he  visited  Ja- 
maica, in  the  same  county,  guided  through  the  wilder- 
ness by  marked  trees :  these  visits  resulted  in  the  for- 
mation of  several  churches  in  that  vicinity.  He  was  ♦ 
not  only  an  active  and  successful  minister,  but  had  im- 
portant civil  trusts  committed  to  him  by  the  suffrages 
of  his  fellow-citizens.  He  sat  in  the  state  Legislature 
several  years;  three  years  he  was  speaker  of  the  House; 
four  years  a  member  of  the  council;  five  years  succes- 
sively lieutenant  governor;  and  nothing  Ijut  his  own 
conviction  of  its  incompatibilitj-  with  the  duties  of  his 
higher  calling  prevented  his  election  to  the  governor- 
ship of  the  state.  He  refused  to  permit  any  civil  en- 
gagements to  hinder  his  usefulness  and  success  as  a 
Christian  minister,  and  he  continued  to  fidfil  his  calUng 
with  great  energj',  zeal,  and  success,  until  worn  out  with 
toD.  He  died  August  25, 1833.  He  was  a  popular  and 
effective  preacher.  His  commanding  form  and  counte- 
nance; his  musical  and  sonorous  voice;  his  ready  and 
fervid,  often  impassioned  utterance;  his  vigorous  intel- 
lect and  great  tenderness  of  spirit,  gave  him  unusual 
power  over  congregations.  He  was  often  sought  as  an 
orator  on  public  occasions,  and  called  to  give  counsel  in 
ecclesiastical  questions.  His  zeal  was  enlisted  in  the 
temperance  cause,  insisting  on  total  abstinence  from  in- 
toxicating beverages,  and  in  promoting  ministerial  edu- 
cation and  all  liberal  culture.  He  was  in  the  board  of 
fellows  of  Middlebury  College  from  the  year  1800  till  his 
death.     (L.  E.  S.) 

Leland,  John  (1),  a  celebrated  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Wigan,  Lancashire,  Oct.  18,  1691,  and  was 
educated  at  the  University  in  Dublin.  In  1716  he  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  Church  in  Dublin.  He 
afterwards  distinguished  himself  in  a  series  of  works  in 
which  he  defended  with  great  eloquence  the  Christian 
religion  against  the  attacks  of  Atheists  and  Deists.  As 
an  acknowledgment  of  his  services,  the  University  of 
Aberdeen  gave  him  the  title  of  D.D.  He  died  Jan.  16, 
1766.  His  important  works  are.  Defence  of  Christianity 
(Dublin,  1733,  2  vols.  8vo,  and  often;  intended  as  an  an- 
swer to  Tindal's  Christianity  .as  old  as  the  Creation,  Dub- 
lin, 1773,  2  vols.  8vo) : — The  divine  Authority  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  asserted,  tcith  a  particular  Indication 
of  the  Characters  of  Moses  and  the  Prophets,  and  Jesus 
Christ  and  his  Apostles,  against  the  unjust  Aspeisions 
and  false  Reasoning  of  a  Book  entitled  "  The  Moral  Phi- 
losopher" (Lond.  1739,  8vo)  : — View  of  the  principal  De- 
istical  Writei-s  in  England  in  the  last  and  present  Century 
(ibid.  17.54,  2  vols.  8vo),  and  two  supplements.  A  new 
edition,  with  Appendix,  by  W.  L.  Brown,  D.D.,  was  pub- 
lished in  1798  (2  vols.  8vo).  The  best  edition  is  the 
fifth,  which  has  a  valuable  Introduction,  comprising  a 
succinct  view  of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  contro- 
versy, by  Cyrus  E.  Edmonds  (London,  1837,  8vo ).  He 
who  can  read  this  work  and  yet  remain  an  unbeliever 
in  Christianity  must  be  hopelessly  obtuse  or  perversely 
prejudiced : — Advantage  and  Necessity  of  Christian  Rev- 
elation (London,  1764,  2  vols.  4to).  After  his  death,  his 
Sermons  ^\•ere  published  in  4  volumes  8vo  by  Dr.  Isaac 
Weld,  with  the  Life  of  Dr.  Leland.     See  the  last  work, 


LELAND 


342 


LEMAISTRE  DE  SACI 


aiul  Brit  ink  Biog.  vol.  x ;  Alliboue,  Diet,  of  British  and 
A  iiiericdii  A  iitJiora,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leland,  John  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  distantly 
related  to  Aaron  Leland  (see  above),  was  born  in  Graf- 
ton, ]\Iassacluisetts,  May  14,  1754.  About  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  had  strong  and  painful  religious  impres- 
sions; he  emerged  into  light  and  peace  gradually,  and, 
after  the  lapse  of  several  months,  was  baptized  in 
June,  1774,  in  BeUinghara,  and  was  regularly  licensed 
by  the  Church,  lie  removed  in  177(3  to  Virginia, 
where  for  above  fourteen  years  he  exercised  an  itin- 
erant ministry,  preaching  over  all  the  eastern  section 
of  tlie  state,  sometimes  extending  his  tours  southward 
into  North  Carolina,  and  northward  as  far  as  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  ordained  in  Virginia,  somewhat  ir- 
regularly, in  1777,  and  again  ten  years  later,  with  more 
regard  to  form  and  customary  usage.  His  evangelical 
laliors  were  attended  with  large  success.  He  baptized 
seven  hundred  persons,  and  gathered  churches  at  Or- 
ange and  Louisa,  one  of  three  hundred  and  the  other 
of  two  hundred  members.  He  made  the  acquaintance 
of  'Sir.  jMadison,  with  whom  he  maintained  a  pleasant 
correspondence  for  many  years,  effectively  co-operating 
with  liim  to  secure  the  ratification  by  Virginia  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States.  In  1791  lie  return- 
ed to  New  England,  and  the  year  following  settled  in 
Cheshire,  Mass.,  where  he  resided  till  his  death.  Though 
acting  for  a  limited  period  as  pastor  of  the  Church  in 
Cheshire,  he  was  always  an  itinerant,  making  extensive 
tours  over  ^vestern  ISIassachusetts,  often  into  the  adja- 
cent parts  of  New  York,  and  into  more  distant  sections 
of  New  p]ngland  ;  twice  visiting  Virginia,  and,  wherever 
he  went,  preaching  and  baptizing — these  two  items  of 
'•the  great  commis^inu"  (Matt,  xxviii,  19,  20)  being  all 
to  which  he  felt  himself  called.  His  last  record  of  bap- 
tism was  Aug.  17, 1834,  when  he  was  over  eighty  years 
of  age,  which  brought  up  the  number  of  baptisms  in  his 
ministry  to  1524.  He  stiU  continued  to  preach,  and 
died  in  the  work  at  North  Adams,  Mass.,  Jan.  14, 1841. 
He  recorded,  when  at  the  age  of  sixty-six,  that  he  had 
then  preached  eight  thousand  sermons,  and  in  order  to 
do  it  had  travelled  distances  wliicli  would  thrice  girdle 
the  globe.  His  LiJ'e  and  Remains,  edited  by  his  daugh- 
ter, including  an  autobiography,  additional  memoirs,  and 
eighty  pieces — sermons,  tracts,  public  addresses,  and  es- 
says on  religious,  moral,  and  political  topics — most  of 
which  had  been  ])rinted  in  pamphlet  form  during  his 
life,  were  published  not  long  after  his  decease,  forming 
a  volume  of  700  pages  8vo.  "  Elder"  Leland,  as  he  was 
commonly  styled,  was  in  theology  a  Calvinist  of  the  old 
school.  He  was  always  popular  as  a  preacher  and  \\Tit- 
er,  especially  among  the  less-cultivated  class.  The  ele- 
ments of  his  success  were  a  strikingly- original,  often 
eccentric  cast  of  thought;  a  terse,  telling  expression, 
abomiding  in  compact,  apothegmatic,  easily-remember- 
ed sentences ;  a  vigorous  Saxon-I'Jnglish  diction  ;  slight- 
ly provincial  (•'  Yankee"),  homely  illustration,  often  a 
spice  of  humor,  and  his  sermons  were  never  wanting  in 
earnest  appeal.  These  qualities  were  aided  by  his  tall 
ligure,  the  compass  of  his  voice,  and  a  peculiar  but  ef- 
fective action.  His  singular  views  as  to  the  limit  of  his 
ministerial  duty,  leading  liini  to  baptize  converts  with- 
out gathering  tliem  into  churches,  caused  liis  success  as 
an  evangelist  to  leave  less  durable  traces  than  might 
otherwise  have  been  looked  for.  The  relations  of  Church 
and  State  in  Virginia  and  in  most  of  New  England, 
dnring  the  earlier  period  of  liis  ministry,  led  him  into  a 
habit  of  jwlitical  activity  whic^h  was  sometimes  censured 
by  jiersons  unable  to  appreciate  a  state  of  society  which 
had  passed  away.  Two  hynnis,  published  anonymously 
in  most  hymn-books — one  tlie  pojiular  evening  hymn, 
"The  day  is  past  and  gone;"  the  other  beginning, ''Now 
the  Saviour  standeth  pleading" — iire  ascribed  to  liis  pen, 
and  not  improliably  tlie  sini]jle  melodies  iti  which  they 
are  oftenest  sung.  His  productions,  consisting  of  sev- 
eral sermons,  essays,  and  addresses,  were  ]iublislied  after 
Ms  death,  with  a  memoir  of  tlie  author  by  Miss  L.  F. 


Greene  (1845, 8vo).     See  Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Amer- 
ican Pulpit,  vi,  174.     (L.  E.  S.) 

Leland,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  was 
born  at  l)uhUii  in  1722,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College  in  that  city.  He  became  senior  fellow  of  the 
college,  and  Avas  made  a  professor  of  poetry  there  la 
1703 ;  afterwards  vicar  of  Bray,  and  later  chaplain  to 
the  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He  died  in  1785.  Le- 
land was  a  profound  scholar  and  a  most  eloquent  preach- 
er. He  published  the  Orations  oj'  Demosthenes,  Latin 
version  and  notes  (London,  1754,  2  vols.  r2mo),in  con- 
jmiction  with  Dr.  John  Stokes: — the  Orations  [19]  of 
Demosthenes,  in  English  (1756-61-70,3  vols.  4to ;  last 
ed.  1831, 12mo)  : — Hist. of  the  Life  ami  Reign  of  Philip, 
King  of  Macedon  (1758,  2  vols.  4to ;  last  ed.  1820, 2  vols. 
8vo)  : — Dissertation  on  the  Principles  of  Human  Elo- 
quence, etc.  (1764,  4to),  elicited  by  bishop  Warburton's 
Discourse  on  the  Doctrine  of  Grace :  answered  (anony- 
mously) by  Hurd,  on  behalf  of  Warburton,  in  a  very 
petulant  letter.  Answer  to  a  letter  to  him,  etc.,  17G4, 
4to.  This  is  a  reply  to  Hurd.  Leland  answered  for 
himself,  and.  in  the  opinion  of  all  tlie  world,  completely 
demolished  his  antagonist.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit. 
and  A  mer.  A  itihors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Iieloug,  Jacques,  an  eminent  French  bibliographer, 
was  born  at  Paris  April  19, 1665.  In  1677  he  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  Malta,  to  be  educated  as  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Knights,  but  not  liking  the  severity  with  which 
he  was  treated,  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Paris. 
Here  he  continued  his  studies,  and,  as  he  had  not  yet 
taken  the  vows  of  the  Order  of  St.  John  of  IMalta,  he  en- 
tered the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory  in  1686.  He  be- 
came successivelj'  professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Col- 
lege of  JaUli,  and  afterwards  m  the  seminary'  of  Notre 
Dame  dcs  Vertus,  near  Paris.  Later  he  was  appointed 
librarian  of  that  institution,  and  in  1699  was  transferred 
in  the  same  capacity  to  the  library  of  the  Oratoire  St.  Ho- 
nore,  at  Paris,  one  of  the  richest  in  that  city,  especially 
in  Oriental  books  and  IMSS.  This  position  he  occupied 
for  twenty-two  years,  rendering  the  greatest  services  to 
the  scientific  world  by  his  valuable  bibliograjihical:  re- 
searches, and  by  a  threefold  catalogue.  He  died  Aug. 
17, 1721.  His  most  important  work,  which  is  yet  highlj' 
prized  by  students,  is  his  Bihliotheca  Sacra  (Par.  1709,  2 
vols.  8vo ;  2d  ed.  1723,  2  vols.  fol. — this  latter  ed.  is  by  far 
the  best).  Another  augmented  edition  was  published  af- 
ter his  death  by  Desmolets,  a  priest  of  the  Oratory  (Par- 
is, 1723, 2  vols.  fol,).  A  valuable  supplement  was  after- 
wards added  to  it,  and  the  whole  work  carefully  revised, 
by  Chr.  Fr,  Biimer  (Lips,  1709)  ;  another  enlarged  and 
extended  edition  was  published  by  A,  G.  Masch  (HaUe, 
1778-1790,  5  vols.  4to).  As  a  historian,  Lelong  distin- 
guished himself  particularly  bj'  his  Bibliotli'eque  histo- 
rique  de  la  France,  contenant  le  catalogue  des  ouvrages 
imprimes  ct  ma77usc}-its,  qui  traitent  de  Vhistoire  de  ce 
rogaume  (Par.  1719 ;  2(1  ed,  by  Fevret  de  Fontette,  Par. 
1768,  5  vols.  fol.).  This  was  to  have  been  followed  by 
notices  on  the  author  of  these  works.  Lelong  wrote 
Discours  historiques  sur  les  ivincipales  editions  des  Bibles 
Polgglottes  (Paris,  1713):  —  Supplement  «  Vhistoire  des 
dictionnaires  Hehreux  de  Wolf  us  (Par.  1707): — Xouvelle 
methode  des  langues  Hehraique  et  Chaldaique  (Par,  1708), 
etc.  See  Desmolets,  Vie  du  P.  Lelong,  in  the  2d  and  3d 
edition  of  the  Bihliotheca  Sacra ;  Ilerzog,  Real-KncyUo- 
pddie,  viii,  290;  Hoefer,  JS'ouv.  Biog.  Uenercdc,  xxx,  540 
sq, ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lemaistre  de  Saci  for  Sacy),  Isaac  Louis,  a 
noted  French  Janseiiist  theologian,  a  nephew  of  Antoine 
Arnaiild  Ic  (Jrand,  was  born  in  Paris  IMarch  29, 1613 ;  was 
ordained  a  ])riest  in  1650,  and  became  confessor  or  prin- 
cipal director  of  the  recluses  of  Port  Koyal.  Entangled 
in  a  controversy  ^vith  the  Jesuits,  he  was  persecuted  by 
the  authorities,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  in  1661,  and, 
after  having  vainly  sought  refuge  among  friends,  was 
confined  in  tlie  Bastilc  in  1666.  During  his  imprison- 
ment, whicli  lasted  twu  years,  he  made  a  French  trans- 


LE  MERCIER 


343 


LEND 


lation  of  the  Old  Testament.  He  had  previously  been 
one  of  the  translators  of  the  Neiv  Testament  of  Mons 
(1667).  which  was  often  reprinted.  In  consequence  of 
renewed  persecution,  he  left  Port  lloyal  in  1679,  seeking 
peace  and  quiet  at  the  country  seat  of  a  friend  of  his. 
There  he  died,  Jan.  4, 1684.  He  published  French  ver- 
sions of  several  classical  works,  anil  of  valuable  theolog- 
ical treatises ;  alsoof  Thomas  a  Kempis's/wiVa/ion.  See 
Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioff.  Ginerale,  xxx,  568 ;  Ste.  Beuve, Poi-t 
Royal,  ii,  1, 2 ;  Kitto,  Bibl.  Cyclop,  s.  v.  Sacy,  de. 

Le  Mercier,  Jacques,  a  French  architect,  born  at 
Pontdisc  about  1600,  is  noted  as  the  builder  of  the 
Church  of  the  Sorbonnc  at  Paris,  reared  by  order  of  car- 
dinal Richelieu  about  1635.  Le  Blercier  obtained  the 
title  of  chief  architect  to  the  king.  Among  other  ad- 
mired works  of  his  arc  the  Church  of  the  Annonciade  at 
Tours,  and  that  of  Saint  Koch  in  Paris.  He  died  in 
1660. — Thomas,  Biog.  Diet.  p.  1401 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog. 
Generale,  xxx,  583. 

Lemoine,  Francois,  a  celebrated  French  painter  of 
the  isth  century,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1688,  He  Avas 
the  pupil  of  Louis  GaUochc,  early  distinguished  himself, 
and  in  1718  was  elected  a  member  of  the  lioyal  Academy 
of  Painting.  His  great  reputation  at  tliis  time  is  due 
mainly  to  his  painting,  in  oil,  of  the  Transfiguration  of 
Christ  on  the  ceiling  of  the  choir  of  the  Church  des  Jac- 
obins, Rue  du  Bacq.  In  1724  Lemoine  visited  Italy,  and 
in  the  j'ear  foUovi-ing,  on  his  return  to  France,  was  made 
professor  of  painting  in  the  Academy.  Louis  XV  ap- 
pointed him  in  1736  his  principal  painter,  with  a  salary 
of  4100  francs,  in  the  place  of  Louis  de  Boullogne,  de- 
ceased. The  first  of  Lemoine's  great  works  was  the 
cupola  of  the  chapel  of  the  Virgin  in  St.  Sidpice,  in  fres- 
co, which  he  commenced  in'1729 — a  work  of  three  years' 
labor.  His  masterpiece,  however,  is  the  Apotheosis  of 
Hercules,  painted  in  oil  on  canvas  pasted  on  the  ceiling 
of  the  Salon  dllercule  at  Versailles,  commenced  in  1732, 
and  finished  in  1736.  He  committed  suicide  June  4, 
1737.  See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Ginerale,  xxx,  617 ,  Eng- 
lish Cyelopmdia,  s.  v. 

L'Enipereur,  Constantine,  a  celebrated  Dutch 
Orientalist,  was  born  at  Oppyck,  in  the  Netherlands, 
about  1570.  Pie  was  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Harder- 
wyk  until  1627,  when  he  was  called  to  the  University 
of  Leyden  as  professor  of  Hebrew,  and  some  time  after 
was  made  professor  of  theology  in  that  liigh  school.  He 
died  in  1648.  L'Enipereur  edited  the  Commentary  of 
Aben-Ezra  and  Mos.  Alschech  on  Isa.  lii,  lo-Uii,  12,  with 
notes  (Leyd.  1633);  and  the  Paraphrase  of  Joseph  ben- 
Jachja  on  Daniel,  with  translation  and  notes  (Amsterd. 
1633 ),  also  the  iMishnic  tracts  Buba  Kama  and  Middoth 
(Leyil.  1737, 4to).  He  wrote  himself  Z'e  Uignitafe  et  Util- 
itafe  Lingua:  Ihhruiccc  (1627,  8vo)  : — Clavis  Talmudica, 
comj)lectens  formulas,  loca  dialeciica  et  logica  pj'iscorum 
Judceorum,  (Leyden,  1634,  4to):- — De  legg.  Hehr.  forens. 
(Leyd.  1637,  4to);  and  Disputationes  theologicm  (Leyd. 
1648,  8vo).  See  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Notiv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  642 ;  Filrst,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  245  sq. 

Lempriere,  .Joiix,  a  distinguished  English  biogra- 
pher, was  b(irn  in  Jersey  about  1760.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester  and  at  Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  and 
subsc(iueii(ly  became  first  head  master  of  Abmgdon 
Grammar-school,  and  later  of  the  school  at  Exeter.  In 
1810  he  resigned  the  latter,  and  the  following  year  was 
presented  to  the  livings  of  Meeth  and  Newton  Petrock, 
in  Devonshire,  which  he  retained  until  his  death,  Feb.  1, 
1824.  Lempriere  was  a  man  of  extensive  learning,  and 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  antiquity.  His  Bibliotheca 
Clasdca  (1788,  8vo;  subsequently  reprinted,  with  addi- 
tions by  himself)  is  still  in  general  use  in  the  universi- 
ties. He  Avrote  also  a  translation  of  Herodotus,  with 
notes  (1792),  of  which  the  first  volume  only  was  pub- 
lished, and  a  Universal  Biography  (1803,  4to  and  8vo). 
This  last  wprk,  compiled  with  great  care,  has  run  through 
several  editions.  The  name  of  Lempriere  was  once  well 
known  to  every  English-speaking  classical  student,  but 


the  rising  generation  is  forgetting  it,  and  it  will  soon 
become  vox  et  praterea  nihil.  A  Classical  Dictionary 
(^Bibliotheca  Classica,  1788)  of  his  was  for  many  years 
the  English  standard  work  of  reference  on  all  matters 
of  ancient  mythology,  biography,  and  geograph}%  See 
Davenport,  Ann.  Biog.  1824 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gener, 
xxx,  643  ;  Chambers,  Cycloj^adia,  s.  v. ;  Allibone,  Diet. 
of  Brit,  and  Anier.  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lem'uel  (Hebrew  Lemuel',  ^X^l^^,  Prov.  xxxi,  1 ; 
Sept.  VTTU  Srcoi),  Vulgate  Lamuel;  also  Lemoel,  huh'cb 
Prov.  xxxi,  4;  Sept.  Travra  ttouI, \ii\gate  Lamuel),  an 
unknown  prince,  to  whom  the  admonitory  apothegms 
of  Prov.  xxxi,  2-9  were  originally  addressed  by  his 
mother.  Most  interpreters  understand  Solomon  to  be 
meant  either  symbolically  (the  name  signifying  to  God, 
i.  e.  created  by  him)  or  by  a  pleasing  epithet  (see  Ro- 
senmliller.  Scholia  ad  Prov.  p.  718).  The  Rabbinical 
commentators  identify  Lemuel  with  Solomon,  and  tell 
a  strange  tale  that  when  he  married  the  tlaughter  of 
Pharaoh,  on  the  day  of  the  dedication  of  the  Temple, 
he  assembled  musicians  of  all  kinds,  and  passed  the 
night  awake.  On  the  morrow  he  slept  till  the  fourth 
hour,  with  the  keys  of  the  Temple  beneath  his  pillow, 
when  his  mother  entered,  and  upbraided  him  in  the 
words  of  Prov.  xxxi,  2-9.  Others  (e.  g.  Grotius)  refer 
it  to  Hezekiah  (by  a  precarious  etymology),  while  still 
others  (e.  g.  Gesenius)  think  that  no  Israelite  is  referred 
to,  but  some  neighboring  petty  Arabian  prince.  On  the 
other  hand,  according  to  PUchhorn  (^Einkitung,  v,  106), 
Lemuel  is  altogether  an  imaginary  person  (so  Ewald; 
comp.  Bertholdt,  v,  2196  sq.).  Prof.  Stuart  (Comment, 
on  Prov.  p.  403  sq.)  renders  the  expression  "Lemuel,  the 
king  of  Massa,"  and  regards  him  as  the  brother  of  Agur, 
whom  he  makes  to  have  been  likewise  a  son  of  the 
queen  of  Massa,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dumah.  See 
Agur;  Ithiel.  In  the  reign  of  Hezekiali,  a  roving 
band  of  Simeonites  drove  out  the  Amalekitcs  from 
IMount  Seir  and  settled  in  their  stead  (1  Chron.  \v,  38- 
43),  and  from  these  exiles  of  Israelitish  origin  Hitzig 
conjectures  that  Lemuel  and  Agur  were  descended,  the 
former  having  been  born  in  the  land  of  Israel ;  and  that 
the  name  Lemuel  is  an  older  form  of  Nemuel,  the  first- 
born of  Simeon  (^Die  Spriiche  Salomons,  p.  310-314), 
But  this  interpretation  is  far-fetched ;  and  none  is  more 
likely  than  that  which  fixes  the  epithet  upon  Solomon. 
See  PiiovERBS. 

Lemiires,  the  general  designation  given  by  the  Ro- 
mans to  all  spirits  of  departed  persons,  of  whom  the 
good  were  honored  as  Lares  (q.  v.),  and  the  bad  (Lar- 
va;) were  feared,  as  ghosts  or  spectres  still  are  by  the 
superstitious.  The  common  idea  was  that  the  Lemures 
and  Larva;  were  the  same,  and  were  said  to  wander 
about  during  the  night,  seekuig  for  an  opportunity  of 
inliicting  injury  on  the  living  (Horat.  Epist.  ii,  2,  209; 
Pers.  V,  185).  The  festival  called  Lemuria  was  held  on 
the  9th,  11th,  and  13th  of  May,  and  was  accompanied 
with  ceremonies  of  washing  hands,  throwing  black  beans 
over  the  head,  etc.,  and  the  pronunciation  nine  times  of 
these  words :  "  Begone,  you  spectres  of  the  house !" 
which  deprived  the  Lemures  of  their  power  to  harm. 
Ovid  describes  the  Lemuria  in  the  fifth  book  of  his 
I'\isti.  See  De  Deo  Sacr.  p.  237,  ed.  Bip. ;  Servius,  ad 
uEn.  iii,  63 ;  Varro,  ap.  Nov.  p.  135 ;  comp.  Hartung,  Die 
Religion  dcr  Rdmer,  i,  55,  etc. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Rom.  Biog.  and  Myth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leud  (represented  by  several  Heb.  words  which  iu 
other  forms  likewise  signify  to  bory-oiv,  e.g.  iTib,  lavah' ; 
T\'dXnashah' ;  I2^t\abat';  Gr.  (lavfi^otjXfKao).  Among 
the  Israelites,  in  the  time  of  INIoses,  it  must  have  been 
very  common  to  lend  on  pledge,  in  the  strict  sense,  ac- 
cording to  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  natural  law,  which 
allows  the  creditor,  in  case  of  non-payment,  to  appropri- 
ate the  pledge  to  his  own  behoof,  without  any  authori- 
tative interference  of  a  magistrate,  and  to  keep  it  just 
as  rightfully  as  if  it  had  been  bought  with  the  sum 


LENFANT 


344 


LENFANT 


which  has  been  lent  for  it,  and  which  rcmalms  unpaid. 
But  while  pledges  are  under  no  judicial  regulation,  much 
extortion  and  villainy  may  he  practiced,  when  the  poor 
man  ^vho  -wishes  to  borrow  is  in  straits,  and  must  of 
course  submit  to  all  the  terms  of  the  opulent  lender. 
It  will  not  be  imputed  to  Moses  as  a  fault  that  his  stat- 
iitt's  contain  not  those  legal  reliucments,  which  probably 
were  not  then  invented,  and  which  even  yet  may  be 
said  rather  to  be  on  record  in  our  statute-books  than  to 
be  in  our  practice.  They  would  have  been  dangerous 
to  his  people,  and  peculiarly  oii[)ressive  to  the  poor.  He 
let  pli'dge  remain  in  its  proper  sense,  pledge,  and  thus 
facilitated  the  obtaining  of  loans,  satisfj'ing  himself  with 
making  laws  against  some  of  the  chief  abuses  of  pledg- 
ing (Michaelis,  Mos.  Recht.).  See  Pledge.  These  laws 
may  be  found  in  Exod.  xxii,  25 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  G,  10-13. 
l»y  the  analogy  of  these  laws,  other  sorts  of  pledges 
ctiually,  if  not  more  indispensable,  such  as  the  utensils 
necessary  for  agriculture,  or  the  ox  and  ass  used  for  the 
plough,  must  certainly,  and  with  equal,  and  even  great- 
er reason,  have  been  restored.  The  law  in  Deut.  xxiv, 
12,  lo,  is  expressed  in  such  general  terms,  that  we  can- 
not but  see  that  the  pledge  under  which  the  debtor  must 
sleep  is  merely  given  as  an  example,  and  conclude,  of 
course,  that,  in  general,  from  the  needy  no  pledge  was  to 
be  exacted,  the  want  of  which  might  expose  him  to  an 
inconvenience  or  hardship,  more  especially  when  we  find 
the  lawgiver  here  declaring  that  God  would  regard  the 
restoration  of  such  pledges  as  almsgiving,  or  righteous- 
ness. So  it  was  in  fact,  and  at  the  same  time  it  was  at- 
tended with  no  loss  whatever  to  the  creditor;  for  he  had 
it  in  his  power,  at  last,  by  the  aid  of  summary  justice,  to 
lay  hold  of  the  whole  property  of  the  debtor,  and  if  he 
had  none,  of  his  person ;  and  in  the  event  of  non-pay- 
ment, to  take  him  for  a  hired  servant.  The  law  gave  him 
sufficient  security  ;  but  with  this  single  difference,  that 
he  durst  not  make  good  payment  at  his  own  hand,  but 
must  prosecute  (Lev.  xxv,  39-55 ;  Neh.  v,  5).  See  Debt. 
In  the  book  of  Job,  the  character  of  a  lender  upon  pledge 
io  thus  depicted:  "He  extorts  pledges  without  having 
lent,  and  makes  his  debtors  go  naked"  (xxii,  6 ;  xxiv,  7) ; 
"  He  takes  the  widow's  ox  for  a  pledge"  (xxiv,  3) ;  "  He 
takes  the  infant  of  the  needy  for  a  pledge"  (xxiv,  9-11). 
On  this  subject  our  Saviour  exhorted  his  disciples  to 
the  most  liberal  and  forbearing  course  towards  all  whom, 
they  could  aid  or  who  were  indebted  to  them  (Luke  vi, 
30-35).     See  Loan  ;  Usuuy. 

Lenfant,  Alexandre-Charles-Anne,  a  French 
priest  of  note,  was  born  at  Lyons  Sept.  6,  172G,  and  was 
educated  bj^  the  Jesuits  of  his  native  place.  In  1741  he 
entered  the  order,  and  became  professor  of  rhetoric  at 
jMarseilles.  Endowed  with  great  talent  as  a  speaker, 
he  became  one  of  the  most  popular  pulpit  orators  of  his 
order.  After  its  suppression  Lenfant  combated  the  doc- 
trines of  the  ]ihilosophical  antagonists  of  Christianity, 
particidarly  Diderot.  In  1792  he  was  arrested  by  the 
Itevolutionists,  and  subjected  to  capital  punishment  at 
Paris  Sept.  3,  1793.  His  works  are  an  Oraison  funehre 
on  Belzunce,  archbishop  of  jMarseilles  (1756,  8vo),  and 
another  on  the  father  of  Louis  XVI  (Nancy,  17GG)  :— 
Svrmons  pour  V A  vent  vt  pour  le  Careme  (Paris,  1818,  8 
vols.  12mo).       See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxx,  G58. 

Lenfant,  Jacques,  a  very  noted  French  preacher 
and  tlicnln-ian,  the  son  of  Paul  Lenfant,  the  Protestant 
miniMir  ot  t'hatillon-sur-Scine,  was  born  at  Pazoche,  in 
lieaiirc.  a  district  of  llic  ancient  jirovince  of  Orleannois, 
in  France,  April  13,  IGlU.  Intended  for  the  same  pro- 
fession as  his  father,  he  was  sent  to  prosecute  his  studies 
at  Saumur;  and  dtiring  his  residence  at  that  imiversity 
lie  lived  with  the  learned  Jacipies  Cassel,  the  professor 
of  Hebrew,  with  whom  he  formed  a  friendsliip  which 
continued  during  their  lives.  He  completed  his  theo- 
logical cilucation  at  (ieneva  aiui  IIeidelherg_,  in  which 
latter  town  he  was  admitted  lo  the  ministry  of  the 
Protestant  Church  in  U)S4.  Soon  after  his  ordination 
he  obtained  the  appointment  of  minister  of  the  French 


Church  at  Heidelberg,  and  chaplain  to  the  dowager 
electress  Palatine.  The  invasion  of  the  Palatinate  by 
the  French  troops,  under  marslial  Turenne,  compelled 
Lenfant  to  leave  Heidelberg  in  1G88,  and  he  settled  at 
Berlin.  The  fear  of  meeting  his  countrymen  arose  from 
his  having  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  the  Jesuits  by 
two  letters  which  he  had  written  against  that  society, 
and  which  are  appended  to  his  work,  entitled  A  Pre- 
servatice  against  a  Reunion  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
Though  the  Protestant  French  church  of  that  city  had 
already  a  sufficient  number  of  pastors  attached  to  it,  the 
reigning  elector  of  Brandenburg,  Frederick,  afterwards 
king  of  Prussia,  who  knew  Lenfant  by  reputation,  ap- 
pointed him  to  that  church,  where  for  upwards  of  thir- 
ty-nine years  he  performed  duty.  In  1707,  on  a  visit 
to  England,  he  preached  before  queen  Anne,  and  it  is 
said  that  he  so  pleased  the  queen  that  she  desired  him 
to  enter  the  Church  of  England,  and  fiffered  him  the 
appointment  as  her  chaplain.  In  1710  he  obtained  the 
situation  of  chaplain  to  the  kmg  of  Prussia,  and  coun- 
cillor of  the  High  Consistorj-,  Lenfant  was  suddenly 
attacked  with  paralysis,  while  in  the  apparent  enjoy- 
ment of  perfect  health,  Jidy  29, 1728,  and  died  on  the  7th 
of  August  following.  His  disposition  is  represented  as 
having  been  extremely  amiable,  and  his  maiuier  simple 
and  modest.  Of  a  reflective  turn  of  mind,  he  spoke  but 
little,  and  that  little  well.  Though  a  most  voluminous 
writer,  he  Avas  fond  of  society,  and  opened  himself  with- 
out reserve  to  the  confidence  of  his  friends.  As  a  preach- 
er, his  manner  was  pleasing  and  persuasive;  tlie  matter 
of  his  discourse  was  chiefly  of  a  practical  nature,  and  his 
eloquence  was  rather  chaste  than  energetic.  The  style 
of  his  writing  is  elegant,  though  never  florid ;  it  has  less 
force  than  that  of  Jurieu,  and  less  eloquence  than  that 
of  Saurin,  but  the  French  is  purer,  and  the  diction 
more  refined.  It  is  not  certain  whether  he  was  the  first 
to  form  the  design  of  the  Bibliotheque  Germanique, 
which  was  commenced  in  1720,  but  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  its  execution,  and  is  the  acknowledged  author 
of  the  preface.  Lenfant's  first  work,  which  appeared  in 
1G83,  was  a  review  of  one  of  Brueys,  who,  though  a  cel- 
ebrated French  dramatist,  has  written  several  theologi- 
cal works  in  defence  of  the  Koman  Catholic  faith.  In 
1688  he  published  a  translation  of  a  selection  from  the 
letters  of  St.  Cyprian ;  in  1G90,  a  defence  of  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  which  is  generally  annexed  to  his  I're- 
sereatice,  etc.,  a  work  we  have  before  alluded  to;  and 
in  1691,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  celebrated  work  of 
the  pere  Malebranche,  La  Recherche  de  la  Verite.  His 
history  of  the  female  pope  Joan  appeared  in  1G94:  the 
arguments  in  it  are  drawn  from  the  Latin  dissertation 
on  that  subject  of  Spanheim.  It  is  said,  however,  that 
in  after  life  Lenfant  discovered  and  acknowledged  the 
absurdity  of  this  fiction.  See  Joan,  Pope.  In  1708 
appeared  his  remarks  on  the  Greek  edition  of  the  New 
Testament  by  IMill,  which  are  in  the  Bibliotheque  Choi- 
sie  of  Le  Clerc,  vol.  xvi.  The  following  works  after- 
wards appeared  in  succession  :  1.  Reflexions  et  Re- 
marques  sur  la  Dispute  du  Ph-e  Martiawj  avec  un  Juif : 
— 2.  Memoire  IliMoi-ique  touchant  la  Communion  sur  les 
deux  especes :  —  3.  Critique  des  Remarques  du  Pere  Va- 
vaseur ;  sur  les  Reflexions  de  Rapin  touchant  la  Po'e- 
tique: — 4.  Reponse  de  Mons.  Lenfant  a  Mons.  Dartis  au 
sujet  du  Socinianisme.  The  above  short  works  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Nouvelle  de  la  Republique  des  Leitres,  a 
review  to  which  Lenfant  was  a  frequent  contributor. 
In  1714  was  published  his  learned  and  interesting  I/is- 
toire  du  Concile  de  CouKtance  (Amstcrd.  1714,  2  vols.  4to ; 
1727,  and  an  Engl,  transl.  Loud.  1730,  2  vols.  4to).  Two 
years  after  he  wrote  an  apology  for  this  work,  which 
had  been  severely  attacked  in  the  Journal  de  Trevoux. 
In  1718,  in  conjiuiction  with  Beausobre,  he  published  a 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  with  explanatory 
notes,  and  a  long  and  most  learned  introduction.  It  is 
by  this  Avork  (Ae  Xouc.  Test,  traduit  en  Fran^ais  sur 
I'original  Grec,  Amsterdam,  1718,  2  vols.  4to),  )ierba]is, 
that  he  is  best  known  to  English-speakuig  students. 


LENG 


545 


LENT 


Among  the  most  important  of  his  other  productions 
are  Pogijiana,  or  the  Life,  Chai-acter,  and  Maxims  of 
the  celtbi-aied  Floi-entine  Wfiter  Poggio  (Amsterdam, 
1720) : — A  Preventive  against  Reunion  with  the  *SVe  of 
Rome,  and  Reasons  for  Sejiaration  from  that  See  (Am- 
sterdam, 1723),  a  work  which  continues  to  enjoy  great 
popularity  among  Protestants : — IJistoire  du  Concile  de 
Pise,  et  de  ce  qui  s'est  passe  de  jjIus  memo-able  depuis 
ce  Concile  jusqu'a  celui  de  Constance,  a  learned  and  ac- 
curate work,  written  with  sufficient  impartiality  (Am- 
stcrd.  172-1,  2  vols.  4to) : — a  volume  containing  sixteen 
Sermons  on  different  Texts  of  Scripture  (1728) : — a  small 
volume  of  Remarks  on  Gisherfs  Treatise  on  Pulpit  Elo- 
quence, a  M'ork  which  has  greatly  added  to  his  already 
high  reputation : — IJistoire  de  la  Guerre  des  Hussites  et 
du  Concile  de  Bale  (Amsterd.  1731,  2  vols.  4to),  for  which 
he  liad  been  manj'  years  collecting  materials,  and  in  the 
prejiaration  of  which,  through  the  influence  of  the  king 
of  Prussia,  he  had  access  to  the  arcliivos  of  the  corpora- 
tion of  Basle.  See  English  Cuclopcedia,  s.  v. ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv,  Biog.  Generale,  xxx,  G57 ;  Bihlioth.  Germanique, 
xvi,  115  sq. 

Leng,  John,  an  Englisli  prelate,  was  bom  in  1C65, 
and,  after  having  completed  his  studies  at  Cambridge, 
became  chaplain  to  king  George  I.  In  1723  his  royal 
master  made  Leng  bishop  of  Norwich,  He  died  in  1727. 
He  published  editions  of  the  Plutus  and  Nubes  of  Aris- 
tophanes (1G95) : — an  excellent  edition  of  Terence  (Cam- 
bridge, 1701): — Sernwns  at  Boyle's  Lectures  (1717-18), 
and  twelve  separate  Sei-mons  (1699-1727).  See  Nich- 
ols's Lit.  A  nee.  Lgson's  Environs.  —  Allibone,  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1084. 

Lengerke,  Casar,  a  noted  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  Hamburg  March  30, 1803.  He  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Kcinigsberg,  and  became  a  professor 
of  theology  and  Oriental  languages  at  that  high  school 
in  1829.  He  died  Feb.  3,  1855.  His  most  important 
works  are,  De  Epihrcemi  Sijri  arte  hermeneutica  liber 
(1831)  : — Das  Buch  Daniel  (1835)  : — Kenaan,  Voiles  und 
Religionsgcsch.  Israels,  vol.  i  (1814). 

Lenoir,  John,  a  French  Jansenist  priest,  was  born 
at  Alencon  in  1622.  He  became  theological  canon  of 
Seez  in  1052,  and  acquired  great  reputation  as  a  preach- 
er both  in  Normandy  and  at  Paris.  He  was  accused 
of  Jansenism,  and  by  his  quarrelsome  disposition  was 
made  the  subject  of  many  annoyances.  Eouxel  de  Me- 
davy,  bishop  of  Seez,  who  had  issued  a  charge  for  the 
publication  of  the  Formularj',  accused  him  of  various 
errors,  namely,  of  having  permitted  the  publication  of 
a  work  entitled  Le  Chretien  Champi'tre  by  a  layman, 
who  said  expressly  that  "  there  are  four  divine  persons 
who  are  to  be  worshipped  by  the  faitliful,  namely,  Jesus 
Christ,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Anna,  and  St.  Joachim  ;  and  that 
our  Lord  is  present  in  the  sacrament  of  the  altar  like  a 
chicken  in  an  egg-shell."  Lenoir  presented  then  a  pe- 
tition to  Louis  XIV,  together  with  an  attack  on  some 
propositions  which  he  considered  as  heretical.  His 
writings  on  these  subjects  were  exceedingly  violent :  he 
attacked  Rouxel  de  INIedavy,  wlio  was  then  archbishop 
of  Kouen,  and  even  De  Harlay,  the  archbishop  of  Paris. 
A  commission  was  appointed  to  judge  him,  and  he  was 
condemned,  April  24, 1684,  to  make  a  public  apology  in 
front  of  tlie  cathedral  at  Paris,  and  to  work  for  life  on 
tlie  galleys.  Tiie  sentence  was  not  fully  carried  out ; 
but  he  remained  a  prisoner  successively  in  the  prisons 
of  St.Malo,  Brest,  and  Nantes  until  his'death,  April  22, 
1692.  He  wrote,  A  vantages  incontestables  de  VEglise  siir 
les  Calvinistes  (Paris  and  Sens,  1673, 12mo)  -.—Xouvelles 
Lumieres  jiolitiques,  ou  I'Evangile  nouveau  (1676  and 
1687,  12mo:  this  work  arrested  the  publication  of  a 
French  translation  of  the  History  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
by  Pallavicini,  and  went  through  a  tliird  edition  under 
the  title  of  Politique  et  Intrigues  de  la  cour  de  Rome 
[1696,  12mo]) :  —  Eeveqne  de  cour  oppose  a  Veveque 
apostolique  (Cologne,  1682, 2  vols,  12mo)  -.—Lettre  a  M"" 
la  duchesse  de  Guise  sur  la  domination  episcopale,  etc. 


(1679, 12mo).  See  Svpplem.  au  Necrolog.  de  Port  Royal, 
1735;  Diet.  hist,  des  auteurs  eccles.;  Feller,  Diet,  hist.; 
Hoefer,  JVouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxviii,  203.      (J.  N.  P.) 

Lent,  the  forty  days'  fast,  is  the  preparation  for  Eas- 
ter in  the  Western,  Eastern,  and  Lutheran  churches, 
and  in  the  Church  of  England,  and  was  instituted  at  a 
very  early  age  of  Christianity.  In  most  languages  the 
name  given  to  this  fast  signifies  the  number  of  the  days 
—Forty ;  but  our  word  Lent  signifies  the  Spring  Fast, 
for  "Lenten -Tide"  in  the  Anglo -Saxon  language  was 
the  season  of  spring,  in  German  Lenz.  (For  another 
etymology,  see  Lentile.)  It  is  observed  in  commem- 
oration of  our  Lord's  fast  in  the  wilderness  (IMatt.  iv) ; 
and  although  he  did  not  impose  it  on  the  world  by  an 
express  commandment,  yet  he  showed  plainly  enough 
by  his  example  that  fasting,  whicli  God  had  sofrequent- 
ly  ordered  in  the  old  covenant,  -^vas  also  to  be  practised 
by  the  cliildrcn  of  the  neiv.  The  observance  of  Lent 
was  doubtless  strongly  confirmed  by  those  words  of  the 
Redeemer  in  answer  to  the  disciples  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist :  "  Can  the  cliildren  of  the  Bridegroom  mourn  as 
long  as  the  Bridegroom  is  with  them  V  But  the  days 
will  come  when  the  Bridegroom  shall  be  taken  away 
from  them,  and  then  shall  they  fast"  (Luke  v,  34,  35). 
Hence  we  find,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Aposflcs,  that  the  dis- 
ciples, after  the  foundation  of  the  Church,  applied  them- 
selves to  fasting.  In  their  epistles,  also,  they  recom- 
mended it  to  the  faithful.  The  primitive  Christians 
seem  to  have  considered  Christ,  in  the  above-mentioned 
.passage,  as  alluding  to  the  institution  of  a  particular 
season  of  fasting  and  prayer  in  his  future  Church,  and 
it  was  therefore  only  natural  that  they  should  have 
made  this  period  of  penitence  to  consist  of  forty  days,  see- 
ing that  our  divine  Master  had  consecrated  that  num- 
ber by  his  own  fast,  and  before  him  Moses  and  Elijah 
had  done  the  same-,  it  was  even  deduced  from  the  forty 
years'  staying  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert  (Augustine, 
Se7-m.  cclxiv,  §  5).     See  Fasting,  vol.  iii,  p.  489  (II). 

I.  Practice  of  the  Early  Church. — In  the  age  immedi- 
atelj^  succeeding  that  of  the  aposf  les,  it  does  not  appear 
that  much  value  was  attached  to  the  practice  of  fasting. 
In  the  Shephe7-d  of  llcrmas  it  is  spoken  of  in  disparaging 
terms.  Verj-  little  notice  was  taken  of  fasting  Ijy  the 
writers  of  the  first  centuries,  which  may  be  accounted 
for  from  the  discouraging  influence  of  the  doctrines  of 
Montanus,  the  tenets  of  the  new  Platonic  school,  and 
the  progress  of  Gnosticism.  Hence  it  seems  that  the 
observance  of  fasts  was  introduced  into  the  Church  slow- 
ly and  by  degrees.  We  learn  from  Justin  Martyr  tliat 
fasting  was  joined  with  prayer  at  Ephesus  in  tlie  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  which  is  worth)-  of  being  noted 
as  an  early  addition  to  the  original  institution.  In  the 
2d  century,  in  the  time  of  Victor  and  Irena;us,  it  had 
become  usual  to  fast  before  Easter,  yet  it  consisted  not 
in  a  single  fast,  but  rather  in  a  series  of  solemnities, 
which  were  deemed  wortliy  of  celebration.  It  was 
therefore  the  custom  of  several  congregations  to  pre- 
pare tliemselves  Ijy  mortification  and  fasting,  inaugu- 
rated on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  on  which  they  com- 
memorated tlie  crucifixion,  and  it  was  continued  until 
the  morning  of  the  anniversary  of  the  resurrection.  The 
whole  interval  would  thus  be  only  about  forfj"-  hours 
(Chrj-sosfom,  Oraf.  adv.  Judceos,  iii,  §  4,  vol.  i,  p.  611 :  oi 
—ar'tpfQ  tTinrojaav,  (c.r.A.;  Horn,  ii  in  Genesin,^  l,vol. 
iv,  p.  8;  Irenasus,  Epist.  ad  ]'ictorin. Papam ;  Eusebius, 
Hist. Eccl.  V,  24 ;  Dionys.  Alex.  Epist.  Canon. ;  Beveridge, 
Synoduon').  Clement  of  Alexandria,  however,  speaks  of 
weekly  fasts.  Tertullian,  in  his  treatise  De  Jejur.io, 
complains  bitterly  of  the  little  attention  paid  by  the 
Church  to  the  practice  of  fasting ;  by  which  we  may  see 
that  even  orthodox  Christians  exercised  in  this  matter 
that  liberty  of  judgment  which  had  been  sanctioned  by 
the  apostles.  Origen  adverts  to  this  subject  only  once, 
in  his  10th  Homily  on  Leviticus,  where  he  speaks  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  apostolical  doctrine.  It  appears,  how- 
ever, from  his  observations,  that  at  Alexandria  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays  were  then  observed  as  fast-days,  on 


LENT 


346 


LENT 


the  ground  that  our  Lord  was  betrayed  on  a  Wednes- 
day, and  cnicilied  on  a  Friday.  Tlie  custom  of  the 
Church  at  the  end  of  the  -ith  century  may  he  seen  from  a 
passage  of  Kpiplianius:  "In  the  whole  Christian  Church 
the  following  fast-days  throughout  the  year  are  regu- 
larly observed :  On  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  we  fast  un- 
til the  ninth  hour,"  etc. 

Eut  even  at  this  comparatively  late  date  there  was 
no  universal  agreement  in  the  practice  of  the  Church  in 
this  matter,  neither  had  fasts  been  established  by  law. 
Only  later  was  the  number  of  days  (nameW,  Jo?ii/)  fixed 
according  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  (jtaaapaKua- 
r?;=quadragesima).  But  for  a  long  time  the  Oriental 
and  Occidental  churches  differed.  As  the  former  did 
not  permit  its  members  to  fast  on  the  Sabbath,  their 
fast  continued  one  week  longer  (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  i, 
V,  c.  22;  Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccles.  v,  2J:;  Sozomen,  Hist. 
Eccles.  vii,  19).  The  custom,  so  far  as  it  existed,  had 
been  silently  introduced  into  the  Church,  and  its  ob- 
servance was  altogether  voluntan.^  at  first.  This  fast- 
ing consisted  in  abstinence  from  food  until  three  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon,  but  at  a  later  period  a  custom  was  in- 
troduced, probably  by  the  Montanists,  aifecting  the  kind 
of  food  to  be  taken,  which  was  limited  to  bread,  salt,  and 
•water. 

Some,  however,  who  had  become  subject  to  the  rules 
of  the  Church,  tried  to  compensate  themselves  for  their 
privation  during  the  fasts  by  banqueting  on  the  days 
preceding  them  (Chrysostom.  De  pcenitentia,  hom.  v,  §  5, 
vol.  ii,  p.  315).  Others  adhered  literally  to  the  rules  of 
fasting  by  avoiding  strictly  the  prohibited  food,  but  pre- 
pared from  that  which  Avas  permitted  costly  dainties 
(Augustine,  *rm.  ccviii,  §  1).  The  fathers  and  teach- 
ers of  the  Church  of  this  period,  as  Chrysostom,  Augus- 
tine, Maximus  of  Turin,  Cajsarius  of  Aries,  etc.,  spoke 
often  against  this  hypocritical  fasting,  and  showed  that 
abstinence  would  then  only  be  of  service  Avhen  avoid- 
ance of  sinful  habits,  etc.,  as  well  as  contrition  of  heart, 
was  connected  with  it.  The  general  design,  then,  of 
the  primitive  Church  in  fasting  forty  days,  ^ve  may 
give  in  the  words  of  Chrysostom:  "Many  heretofore 
were  used  to  come  to  the  communion  indevoutly  and 
inconsiderately,  especially  at  that  time,  when  Christ  first 
gave  it  to  his  disciples.  Therefore  our  forefathers,  con- 
sidering the  mischief  arising  from  such  careless  ap- 
proaches, meeting  together,  appointed  forty  days  for 
fasting  and  prayer,  and  hearing  sermons,  and  for  holy 
assemblies ;  that  all  men  in  these  days,  being  carefully 
purified  by  prayer,  and  alms-deeds,  and  fasting,  and 
watching,  and  tears,  and  confession  of  sins,  and  other 
like  exercises,  might  come,  according  to  their  capacity, 
with  a  pure  conscience,  to  the  holy  table." 

"  The  ride  of  fasting  for  Lent  varied  greatly.  It  was 
usual  to  abstain  from  food  altogether  until  evening, 
change  of  diet  not  being  accounted  sufficient.  St.  Am- 
brose exhorts  men :  '  Differ  aliquantulum,  non  longe  lines 
est  dici'  (^Serm.  viii  in  I'sithn  c.rriii).  The  food,  when 
taken,  was  to  be  of  the  simi>lest  and  least  delicate  kind, 
animal  food  and  wine  being  prohibited.  St.  Chrysostom 
(Jlom.  ii)  on  Stat.)  speaks  of  those  who  for  two  days  ab- 
stained from  food,  and  of  others  who  refused  not  only 
wine  and  oil,  but  every  other  dish,  and  throughout  Lent 
partook  of  bread  and  water  only.  The  Eastern  Church, 
at  the  present  day,  observes  a  most  strict  rule  of  fasting. 
Wine  and  oil  are  aOowed  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays,  but 
even  these  days  arc  onlj-  jiartially  excepted  from  the  re- 
strictions of  Lent.  The  discipline  of  Holy  M'cek  is  ex- 
ceedingly rigorous.  During  Lent  corporeal  punishment 
was  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  Tiieodosius  the  (ireat :  'Nul- 
la supplicia  sint  corporis  quibus  (diebus)  absolutio  ex- 
pectatur  animarum'  (/'(«/.  HicihIhs.  ix,  tit.  xxxv,  leg.  v.). 
Public  games,  and  tlic  celebration  of  birthdays  and  mar- 
riages, were  also  interdicted  (Concil.  Laodic.  li,  liii).  It 
was  the  special  time  for  i)reparing  catechuTnens  for  bap- 
tism, and  most  of  St.  CyrU's  catechetical  lectures  were 
delivered  during  Lent.  St.  Chrysostom's  celebrated 
Homilies  on  the  Statutes  were  preached  during  this  sea- 


son. Daily  instruction  formed  a  part  of  the  service, 
and  holy  communion  was  celei)rated  at  least  every  Lord's 
day.  The  last  week,  the  Holy  or  Great  'Week,  was  kept 
with  still  greater  strictness  and  solemnitj'"  (Blunt,  Diet, 
of  Doctrinal  and  Historical  Theoloijy,  p.  408  j. 

II.  Practice  of  later  Times. — Fasting,  after  a  time, 
ceased  to  be  a  voluntary  exercise.  By  the  second  canon 
of  the  Council  of  Orleans,  A.D.  541,  it  was  decreed  that 
any  one  who  should  neglect  to  obser\-e  the  stated  times 
of  abstinence  should  be  treated  as  an  offender  against 
the  laws  of  the  Church.  The  eighth  Council  of  Toledo, 
in  the  7th  century  (canon  9),  condemns  any  one  who 
should  eat  flesh  during  the  fast  before  Easter,  and  says 
that  such  offenders  should  be  forbidden  the  use  of  it 
throughout  the  year.  In  the  8th  century  fasting  began 
to  be  regarded  as  a  meritorious  work,  and  the  breach  of 
the  observance  at  the  stated  times  subjected  the  offender 
to  excommunication.  In  later  times  some  persons  who 
ate  flesh  during  Lent  were  punished  with  the  loss  of 
their  teeth  (Baronius,  A  nnal.  ad  an.  1018).  Afterwards 
these  severities  were  to  a  great  extent  relaxed.  Instead 
of  the  former  limitation  of  diet  on  fast-days  to  bread, 
salt,  and  water,  permission  was  given  for  the  use  of  aU 
kinds  of  food  except  flesh,  eggs,  cheese,  and  wine.  Then 
eggs,  cheese,  and  wine  were  allowed,  flesh  only  being 
prohibited,  an  indulgence  which  was  censured  by  the 
Greek  Church,  and  led  to  a  quarrel  between  it  and  the 
Latin.  In  the  13th  centiu^y  a  cold  collation  in  the  even- 
uig  of  fast-days  was  permitted. 

The  following  are  the  fasts  which  generally  obtamed 
in  the  Church:  1.  The  annual  fast  of  forty  days  before 
Easter,  or  the  Seaso?i  of  Lent.  The  duration  of  this 
fast  at  first  was  only  forty  hours  (Tertull.  De  Jejun.  c.  2, 
13  ;  Iren«us,  ap.  Euseb.  Hist.  Eccl.  1.  v,  c.  24).  By  the 
time  of  Gregory  the  Great  (in  the  8th  centurj')  it  had 
extended  to  thirty-six  days,  and  it  had  been  so  accepted 
by  the  Council  of  Nicrea;  but  by  Gregory  the  Great,  or 
by  Gregory  II,  it  was  extended  to  forty  days,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  recorded  fasts  of  INIoses,  Elias,  and  our  blessed 
Saviour  (Exod.  xxxiv,  28 ;  1  Kings  xix,  8 ;  Matt,  iv,  2). 
Hence  the  term  Quadrayesima  (q.  v.),  whicl\  had  al- 
ready been  used  to  denote  this  period,  became  strictly 
applicable.  Socrates  {Hist.  Eccl.  1.  vii,  c.  19),  Basil  the 
Great,  Ambrose,  and  Leo  the  Great  speak  of  this  quad- 
ragesimal fast  as  a  divine  institution  but  this  can  mean 
no  more  than  that  the  fast  was  observed  in  imitation  of 
the  example  of  the  divine  Iledeemer  {Condi.  Genonens. 
c.  7 — in  canone  ajwstolorum,  G8 :  "Si  quis  Episcop.,  aut 
Presbyt,  etc.,  sac.  Quadragesimam  Pascha",  aut  quartam 
feriam,  aut  Parasecevem  non  jejunaverit,"  etc. :  Concil. 
Coloniens.  ii,  pt.  9,  can.  6).  2.  Quarterly  fasts,  no  traces 
of  which  occur  before  the  5th  centurj',  although  Bellar- 
mine  {De  bonis  operihus,  lib.  ii,  c.  19)  says  that  the  first 
three  of  these  fasts  were  instituted  in  the  times  of  the 
apostles,  and  the  last  by  pope  Calixtus,  A.D.  224.  3.  A 
fast  of  three  days  before  tlie  festival  of  the  Ascension, 
introduced  by  Mamercus,  bishop  of  Yienne,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  5th  century.  In  some  places  it  was  not  cele- 
brated until  after  Whitsuntide.  It  was  called  Jejunium 
Royutionum,  or  Jejunium  Litaniarum,  "  the  fast  of  Ro- 
gations or  Litanies,"  on  account  of  certain  litanies  sung 
on  those  days.  The  words  XiTaviia  and  XiVni,  "lita- 
nies," in  Latin  Supjdicationes  et  lioyatioms,  in  their 
original  signification,  are  but  another  name  for  prayers 
in  general,  of  whatever  kind,  that  either  were  made 
jjubUcly  in  the  church  or  by  any  private  person.  (See 
Euseb.  Vit.  Const.  1.  i,  c.  14 ;  1.  iv,  c,  GC ;  Cbrysost.  Horn, 
antequam  iret  in  exilium  ;  Cod.  Theod.  lib.  xvi,  tit.  v, "  De 
hiereticus,"  1,  30,  1.)  4:.  Monthly  fasts,  a  fast-day  in 
every  month  except  July  and  August  {Concil.  IlUberit. 
can.  23;  Turon.  ii,  can.  18,  19).  5.  Easts  before  festi- 
vals, in  the  jilacc  of  the  ancient  vigils  which  were  abol- 
ished in  the  Sth'centur}-.  6.  Weekly  fasts,  on  Wednes- 
days and  Fridays,  entitled  stationes,  from  the  practice 
of  soldiers  keeping  guard,  which  was  csil\QAstatio  by  the 
Romans  ("  Stationum  dies,"  Tcrtullian,  De  Orat. ;  "  Sta- 
tionibus  quartam  ct  sextam  Sabbati  dicamus,"  Idem,  De 


LENT 


347 


LENTILE 


Jejunio ;  T»;c  vtirfTiiac,  rijg  Tirpdcog  Kai  Tiig  Trapa- 
aiciv^jC,  Clem.  Alex.  iSirom.  1.  7).  These  fasts  were  not 
so  strictly  observed  as  some  others,  and  were  altogether 
omitted  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The  obser- 
vance was  enjoined  especially  upon  the  clergy  and 
monks  (Constit.  Ajwst.  v,  15;  Can.  Apost.  G9).  By  the 
Council  of  Elvira,  c.  26,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury, Saturday  was  added  to  the  weekly  fasts,  and  this 
led  to  the  gradual  neglect  of  the  Wethiesday  fast  in  the 
Western  Church.  The  stations,  or  fasts  on  stationary 
days,  terminated  at  three  o'clock  P.:M.  ("  non  ultra  no- 
nam  detijiendum,"  TertuHian,  Be  Jejunio  ;  "Quando  et 
orationes  fere  nona  hora  concludat  de  Petri  exemplo 
quod  Act.  X  refertur,"  ib.  c.  2).  Hence  TertuUian  calls 
them  haJf-fasts  ("semijejunio  stationum,"  De  Jejun.  c. 
13).  Wiien  a  fast  was  continued  the  whole  day,  it  was 
entitled  Jejunium,  or  Jejunium  perfectum ;  and  when  it 
lasted  uutil  the  morning  of  the  following  day,  or  for 
several  days  together,  it  was  distinguished  by  the  title 
Supcrpositio  {inrsp^ijcnt:).  The  latter  kind  of  fasts  was 
commonly  observed  during  the  rjreui  week,  or  week  be- 
fore Easter;  but  it  was  not  strictly  peculiar  to  that  sea- 
son. It  exceeded  the  others  not  only  in  point  of  time, 
but  by  the  observance  of  additional  austerities,  such  as 
the  c.i]po(bayia,  or  lirintj!  on  dry  food,  namely,  bread, 
salt,  and  water,  taken  only  in  tlie  evening.  7.  There 
were  also  occasional  fasts,  appointed  by  ecclesiastical 
authority  in  times  of  great  danger,  emergency,  or  dis- 
tress (Cyprian,  Ep)ist.  8,  §  1 ;  57,  §  3 ;  TertuUian,  Ajjol. 
c.  40 ;  De  Jejun.  c.  13). 

III.  Practice  in  Modem  Times. — The  Christians  of 
the  Greelc  Church  observe/bwr  regular  fasts.  The  first 
commences  on  the  loth  day  of  November,  or  forty  days 
before  Christmas.  The  second  is  the  one  which  imme- 
diately precedes  Easter.  The  third  begins  the  week  af- 
ter Whitsunday,  and  continues  till  the  festival  of  St. 
Peter  and  Paul.  The  number  of  days,  therefore,  com- 
])rised  m  these  seasons  of  fasting  is  not  settled  and  de- 
termined, but  they  are  more  or  less  long,  according  as 
Whitsunday  falls  sooner  or  later.  The  fourth  fast  com- 
mences the  1st  of  August,  and  lasts  no  longer  than  tiU 
the  15th.  Thesa  fasts  are  observed  with  great  strictness 
and  austerity.  The  only  days  when  they  indulge  tliem- 
selves  in  drinking  wine  and  using  oil  are  Saturdays  and 
Sundays. 

In  the  English  Church  Lent  was  first  commanded  to 
be  observed  in  England  by  Ercombert,  seventh  king  of 
Kent,  before  the  year  800.  The  Lenten  fast  does  not 
embrace  all  the  days  included  between  Ash- Wednesday 
and  Easter,  for  the  Sundays  are  so  many  daj'S  above 
the  number  oi forty.  They  are  excluded  because  the 
Lord's  day  is  always  held  as  a  festiral,  and  never  as  a 
fast.  These  six  Sundays  are  therefore  called  Sundays 
in  Lent,  not  Sundays  of  Lent.  The  principal  days  of 
Lent  are  the  first  day  of  Lent  {Caput  Jejunii,  or  Dies 
Cinerum),  Ash- Wednesday,  and  the  Passion-week,  par- 
ticularly Thursday  and  Friday  in  that  week.  There  is 
also  a  solenni  ser\'ice  appointed  i'or  Ash-Wednesday,  un- 
der the  title  of  a  "  Commination  or  denouncing  of  God's 
angei  and  judgments  against  sinners.''  The  last  week 
of  Lent,  called  Passion-week,  has  always  been  considered 
as  its  most  solemn  season.  It  is  called  the  great  tceefc, 
for  the  important  transactions  which  are  then  commem- 
orated. 

Tlie  same  rules,  observations,  services,  etc.,  are  ob- 
served in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  America 
as  in  the  Church  of  England  during  the  solemn  season 
of  Lcut. 

In  nearly  all  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Lutheran  Church,  fasts  and  Lenten-sea- 
son rcmaiu  up  to  this  day  pretty  much  the  same  as  in 
the  lioman  Catholic  Church. 

See  Bellarmine,  Opera;  Bcrgicr,  Diciionnaire  de  Tht- 
olof/iv,  art.  Caremc;  Pascal,  La  Liturrjie  catholique,  s.  v.; 
Gfrimfs  Church  History ;  Hook,  Ch.  Diet.  s.  v.;  Eiddle, 
Christian  Antiquities,  p.  660,008;  UaW,  Harmony  (see 
Index);  Bible  and  Missal,  p.  170;  Walcott,  Sac.  Ar- 


clicEol.  p.  348 ;  Procter,  On  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p. 
250,  276,  277 ;  Wheatlcy,  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  217 
sq.     See  Fastino. 

Leutile  (only  in  the  plural  Ci'dl?',  adashim',  prob, 
from  an  obsolete  root  signifying  to  fodder ;  Sept.  (paKvc, 
Yulg.  Ie7is)  is  probably  a  correct  rendering  of  the  plant 
thus  designated  (Gen.  xxv,  34 ;  2  Sam.  xvii,  28 ;  xxiii, 
11;  Ezek.  iv,  9).  In  Syria  lentiles  are  stDl  called  in 
Arabic  addas  (Russel,  N.  H.  of  A  lepj^o,  i,  74).  They  ap- 
pear to  have  been  chiefiy  used  for  making  a  kind  of  pot- 
tage. The  7xd  pottage,  for  which  Esau  bartered  his 
birthright,  was  of  lentiles  (Gen.  xxv,  29-34).  The  term 
red  was,  as  with  us,  extended  to  yellowish-brown,  which 
must  have  been  the  true  color  of  the  pottage  if  derived 
from  lentiles,  being  that  of  the  seeds  rather  than  that  of 
the  pods,  which  were  sometimes  cooked  entire  (llishna, 
Skabb.  vii,  4).  The  Greeks  and  Komans  also  called  len- 
tiles red  (see  authorities  in  Celsius,  Hie?-obotanic.  i,  105). 
Lentiles  were  among  the  provisions  brought  to  David 
when  he  fled  from  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvii,  28),  and  a  field 
of  lentiles  was  the  scene  of  an  exploit  of  one  of  David's 
hei'oes  (2  Sam.  xxiii,  11).  From  Ezek.  iv,  9,  it  would 
appear  that  lentUes  were  sometimes  used  as  bread  (comp. 
Athen.  iv,  158).  This  was  doubtless  in  times  of  scarci- 
ty, or  by  the  poor  (compare  Aristoph.  Pluf.  1005).  Son- 
nini  {Travels,  p.  603)  assures  us  that  in  southernmost 
Egj'pt,  where  corn  is  comparatively  scarce,  lentiles  mix- 
ed with  a  little  barley  form  almost  the  only  bread  in 
use  among  the  poorer  classes.  It  is  called  bettan,  is  of  a 
golden  yelloiv  color,  and  is  not  bad,  although  rather 
heavy.  In  that  country,  indeed,  probably  even  more 
than  in  Palestine,  lentiles  anciently,  as  now,  formed  a 
chief  article  of  food  among  the  laboring  classes.  This 
is  repeatedl}'  noticed  by  ancient  authors ;  and  so  much 
attention  was  paid  to  the  culture  of  this  useful  pulse 
that  certain  varieties  became  remarkable  for  their  ex- 
cellence (comp.  Dioscor.  ii,  129).  The  lentiles  of  Pelu- 
sium,  in  the  part  of  Egypt  nearest  to  Palestine,  were 
esteemed  both  in  Egypt  and  foreign  countries  (Virgil, 
Georg.  i,  228),  and  this  is  probabh'  the  valued  Egyptian 
variety  which  is  mentioned  in  the  Mishna  {Kilaim, 
xviii,  8)  as  neither  large  nor  small.  Large  quantities 
of  lentiles  were  exported  from  Alexandria  (Augustine, 
Comm.  in  Psa.  xlvi).  VVmy,  in  mentioning  two  Egj-p- 
tian  varieties,  incidentally  lets  us  know  that  one  of  them 
was  red  (compare  Diog.  Laertius,  vii,  3),  by  remarking 
that  they  like  a  red  soil,  and  by  speculating  whether  the 
pulse  may  not  have  thence  derived  the  reddisli  color 
which  it  imparted  to  the  pottage  made  with  it  {Hisior. 
Natur.  xviii,  12).  This  illustrates  Jacob's  red  pottage. 
Dr.  Shaw  (i,  257)  also  states  that  these  lentiles  easily 
dissolve  in  boiling,  and  form  a  red  or  chocolate-colored 
pottage  much  esteemed  in  North  Africa  and  "\^'cstern 
Asia  (see  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  i,  409).  Dr.  Kitto 
also  says  that  he  has  often  partaken  of  red  pottage,  pre- 
pared by  seething  the  lentiles  in  water  and  then  adding 
a  little  suet  to  give  them  a  flavor,  and  that  he  found  it 
better  food  than  a  stranger  would  imagine ;  "  the  mess," 
he  adds,  "had  the  redness  which  gained  for  it  the  name 
of  adonC'  (Pict.  Bible,  Gen.  xxv,  30,  34).  Putting  these 
facts  together,  it  is  likely  that  the  reddish  lentile,  which 
is  now  so  common  in  Egypt  {Descripit.  de  VEgypte,  xix, 
65),  is  the  sort  to  Avhich  all  these  statements  refer.  The 
tomb -paintings  actually  exhibit  the  operation  of  pre- 
paring pottage  of  lentiles,  or,  as  Wilkinson  {Anc.  Egyp- 
tians, ii,  387  j  describes  it,  "  a  man  engaged  in  cooking 


Ancient  Kyj  pt.ai 


LENTILES 


348 


LENTULUS 


lentiles  for  a  soup  or  porridge;  liis  companion  brings  a  j 
bundle  of  fagots  for  the  fire,  and  the  lentiles  themselves 
are  seen  standing  near  him  in  wicker  baskets."  The 
lentiles  of  Palestine  have  been  little  noticed  by  travel-  j 
lers  (e.  g.  Burckhardt,  .1  rah.  p.  51 ).  Nau  (  Voi/ar/e  Xou- 
veaii,  p.  13)  mentions  lentiles  along  with  corn  and  peas, 
as  a  principal  article  of  traffic  at  Tortura ;  D'Arvieux 
(Mim.  ii,  237)  speaks  of  a  mosque,  originally  a  Chris- 
tian church,  over  the  patriarchal  tomb  at  Hebron,  con- 
nected with  which  was  a  large  kitchen  where  lentile 
pottage  was  prepared  every  day,  and  distributed  freely 
to  strangers  and  poor  people,  in  memory  of  the  transac- 
tion between  Esau  and  Jacob,  which  they  (erroneously) 
believe  to  have  taken  place  at  this  spot.  When  Dr. 
Kobinson  was  at  Akabah,  he  saj's:  "  The  commissary  in 
the'  castle  had  also  a  few  stores  for  sale  at  enormous 
prices,  but  we  bought  little  except  a  supply  of  lentiles, 
or  small  beans,  which  are  common  in  Egypt  and  Syria 
under  the  name  of  acldas  (the  name  in  Hebrew  and 
Arabic  being  alike) — the  same  from  which  the  pottage 
was  made  for  which  Esau  sold  his  birthright.  We 
found  them  very  palatable,  and  could  well  conceive  that, 
to  a  weary  hunter  liint  with  hunger,  they  might  be 
quite  a  dainty''  (^Bib.  Res.  i,  146).  Again,  when  at  He- 
bron, on  the  '2ith  of  May,  he  observes :  "  The  wheat  har- 
vest here  in  the  mountains  had  not  yet  arrived,  but  they 
were  threshing  barley,  addas  or  lentiles,  and  also  vetch- 
es, called  by  the  Arabs  kersuma,  which  are  raised  chiefly 
for  camels"  {Bib.  Res.  ii,  242). 

The  lentile  (Erviim  lens  of  Linna;us,  class  xvii,  3)  is 
an  annual  plant,  and  the  smallest  of  all  the  legumino- 
s;b  which  are  cultivated.  It  rises  with  a  weak  stalk 
about  eighteen  inches  high,  having  pinnate  leaves  at 
each  joint  composed  of  several  pairs  of  narrow  leaflets, 
and  terminating  in  a  tendril,  which  supports  it  by  fas- 
tening about  some  other  plant.      The  small  flowers, 


The  Lentile  (Ervuni  Lena),  with  enlarged  View  of  the  Pod 
and  Seed. 

which  come  out  of  the  sides  of  the  branches  on  short 
peduncles,  three  or  four  together,  are  purple,  and  are  suc- 
ceeded by  the  short  and  flat  legumes,  which  contain  two 
or  three  flat  round  seeds,  slightly  curved  in  the  middle 
(as  indicated  in  the  Latin  ^(';w,"\vhich  optical  science  has 
appropriated  as  a  name  for  circular  glasses  with  spheri- 
cxl  surfaces^  and  of  a  co!<ir  varying  from  tawny  red  to 
almost  black.    The  flower  appears  in  May,  and  the  seeds 


ripen  in  July.  When  ripe,  the  plants  are  rooted  up  if 
they  have  l)een  sown  along  with  other  ])lants,  as  is 
sometimes  done,  l)ut  they  are  cut  down  when  grown  by 
themselves.  They  are  threshed,  winnowed,  and  cleaned 
like  grain.  There  are  three  or  four  kinds  of  lentiles,  all 
of  which  are  still  much  esteemed  in  those  countries 
where  they  are  grown,  viz.,  the  south  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  Africa.  The  red  lentile  is  a  small  kind,  the 
seeds  of  which,  after  being  decorticated,  are  commonly 
sold  in  the  bazaars  of  India.  To  the  present  day  a  fa- 
vorite dish  among  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  is  len- 
tiles, mixed  with  their  unfailing  oil  and  garlic,  and  fla- 
vored with  spices  and  aromatic  herbs.  In  the  absence 
of  animal  food,  it  is  a  great  resource  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries during  the  season  of  Lent,  and  some  say  that  from 
hence  the  season  derives  its  name.  It  is  occasionally 
cultivated  in  England,  but  only  as  fodder  for  cattle  ;  it 
is  also  imported  from  Alexandria.  From  the  quantity 
of  gluten  the  ripe  seeds  contain,  they  must  be  highly 
nutritious,  though  they  have  the  character  of  being 
heating  if  taken  in  large  quantities.  Under  the  high- 
soimding  name  "  Ilevalenta  Arabica,"  we  pay  a  high 
price  for  lentile  flour,  and  in  various  culinary  prepara- 
tions are  unawares  relocating  Jacob's  pottage  (Playfair, 
Analysis;  Hogg,  IV^.  A'ln^rfom,  p.  275).  In  Egypt  the 
haulm  is  used  lor  packing. — Kitto  ;  Smith  ;  Eairbairn. 

Leutulus,  Epistle  of  {Epistola  Lentuli),  is  the 
w^ell-known  title  of  an  apocryphal  letter  on  the  phys- 
ical appearance  of  Christ,  which  the  Komish  Church 
receives  as  authentic,  and  as  having  been  written  by 
Publius  Lentulus,  a  Eoman  of  Palestine,  and  perhaps 
of  Jerusalem,  to  Rome.  Manuscrijit  copies  of  it  are  to 
be  found,  according  to  Joh.  Albert  Fabricius  (Cod.  apoc- 
ryp/i.  Novi  Testamenti,  i,  302),  in  several  libraries  of 
England,  France,  and  Italy  (viz.,  in  those  of  the  Vatican 
and  of  Padua),  Germany  (at  Augsburg  and  Jena,  ^vhere 
two  copies  formerly  existed,  one  of  which  was  embel- 
lished with  a  fine  image  of  Christ,  and  had  been  pre- 
sented to  the  elector  Frederick  the  Wise  by  pope  Leo  X). 
A  librarian  of  Jena,  Christopher  ]Mylius  {Memorab.  hib- 
lioth.  academ.  Jenensis,  Jen.  1746,  8vo,  p.  301  sq.),  states 
that  this  copy  was  written  in  golden  letters  upon  red 
paper,  very  richly  bound,  and  beautifully  illustrated. 
This  copy,  however,  is  lost.  The  work  was  first  printed 
in  the  Magdeburg  Centuries  (q.  v.)  (Basil.  1559),  i,  344; 
it  was  then  reproduced  in  Mich.  Neandri  Apocrypha 
(Basil.  1567),  p.  410  sq.,  afterwards  in  Joh.  Jac.  Grynjei 
Monunientas.Patrumorfhodox-Offrapha(Tiaisii.  1569,  fob). 
Joh.  Reiskius,  in  Exercitatt.  histor.  de  imaginibus  Jes, 
Chr.  rel.  (Jen.  1685,  4to),  gave  a  twofold  version  of  it, 
one  after  Grynseus,  the  other  a  reproduction  of  that  de- 
scribed by  Mylius.  This  epistle  was  highly  regarded  in 
former  times ;  the  papal  legate,  Jerome  Xavier,  trans- 
lated it  into  I'ortuguese  (in  his  historj-  of  Christ,  a  work 
fuU  of  legends  and  fables),  and  from  this  language  it 
was  subsequently  translated  into  Persian  ;  Reiske  and 
Fabricius  translated  it  into  German,  and  published  it  at 
Nurenberg  and  at  Erfurt.  It  is  also  to  be  found  in  a 
condensed  form  in  the  introduction  to  the  works  of 
archbishop  Anselm  of  CanterbiuTi',  which,  though  with- 
out date  or  name  of  place,  are,  from  internal  e^•idence, 
supposed  to  have  been  published  at  Paris  towards  the 
close  of  the  15th  or  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century; 
in  this  work  it  is  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the 
personal  apjiearance  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  In  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  Church  the  question  of  the  personal  appear- 
ance of  Christ  while  on  earth  had  begun  to  attract 
considerable  attention.  Had  there  been  anything  pos- 
itively known  on  the  subject  then,  it  woidd  certainly 
have  been  eagerly  received.  Yet,  although  the  Church 
fathers  Justin,  Tertullian,  Hegesippus,  and  Eusebius 
mention  a  letter  of  Pilate  to  Tiberius,  one  of  Abgarus 
to  Christ,  and  one  of  Jesus  to  Abgarus,  they  make  no 
mention  of  any  letter  of  Lentulus  concerning  Christ. 
On  the  contrary,  during  the  first  century,  while  the 
Christian  Church  was  suffering  persecution,  the  im- 
pression prevailed,  derived  from  Isa.  liii,  2,  3,  that  the 


LENTULUS 


349 


LENTULUS 


Lord's  personal  appearance  was  very  unprepossessing. 
But  as  the  Church  grew  in  prosperity  and  power  this 
idea  underwent  a  complete  change.  Eusebius  and  Au- 
gustine are  heard  to  complain  that  nothing  is  known  as 
to  the  Lord's  personal  appearance.  In  the  INIiddle  Ages 
a  directly  opposite  opinion  from  that  of  the  ancients  pre- 
vaileii,  anil  the  Lord  was  considered  as  having  been  an 
eminently  handsome  man,  which  opinion  was  only  based 
on  the  [passage  Psa.  xlv,  2.  In  the  works  of  the  Greek 
historian  Nicephorus  (surnamed  CaUistus  Xanthopu- 
lus),  who  lived  in  the  14th  century,  and  whom  Weis- 
mann  considers  a  credulous,  uncritical  writer,  we  find  a 
description  of  Christ's  personal  appearance,  for  which, 
however,  the  writer  gives  no  authority,  saying  only  that 
it  is  derived  from  the  ancients.  As  it  greatly  resembles 
that  of  Lcntulus,  and  perhaps  served  as  its  basis,  we  give 
it  here  as  a  curiosity  :  'H  fiEVTOi  SicnrXacric  r/)c  jiop<pT]Q 
Tov  Kvpiuv  I'lHoJi'  'h](jov  Xpi(TTOV,  (jjg  i'i,  ap\a'i(i)v  ttci- 
pti\i)(pafj.i]',  Toia  St  TLQ  ojg  tv  rvTrc^  napaXafitlv  ))i', 
wpcuog  i-itv  ))v  n)v  la^iv  (jrpocpa.  'Trjv  yt  fib'  i'i\tKiav 
h'lT  ovv  ui'aSpoixijv  tov  cnofiaroc,  itttci  arrt^cifiwr  1)1/ 
TiXdojv.  Eivi^ai'^ov  tx^ov  Tijv  Toixa  Kid  oh  ttco'V 
Santlav,  fjiuWov  [xiv  ouv  kui  Trpog  to  ouAoj/  f^itTp'noq 
TTuig  diroKkivovaav,  ^tKalvciQ  ck  yf  Tug  ocbpvg  hxs  k«( 
TO  TTc'iyv  tTTiKcti-nnlg,  Tovg  St  c^^aXfjiovg  ^npoTTOfc 
Twug  Kcd  i'lpi-ia  (sic  !)  tTTt'^apSrii^ovTccg,  tvo(pBaXi.tig  S' 
fjv  Kcd  tnippiv  T))v  piiVTOi  Tpixn  tou  Tcioywvog  Kap- 
Sr>)v  Tipd  tixfi  i^nl  oi'/c  tig  ttoXv  Ka^tii.itvtp>.  MciKpo- 
Tipav  Si  t))v  Tpixa  Ki<jia\i'jg  TTtpi'tiptptv  '  oiSiTTort  yap 
t,i>pcg  (tveji)]  tm  ti)v  KifaXijv  uiirov  oliSt  xsTp  c'uSrpoi- 
TTou,  Tr\i)i'  T)jg  /AijTpig  ciiiTov  vi]7rid'CovTog.  "Hptfia 
i—iK\ivi'ig  Ti)v  avxtva,  wg  /.ujSt  navv  opSiov,  Kai  iv- 
TiTcijji'tin]v  tx'-'v  Ti)v  ifKiKiav  tov  (HxJjiciTog  '  aiToxpovg 
ct  Kcd  ul<  (JTpoyyv\7]v  tx^ov  ti)i'  Sxpiv  tri'/y yrtrf)',  dW 
ux^TTtp  Tijg  jtijTpog  avrov  /iiicphv  VTTOKaTajicdvovffav, 
6/\('yo)^  c^{  tTrKponnaaojjBvi]!',  oaov  inroipaii'fiv  tv  (Tifi- 
vov  Tt  Ktd  TO  (TvvfTov  TOV  jj^-ovg  Kal  i'juipov  Kcd  TO 
KaTajraK  d6pyr]Tov.  Kara  TrctvTa  Si  iiv  t/Kptpijg  ti) 
Si'k}  Kill  Trcn'a<7Tri\<iJ  tKtivov  fj.7]Tpl.  Tavra  fiiv  tv 
TovToig.  Compare  the  articles  Christ,  Images  and 
PoRTHAiTs  OF ;  Jesus  Ciirist  (II,  11,  in  vol.  iv,  p.  884). 
The  same  tendency  jjrevailed  also  in  the  Western 
Church  until  the  Reformation,  when  Luther  took  a  more 
reasonable  view  of  the  question,  saying,  "  It  is  verj^ 
possible  that  some  may  have  been  as  handsome,  phys- 
ically, as  Christ.  Perhaps  some  M-ere  even  handsomer, 
for  we  do  not  see  it  mentioned  that  the  Jews  ever  won- 
dered at  his  beauty."  The  same  vie\v"  was  taken  by  a 
Roman  Catholic  writer  {In  libra  de  forma  Christi,  Paris, 
1649),  who  said  tliat  the  Redeemer  Was  not  either  ill 
favored  nor  more  handsome  tlian  other  men.  In  other 
cases,  however,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  lias  re- 
tained the  ideas  presented  in  the  epistle  of  Lentulus. 

If  we  now  look  more  closely  into  this  epistle  of  Len- 
tulus, we  find  in  the  edition  of  Grj-n:eus  (Monum.  ortho- 
doxof/rdpha)  that  it  reads,  "Lcntulus,  Hierosolymitano- 
rum  Prreses,  S.  P.  Q.  Romano  S. :  Apparuit  temporibus 
nostris  et  adhuc  est  homo  magna;  virtutis,  nominatus 
Christus  Jesus,  qui  dicitur  a  gentibus  propheta  veritatis, 
quem  ejus  discipuli  vocant  filium  Dei,  suscitans  mortuos 
ct  sanaus  languores  [MS.  Vatic.  "  languentes"].  Homo 
quiilem  staturre  procerae  [Goldast.  addit.  "scilicet  xv 
palmorum  et  medii"J,  spectabilis,  vultum  habens  vene- 
rabilem,  (piem  intuentes  possunt  et  diligere  et  formi- 
dare :  ('aiiillos  vcro  circinos,  crispos  aliquantum  cteru- 
liores  et  fulgentiores  [MS.  1  Jen.  "  Capillos  habens  co- 
loris  nucis  avellana;  pnvmatura;  et  pianos  uscpic  ad 
aures.  ab  auribus  vcro  circinos,  crispos  aliquantulum 
cteruliorcs  et  fulgentiores"],  ab  humeris  volitantes  [om- 
nes  alii:  " ventilantes"],  discrimen  habens  in  medio  ca- 
pitis juxta  morem  Xazarenorum  [Centur.  jNIagd.  et  An- 
selmi  opp.  "Nazarworum"J  :  frontem  planam  et  serenis- 
simam,  cum  facie  sine  ruga  (ac)  macula  alicpia.  quam 
rubor  moderatus  venustat.  Nasi  et  oris  nulhi  prorsus 
est  rcprehensio,  barbam  habens  copiosam  ct  rubram 
[fere  omnes  ahi :  "  impuberem"  j,  capillorum  colore,  non 
Ipngam   sed  bifurcatam  [omnes  addunt :  "adspectum 


habet  simplicem  et  maturum"],  oculis  variis  et  claris 
existentibus.  In  increpatione  terribilis,  in  admonitione 
placidus  [plurimi  alii:  "blandus"]  et  amabilis,  hilaris 
servata  gravitate,  qui  nunquam  visus  est  ridcre.  Here 
autem  sape.  »Sic  in  statura  corporis  propagatus  [jilu- 
rimi  alii  addimt :  "  et  rectus"]  manus  habens  ct  membra 
[ceteri  omnes:  "brachia"]  visu  delectabilia  in  cloquio 
[rectius  ceteri:  "coUoquio"]  gravis,  rarus  ct  modestus 
speciosus  inter  filios  hominum.  Talete  [Hoc  Yalete  de- 
est  in  rcliquis  MSS.  et  edd.]." 

The  very  contents  of  the  letter  are  sufficient  evidence 
of  its  spiu-iousness.  Had  it  really  been  written  by  a  Ro- 
man, it  would  not  have  been  addressed  to  the  senate, 
but  to  the  emperor,  who  was  the  immediate  master  of 
the  Syrian  provinces.  It  appears  that  this  objection 
was  already  noticed  in  former  times,  for  in  the  Magde- 
burg Centuries  it  is  said  to  have  been  addressed  to  the 
emperor  Tiberius.  A  fact  of  still  greater  importance 
is  that  Lentulus  is  designated  as  Jfierosolymitanorum 
presses.  No  such  office  existed.  There  was  a  Prases 
Syricc  and  a  Procurator  Judwm  but  no  Presses  of  the 
Roman  inhabitants  at  Jerusalem.  For  this  reason  he 
is  called  in  the  Manuscr.  Jen.  \,  Proconsul  in  partihus 
Jiidwcp,  and  in  the  Manuscr.  Vatic,  and  Jen.  ii,  in  a  thor- 
oughly Roman  Catholic  manner,  Qfficialis  in  p?-oviiicia 
Judcea,  while  there  was  no  such  office  known  in  Rome 
at  that  period.  But  he  is  nowhere  represented  as  a 
friend  of  Pilate,  as  Zimmermann  attempts  to  make  him 
in  his  Lehensfjeschichte  d.  Kirche  Christi,  i,  70.  V\'e  know 
most  of  the  proconsuls  or  praisides  of  Syria,  and  all  the 
procurators  of  Juctea.  but  none  of  them  was  named  Lcn- 
tulus. In  the  classics  there  are  forty-three  persons  of 
that  name  mentioned,  but  four  only  belonged  to  the 
times  of  Tiberius.  One  of  them  only,  Enreus  Lentulus 
Ga3tulicus,  was,  according  to  Tacitus  (.4  nn.  iv,4G),  in  the 
year  2G,  consul  with  Tiberius,  and  in  34  was  the  chief  of 
the  legions  in  upper  Germany  (Tacitus,  A  mud.  \i,  oO) ; 
he  may,  indeed,  according  to  Suetonius  {Calif/,  c.  8)  and 
Pliny  {Episl.  v,  3),  have  been  in  Judaea  during  the  years 
26  to  33,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Lentulus  who  wrote  the  epistle  is  expressly  called  in 
the  ]\IS.  Jen.  i,  Puhlius.  Moreover,  there  is  no  mention 
at  all  made  of  the  epistle  b}'  any  of  the  ancient  writers, 
whilst  other  epistles,  even  some  of  an  apocryphal  nature, 
are  mentioned  by  them,  and  this  one,  had  it  then  been 
known,  would  certainly  have  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  apologists  at  a  time  when  the  general  impression 
was  so  strong  against  the  fine  personal  appearance  of  the 
Lord.  Nicephorus  Xanthopulus,  whose  description  of 
Christ's  personal  appearance  we  gave  above,  states  only 
that  it  is  based  on  old  traditions,  while,  if  such  a  descrip- 
tion as  that  given  in  the  Epistle  of  Lentulus  had  been 
known  in  the  Greek  Church  in  the  14tli  century,  he 
would  certainly  not  have  failed  to  quote  it  as  an  author- 
ity. Regarding  the  literary  merits  of  the  work,  it  must 
be  confessed  that  it  is  written  in  old  Latin ;  but  as  it  is 
full  of  expressions  which  woidd  not  naturallj'  be  used  by 
a  Roman  citizen — as  the  whole  tenor  of  the  work,  more- 
over, is  thoroughly  unclassical,  it  is  to  be  supposed  tliat 
its  writer  aimed  to  imitate  the  style  of  the  ancients,  and 
pass  it  off  as  a  work  of  their  age.  A  Roman  would  nev- 
er have  used  the  expression  j>ro;;/(e/n  veritatis.  fdii  hom- 
inum, at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  epistle.  So 
also  the  appellation  Christus  Jesus  is  evidently"  taken 
from  the  New  Test.,  for  the  Redeemer  was  never  thus 
designated  during  his  lifetime.  Jesus  himself  declined 
the  name  of  Christ,  forbade  his  disciples  callii;g  him 
thus,  and  he  never  was  called  so  by  his  enemies.  How, 
then,  could  a  heathen  have  come  to  call  him  Christ,  end 
even  to  put  that  appellation  before  that  of  Jesus — a 
change  which  only  took  place  after  his  claim  to  he  con- 
sidered as  the  Messiah  had  been  established  beyond 
cavil.  If  it  is  claimed  that  Christ  was  called  by  the 
heathen  tlie  prophet  of  truth,  yet,  as  Christ's  activity 
during  liis  life  was  not  directed  towards  the  heathen  in 
general,  it  coidd  onlj'  apply  to  the  Romans  residing  iit 
Palestine.     Yet  these  we  do  not  find  to  liave  been  des- 


LEXTFLUS 


350 


LEO 


ignated  as  heathen,  but  as  Romans;  and  they  did  not 
interest  themselves  enough  in  the  wandering  Kabbi  to 
render  such  an  expression  general  among  them.  Nor 
was  it  otlierwise  with  the  heathen  residing  on  the  fron- 
tiers of  Palestine.  ''His  disciples  called  him  the  Son 
of  God."  Though  they  gave  him  occasionally  that  name, 
it  was  so  far  from  being  a  general  custom  that  the  gov- 
ernor himself  knew  nothing  of  it.  So  this,  like  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  on  the  raising  of  the  dead  and  healing 
of  the  sick,  is  all  taken  from  the  Gospel.  It  also  says 
that  his  hair  was  parted  after  the  manner  of  the  Naza- 
ritcs :  we  find  the  substitution  of  Nazarene  for  Nazarite, 
which  only  took  place  afterwards.  Now  a  Roman  officer 
would  know  little  or  nothing  about  the  Nazarites;  more- 
over, Christ  could  not  properly  be  called  a  Nazarite,  for 
he  drank  wine,  touched  the  dead,  and  did  many  other 
things  contrary  to  the  customs  of  the  Nazarites.  The 
remark  that  he  was  never  seeu  to  laugh,  but  often  to 
weep,  proves  him  to  have  led  a  solitary  life,  such  as 
we  have  no  example  of  at  the  supposed  time  of  the 
writing  of  this  epistle,  and  is  only  an  idea  derived  from 
the  Gospels,  and  from  the  state  of  things  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  last  words  also,  "  beautiful  among  the  sons 
of  men,"  are  quite  unsuited  to  tlie  mouth  of  a  Roman, 
who  would  never  have  made  use  of  such  a  Hebraism, 
and  it  is  clearly  taken  from  the  xlvth  Psalm,  which  is 
the  basis  of  the  whole  description.  This  consequently 
could  not  apply  to  our  Lentulus,  but  only  to  a  monk  of 
the  Middle  Ages. 

Having  thus  seen  how  this  epistle  carries  within  it- 
self the  proofs  of  its  spuriousness,  the  question  arises. 
When  was  it  written?  If  it  were  included  in  the  works 
of  Anselm,  we  would  have  to  consider  it  as  having  been 
composed  in  the  Uth  centur3^  Yet  it  is  simply  append- 
ed to  the  works  of  this  author,  and  was  never  made  use 
of  until  the  15th  century,  to  give  favor  to  an  opinion 
which  the  monks  had  an  interest  to  propagate.  Lau- 
rentius  Valla,  who  lived  in  the  loth  century,  -was  the 
first  who  made  any  mention  of  it  in  his  argument  against 
the  pseudo  donation  of  Constantine.  A  postscript  of 
great  interest  is  appended  to  the  2d  Jena  MS.,  and  it, 
in  our  estimation,  tends  to  reveal  the  true  character  of 
the  work :  "  Explicit  epistola  Jacobi  de  Columpna  anno 
Domini  14-21  reperit  eam  in  annalibus  Romte,  in  libro 
anti(iuissimo  in  Capitolio  ex  dono  Patriarchte  Constanti- 
nopolitani."  If  this  postscript  is  to  be  relied  on,  this 
epistle  was  sent  to  Rome  in  the  Uth  century  by  a  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  as  a  present,  just  as  it  was  after- 
wards sent  to  the  elector  Frederick  tlie  Wise  of  Saxony 
by  pope  Leo.  But  as  from  Constantinople  there  were 
generally  sent  Greek  MSS.  only,  and  as  there  is  no  men- 
tion made  of  the  name  of  the  patriarch  supposed  to  have 
sent  it,  and  as,  moreover,  the  work  is  claimed  to  be  a 
very  old  one,  it  is  most  likely  that  this  description  is  a 
Latin  translation  of  that  of  Nieephorus,  which  we  gave 
above,  that  the  translator  added  the  postscript  with  the 
intention  of  rendering  his  spurious  work  more  credible, 
and  that  consequently  both  epistle  and  postscript  are 
spurious.  Tlie  imitator  or  translator  of  Nicephorus,  who 
gives  ample  jiroofs  in  his  work  of  the  source  whence  he 
tb-ew  when  he  speaks  of  the  stature  of  Christ  (in  a  copy 
in  (Joldast  we  find,  after  statitra  procerus, "  scilicet  xv 
palniorum  et  medii"),  gave  the  work  the  form  of  an  epis- 
tle, aud  gave  it  the  name  of  Lentulus,  taken  from  some 
tradition,  or  which  otherwise  seemed  suitable  to  him. 
It  is  now  evident  that  the  epistle  could  only  have  been 
written  at  some  lime  after  Nicei)horns,  and  before  the 
3-car  l.')0(t,  consequently  in  the  lltli  centurv.  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Robinson,  after  carefully  examining  all  flie  evi- 
dences for  and  against  the  authenticity  of  this  work, 
thus  ijrcsents  the  results  of  Ids  iniiuiry  ;  ''  In  favor  of  the 
autlu-nticity  of  the  letter  we  have  only  tlie  purport  of 
the  inscription.  There  is  no  external  evidence  what- 
ever. Afjainst  its  authenticity  we  have  'the  great  dis- 
crc])ancies  and  contradictions  of  the  inscription;  the 
fact  that  no  such  official  person  as  Lentulus  existed  at 
the  time  and  place  specified,  nor  for  many  years  before 


and  after ;  the  ntter  silence  of  history  in  respect  to  the 
existence  of  such  a  letter;  the  foreign  and  later  idioms 
of  its  style ;  the  contradiction  in  which  the  contents  of 
the  epistle  stand  with  estal)lished  historical  facts;  and 
the  probability  of  its  having  been  produced  at  some 
time  not  earlier  than  the  11th  centurj-."  See  Job.  Be- 
ned.  Carpzov,  Theolo(ji  IJelmstadiensis  protjrumma  :  de 
oris  et  corporis  Jesu  Christi,  etc.  (Helmstadt,  1774, 4to) ; 
Joh.  Phil.  Gabler,  Theologus  A  Itorfeiisis  an.  1819  ami  18-22 
in  A  uthentiam  epistolte  PuUii  Lentuli  ad  Senatum  Roma- 
num  de  Jesu  Christo  scriptxe  ;  Herzog,  Reul-Encyklopd- 
die,  viii,  29-2  sq. ;  Dr.  Robinson  in  Biblical  RejMsitory,  ii, 
367;  Schalf,  6'A. //isMii,  569 ;  Jamieson,  0«rZo?-(/,  i,  35; 
Friends^  Review,  March  3,  1867,  p.  769  sq.  See  Jesus 
Chkist. 

Leo  OF  AcHRis  or  Achridia  (now  Ohl-rida,  in  Al- 
bania), was  so  called  because  he  held  the  archbishopric 
of  Achris,  in  the  Greek  Church,  among  the  Bulgarians. 
He  joined  about  A.D.  1053,  with  Michael  Cerularius,  pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  in  writing  a  very  bitter  letter 
against  the  pope,  which  they  sent  to  John,  archbishop 
of  Trani,  in  Apulia,  to  be  distributed  among  tlie  mem- 
bers of  the  Latin  Church — prelates,  monks,  laity.  A 
translation  of  this  letter  is  given  by  Baronius  (Annal, 
Eccles.  ad  ann.  1053,  xxii,  etc.).  Pope  Leo  IX  replied  in 
a  long  letter,  which  is  given  in  the  Concilia  (vol.  ix,  col. 
949,  etc.,  ed.  Labbe ;  vol.  vi,  col.  927,  ed.  Hardouin ;  vol. 
xix,  col.  035,  ed.  Mansi),  and  the  following  year  both 
Cerularius  and  Leo  of  Achris  were  excommunicated  by 
cardinal  Humbert,  the  papal  legate  (Baronius,  ad  ann. 
1054,  xxv).  Leo  wrote  many  other  letters,  which  are 
extant  in  ISIS,  in  various  European  libraries,  and  are 
cited  by  Allatius,  in  his  De  Consensu  Eccles.  Orient,  et  Oc- 
cident. ;  hy  Beveridgc,  in  his  Codex  Canonum ;  by  Alex- 
is Aristenus,  in  his  Synopsis  Epistolarum  Canonicarum ; 
and  by  Comnenus  Popadopoli,  in  his  Prceiwtiones  Mys- 
tagogicce.  See  ¥abr\.c\.u»,  Biblioth.  Grmca,  ii,  715;  Cave, 
Uist.  Litt.  ii,  138,  ed.  Oxon.  1740 ;  Oudin,  De  Scripiorib. 
et  Script  is  Eccles.  ii,  003. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man Biog.  ii,  741. 

Leo  jEgypth-s,  or  the  Egyptian.  The  early  Chris- 
tian writers,  in  their  controversy  with  the  heathen,  re- 
fer not  unfrequently  to  a  Leo  or  Leon  as  having  admit- 
ted that  the  deities  of  the  ancient  Gentile  nation  had 
originally  been  men,  agreeing  in  this  respect  with  Eve- 
merus,  with  -whom  he  was  contemporary,  if  not  per- 
haps rather  earlier.  Augustine  (^De  Consensu  Evangel, 
i,  33,  and  De  Cir.  Dei,  viii,  5),  who  is  most  explicit  in 
his  notice  of  him,  says  he  was  an  Egyptian  priest  of 
high  rank,  "  magnus  antistes,"  and  that  he  expounded 
the  popular  mythology  to  Alexander  the  Great  in  a 
manner  which,  though  differing  from  those  rationalistic 
explanations  received  in  Greece,  accorded  with  them  in 
making  the  gods  (including  even  the  Dii  majorum  gen- 
tium) to  have  originally  been  men.  Augustine  refers 
to  an  account  of  the  statements  of  Leo  contained  in  a 
letter  of  Alexander  to  his  mother.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
though  Leo  was  high  in  his  priestly  rank  at  tlie  time 
when  Alexander  was  in  Egypt  (B.  C.  33-2-331),  his  name 
is  Greek ;  and  Arnobius  {adv.  Gentes,  iv,  29)  calls  him 
Leo  Pellwus,  or  Leo  of  Pella.  an  epithet  which  Fabricius 
does  not  satisfactorily  explain.  \\'orth  {Not.  ad  Tatian. 
p.  96,  ed.  Oxford,  1700)  would  identity  our  Leo  with  Leo 
of  Lampsacus,  the  husband  of  Themista  or  Thcmisto.  the 
female  Epicurean  (Diog.  Lacrt.  x,  5,  25);  Init  tlie  hus- 
liaud  of  Themista  was  more  correctly  called  Lconteus, 
while  the  Egyptian  is  never  called  by  any  other  name 
than  Leo.  Arnobius  speaks  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  us 
to  think  that  in  his  day  the  writings  of  Leon  on  the  hu- 
man origin  of  the  gods  were  extant  and  accessible,  but 
it  is  possible  he  refers,  like  Augustine,  to  Alexander's  let- 
ter.  The  reference  to  Leon  in  Clemens  Alexandrinus 
is  not  more  exjilicit  {Stromata,  i.  21.  §  106,  p.  139,  Syl- 
burg  ;  p.  382,  edit.  Pott ;  ii,  75,  edit.  Klotz,  Lipsi;r,  1831, 
l"2mo).  But  Tatian's  distinct  mention  of  the  'VTrojurr/- 
ftara,  or  Commentaries  of  Leo,  shows  that  this  system 


LEO 


351 


LEO 


had  been  committed  to  writing  by  himself;  and  Tertul- 
lian  (Z>e  Corona,  Q.l)  directs  his  readers  "to  unroll  the 
writings  of  Leo  the  Egyptian."  Hj'ginus  (Poeticoti  A  s- 
ironomicon,  c.  20)  refers  to  Leon  as  though  he  wrote  a 
history  of  Egypt  ("  Qui  res  iEgj'ptiacus  scripsit") ;  and 
the  scholiast  on  ApoUonius  Rhodius  (iv,  262)  gives  a  ref- 
erence liere  to  what  Leon  hatl  said  respecting  the  antiq- 
uity of  the  Egyptians,  probably  depending  upon  the 
statements  of  Alexander.  See  Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grcvca, 
vii,  71B,  719;  xi,  664;  Voss,  De  Hist.  Grcec.  libri  iii,  p. 
179,  eilit.  Amsterdam,  1699. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and 
Romtm  Biofj.  ii,  742. 

Leo  DiACoNUS,  or  the  Deacon,  a  Bj'zantine  histo- 
rian of  the  10th  century,  of  whose  personal  history  but 
little  is  known,  except  tlie  incidental  notices  in  his  prin- 
cipal works  (collected  by  C.  B.  Hase  in  his  PraJ'atio  to 
his  edition  of  Leo),  was  born  at  Caloe,  a  town  of  Asia, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  side  or  foot  of  Mount  Traolus, 
near  the  sources  of  the  Caystrus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was 
at  Constantinople  pursuing  his  studies  A.D.  966,  where 
he  was  an  admiring  spectator  of  the  firmness  of  the  em- 
peror Nicephorus  II,  Phocas,  in  the  midst  of  a  popular 
tumidt  (iv-,  7).  Hase  places  his  birth  in  or  about  A.D. 
950.  He  was  in  Asia  in  or  about  the  time  of  the  depo- 
sition of  Basilius  I,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  the 
election  of  his  successor,  Antonius  III,  A.D.  973  or  974, 
and  relates  that  at  that  time  he  freciuently  saw  two 
Cappadocians,  twins  of  thirty  years'  age,  whose  bodies 
were  united  from  the  armpits  to  the  flanks  (x,3).  Hav- 
ing been  ordained  deacon,  he  accompanied  the  emperor 
Basilius  II  in  his  unfortunate  expedition  against  the 
Bulgarians,  A.D.  981,  and  when  the  emperor  raised  the 
siege  of  Tralitza  or  Triaditza  (the  ancient  Sardica),  Leo 
barely  escaped  death  in  the  heacUong  flight  of  his 
countrymen  (x,  8).  Of  his  history  after  this  nothing  is 
known;  but  Hase  observes  he  must  have  written  his 
history  after  A.D.  989,  as  he  adverts  to  the  rebellion  and 
death  of  Phocas  Bardas  (x,  9),  which  occurred  in  that 
year.  He  must  have  lived  later  than  Hase  has  remark- 
ed, and  at  least  till  A.D.  993,  as  he  notices  (x,  10)  that 
the  emperor  Basilius  II  restored  "  in  six  years  the  cu- 
pola of  the  great  church  (St.  Sophia's)  at  Constantinople, 
which  had  been  overthrown  by  the  earthquake  (comp. 
Cedren.  Compend.  ii,  438,  ed.  Bonn)  of  A.D.  987."  His 
works  are, 'laropi'a  Bi/SAi'otc  ^,  or  Ilistoria  libris  decern : 
— Oralio  ad  Basilium  Imperatorem  : — and,  unless  it  be 
the  work  of  another  Leo  Diaconus,  Ilomilia  in  Miclue- 
Iceni  A  rchangelium.  The  two  last  are  extant  only  in 
MS.  The  history  of  Leo  includes  the  period  from  the 
Cretan  expedition  of  Nicephorus  Phocas,  in  the  reign 
of  liomanus  II,  A.D.  959.  to  the  death  of  John  I,  Tzi- 
misccs,  A.D.  975.  It  relates  the  victories  of  the  emper- 
ors Nicephorus  and  Tzimisces  over  the  Mohammedans 
in  Cilicia  and  Syria,  and  the  recovery  of  those  coun- 
tries, or  the  greater  part  of  them,  to  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire, and  the  wars  of  the  same  emperors  with  the  Bul- 
garians and  Kussians.  According  to  Hase,  Leo  emploj's 
unusual  and  unappropriate  words  (many  of  them  bor- 
rowed from  Homer,  Agathias  the  historian,  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint)  in  the  place  of  simple  and  common  ones,  and 
abounds  in  tautological  phrases.  His  knowledge  of  ge- 
ography and  ancient  history  is  slight,  but  with  these  de- 
fects his  history  is  a  valuable  contemporary^  record  of  a 
stirring  time,  honestly  and  fearlessly  written.  Scylit- 
zes  and  Cedrenus  are  much  indebted  to  Leo,  and  Hase 
considers  Zonaras  also  to  have  used  his  work.  The 
Ihslorid  was  first  published  at  the  cost  of  count  Nicho- 
las Komanzof,  chancellor  of  Kussia,  by  Car.  Bened.  Hase 
(Paris,  1818).  Combefis  had  intended  to  publish  it  in 
the  Paris  edition  of  Corpiis  Historice  Byzantince,  with 
the  Ilistoria.  of  Michael  Psellus,  but  was  prevented  by 
death,  A.D.  1679.  The  Latin  version  which  he  had  pre- 
pared was  commmiicated  by  Jlontfaucon  to  Pagi,  vvho 
inserted  some  portions  in  his  Critice  in  Baronium  (ad 
ann.  960,  No.  ix).  The  papers  of  Combetis  were,  many 
years  after,  committed  to  Michael  le  Quien,  that  he 
might  publish  an  edition  of  Psellus  and  Leo,  and  part 


of  the  latter's  work  was  actually  printed.  In  the  disor- 
ders of  the  French  Eevolution  the  papers  of  Combefis 
were  finally  lost  or  destroyed.  Hase,  in  his  edition,  add- 
ed a  Latin  version  and  notes  to  the  text  of  Leo,  and  il- 
lustrated it  by  engravings  from  ancient  gems :  this  edi- 
tion is,  however,  scarce  and  dear,  the  greater  part  of  the 
copies  having  been  lost  by  shipwreck,  but  his  text,  pref- 
ace, version,  and  notes  (not  engravings)  have  been  re- 
printed in  the  Bonn  ed.  of  the  Corpus  Hist.  Byzanthm 
(1828, 8vo).  See  Fabricius,  Bill.  Graca,  vii,  684,  note  1 ; 
Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  ii,  106;  Hase,  Prff/'«?to  ad  Leon  Dincon. 
Historian.— ^xn\\h,  Did.  ofGr.  and  Rom.  Biorj.  ii,  743  sq. 

Leo  THE  Great.  See  Leo  the  Thkacian  (empe- 
ror) and  Leo  I  (pope). 

Leo  the  Isaurian  is  the  name  which  is  common- 
ly given  in  history  to  Leo  III  or  Flavils  Leo  Isau- 
Kus,  emperor  of  Constantinople  from  the  year  718  to 
741,  a  man  remarkable  on  many  accounts,  but  who,  from 
his  connection  with  the  great  contest  about  image-wor- 
ship in  the  Christian  Church,  became  one  of  the  most 
prominent  historical  names  among  the  emperors  of  the 
East. 

1.  Early  History. — He  was  born  in  or  on  the  borders 
of  the  rude  province  of  Isauria,  and  his  original  name 
was  Conon.  He  emigrated  with  his  father,  a  wealthy 
farmer  or  grazier  of  that  country,  to  Tlirace.  Young 
Conon  obtained  the  place  of  spatharius,  or  broadswords- 
man,  in  the  army  of  .Justinian  II,  and  soon,  by  his  mili- 
tary talents,  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  emperor,  as  he 
drew  the  eyes  of  the  people,  and  especially  of  the  sol- 
diers, towards  him  as  one  fitted  to  command,  and  compe-  # 
tent  even  for  the  empire.  He  was  sent  forward,  there- 
fore, with  a  few  troops,  against  the  Alani,  and  then  aban- 
doned by  the  emperor  without  succor,  in  the  hope  that 
he  would  be  cut  off  and  destroyed,  but  from  this  critical 
position  Leo  extricated  himself  with  consummate  dex- 
terity and  courage.  Anastasius  II  (A.D.  713-716)  gave 
him  the  supreme  command  of  the  troops  in  Asia,  which 
was  exposed  to  the  terrible  onslaughts  of  the  Arab  or 
Saracen  hordes,  by  whom  it  had  already  been  half  over- 
run and  conquered.  This  command  was  still  in  his 
hands  when  Theodosius  HI,  at  the  beginning  of  716, 
rose  against  Anastasius,  deposed  him,  and  seated  him- 
self upon  the  throne.  Leo,  being  summoned  to  ac- 
knowledge Theodosius,  at  once  denounced  him  as  a 
usurper,  and  attacked  him  under  pretext  of  restoring 
the  rightful  sovereign  to  the  throne,  but  probably  with 
the  design  of  seizing  for  himself  the  imperial  dignity. 
He  secured  the  support  of  the  principal  leaders  in  the 
army,  readied  the  imperial  troops  before  they  could  be 
gathered  in  sufficient  force  to  resist  him,  and  slew  them. 
At  Nicomedia  he  met  the  son  of  Theodosius,  whom  he 
defeated  and  captured.  He  next  marched  direct  upon 
Constantinople,  and  Theodosius,  seeing  no  hope  of  resist- 
ance, quietly  resigned  his  sceptre  in  March,  718,  and  re- 
tired into  a  convent,  while  the  vacant  throne  was  forth- 
with occupied  by  Leo  himself,  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
troops. 

2.  Imperial  History. — No  sooner  was  Leo  arrayed  in 
the  purple  than  the  caliph  Soleiman,  together  with  the 
noted  Moslima,  appeared  before  Constantinople  with  an 
immense  and  enthusiastic  army,  supported  by  a  pow- 
erful fleet,  determined  to  retrieve  their  sullied  fame. 
The  city  was  invested  by  sea  and  land,  and  its  cajiture 
was  considered  certain  ;  but  the  indefatigable  energy, 
military  skill,  and  fearless  courage  of  Leo,  aided  by  the 
new  invention  of  the  Greek  fire,  saved  the  capital  from 
falling,  five  centuries  before  its  time,  into  the  hands  of 
the  Moslems.  The  superstitious  people  ascribed  their 
deliverance  to  the  constant  interposition  of  the  Virgin, 
in  which  they  gave  the  greatest  possible  praise  to  the 
genius  of  Leo.  This  third  (Gil)bon  calls  it  tlie  second) 
siege  of  Constantinople  by  the  Saracens  lasted  precisely 
two  years  (Gibbon  calls  it  tliirteen  months)  from  the 
loth'of  August,  718.  On  the  15th  of  August,  720,  the 
caliph  (now  Omar,  who  had  succeeded  Soleiman  shortly 


LEO 


352 


LEO 


after  the  commencement  of  the  siege)  was  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege,  losing  in  a  storm  the  greater  part  of  the 
remnants  of  his  third  fleet  before  reaching  the  harbors 
of  Syria  and  Egypt.  So  close  had  been  tlie  investment 
of  tlic  city,  so  enormous  the  preparations,  and  so  loud 
the  boasts  of  the  Saracens,  that  in  the  provinces  Con- 
stantinople was  given  up  as  lost,  notwithstanding  all 
the  splendid  victories  of  Leo,  for  the  very  news  of  those 
victories  had  been  intercepted  by  the  vigilant  blockade 
of  tlie  besiegers.  The  whole  empire  was  in  consterna- 
tion, and  in  the  West  the  rumor  was  credited  that  the 
cali])!)  had  actually  ascended  the  throne  of  Byzantium. 
Accordingly,  Sergius,  governor  of  Sicily,  took  measures 
to  make  himself  independent,  and  to  secure  the  crown 
for  himself  in  case  of  complete  success;  but  Leo  imme- 
diately dispatched  a  small  force  to  Sicily,  which  soon 
crushed  the  rebellion.  The  deposed  monarch  Anasta- 
sius,  also,  was  tempted  to  plot  the  recovery  of  the  throne, 
and  in  the  attempt  lost  his  life.  In  spite  of  his  defeats 
before  Constantinople,  Omar  continued  the  war  for  twen- 
ty years ;  and  though,  in  726,  he  captured  Cresarea  in 
Cappadocia,  and  Neo-Cajsarea  in  Pontus,  yet  Leo  main- 
trineil  an  acknowledged  superiority.  The  great  work  of 
ecclesiastical  reform  occupied  the  attention  of  the  em- 
pire, without  any  considerable  interruption  from  the  in- 
lidels,  until  the  year  734.  What  belongs  to  this  chap- 
ter of  domestic  history,  though  it  includes  elements  and 
facts  of  political  and  military  significance,  is  reserved 
for  the  next  head.  Daring  the  last  seven  years  of  Leo's 
reign  (from  734)  falls  the  protracted  life-struggle  with 
the  Saracens.  The  caliph  Ilesham  instigated  the  Syr- 
ians to  support  an  adventurer  who  pretended  to  be  the 
son  of  Justinian  II,  and  who,  under  the  protection  of  the 
caliph,  entered  Jerusalem  arrayed  in  the  imperial  pur- 
ple. This  proved  a  mere  farce.  But  something  more  se- 
rious happened  when,  in  739,  the  Arab  general  Soleirnan 
invaded  the  empire  with  an  army  of  90,000  men,  dis- 
tributed into  three  bodies.  The  first  entered  Cappado- 
cia,  and  ravaged  it  with  fire  and  sword ;  the  second,  com- 
manded by  INIalek  and  Batak,  penetrated  into  Phrygia  ; 
the  third,  under  Solciman,  covered  the  rear.  Leo  was 
actually  taken  by  surprise ;  but  he  soon  assembled  an 
army  and  defeated  the  second  body,  in  Phrygia,  in  a 
pitched  battle,  and  obliged  Soleiman  to  withdraw  hastily 
into  Syria.  The  Saracens  had,  in  the  mean  time,  been 
routed  in  their  invasion  of  Europe  by  Charles  !Martel  in 
732,  and  the  progress  of  their  conquests  seemed  now  for 
some  time  to  be  checked  both  in  the  East  and  in  the 
West.  The  remaining  great  event  of  Leo's  reign  was 
the  terrible  earthquake  of  October,  740,  which  caused 
great  calamities  throughout  the  empire. 

3.  TI(e  Iconoclastic  Controversy. — In  this  business  Leo 
would  seem  to  have  begun  of  his  own  motion,  and  almost 
single-handed.  No  party  of  any  account  against  image- 
worship  existed  in  the  Church,  but  he  believed  that  by 
taking  the  side  of  ieonoclasra  he  coiild  hasten  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  and  though  at 
first  very  cautious,  he  finally,  after  some  nine  or  ten 
years  of  his  reign,  issued  his  edict  prohibiting  the  wor- 
ship of  all  images,  whether  statues  or  pictures,  of  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  or  the  saints.  Christendom  was  astounded 
by  this  sudden  proscription  of  its  then  common  religious 
usages.  See  Icoxoclasm.  Leo,  in  fact,  found  arrayed 
against  him  not  only  the  bigoted  and  exasperated  mo- 
nastics, but  the  superstitious  masses  of  the  people  of  the 
East  and  West,  and  almost  all  the  clergy,  with  all  the 
bishops,  excepting  Claudius,  bishop  of  Nacolia  in  Phrv- 
gia,  and  Theodosius,  metropolitan  of  Kpliesus,  and  per- 
haps two  or  three  more.  Even  (iermanus,  bishop  of 
Constantinople,  joincii  with  (iregory  II  of  liome  in  the 
imiversal  outcry  against  the  emperor's  attempt,  and  thus, 
almost  for  the  first  time,  the  bishops  of  the  two  Pomes 
were  (like  Pilate  and  Ileroc])  united  in  one  common 
cause.  Whether  pmvoked  by  the  violence,  and  unrea- 
sonableness, and  relK'Uious  spirit  of  the  opposition,  or 
prompted  by  a  growing  zeal  for  the  purity  of  religion,  or 
by  the  obstinacy ^f  personal  pride  and  arbitrary  power, 


I  or  guided  by  considerations  of  presumed  policj',  or  from 
!  whatever  motives,  the  emperor  soon  after  issued  a  sec- 
I  ond  edict  far  more  stringent  and  decisive.  It  command- 
ed the  total  destruction  of  all  images  (or  statues  intend- 
ed for  worship)  and  the  effacement  of  all  pictures  by 
whitewashing  the  walls  of  the  churches.  The  image- 
worshippers  were  maddened.  The  officer  who  attempt- 
ed, in  Constantinople,  to  execute  the  edict  upon  a  statue 
of  Christ  renowned  for  its  miracles,  was  assaulted  by  the 
women  and  beaten  to  death  with  clubs.  The  emperor 
sent  an  armed  guard  to  suppress  the  tumult,  and  a 
frightful  massacre  was  the  consequence.  Leo  was  re- 
garded as  no  better  than  a  Saracen.  Even  his  successes 
against  the  common  foe  were  ingeniously  turned  against 
him.  A  certain  Cosmas  was  proclaimed  emperor  in 
Leo's  stead,  a  fleet  was  armed,  and  Constantinople  itself 
Avas  menaced ;  but  the  fleet  was  destroj^ed  by  tlie  Greek 
fire,  the  insurrection  was  suppressed,  the  leaders  either 
fell  or  were  executed  along  with  the  usurper.  A  second 
revolt  at  Constantinople  was  not  suppressed  till  after 
much  bloodshed.  Everywhere  in  the  empire  the  monks 
were  busy  instigating  and  fomenting  rebellion.  Germa- 
nus,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  already  an  octogenarian, 
as  he  could  not  conscientiously  aid  in  the  execution  of 
tlie  imperial  decree,  quietly  retired,  or  suffered  himself 
to  be  removed  from  his  see.  Not  quite  so  peaceful  was 
the  position  pope  Gregory  II  of  Kome  assumed.  Fol- 
lowing the  bent  of  his  own  superstitious  character,  he 
seized  the  opportunity  when  the  emperor  had  his  hands 
full  with  seditious  tumults  and  disturbances  at  home, 
and,  confidently  relying  upon  the  support  of  the  igno- 
rant, and  monk-ridden,  and  half-Christianized  popula- 
tion of  the  West,  dispatched  to  the  emperor  two  most 
arrogant  and  insolent  letters,  and  condemned  in  unmeas- 
ured terms  his  war  upon  images  as  a  war  upon  the 
Christian  religion  itself.  The  emperor  ordered  the  ex- 
arch of  Kavenna  to  march  upon  Pome  ;  but  the  pope,  by 
the  aid  of  the  Lombards,  compelled  him  to  retire,  and 
he  had  enough  to  do  to  maintain  himself  even  at  home. 
In  fact,  he  was  reduced  to  live  in  one  quarter  of  Paven- 
na  as  a  sort  of  captive  ;  and  finaUy  Gregory  III,  the  suc- 
cessor of  Gregorj"-  II,  in  731  held  a  council  at  Pome  in 
■vvhich  the  Iconoclasts  were  anathematized.  The  empe- 
ror hereupon  sent  a  formidable  expedition  against  Italy, 
with  special  orders  to  reduce  Ravenna.  The  expedition, 
however,  failed,  and  Ravenna,  with  the  Exarchate,  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Lombards,  and  thus  Italy  and  the 
pope  became  practically  independent  of  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. Leo  now  only  sought  the  accomplishment  of  one 
object,  viz.,  the  detachment  of  Greece,  Illyria,  and  Mace- 
donia from  the  spiritual  authority  of  the  popes,  and  he 
consequently  annexed  them  to  that  of  the  patriarchs  of 
Constantinople,  and  this  created  the  real  effective  cause 
of  the  final  schism  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches 
(734).  The  pope  henceforth  never  submitted  to  the 
emperor,  nor  did  he  ever  recover  the  lost  portions  of  his 
patriarchate.  Meantime,  from  the  East,  another  voice 
joined  in  the  fray — John  of  Damascus.  He  issued  his 
fidminations  against  the  emperor  securely  from  under 
the  protection  of  the  caliphs,  who  were  more  jjleased 
with  the  attacks  upon  Leo  than  scandalized  by  the  de- 
fence of  image  worship.  See  John  ok  Damascus,  It 
was  in  the  midst  of  this  wild  and  protracted  controversy 
that  Leo  died  of  dropsy  in  741,  and  left  to  his  son  the 
accomplishment  of  a  taslv  -wliich  he  had  hoped  he  would 
himself  effect. 

As  to  the  controversy  itself,  one  of  the  strongest 
points  ever  made  against  the  position  of  Leo  is  that  he 
attacked  the  fine  arts,  and  sought  to  destroy  and  abolish 
all  the  beauty  and  ornamentation  of  tlie  Christian  edi- 
fices. On  this  ground  an  earnest  ajjpeal  has  been  made 
against  him,  and  .against  all  opponents  of  image  wor- 
ship, in  the  interests  of  esthetics.  Even  Neander  seems 
(piite  to  take  sides  with  Gregory  against  the  barbarian 
emperor  in  this  point  of  view.  But,  in  the  first  place, 
it  is  by  no  means  historically  certain  that  Leo  proceeded 
to  any  such  lengths,  or  with  any  such  motives,  in  his 


LEO 


353 


LEO 


iconoclasm.  He  proposed  simply  to  destroy  objects  of 
worship.  He  made  no  war  upon  beauty  or  art.  If,  in 
accomplishing  his  juirpose,  in  the  face  of  the  furious  op- 
position he  met  with,  he  was  carried  fiu-ther,  it  was  not 
strange,  especially  considering  his  education,  the  great 
difficulty  of  making  nice  distinctions  in  such  cases  and 
under  such  circumstances,  and  the  known  propensity  of 
human  nature  to  run  to  extremes  in  the  heat  of  contro- 
versy and  conflict.  Many  of  the  holiest  and  most  or- 
thiiddx  of  the  early  fathers  would  have  proscribed  all 
classical  learning,  lest  with  it  the  classical  paganism 
should  be  imbibed.  But,  in  fact,  neither  Gregory  nor 
the  monks  defended  the  use  of  images  on  esthetic 
grounds,  and  if  they  had  they  would  have  compromised 
their  whole  cause.  It  was  not  at  all  the  beauty  of  the 
statue,  but  the  sacred  object  represented,  which  gave  it 
its  meaning  and  value.  Churches  might  be  made  as 
beautiful  and  decorated  as  highly  as  possible  without 
the  people's  adoring  or  bowing  down  to  the  chiu-ch,  or 
its  altar,  or  its  ornaments.  Besides,  it  is  not  probable 
that  the  images  or  the  pictures  of  Leo's  time  were  any 
verv  admirable  specimens  of  esthetic  achievemeiit;  and, 
if  they  had  been,  it  is  not  likely  that  they  Avould  have 
attracted  the  reverence  of  the  vulgar  so  much  as  thej' 
did.  Artistic  perfection  tends  rather  to  distract  and 
dissipate  than  to  intensify  the  religious  reverence  for 
images.  With  the  development  of  Grecian  art  Grecian 
idolatry  lost  its  hold.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the 
ugliest,  and  most  misshapen,  and  hideous  idols  among 
the  heathen  have  secured  the  widest  and  inteusest  de- 
votion; and  among  the  Christians,  it  has  been  some 
winking  or  bleeding  statue,  rudely  imitating  the  human 
form,  and  not  some  Sistine  Madonna,  that  has  bent  the 
knees  of  adoring  multitudes.  The  image  whose  toe  is 
now  devoutly  kissed  by  the  faithful  at  St.  Peter's,  in 
Rome,  is  not  remarkable  for  its  esthetic  claims.  If  Leo 
was  a  barbarian,  Gregory  was  hardly  less  so,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  the  letters  of  the  latter  to  his  emperor.  The 
ignorance  of  the  pope  is  almost  as  remarkable  as  his  im- 
pudence. He  expressly  and  repeatedly  confounds  the 
pious  Hezekiah,  who  destroyed  the  brazen  serpent,  with 
his  pious  ancestor  Uzziah,  and  under  this  last  name 
pronounces  him  a  self-willed  violator  of  the  priests  of 
God.  He  apparently  confounded  them  both  with  Ahaz, 
v/ho  was  the  grandson  of  the  one  and  the  father  of  the 
other.  It  is  true,  he  professes  to  quote  the  passage  from 
the  emperor's  edict,  but  it  is  plain  from  internal  evidence 
that,  in  the  terms  in  which  he  gives  it,  it  coidd  not  have 
been  in  that  edict ;  and  if  it  had  been,  he  did  not  know 
enough  to  correct  the  blunder.  It  is  said  that  Leo  was 
cruel  in  the  execution  of  his  ilecree.  It  may  be  so.  He 
was  a  soldier,  a  Byzantine  emperor,  and  lived  in  the  8th 
century.  But  if  the  monks,  and  the  pope,  and  the 
priests,  and  the  populace,  which  they  controlled,  had  not 
violently  resisted  the  imperial  decree,  there  would  have 
been  no  cruelty.  It  is  said  that  Leo  acted  arbitrarily, 
as  if  he  had  been  the  master  of  the  minds  and  con- 
sciences of  men,  to  make  and  unmake  their  religion  for 
them.  This  is  too  true,  and  this  was  his  mistake ;  but 
all  his  predecessors,  with  Constantine  the  Great,  had 
made  the  same  mistake.  It  was  a  Byzantine  tradition. 
It  was  the  theory  of  the  age.  Protestantism,  with  the 
same  creed  in  regard  to  images,  has  proceeded  upon  a 
different  theory,  and  has  succeeded.  It  is  said  that  the 
Church,  in  her  general  councils,  has  decided  against  Leo. 
If  so,  it  was  not  till  after,  in  his  son's  reign,  a  council 
styling  itself  axuraenical,  and  regularly  convoked  as 
such,  consisting  of  no  less  than  34S  bishops,  had  unani- 
mously decided  in  his  favor.  It  is  said  that,  at  all 
events,  the  question  has  been  historically  settled  against 
Leo  in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  Church :  that  icon- 
oclasm was  crushed  and  brought  to  naught  in  the  East 
and  in  the  West,  and  images  achieved  a  complete  tri- 
umph. Iconoclasm  was  indeed  crushed  by  the  uiniat- 
ural  and  murderous  monster  Irene,  whose  character  will 
hardly  be  regarded  as  superior  to  that  of  Leo.  In  fact, 
far  as  images  are  distinguished  i'rom  pictures,  icono- 
V,— Z 


clasm  has  thus  far  trium])hed  in  the  East;  and  in  the 
West  it  was  not  until  alter  the  earnest  and  manly  re- 
sistance of  Charlemagne  and  the  Council  of  Frankfort 
that  the  image-worshipping  pope  and  priests  finally,  or 
rather  for  a  time,  carried  their  point. 

4.  Character  of  Leo. — Almost  all  we  know  of  Leo 
comes  to  us  through  his  enemies — his  prejudiced,  bigot- 
ed, unprincipled,  deadly  enemies.  Some  of  the  most 
odious  acts  alleged  against  him,  as  the  burning  of  the 
great  library  at  Constantinople,  are  purely  their  malig- 
nant inventions.  His  motives  are  seen  only  through 
their  jaimdiced  or  infuriated  eyes.  His  verj'  words 
come  to  us,  for  the  most  part,  only  through  their  gar- 
bled versions;  yet,  with  all  their  zeal,  they  have  not 
been  able  so  to  distort,  or  blacken,  or  liide  his  true  line- 
aments, but  that  he  still  stands  out  to  an  impartial  ob- 
server one  of  the  ablest,  purest,  manliest,  and  most  re- 
spectable sovereigns  that  ever  occupied  the  Constanti- 
nopolitan  throne.  His  rapid  rise  from  obscurity  to  the 
pinnacle  of  power,  his  firm  and  successful  administration 
amid  foreign  assaults  and  domestic  plots,  and  his  reso- 
lute prosecution  of  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  all 
indicate  a  wise  and  provident  policy,  great  vigor,  and 
decision  of  wiU.  His  early  military  life  may  have  ren- 
dered him  cruel  and  obstinate,  but  did  not  taint  the  pu- 
rity of  his  manners.  He  was  in  many  respects,  and 
particularly  in  a  certain  rugged  and  straightfonvard 
honesty  and  strength  of  purpose,  just  the  man  needed 
for  the  times.  How  much  better  and  wiser  he  was  than 
he  appears  we  cannot  say,  but  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe  that  a  full  and  fair  view  of  his  historv',  if  it  could 
now  be  unearthed  from  the  monkish  rubljish,  and  rotten- 
ness, and  filth  that  have  overwhelmed  it,  would  present 
him  in  a  vastly  more  favorable  light  than  that  in  which 
he  has  been  left  to  stand.     (D.  K.  G.) 

5.  Literature.  —  See  Henke  in  Ersch  u.  Gruber,  A II- 
gemeine  EncyUopadie,  sect,  ii,  vol.  xvi  (1839),  119  sq. ; 
Smith,  iJict.  Greek  and  Roman  Bior/.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Mars- 
den,  Hist.  Christian  Churches  and  Sects,  ii,  153 ;  IMilman, 
Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  ii,  305  sq. ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and 
Full  of  the  Roman  Empire,  v,  10  sq. ;  Reichel,  See  of 
Rome  in  the  Middle  A  ges,  p.  46  sq. ;  Leckey,  Hist,  of  Mor- 
als, ii,  '282 ;  Ffoulkes,  Christendom'' s  Divisions,  vol.  i  and 
ii ;  Hefele,  Conciliengesch.  (Freib.  1855) ;  English  transl. 
History  of  Councils  (Lond.  1872,  8vo),  vol.  i;  Baxmann, 
Politik  der  Papste  (Elbfeld,  18G8),  vol.  i ;  Hergenrother, 
Photius  (Regensb.  18C7),  vol.  i ;  and  the  references  in  the 
article  Iconoclasm. 

Leo  THE  JIagentian  {ls\ayn'Ti]i'0Q  or  Mayti'Tivoo), 
a  commentator  on  Aristotle,  flourished  during  the  first 
half  of  the  14th  century.  His  first  name,  Leo,  is  fre- 
quently omitted  in  the  MSS.  of  his  works.  He  was  a 
monk,  and  afterwards  archbishop  of  My  tilene.  He  wrote 
'E^ijY))(ng  etc;  to  Ilepi  ipf.ir}vtiaQ  'ApiaroriXovc,  Com- 
nientarius  in  Aristotelis  De  Interpretatvme  Lihrum  (pub- 
lished by  Aldus,  Venice,  1503,  folio,  with  the  commen- 
tary of  Ammonius,  from  which  Leo  borrowed  verj-  large- 
ly, and  the  paraphrase  of  Psellus  on  the  same  book  of 
Aristotle,  and  the  commentary  of  Ammonius  on  Aristo- 
tle's Catcgorice  s.  Pradicamenta.  In  the  Latin  title  of 
this  edition,  by  misprint,  the  author  is  called  Murgen- 
tinus.  A  Latin  version  of  Leo's  commentarj-,  by  J.  B. 
Rasarius,  has  been  repeatedly  printed  with  the  Latin 
version  of  Ammonius.  Another  Latin  version  by  Je- 
rome Leustrius  has  also  been  printed) : — E'^iiYr,(ng  tig 
ru  UpuTfpa  dvaXvKTiKO.  roij  'ApiaroriXovc,  Commcn- 
tarius  in  Prioi-a  Analytica  Aristotelis  ^printed  with  the 
commentary  of  .John  Philoponus  on  the  sr.me  work  by 
Trincavellus  [Venice,  153G,  fol.] ;  and  a  Latin  version  of 
it  by  Rasarius  has  been  repeatedly  printed,  either  sep- 
arately or  with  other  commentaries  on  Aristotle).  The 
following  works  in  IMS.  are  ascribed,  but  with  doubtful 
correctness,  to  Leo  jNIagentenus :  Commentariiis  in  Cale- 
gorias  Aristotelis  (extant  in  the  King's  lilirary,  Paris)  : 
— ' ApiGTO-'tXovQ  (TOfptarthiiv  tXiyxwi'  tnjn,i'tia,  Ex- 
positio  Aristotelis  De  Sophislicis  Elenchis;  and  'Apia- 
TortXovg  Trepi  tiTropiag  Trporuatwv.     Ihtse  two  works 


LEO 


35-t 


LEO 


are  mentioned  by  Mont  faucon  {Bihl.CoisUn.\\.11o)  \  the 
latter  is  jxrhaps  not  a  distinct  work,  but  a  portion  of  the 
above.  In  the  !MS.  the  author  is  called  Leontius  Magen- 
tenus : — Commentarius  in  Isago(jen  s.  Quinque  Voces  Por- 
phtjrii.  Buhle  doubts  if  this  work,  which  is  in  the  Me- 
dicean  library  at  Florence  (Bandiiii,t'«^/fo^.  Codd.  Laur. 
Medic,  iii,  239),  is  correctly  ascribed  to  IMagentenus.  In 
the  cataloc;ue  of  the  MSS.  in  the  King's  library  at  Paris 
(ii,  410,  421),  two  jMSS.,  No.  mdcccxlv  and  mcmxxviii, 
contain  scholia  on  the  C(tteffori(P,  the  Analijtica  Priora 
et  Posteriora  and  the  Topica  of  Aristotle,  and  the  Isa- 
(jor/e  of  Porphyry,  by  "  Magnentius."  Hiihle  conjec- 
tures, and  with  probability,  that  Magnentius  is  a  cor- 
ruption of  Magentenus  or  Magentinus ;  if  so,  and  the 
works  are  assigned  to  their  real  author,  we  must  add 
the  commentaries  on  Topica  and  Analijtica  Posteriora 
to  the  works  already  mentioned.  Nicolaus  Comnenus 
Popadopoli  speaks  of  many  other  works  of  Leo,  but  his 
authority  is  of  little  value.  See  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Greeca, 
iii,  210,213,  215,  218,  498;  vii,  717;  viii,  143;  xii,  208; 
Montfaucon,  I.  c,  and  p.  219 ;  Buhle,  Opera  A  ristotelis,  i, 
165,  305,  30G,  ed.  Bipont ;  Catalog.  MStor.  Biblioth.  Re- 
ffice  (Paris,  1740,  foL),  1.  c. — Smith,  Diet.  oJ'Gr.  and  Pom, 
£iog.  ii,  744  sq. 

Leo  OF  MoDENA.     See  Leon  da  Modena. 

Leo  THE  Pjhu)Sopher  (Sajnens  or  Philosophus'),  a 
surname  of  Flavius  Leo  VI,  emperor  of  Constantino- 
ple, noted  as  the  publisher  of  the  Basilica,  was  born  A. 
D.  8(35,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Basil  I,  the  Macedo- 
nian, on  ]\Iarch  1,  886.  His  reign  presents  an  uninter- 
rupted series  of  wars  and  conspiracies.  In  887  and  888 
the  Arabs  invaded  Asia  Minor,  landed  in  Italy  and  Sic- 
ily, plundered  Samos  and  other  islands  in  the  Archipel- 
ago, and  until  892  did  away  with  imperial  authority  in 
the  Italian  dominions.  By  Stylianus,  his  father-in-law 
and  prime  minister,  Leo  was  subjected  to  a  bloody  war 
with  the  Bulgarians ;  but,  by  involving  them,  through 
intrigues,  in  a  w^ar  with  the  Hungarians,  he  succeeded 
in  bringing  the  war  with  himself  to  a  speedy  termina- 
tion. The  following  years  were  rendered  remarkable 
by  several  conspiracies  against  his  life.  That  of  895 
proved  nearly  fatal;  it  was  fortunately  discovered  in 
time,  and  quelled  by  one  Samonas,  who,  in  reward,  was 
created  patrician,  and  enjoyed  the  emperor's  favor  until 
910,  when,  suspected  of  treacherj',  and  accused  of  abuse 
of  his  position,  he  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment. At  the  opening  of  the  10th  centurj',  the  Arabs 
and  northern  neighbors  of  the  empire  made  another  at- 
taclt  on  the  imperial  possessions.  The  former  once 
more  invaded  Sicily,  and  took  Tauromenium,  and  in 
904  appeared  in  the  harbor  of  Thessalonica  with  a  nu- 
merous Heet,  soon  made  themselves  masters  of  this 
splendid  city,  destroyed  a  great  portion  of  it,  plundered 
the  inhabitants  generally,  and  left  laden  with  Ijooty  and 
captives.  Leo  died  in  911.  He  was  married  four  times, 
in  consequence  of  which  he  was  excluded  from  tiie  com- 
munion with  the  faithful  by  the  patriarch  Nicolaus,  as 
the  (ireek  Cluirch  only  tolerated  a  second  marriage;  it 
censured  a  third,  and  condemned  a  fourth  as  an  atrocious 
sin. 

How  Leo  came  by  the  exalted  name  of  Philosopher 
it  is  ditHcult  to  understand,  except  it  be  taken  in  an 
ironical  sense.  Gibbon,  with  a  few  striking  words,  gives 
the  following  character  to  this  emperor:  '•  His  mind 
was  tinged  with  the  most  puerile  superstition ;  the  in- 
fluence of  the  clergy  and  the  errors  of  the  people  were 
consecrated  by  his  laws ;  and  the  oracles  of  Leo,  which 
reveal  in  prophetic  style  the  fates  of  the  empire,  are 
founded  in  tlie  arts  of  astrology  and  divination.  If  we 
still  in(|uire  the  reason  of  liis  sage  appellation,  it  can 
only  b^'  replied  that  the  son  of  I?  isil  was  only  less  igno- 
rant thaTi  the  greater  part  of  his  contemporaries  in 
Church  and  State ;  tliat  his  education  had  been  directed 
by  the  learned  Photius,  aiHl  that  several  books  of  pro- 
fane and  ecclesiastical  science  were  composed  by  the 
pen  or  in  the  name  of  the  imperial  philosopher." 

In  speaking  of  Leo's  literary  merits,  it  is  necessary  to 


say  a  few  words  of  his  legislation.  In  his  time  the  Latin 
language  had  long  ceased  to  be  the  official  language  of 
the  Eastern  empire,  and  had  gradually  fallen  into  such 
disuse  as  only  to  be  known  to  a  few  scholars,  merchants, 
or  navigators.  The  original  laws,  being  written  in  Lat- 
in, opposed  a  serious  obstacle  to  a  fair  and  quick  admin- 
istration of  justice  ;  and  the  emperor  Basil  I,  the  father 
of  Leo,  formed  and  partly  executed  the  plan  of  issuing 
an  authorized  version  of  the  code  and  digest.  This  plan 
was  carried  out  by  Leo,  who  was  ably  assisted  by  Saba- 
thius,  the  commander  of  the  imperial  life-guards.  The 
new  Greek  version  is  known  under  the  title  of  HaaiXi- 
Kai  i^iaTc't'^ng,  or,  shortly,  BacriXtKai ;  in  hatin, Basilica, 
which  means  "  Imperial  Constitutions"  or  "  Laws.''  It 
is  divided  into  sixty  books,  subdivided  into  titles,  and 
contains  the  whole  of  Justinian's  legislation,  viz.  the 
Institutes,  the  Digest,  the  Codex,  and  the  Novellas; 
also  such  constitutions  as  were  issued  by  the  successors 
of  Justinian  down  to  Leo  YI.  There  are,  however,  many 
laws  of  the  Digest  omitted  in  the  BasUica,  while  they 
contain,  on  the  other  hand,  a  considerable  number  of 
laws,  or  extracts  from  ancient  jurists,  not  in  the  Digest. 
The  Basilica  likewise  give  many  early  constitutions  not 
in  Justinian's  Codex.  They  were  afterwards  revised  by 
the  son  of  Leo,  Constantine  PorphjTogenitus.  For  the 
various  editions  published  of  the  Basilica,  see  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  ii,  741. 

The  principal  works  written,  or  supposed  to  be  writ- 
ten, by  Leo  VI  of  special  interest  to  us  are,  1.  Oracula, 
written  in  Greek  iambic  verse,  and  accompanied  by 
marginal  drawings,  on  the  fate  of  the  future  emperors 
and  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  showing  the  super- 
stition of  Leo  if  he  believed  in  his  divination,  and  that 
of  the  people  if  they  believed  in  the  absurd  predictions. 
The  seventeenth  oracle,  on  the  restoration  of  Constanti- 
nople, was  published  in  Greek  and  Latin  by  John  Leun- 
clavius  (ad  caleem  Const.  Manasste,  Basil.  1573,  8vo). 
Janus  Rutgersius  edited  the  other  sixteen,  ^vith  a  Latin 
version  by  George  Dousa  (Leyden,  1G18,  4to).  Other 
editions,  Eposilione  delli  Oracoli  di  Leoni  imperatore,  by 
T.  Patricius  (Brixen,  1596),  by  Petrus  Lambecius,  with 
a  revised  text  from  an  Amsterdam  codex,  also  notes 
and  new  translation  (Par.  1655,  fob,  ad  caleem  Codini). 
A  German  and  a  Latin  translation  by  John  and  Theo- 
dore de  Bry  appeared  (Frankf.  1597,  4to).  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  Leo  is  actually  the  author  of  the  Oracles. 
Fabricius  gives  a  learned  disquisition  on  the  subject: — 
2.  Orationes,  mostly  on  theological  subjects :  one  of  them 
appeared  in  a  Latin  version  by  F.  Metius,  in  Baronius's 
Annales;  nine  others  by  Gretserus,  in  the  14th  volume 
of  his  Opera  (Ingolstadt,  1660,  4to) ;  three  others,  to- 
gether with  seven  of  those  ]Hiblished  by  Gretserus,  by 
Combetis,  in  the  1st  volume  of  his  Biblioth.  Pat.  Grceco- 
/^H^  .4  !irfo?-.  (Paris,  1648,  folio)  ;  Oratio  de  Sfo.  Xicolo, 
Greek  and  Latin,  by  Petrus  Possime  (Toulouse,  1654, 
4to) ;  Oratio  de  Sto.  Chrysostomo,  restored  from  the  life 
of  that  father  by  Georgius  Alexandrinus  in  the  8th  vol- 
ume of  the  Savilian  ed.  of  Chrysostom  (Antwerp,  1614, 
folio) ;  some  others  in  Combefis,  Biblioth.  Concionutoria, 
in  the  Biblioth.  Patrum  Lugdun.,  and  dispersed  in  other 
works;  Leoni  Imp.  Ilomilia  nvnc primum  viilgata  Greece 
et  Latine  ejusdemqiie  qua  Photiana  est  Confutatio,  a 
Scipione  Maffei  (Padua,  1751,  8 vo):  —  3.  J-'pistoln  ad 
Omariim  Saracenum  de  Fidd  Christiana  Veritate  et  Sar- 
cenorum  Errorihas  (in  Latin  [Lyons,  1509 J  by  Champe- 
rius,  who  translated  a  Chaldean  version  of  the  (ireek 
original,  which  seems  to  be  lost :  the  same  in  the  differ- 
ent Biblioth.  Patrum,  and  separately  by  Prof.  Schwarz 
in  the  Program,  of  the  University  of  Leipsic,  in  the  year 
1786): — 4. 'H  ytyorvla  ciaTi'Trivcng  Trnod  -or  BafriMtoQ 
Aa'ifTOQ  Tov  Xofoii,  K.r.X.,  Dhpositio  facta  pir  Imper- 
atorem,  Leonlem  Sapnentem,  etc.  (Greek  and  Latin,  by  J. 
Leunclavius,  in"  .his  Grfrco-Romanum  ;  by  Jac.  (ioar,  ad 
caleem  Codini,  Par.  1648,  folio)  : — 5.  Eig  Tit  Mnvo/^iipiov, 
In  spectaculnm  Uniiis  Dei,  an  epigram  of  little  value, 
with  notes  by  Brodjeus  and  Opsopaeus,  in  Epigram,  libri 
vii,  edit.  Wechel  (Frankfort,  IGOO).    See  Zonaras,  ii,  174, 


LEO 


355 


LEO  I 


etc. ;  Cedrenus,  p.  591,  etc. ;  Joel,  p.  179,  etc. ;  Manass.  p. 
108,  etc. ;  Glycas.  p.  29(5,  etc. ;  Genesius,  p.  (!1,  etc. ;  Co- 
tlin.  p.  03,  etc. ;  Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gneca,  vii,  693  sq.; 
Hamberger,  Xuchichten  von  Gelehrten  Mdnntrn  ;  Cave, 
JJisf.  Lift. ;  Hankius,  Sc?-ipf.  Bi/zunt. ;  Oiidiii,  Comment, 
de  SS.  EccL  ii,  39J:  sq. — >Snutb,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biorj.  ii,  739  stj. 

Leo  OF  Saint-.Jeax,  a  French  theologian  and  con- 
troversialist, was  born  at  Rennes  July  9,  IGOO.  He  en- 
tered the  Carmelite  convent  when  quite  young,  and,  be- 
ing greatly  esteemed  by  tlie  order,  he  successively  tilled 
nearly  all  the  positions  in  their  gift.  He  died  at  the 
convent  "des  liillettes,"  Dec.  30,  lti71.  He  wrote  Car- 
melus  restitutus  (Par.  1634, 4to) : — Encyclnp.  Prcendssum, 
sell  sapient  ice  universalis  delineatio,  etc.  (1635,  4to)  : — 
Hist.  Carmelit.  provinci(B  Turonensis  (1640,  4to).  His 
sermons  were  published  under  the  title  La  Somme  des 
Sermons  parenetiques  et  panegijriques  (1671-75,  4  vols, 
fol.).     See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Generale,  xxx,  738. 

Leo  Stypiota,  or  Styppa,  or  Stypa  (SrtVijc)) 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  the  r2th  centurj'  (A.D. 
1134  to  1143),  flourished  until  about  the  time  of  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Byzantine  emperor  Manuel  Comnenus. 
A  decree  of  Leo  Stypiota  on  the  lawfidness  of  certain 
marriages  is  given  in  the  Jus  Orientule  of  Bonetidus 
(6£(T/(0(  'Ao\npaTiKoi,  Sanction.  Pontijic.  p.  59),  and  in 
the  Jus  Grwco-Romanum  of  Leunclavius  (liber  iii,  vol. 
i,  p.  217).  He  is  often  cited  by  Nicolaus  Comnenus  Po- 
padopoli.  See  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grcec.  viii,  721 ;  xi,  606. 
— Smith,  Bict.  Greek  and  Roman  Biof/.  ii,  745. 

Leo  OF  TiiessalonTca,  an  eminent  Byzantine  phi- 
losopher and  ecclesiastic  of  the  9th  century,  character- 
ized by  his  devotion  to  learning,  studied  grammar  and 
poetry  at  Constantinople,  and  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and 
arithmetic  under  iVIichael  Psellus  on  the  island  of  An- 
dros,  and  at  the  monasteries  on  the  adjacent  part  of 
continental  Greece.  He  afterwards  settled  at  Constan- 
tinople and  became  an  instructor.  Introduced  to  the 
notice  of  emperor  Theophilus,  he  was  appointed  public 
teacher  or  professor,  and  the  Church  of  the  Forty  Mar- 
tyrs was  assigned  him  for  a  school.  Soon  after  the 
patriarch  John,  who  appears  hitherto  to  have  neglect- 
ed his  learned  kinsman,  promoted  Leo  to  the  archbish- 
opric of  Thessalonica.  Upon  the  death  of  Theophilus 
(A.D.  842),  when  the  government  came  into  the  liands 
of  Theodora,  the  iconoclastic  party  was  overthrown,  and 
Leo  and  .John  were  deposed  Irom  their  sees;  but  Leo, 
whose  worth  seems  to  have  secured  respect,  escaped  the 
sufferings  which  fell  to  his  kinsman's  lot;  and  when 
Ca'sar  Bardas,  anxious  for  the  revival  of  learning,  es- 
tablished the  mathematical  school  at  the  palace  of  Mag- 
naura,  in  Constantinople,  Leo  was  placed  at  the  head. 
Leo  was  still  living  in  A.D.  869;  how  much  later  is  not 
known.  Symeon  {I)e  Mich,  et  Theodora,  c.  40)  has  de- 
scribed a  remarkable  method  of  telegraphic  communi- 
cation invented  by  Leo,  and  practiced  in  the  reigns  of 
Theophilus  and  his  son  Jlichael.  Fires  kindled  at  cer- 
tain hours  of  the  day  conveyed  intelligence  of  hostile 
incursions,  battles,  conflagrations,  and  the  other  inci- 
dents of  war,  from  the  confines  of  Syria  to  Constantino- 
ple; the  hour  of  kindling  indicating  the  nature  of  the 
aceidcnt,  according  to  an  arranged  plan,  marked  on  the 
dial-plate  of  a  clock  kept  in  the  castle  of  Lusiis,  near 
Tarsus,  and  of  a  corresponding  one  kept  in  the  palace  at 
Constantinople.  The  Ms^oOot;  npoyi'OfjTiKi],  Methodus 
Prnrpioslicd,  or  instructions  for  divining  by  the  Gospel 
or  Psalter,  by  Leo  Saiiiens,  in  the  ]\Iedicean  Library  at 
Florence  (Bandini,  Catedof/.  Codd.  Laur.  Medic,  iii,  339), 
is  ijerhaps  by  another  Leo.  Combefis  was  disposed  to 
claim  for  Leo  of  Thessalonica  the  authorship  of  the  cel- 
ebrated Xpjjffjuoi,  Oracula,  which  are  commonly  as- 
cribed to  the  emperor  I^o  YI,  Sapiens,  or  the  Wise,  and 
have  been  repeatedly  published.  But  Leo  of  Thessalo- 
nica is  generally  designated  in  the  Byzantine  writers 
the  philosopher  (0iXoffo0ot-),  not  the  vise  (ffo^i'.r) ;  and 
if  the  published  Oracula  are  a  part  of  the  series  men- 


tioned by  Zonaras  (xv,  21),  they  must  be  older  than 
either  the  emperor  or  Leo  of  Thessalonica.  See  Fabri- 
cius, Bibl.  Gnecu,  iv,  148,  158 ;  vii,  697 ;  xi,  665 ;  Alla- 
tius.  Be  Psellis,  c.  3-0 ;  Labbe,  Be  Byzant.  Histor.  Scrip- 
torihiis  nporptTTTiKov,  pt.  ii,  p.  45. — Smith,  Bid.  ofGrk, 
ami  Rom.  Biog.  ii,  745  sq. 

Leo  THE  TiiRAciAN  (also  the  Great),  or  Fla\ti'S 
Leo  I,  emperor  of  Constantinople,  was  born  in  Thrace 
of  obscure  parents,  entered  the  military'  service,  and  rose 
to  high  rank.  At  the  death  of  the  emperor  Marcian  in 
A.D.  457,  he  commanded  a  body  of  troops  near  Selym- 
bria,  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers,  at" the 
instigation  of  Aspar,  a  Gothic  chief,  wlio  commanded 
the  auxiliaries.  The  senate  of  Constantinople  confirmed 
the  choice,  and  the  patriarch  Anatolius  crowned  him. 
This  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  instance  of  an  emper- 
or receiving  the  crown  from  the  hands  of  a  bishop,  a 
ceremony  which  was  aften\-ards  adopted  by  all  other 
Christian  princes,  and  from  which  the  clergy,  as  Gibbon 
justlj'  observes,  have  deduced  the  most  formidable 
consequences.  See  Investiture.  Leo  followed  the 
measures  of  Marcian  against  the  Eutychians,  who  had 
been  condemned  as  heretics,  and  who  had  recently  ex- 
cited a  tumult  at  Alexandria,  had  killed  the  bishop, 
and  placed  one  iElurus  in  his  stead.  Aspar  for  a  time 
screened  ^Elurus;  but  Leo  at  last  had  him  exiled,  and 
an  orthodox  bishop  put  in  his  place.  The  Huns,  hav- 
ing entered  the  province  of  Dacia,  were  defeated  by  the 
imperial  troops,  and  a  son  of  Attila  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  Soon  after,  Leo,  in  concert  with  Anthemius, 
emperor  of  the  West,  prepared  a  numerous  fleet,  with  a 
large  body  of  troops  on  board,  for  the  recovery  of  Afri- 
ca, which  was  occupied  by  tlie  Vandals.  Part  of  the 
expedition  attacked  and  took  the  island  of  Sardinia ;  the 
rest  landed  in  Libya,  and  took  Tripolis  and  other  towns ; 
but  the  delay  and  mismanagement  of  the  commander, 
who  was  Leo's  brother-in-law,  gave  time  to  Genseric  to 
make  his  preparations.  Coming  out  of  the  harbor  of 
Carthage  by  night,  with  fire-ships  impelled  by  a  fair 
wind,  he  set  tire  to  man}^  of  the  imperial  ships,  dispersed 
the  rest,  and  obliged  the  expedition  to  leave  the  coast 
of  Africa.  Leo  died  in  January,  474. — Enylish  Cyclopit- 
dia,  s.  V. ;  Smith,  Bict.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography 
and  Mythology,  ii,  734. 

Leo  I,  saint  and  pope,  sumamed  the  Great,  noted  as 
the  real  founder  of  the  papacy,  was  born  about  the  year 
390,  though  the  exact  date  is  not  ascertained.  AVe 
have  also  no  precise  information  as  to  his  birthplace ;  for 
while  the  liber  povtifcalis  describes  him  as  a  Tuscan, 
and  names  Quintianus  as  his  father,  Quesnel,  on  the  au- 
thority of  an  expression  in  one  of  Leo's  own  letters 
(xxxi,  4),  and  an  account  of  his  election  by  a  certain  Pros- 
per, stated  that  he  Avas  born  at  Pome,  and  this  opinion 
has  been  accepted  without  further  inquiry  by  most  sub- 
sequent ecclesiastical  writers.  While  yet  an  acolyte,  Leo 
was  dispatched,  in  A.D.  418,  to  Carthage,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  to  Anrelius  and  the  other  African  bishops 
the  sentiments  of  Zosimus  concerning  the  Pelagian  doc- 
trines of  Ccelestius  (q.  v.).  Under  Celestine  (q.  v.)  he 
discharged  the  duties  of  a  deacon ;  and  the  reputation 
even  then  (431)  enjoyed  by  him  is  clearly  indicated  by 
the  terms  of  the  epistle  prefixed  to  the  seven  books  Be 
Incarnatione  Christi  of  Cassianus,  who  at  his  request 
had  undertaken  this  work  against  the  Nestorian  here- 
sy. About  this  time  he  was  applied  to  by  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria to  settle  a  ditflculty  between  Juvenal,  bishop  of 
Jerusalem,  and  the  primate  of  the  ecclesiastical  prov- 
ince of  .Jerusalem.  Having  obtained  a  great  reputation 
for  his  knowledge,  energy,  and  untiring  activity,  he  fail- 
ed not  to  secure  the  full  confidence  of  Sixtus  III  (432- 
440),  to  whom  he  rendered  valuable  service,  in  several 
important  offices  intrusted  to  him.  Attracting  also  the 
notice  of  Valentinian  III,  he  undertook,  by  request  of 
this  emperor,  a  mission  to  (iaul,  to  soothe  the  formidable 
dissensions  existing  between  the  two  generals  Aetius 
and  Albinus.   While  Leo  was  engaged  in  this  delicate  ne- 


LEO  I 


35G 


LEO  I 


gotiatioii,  which  was  conducted  with  singular  prudence 
and  perfect  success,  Sixtus  III  died,  Aug.  3, 440,  and  by 
the  inianimons  voice  of  tlie  clergy  and  laity  the  absent 
ih'acon  Leo  was  chosen  to  till  the  vacant  seat.  Envoys 
were  at  once  sent  to  Gaul  to  apprise  him  of  his  election, 
and  liaving  returned  to  liome  he  was  duly  installed, 
Stpt.  "Jit, 440.  Both  the  State  and  the  Church  were  tlien 
in  a  critical  position ;  the  former  in  consequence  of  tlie 
frequent  invasions  of  barbarians ;  tlie  Church  tluough 
its  inner  dissensions  and  quarrels.  From  the  earliest 
aiiQS  until  this  epoch  no  man  who  combined  lofty  ambi- 
lion  with  commanding  intellect  and  political  dexterity 
Jiad  presided  over  the  Koman  see;  and  although  its  in- 
tlucnce  had  gradually  increased,  and  many  of  its  bishops 
had  sought  to  extend  and  confirm  that  influence,  yet 
they  had  merely  availed  themselves  of  accidental  cir- 
cumstances to  augment  their  own  personal  authority, 
without  acting  upon  any  distinct  and  well -devised 
scheme.  But  Leo,  while  he  zealously  watched  over  his 
own  peculiar  flock,  concentrated  all  the  powers  of  his 
energetic  mind  upon  one  great  design,  which  he  seems 
to  have  formed  at  a  very  early  period,  and  which  he 
kept  steadfastly  in  view  during  a  long  and  eventful 
life,  following  it  out  with  consummate  boldness,  per- 
severance, and  talent.  This  was  nothing  less  than  the 
establishment  of  the  "  apostolic  chair"  as  a  spiritual  su- 
premacy over  every  branch  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
the  exclusive  appropriation  for  its  occupant  of  the  title 
of  Papa,  or  father  of  the  whole  Christian  world.  Leo 
ma}'  therefore  be  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  in  this  respect  certainly  deserved  the  sur- 
name of  Great,  which  was  given  him.  The  evil  days 
amid  which  his  lot  was  cast  were  not  unfavorable,  as 
might  at  first  sight  be  supposed,  to  such  a  project.  The 
contending  parties  among  the  orthodox  clergy,  terrified 
bv  tlie  rapiil  progress  of  Arianism,  were  well  disposed  to 
refer  their  minor  disputes  to  arbitration.  Leo,  who  well 
knew,  from  the  example  of  his  predecessor  Innocent  I, 
that  the  transition  is  easy  from  instruction  to  command, 
in  the  numerous  and  elaborate  replies  which  he  address- 
ed to  incpiiries  proceeding  from  various  quarters,  studi- 
ously adopted  a  tone  of  absolute  infallibility,  and  as- 
sumed the  right  of  enforcing  obedience  to  his  decisions 
as  an  unquestionable  prerogative  of  his  office,  deriving 
authority  for  such  a  position  from  the  relation  of  Peter 
to  Christ  and  to  the  other  apostles.  He  represented  Pe- 
ter as  most  intimately  connected  with  Christ:  "Petrum 
in  consortium  individuie  unitatis  assumtum,id  quod  ipse 
erat,  voluit  nominari  dicendo :  Tu  es  Petrus  et  super 
hanc  petram  redificabo  ecclesiam  meam,  ut  asterni  tem- 
pli  redificatio,  mirabili  munere  gratia  dei,  in  Petri  solid- 
itate  consisteret;  hac  ecclesiam  suam  firmitate  corrobo- 
rans,  ut  illam  nee  humana  temeritas  posset  appetere,  nee 
jiortaj  contra  illam  inferi  pravalcrent"  {Letters,  x,  1). 
This  community  of  person  into  which  the  Lord  received 
I'eter  is  then  made  to  extend  into  a  community  of  pow- 
er :  •■  (^uia  tu  cs  Petrus,  i.  c.  cum  ego  sim  lapis  angularis, 
qui  facio  utraque  unura,  ego  fundamentum,  prreter  quod 
nemo  ])otest  aliud  ponere :  tamcn  tu  ipioque  petra  es. 
quia  mea  virtute  solidaris,  ot  quiB  mihi  potestate  sunt 
l)ropria,  sint  tibi  mecum  participatione  communia"  (Let- 
trrs,  iv,  2).  Peter  had  been  received  into  the  commu- 
nity of  |)erson  witli  the  Lord  as  a  reward  for  his  recog- 
nition and  worship  of  Christ :  true,  he  had  denied  his 
iMastcr,  but  this  the  Lord  had  intentionally  permitted  to 
li.ip]ien.  But,  in  coHii)arisou  wiih  the  other  apostles,  he 
possessed  not  onlv  all  that  every  one  of  them  did,  but 
also  much  that  tlie  others  did  not  {Letters,  iv,  2),  and 
was  their  original  chief:  "Transivit  quidem  etiam  in 
alios  apostolos  jus  potcstatis  istius  (ligandi  et  solvendi) 
et  ad  omncs  ccclesia;  principes  decreti  hnjus  constitutio 
commcavit,  sed  non  frustra  uni  commendatur,  quod  om- 
nil)us  intimetur.  Petro  cnini  ideo  hoc  singulariter  cred- 
itur,  ([ui  cunctis  ecclesia;  rectoril)Us  Petri  forma  pncjion- 
itur."  It  is  only  in  him  that  tlie  apostles  were  intrusted 
with  their  mission — in  him  they  arc  all  saved ;  and  it  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  Lord  takes  special  care  of  him, 


and  that  his  faith  is  prayed  for  specially,  '•  tanquam  alio- 
runi  status  certior  sit  futurus,  si  mens  princijiis  victa  non 
fuerit.''  After  identifying  the  Church  with  the  incar- 
nation of  Christ,  Leo  identities  Peter  witli  Christ.  This 
primacy  of  Peter  continues,  therefore,  for  while  the  faith 
of  Peter  is  retained,  all  the  privileges  attached  to  this 
faith  in  Peter  remain  also.  This  primacy  continues 
among  the  i'ollowers  of  Peter,  for  they  hold  the  same  re- 
lation towards  Peter  that  Peter  held  towards  Christ;  as 
Christ  was  in  Peter,  so  is  Peter  in  his  successors;  it  is 
still  Peter  who,  through  them,  fulfils  the  commaiul  of 
Christ,  ''Feed  my  sheep  I" — '•  Christus  tantam  potentiam 
dedit  ei,  quem  totius  ecclesiaj  principem  fecit,  ut  si  quid 
etiam  nostris  temporibus  recte  per  nos  agitur  recteque 
disponitur,  illius  operibus,  Lllius  sit  gubernaculis  depu- 
tandum,  cui  dictum  est :  Et  tu  conversus  confirma  fratres 
tuos"  {Sermon,  iv,  4).  While  affecting  the  utmost  hu~ 
mility  when  speaking  of  himself  personally  as  unwor- 
thy' of  his  high  oflSce,  he  speaks  of  that  olfice  itself  as 
the  most  exalted  station. 

It  was  more  difficult  for  Leo,  however,  to  prove  that 
the  bishop  oi  Rome  is  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  liome, 
says  Leo,  has  been  glorified  by  the  death  of  the  two 
greatest  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul,  who  brought  the  Gos- 
pel to  the  Eternal  City;  and  Leo  claims  to  discover  a 
special  Providence  in  this  coming  of  Peter  to  Pijine,  so 
that  that  city  should  through  him  and  in  him  become 
the  centre  of  the  Christian  world.  "  Ut  hujus  enarra- 
bilis  gratia3  (incarnationis)  per  totum  mundum  dift'un- 
deretur  effectus,  Eomanum  regnum  divina  providentia 
prieparavit;  cujus  ad  eos  liraites  mcrementa  perducta 
sunt,  quibus  cunctarum  undique  gentium  viciiia  et  con- 
tigua  esset  universitas.  Disposito  namquc  divinitus 
operi  maxime  congruebat,  ut  multa  regna  uno  confwde- 
rarentur  imperio  et  cito  pervios  haberet  populos  pr^di- 
catio  generalis,  quos  unius  teneret  regimen  civitatis" 
{Serm.  Ixxxii,  2 ).  Here,  finding  dogmatical  arguments 
unavailable  for  his  purpose,  Leo  turns  to  history,  which 
he  arranges  to  suit  himself.  With  regard  now  to  the 
relation  existing  between  the  bishop  of  Rome  and  the 
other  bishops,  Leo  says  expressly,  "All  the  bishops  have 
indeed  the  same  office,  but  not  the  same  power.  For 
even  among  the  apostles,  although  they  were  all  called 
apostles,  there  existed  a  remarkable  distinction,  for  one 
only,  Peter,  held  the  first  rank.  From  this  results  the 
difference  among  the  bishops.  It  is  a  fundamental  law 
of  the  Church  that  all  have  not  the  equal  right  to  ex- 
press all  things,  but  that  in  each  province  tliore  is  one 
(the  bishop  of  the  principal  place  in  the  pro\-ince)  who 
has  the  first  voice  among  his  brethren.  Again,  those 
who  occupy  more  important  sees  (the  metropolitans  of 
dioceses)  have  still  greater  power.  But  the  direction 
of  the  whole  Church  is  the  care  of  the  chair  of  St.  Peter, 
and  no  one  can  take  anything  awa\'  from  him  who  is 
the  head  of  all."  Potent  but  unconscious  instruments  in 
forwarding  Leo's  ambitious  schemes  were  found  in  the 
barbarian  chiefs  whose  power  was  not  yet  consolidated, 
and  who  were  eager  to  propitiate  one  who  possessed 
such  weight  with  the  priesthood,  and  through  them 
could  either  calm  into  submission  or  excite  to  rebellion 
an  ignorant  and  fanatic  multitude.  But,  though  the 
minds  of  men  were  in  some  degree  prepared  and  dis- 
posed to  yield  to  such  domination,  it  ^vas  scarcely  to  be 
expected  that  the  effort  should  not  provoke  jealousy  and 
resistance.  A  strong  opposition  was  speedily  organized 
both  in  the  West  and  in  the  East,  and  soon  assumed  the 
attitude  of  open  defiance.  •  In  the  West  the  contest  was 
brought  to  an  issue  by  the  controversy  with  Hilary  of 
Aries  (see  Hilakhts  Auiii-VTENsis)  concernini;  the  dep- 
osition of  Clielidonius,  liishop  of  Vesoutio  (Besan(;,on), 
who  had  married  a  widow,  which  was  forbidden  by  the 
canons.  Chelidonius  appealed  to  Leo,  who  reinstated 
him  in  his  sec.  Hilary  was  summoned  to  K<ime  upon 
several  charges  brought  against  liim  by  other  bishops 
of  Gaul,  to  whom  his  severity  was  obnoxious ;  and  Leo 
obtained  a  rescrijit  from  the  emperor  YalentinLin  III 
susiiending  Hilary  from  his  episcopal  office.    This  sus- 


LEO  I 


357 


LEO  I 


pension,  however,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  lasting, 
akhoui^h  the  fact  has  been  taken  bold  ol'  by  controver- 
sial writers  as  a  stretch  of  jurisdiction  in  the  see  of 
Kome.  Quesnel  published  a  dissertation  upon  this  con- 
troversy in  his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo  (Paris,  1675). 
The  total  defeat  and  severe  punishment  of  the  Galilean 
bishop  tilled  his  supporters  with  terror,  and  the  edict 
of  Yalentinian  served  as  a  sort  of  charter,  hi  virtue  of 
winch  the  IJoman  bishops  exercised  for  centuries  un- 
disputed jurisdiction  over  France,  Spain,  Germany,  and 
Britain.  In  tlie  East  the  struggle  was  much  more  com- 
plicated and  the  result  much  less  satisfactory.  The  ar- 
chimandrite Eutyches  (q.  v.),  in  his  vehement  denunci- 
ation of  Nestorius,  having  been  betrayed  into  errors,  very 
different,  indeed,  but  considered  equally  dangerous,  was 
anathematized,  deposed,  and  excommmiicated,  in  A.D. 
448,  by  the  synod  of  Constantinople.  Against  this  sen- 
tence he  sought  redress  by  solicitmg  the  interference  of 
the  bishops  of  Alexandria  and  Kome.  His  cause  was 
eagerly  espoused  by  the  former.  As  for  Leo,  he  wrote 
to  the  patriarch  Flavianus  (q.  v.),  telling  him  that  "  he 
had  been  informed  of  the  disturbances  which  had  taken 
]]lace  in  the  Church  of  Constantinople  by  the  emperor, 
and  was  surprised  that  Flavianus  had  not  at  once  writ- 
ten to  him  about  it,  and  informed  him  thereof  before 
the  subject  had  been  disclosed  to  any  one  else."  Leo 
also  informed  Flavianus  that  he  had  received  a  letter 
from  Eutyches  complaining  that  his  excommunication 
had  been  without  just  cause,  and  that  his  appeal  to 
Kome  had  not  been  considered.  Flavianus  was  to  send 
to  Kome  a  competent  envoy,  with  fuU  information  of  all 
the  particulars  of  the  case,  to  render  final  judgment  in 
the  matter.  In  a  case  like  the  present,  says  Leo,  in 
his  conclusion,  the  first  thing  of  all  to  be  attended  to  is 
"  ut  sine  strepitu  concertationum  et  custodiatur  caritas 
et  Veritas  defendatur.'"  In  a  letter  of  the  same  date  to 
the  emperor,  Leo  rejoices  that  Theodosius  has  not  only 
a  royal,  but  also  a  priestly  heart,  and  carefuUy  guarded 
against  schism,  for  "  the  state  also  is  in  the  best  con- 
dition when  the  holy  Trmity  is  worshipped  in  unity." 
Meanwhile  a  general  council  was  summoned  to  be  held 
on  the  1st  of  August,  44'J,  at  Ephesus,  and  thither  the 
ambassadors  of  Leo  repaired,  for  the  purpose  of  reading 
publicly  the  above  letter  to  Flavianus.  But  a  great 
majority  of  the  congregated  fathers,  acting  under  con- 
trol of  the  president,  Dioscurus  of  Alexandria,  refused 
to  listen  to  the  document,  passed  tumultuously  a  series 
of  resolutions  favorable  to  Eutyches,  excommunicated 
the  most  zealous  of  his  opponents,  and  not  only  treated 
the  Koman  envo}-s  with  indignity,  but  even  offered  vio- 
lence to  their  persons.  Hence  this  assembly,  whose 
acts  were  all  subsequently  annulled,  is  known  in  eccle- 
siastical liistory  as  the  tSynodus  Latrocinalis.  The  ve- 
hement complaints  addressed  to  Theodosius  by  the  or- 
thodox leaders  proved  fruitless,  and  the  triumph  of  their 
opjionents  was  for  a  time  complete,  when  the  sudden 
death  of  the  emperor,  in  450,  again  awakened  the  hopes 
and  called  forth  the  exertions  of  Leo.  In  consequence 
of  the  pressing  representations  of  his  envoys,  Anatolius, 
the  successor  of  Flavianus,  together  with  all  the  clergy 
of  Constantinople,  was  induced  to  subscribe  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  contained  in  the  Epistle  to  Fla\-ianus, 
and  to  transmit  it  for  signature  to  all  the  dioceses  of 
the  East.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  Leo  solicited 
the  new  monarch,  JIarcian,  to  summon  a  grand  council 
for  the  final  adjustment  of  the  question  concerning  the 
natiu-e  of  Christ,  which  still  proved  a  source  of  discord, 
and  straineil  every  nerve  to  have  it  held  in  Italy,  where 
his  own  adherents  would  necessarily  have  preponderated. 
In  this,  however,  he  failed,  as  the  council  was  held  at 
Chalcedon  in  October,  451.  Although  the  Koman  leg- 
ates, whose  language  was  of  the  most  imperious  de- 
scription, did  not  fail  broadly  to  assert  the  pretensions 
put  forth  by  the  representative  of  St.  Peter,  at  first  all 
went  smoothlv.  The  Epistle  to  Flavianus  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  rule  of  faith  for  the  guidance  of  the  uni- 
versal Church,  and  no  protest  was  entered  against  the 


spirit  of  arrogant  assumption  in  which  it  was  conceived. 
But  when  the  wliole  of  the  special  business  was  cou- 
cludetl,  at  tlie  very  last  sitting,  a  formal  resolution  was 
proposed  and  passed,  to  the  effect  that  Avhile  the  Koman 
see  was,  in  virtue  of  its  antiquity,  entitled  to  take  for- 
mal precedence  of  every  other,  the  see  of  Constantino]  le 
was  to  stand  next  in  rank,  was  to  be  regarded  as  inde- 
pendent from  every  other,  and  to  exercise  full  juristiic- 
tion  over  the  churches  of  Asia,  Thrace,  and  Pontus. 
The  resistance  of  Leo  was  all  in  vain.  The  obnoxious 
canons  were  fully  contirmed,  and  thus  one  half  of  the 
sovereignty  at  which  he  aimed  -was  lost  forever,  at  the 
very  moment  when  victory  seemed  no  longer  doubtful. 
Leo  made  another  and  last  effort  on  the  '22d  of  May, 
452,  when  he  wrote  to  Mareian  and  to  Pulcheria,  threat-  ' 
enmg,  but  in  vain,  to  excommunicate  Anatolius.  In  457, 
after  the  death  of  Mareian,  the  party  of  Eutyches  made 
a  last  effort,  and  besought  the  ne\v  emperor  to  assemble 
a  council  to  condemn  the  decrees  of  that  of  Chalcti'.on, 
but  the  emperor  refused  to  yield  to  this  request. 

In  the  mean  time  serious  events  were  taking  i)lace 
at  Kome.  In  452  the  dreaded  king  of  the  Huns,  Attila, 
invaded  Italy,  and,  after  sackuig  and  iihuulering  Aqui- 
leia,  Pavia,  and  Milan,  he  marched  against  Kome.  A'a- 
lentinian,  proving  himself  unfit  for  his  high  position, 
remained  at  Kavenna,  and  ^'Etius  himself  saw  safety  in 
flight  onh\  The  Koman  senate  assembled  to  deliberate 
on  what  should  be  done  in  this  emergencj^,  and  resist- 
ance being  considered  impossible,  Leo  was  chosen  as  a 
mediator  and  sent  to  Attila.  What  the  arguments  em- 
ployed b}'  the  eloquent  suppliant  may  have  been  history 
has  failed  to  record;  but  the  Huns  spared  Kome,  and, 
in  consideration  of  a  sum  paid  by  the  inhabitants,  witli- 
drew  from  Italy  and  retired  beyond  the  Danube.  This 
action  of  Attila  appeared  so  strange  that  it  was  consid- 
ered impossible  to  account  for  it  except  by  a  miracle. 
According  to  the  legend,  Attila  confessed  to  liis  oflicers 
that  during  the  address  of  Leo  a  venerable  old  man  ap- 
peared to  him,  holding  a  sword  with  which  he  threat- 
ened to  slay  him  if  he  resisted  the  voice  of  God.  When 
again  in  455  Kome  lay  at  the  mercy  of  the  Yandals,  who, 
taking  advantage  oi'  the  disturbances  «hich  followed 
the  death  of  Yalentinian,  had  invaded  Italy,  the  senate 
had  a  second  time  recourse  to  Leo,  and  sent  him  to 
Genseric.  But  this  time  his  eloquence  did  not  prove 
so  successful.  Genseric  consented  onh'  to  promise  not 
to  burn  the  city,  and  to  spare  the  life  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  from  plunder  three  of  the  most  important  churches. 
The  other  jiarts  of  the  town  were  abandoned  to  the  sol- 
diers for  a  ibrtnight.  The  remainder  of  Leo's  life  passed 
without  further  disturbance.  While  engaged  in  his 
schemes  of  aggrandizement,  he  never  neglected  for  a 
moment  to  pursue  and  repress  heresy  within  tke  states 
Avhere  his  authority  was  recognised.  Having  learned 
that  there  were  still  a  large  number  of  Maiiicha'ans  in 
Rome,  he  caused  them  to  be  hunted  up  and  punished. 
He  acted  ^vith  as  much  severity  against  the  Pelagians 
and  the  Priscillianists.  Barbeyrac  (Traite  de  la  morale 
des  Peres,  c.  17,  §  2)  even  accuses  him  of  ha^•ing  approved, 
and  perhaj)S  instigated,  the  violent  measures  taken 
against  the  heretics  during  his  pontificate,  and  adduces 
in  proof  the  letter  of  this  pope  to  Turibius,  bishop  pri- 
mate of  Spain,  concerning  the  PriscDlianists.  Beau- 
sobre  (in  his  llistoire  dii  Manich.,  1.  9,  c.  9,  t.  2,  p.  75(5) 
goes  further,  and  charges  Leo  with  having  falsely  ac- 
cused the  INIanichreans  and  Priscillianists  of  the  mis- 
deeds for  which  they  were  condemned. 

Leo  is  said  to  have  been  the  originator  of  the  fasts 
of  Lent  and  Pentecost.  An  old  legend,  found  in  a  num- 
ber of  ancient  writers,  relates  that  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  Leo  cut  off  one  of  his  hands;  some,  Th.  Kay- 
naud  among  them,  give  as  the  reason  that  a  woman  of 
great  beauty  having  once,  on  Easter-day,  been  iicrmitted 
to  kiss  his  hand,  the  pope  felt  unholy  desires,  and  thus 
punished  this  rebellion  of  the  flesh,  and  they  add  that  it 
is  from  that  time  the  custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  loot 
was  introduced.     Sabellicus  and  others  assert  iliat  the 


LEO  I 


358 


LEO  II 


pope  only  punished  liimself  for  having  conferred  orders 
on  a  man  who  proved  lunvorthy.  All  state  that  his 
liand  was  finally  restored  to  him  hy  a  miracle.  He 
died  April  11,461. 

The  works  of  Leo  consist  of  discourses  delivered  on 
the  f;rcat  festivals  of  the  Church,  or  on  other  solemn 
occasions,  and  of  letters.  I.  Sekmoses. — Of  these,  the 
tirst  by  the  Koman  pontiffs  which  have  come  down  to 
posterity,  we  possess  96.  There  are  5  De  Natali  ipsius, 
preached  on  anniversaries  of  his  ordination,  6  De  Col- 
L'ctis,  9  De  Jejunio  Decimi  Mensis,  10  De  Nativitate 
Domini,  8  In  Epiphania  Domini,  19  De  Passione  Domi- 
ni. 2  De  ResurrecHone  Domini,  2  De  Ascemione  Domini, 
3  De  Pentecoste,  4  De  Jejunio  Pentecosfes,  1  /«  Natali 
Apnstolorum  Petri  et  PauU,  1  In  Natali  S.  Petri  Apos- 
toli,  1  hi  Octavis  Apostolorum  Petri  et  Pauli,  1  In  Natali 
S.  Lanrentii  Maiiyris,  9  De  Jejunio  Septimi  Mensis,  1  De 
Grarlibus  Ascensionis  ad  Beatitudinem,  1  Tractatus  con- 
tra ficeresim  Eutychis.  Milman  {Hist.  Lat.  Christianity, 
i.  258 )  thus  comments  on  these  productions  of  Leo : 
''His  sermons  singularly  contrast  with  the  florid,  des- 
ultDry,  and  often  imaginative  and  impassioned  style  of 
the  (ircek  preachers.  They  are  brief,  simple,  severe ; 
•without  fancy,  without  metaphysic  subtlety,  without 
passion ;  it  is  th.e  Koman  censor  animadverting  with 
nervous  majesty  on  the  vices  of  the  people;  the  Roman 
priBtor  dictating  the  law,  and  delivering  with  authority 
the  doctrine  of  the  faith.  They  are  singularly  Chris- 
tian—Christian as  dwelling  almost  exclusively  on  Christ, 
his  birth,  his  passion,  his  resurrection ;  only  polemic  so 
far  as  called  upon  by  the  prevailing  controversies  to  as- 
sert with  special  emphasis  the  perfect  deity  and  the 
perfect  manhood  of  Christ."  II.  Epistol.e. — These, 
extending  to  the  number  of  173,  are  addressed  to  the 
reigning  emperors  and  their  consorts,  to  synods,  to  re- 
ligious communities,  to  bishops  and  other  dignitaries, 
and  to  sundry  influential  personages  connected  with  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  times.  Thjy  afford  an  im- 
mense mass  of  most  valuable  information  on  the  pre- 
vailing heresies,  controversies,  and  doubts  on  matters  of 
doctrine,  discipline,  and  Church  governmant.  Besides 
the  96  Sermones  and  173  Epistolce  mentioned  above,  a 
considerable  number  of  tracts  have  from  time  to  time 
been  ascribed  to  this  pope,  but  their  authenticity  is 
either  so  doubtful  or  their  spuriousness  so  evident  that 
they  are  now  universally  set  aside.  A  list  of  these,  and 
an  investigation  of  their  origin,  will  be  found  in  the  edi- 
tion of  the  brothers  Ballerini,  more  particularly  described 
below.  In  consequence  of  the  reputation  deserv^edly 
gained  by  Leo,  his  writings  have  always  been  eagerly 
studied.  But,  although  a  vast  number  of  MSS.  are  still 
in  existence,  none  of  these  exhibit  his  works  in  a  com- 
jilcte  form,  and  no  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to 
bring  together  any  portion  of  them  for  many  hundred 
years  after  his  death.  The  Sermones  were  dispersed  in 
the  Lectionaria,  or  select  discourses  of  distinguished  di- 
vines, employed  in  places  of  public  worship  until  the 
11th  century,  when  they  first  began  to  be  picked  out  of 
these  cumbrous  storehouses  and  transcribed  separately, 
while  the  Kpistolm  were  gradually  gathered  into  imper- 
fect groups,  or  remained  embodied  in  the  general  col- 
lections of  papal  constitutions  aMd  canons. 

Of  the  numerous  printed  editions  of  Leo  I's  works, 
the  first  was  published  hy  Sweynheym  and  Pannartz 
(Rome,  1 170,  fol.),  under  the  inspection  of  Andrew,  bish- 
()|)  of  Aleria,  comprising  ;)2  Sennmu'S  and  .">  Epistol(e. 
Tlie  best  two  editions  were  published  at  Paris  (167o, 
2  vols.  4to)  by  Pasipiier  ()uesnel  and  l)y  the  Ballerini 
(Verona,  17o5-o7,  3  vols.  fol.).  Of  (.^uesnel's  edition  it 
is  due  to  say  that,  l)v  the  aid  of  a  large  number  of  JMSS., 
])reservcd  chiefly  in  the  libraries  of  France,  he  %'as  en- 
abled to  introduce  such  essential  iin|)rovement*into  the 
text,  and  l)y  bis  erudite  imhijtry  illustrated  so  clearly 
the  obscurities  in  which  many  of  the  documents  were 
involved,  that  the  works  of  Loo  now  for  the  first  time 
assumed  an  unmutilated,  intelligible,  and  satisfactory 
aspect.     But  the  admiration  excited  by  the  skill  with 


which  the  arduous  task  had  been  executed  soon  received 
a  check.  Uijon  attentive  perusal  the  notes  and  disser- 
tations were  found  to  contain  such  free  remarks  upon 
many  of  the  opinions  and  usages  of  the  primitive  Church, 
and,  above  all,  to  manifest  such  unequivocal  hostility  to 
the  despotism  of  the  Koman  see,  that  the  volumes  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  Inciuisition  very  shortly  after  their 
publication,  and  were  included  in  the  Index  Librorum 
Prohihitorum  of  1082.  Notwithstanding  these  denun- 
ciations, the  book  enjoj-ed  great  popularity,  and  was  re- 
printed, without  any  suppression  or  modification  of  the 
obnoxious  passages,  at  Lyons,  in  1700.  Hence  the 
heads  of  the  Komish  Church  became  anxious  to  supply 
an  antidote  to  the  poison  so  extensively  circulated. 
This  undertaking  was  first  attempted  by  Peter  Cacciari, 
a  Carmelite  monk  of  the  Propaganda,  whose  labors  (S. 
Leonis  Magni  Opera  omnia  [Kome,  1753-1755,  2  vols, 
fol.]  ;  Exercitationes  in  Universa  S.  Leonis  Magni  Opera 
[Kome,  1751,  fol.])  might  have  attracted  attention  and 
praise  had  they  not  been,  at  the  very  moment  when 
the}'  were  brought  to  a  close,  entirely  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  those  of  the  brothers  Peter  and  Jerome  Balle- 
rini, presbyters  of  Verona.  Their  edition,  indeed,  is  en- 
titled to  take  the  first  place,  both  on  account  of  the  pu- 
rity of  the  text,  corrected  from  a  great  number  of  MSS., 
chiefly  Koman,  not  before  collated,  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts,  and  the  notes  and  disquisitions.  A 
fidl  description  of  these  volumes,  as  ^vell  as  of  those  of 
Quesnel  and  Cacciari,  is  to  be  found  in  .Schiinemann 
{Bibl.  Patrum  Lat.  vol.  ii,  §  42),  who  has  bestowed  more 
than  usual  care  upon  this  section.  See  IMaimbourg, 
Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  Lion  (Paris,  1687, 4to);  Arendt, 
Leo  d.Grosse  (Mainz,  1835,  8 vo);  Gesch.  d.Rom.  Literat. 
(Supi)l.  Band.  2d  part,  §  159-162) ;  Alex,  de  Saint-Che- 
Ton,  Histoire  du  Pontifical  de  St.  Leon  le  Grand  et  de  son 
siecle  (2  vols.  8vo.) ;  Ph.  de  JNIornay,  Histoire  Pontificale 
(1612,  12mo,  p.  71);  l^mys,  Hist,  des  Papes  (La  Haye, 
1732,  5  vols.  4to),  i,  218;  Baronius,  Ammles  Ecclesiastici 
(Lucques,  1738,  19  vols,  fol.),  vii,  535-638;  viii,  1-240; 
G.  Bertazzolo,  Breve  Descrittione  della  Vita  di  san  Leone 
primo  et  di  Attila  Flagello  di  Dio  (Mantua,  1014,  4to); 
Gfrorer,  Kirchengesch.  ii,  1 ;  E.  Perthel,  Pahst  Leo's  I 
Leben  u.  Lehren  (1843) ;  C.  T.  Hefele,  Conciliengeschichte, 
vol.  ii ;  iMilman,  Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  vol.  i,  ch.  iv; 
Neander,  Church  History,  ii,  104, 169  sq.,'508  sq.,  708  sq. ; 
Dumoulin,  Vie  et  Religion  de  deux  hons  Papes  Leon  I  et 
Gregnirel  (1650) ;  Baxmann,  PoftVil-  derPdpste,  i,  13  sq.  j 
Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  (Phil.  1869, 8vo :  see  its  Index) ; 
Riddle,  Hist.  Papacy,  i,  171  sq.;  Schrockh,  Kirchengesch. 
xvii,  90  sq.;  Herzog,i?e«Wi«cyX-/.  viii, 290-31]-,  Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  and  Myth,  ii,  740  sq. ; 
Migne,  Nonv.  Encyc.  Theol.  ii,  1152  ;  Bergier,  Diet,  de 
Thiol,  iv,  34  sq. ;  Hoefer,  Nonv.  Biog.  Ginirale,  xxx,  704 
-708;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Christian  Remembrancer.  \Sb^, 
p.  291  sq. 

Leo  II,  Pope,  was  born  at  Cedelle.  in  Sicily,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  7th  century.  He  became  first  canon 
regular,  then  cardinal  priest,  and  finally  pope,  as  suc- 
cessor of  Agatho.  Although  his  predecessor  had  died 
in  January  of  the  same  year,  he  was  installed  as  late  as 
August.  082,  by  the  emperor  Constantine  V,  as  "the 
most  holy  and  blessed  archbishop  of  old  Rome,  and  uni- 
versal pope."  The  reasons  of  this  delay  are  unknown. 
Soon  after  his  election  Constantine  requested  him  to 
send  to  Constantinople  an  ambassador,  with  full  author- 
ity to  decide  at  once  on  all  questions  of  dogmi.s  and 
canons,  and  other  ecclesiastical  interests.  But  Loo,  per- 
ceiving the  aim  of  the  request,  sent  only  a  sub-deacon, 
who  would  not  act  iu  matters  of  any  importance  without 
first  consulting  with  Kome.  He  also  immediately  as- 
sembled a  synod  to  approve  of  the  acts  of  the  sixth 
cecumenical  oounojl  held  at  Constantinople  iu  081,  which 
had  been  brought  to  Kome  liy  the  logates  of  Agatho. 
In  083  he  sent  a  legate  to  Constantine,  with  a  letter 
anathematizing  the  heresy  of  the  IMonothelites,  and  also 
pope  Honorius  (025-038),  "who,  instead  of  purifying 
the  Apostolic  Church  by  the  doctrines  of  the  apostles, 


LEO  III 


359 


LEO  III 


has  come  near  overthrowing  the  faith  by  his  treason" 
(Labbc,  Cone,  vi,  1'24G).  Leo  sought  to  induce  all  the 
churches  to  accept  the  decisions  of  that  council,  and  for 
tliat  purpose  translated  them  from  Greek  into  Latin, 
sending  a  copy  of  tlicm  in  the  latter  language  to  the 
Spanish  bishops.  He  iippears  also  to  have  given  his 
ambassador  four  letters,  somewhat  similar  as  to  their 
contents  (sec  Mansi,  xi,  1050-1058),  addressed  to  the 
bisln)ps  of  Ustrogothia,  count  Simplicius,  king  Erwig, 
and  the  metropolitan  bishop  Quiricus  of  Toledo,  ex- 
pressing his  wish  that  all  the  bishops  of  Spain  would 
indorse  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Constantinople.  In 
these  letters  he  saj-s :  "  Honorius  has  falsified  the  invi- 
olable rule  of  apostolic  succession  which  he  had  received 
from  his  predecessors."  Baronius,  wishing  to  rehabili- 
tate Leo,  denies  the  authenticity  of  these  letters,  while 
I'agi  attem|its  to  uphold  it ;  Gfrurer  {Kircheiir/esch.  vol. 
iii,  pt.  i,  p.  397  sq.)  also  maintains  their  genuineness,  and 
adduces  in  proof  of  it  their  corresponding  ]3reci£ely  with 
the  decisions  of  the  fourteenth  Council  of  Toledo.  Leo 
also  obtained  from  Constantine  a  promise  that  after  the 
death  of  the  titidar  archbishop  of  Kavenna  his  succes- 
sors should,  according  to  an  old  custom  fallen  into  dis- 
use, come  to  Rome  to  be  consecrated.  In  exchange  for 
this  concession,  Leo  relieved  the  see  of  Kavenna  from 
the  obligation  of  paying  the  taxes  formerly  levied  on 
the  occasion  of  sucli  consecration.  Leo  was  a  great 
friend  of  Church  music,  and  did  much  towards  improv- 
ing the  Gregorian  chant.  He  built  a  church  to  St. 
Paul,  and  is  said  to  have  originated  the  custom  of  sprink- 
ling the  people  with  holy  water.  He  died  in  July,  C83 : 
the  exact  date  is  not  ascertained,  and  the  l!<iman  Cath- 
olic Church  commemorates  him  on  the  28tli  of  June. 
See  Dupin,  Bihliolh.  des  A  uteurs  EccUs.  v,  105 ;  Platina, 
Historia  ddle  Vite  dti  Sommi  Pontcftci ;  Ciaconius,  1  eVre 
et  Res  gestce  Pontijicum  Romanorinn  (L'om.  1077,  4  vols, 
folio),  i,  478;  Heizog,  Hecd-Enci/Llo]).  viii,  311 ;  Hotter, 
Aoiiv.  Biofj.  Generule,  xxx,  708;  Baxmann,  i'oto'A;  der 
J'dpsic,  i,  185 ;  Bower,  History  of  the  Ponies,  iii,  184  sq. ; 
Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papaaj,  i,  300. 

Leo  III,  Pope,  who  brought  about  the  elevation  of 
the  Prankish  king  to  the  position  of  emperor  of  the 
AVest,  and  thus  relieved  the  Peman  pontificate  of  fur- 
ther sidijection  to  the  Greek  emperors,  was  a  native  of 
the  Eternal  City,  and  was  elected  after  the  death  of 
Adrian  I,  Dec.  25,  795,  Immediately  after  his  election 
lie  communicated  the  intelligence  to  Charlemagne,  and, 
like  his  predecessor,  acknowledged  allegiance.  Charle- 
magne replied  by  a  letter  of  congratulation,  which  he 
intrusted  to  the  abbot  Angilbertus,  whom  lie  commis- 
sioned to  confer  with  the  new  pontiff  respecting  the  re- 
lations between  the  see  of  Pome  and  the  "Patrician  of 
the  Pomans,"  for  this  was  the  title  which  Charlemagne 
had  assumed.  In  796  Leo  sent  to  Charlemagne  the 
keys  of  St.  Peter  and  the  standard  of  the  city  of  Pome, 
requesting  the  king  to  send  some  of  his  nobles  to  admin- 
ister the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  people  of  Pome,  and 
thus  the  dominion  of  Cliarlemagne  was  extended  over 
the  city  and  duchy  of  Rome.  In  the  year  799,  an  atro- 
cious assault,  the  motive  of  which  is  not  clearly  ascer- 
tained, was  committed  on  the  person  of  the  pope.  While 
Leo  was  riding  on  liorseback,  followed  by  the  clergy,  and 
chanting  the  liturgy,  a  canon  by  the  name  of  Paschal 
and  a  sacristan  called  Campulus,  accompanied  by  many 
armed  rufnans,  fell  u[)on  him,  threw  him  from  his  horse, 
and  dragged  him  into  the  convent  of  St.  Sylvester, 
wlien  they  stabbed  him  in  many  ]ilaces,  endeavoring 
to  put  out  Ins  eyes  and  cut  out  his  tongue.  Leo,  how- 
ever, was  delivered  by  his  friends  from  tlie  hands  <if  tlie 
assassins,  and  taken  to  Spoleti  under  the  protection  of  the 
duke  of  Spoleti,  where  he  soon  after  recovered ;  thence  lie 
travelled  as  far  asPaderborn  in  Germany,  where  Charle- 
magne then  was,  by  whom  the  pope  was  received  with 
the  greatest  honors.  Charlemagne  sent  him  back  to 
Pome  with  a  numerous  escort  of  bishops  and  counts, 
and  also  of  armed  men.  The  pope  was  met  outside  of 
the  city  gates  by  the  clergy,  senate,  and  people,  and  ac- 


companied in  triumph  to  the  Lateran  palace.  A  court 
composed  of  the  bishops  and  counts  proceeded  to  the 
trial  of  the  conspirators  who  had  attempted  the  life  of 
the  pope,  and  the  two  chiefs.  Paschal  and  Campulus, 
were  exiled  to  France.  From  this  very  lenient  sentence 
and  other  concomitant  circumstances,  it  appears  that 
Charlemagne  had  greatly  at  heart  the  conciliation  of  the 
Romans  in  general,  in  order  to  deter  them  from  betaking 
themselves  again  to  the  protection  of  the  (ircek  emper- 
ors. In  800  Charlemagne  himself  visited  Italy,  and  w£6 
met  at  Nomentum,  outside  of  Pome,  by  the  pope,  and 
the  next  day  he  repaired  to  the  Basilica  of  the  Vatican, 
escorted  by  the  soldiers  and  the  people.  After  a  few 
days  Charlemagne  convoked  a  numerous  assembly  of 
prelates,  abbots,  and  other  persons  of  distinction,  Franks 
as  well  as  Romans,  to  examine  certain  charges  brought 
against  the  pope  by  the  partisans  of  Paschal  and  Cam- 
pulus, but  no  proofs  were  elicited,  and  Leo  himself,  tak- 
ing the  book  of  gospels  in  his  hand,  eieclarcd  himself  in- 
nocent. On  Christmas-day  of  that  year  the  pontiff  of- 
ficiated in  the  Basilica  of  the  Vatican,  in  presence  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  numerous  retinue.  As  Charle- 
magne was  preparing  to  leave  the  church,  tlie  pontiff 
stopped  him,  and  placed  a  rich  crown  upon  his  head, 
while  the  clergy  and  the  people,  at  the  same  moment, 
cried  out  "  Carolo  piissimo,"  "Augusto  magno  impera- 
tori,"  with  other  expressions  and  acclamations  wLieh 
were  wont  to  be  use  el  in  proclaiming  Roman  emperors. 
Three  times  the  acelamatie>ns  were  repeated,  after  which 
the  pope  was  the  first  to  pay  homage  to  the  new  emper- 
or. From  that  time  CLarlcmagne  left  off  the  titles  of 
king  and  patrician,  and  styled  himself  Augustus  and 
emperor  of  the  Remans,  and  he  addressed  the  emperor 
of  Constantinople  bj-  the  name  of  brother.  Thus  was 
the  Western  empire  revived  325  years  after  Odoacer  had 
deposed  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  last  nominal  successor 
of  the  Casars  on  the  throne  of  the  West,  Frem  that 
time  all  claim  of  the  Eastern  emperors  to  the  supreme 
dominion  over  the  duchj'  of  Rome  was  at  an  eid,  anil 
the  popes  from  the  same  date  assumeel  the  temporal  an- 
thority  over  the  city  and  eluchy,  in  subordination,  hew- 
ever,  to  Charlemagne  and  his  successors;  they  began, 
also,  to  coin  money,  with  the  pontiff's  name  on  one  siele 
and  that  of  the  emperor  on  the  other.  In  804  the  pope, 
during  Christmas,  visited  Charlemagne  at  his  court  at 
Aquifgrana  (Aix-la-Chapelle).  In  the  division  which 
Cliarlemagne  made  by  will  of  his  dominions  among  his 
sons,  the  city  of  Rome  was  declared  to  belong  to  him 
who  should  bear  the  title  of  emperor.  Louis  le  Dtbon- 
naire  was  afterwards  invested  with  that  title  by  Charle- 
magne himself,  and  we  find  him  accordingly,  after  the 
death  of  his  father,  assuming  the  supreme  jurisdiction 
over  that  city  on  the  occasion  of  a  fresh  conspiracy 
which  broke  out  against  Leo,  the  heads  of  which  were 
convicted  by  the  ordinary  courts  of  Pome,  and  put  to 
death.  Louis  founel  fault  with  the  rigor  of  the  sentence 
and  the  haste  of  its  execution,  and  he  ordered  his  neph- 
ew, Bernard,  king  of  Italy,  to  proceed  to  Rome  and  in- 
vestigate the  wliole  affair.  Leo,  who  stems  to  have 
been  alarmeel  at  this  proceeding,  sent  messengers  to  the 
court  of  Louis  to  justify  himself.  Meanwhile  he  feU 
seriously  ill,  anel  the  people  of  Rome  broke  out  into  in- 
surrection, and  pulleel  down  some  buildings  he  had  begun 
to  construct  on  the  confiscated  property  of  the  conspira- 
tors. The  duke  of  Speileti  was  sent  for  with  a  liody  of 
troops  to  supyiress  the  tumult,  when  Leo  suddenly  dietl 
in  816,  and  Stephen  IV  was  elected  in  his  place.  Leo 
is  praised  by  Anastasius,  a  biographer  of  the  same  cen- 
tury, fe)r  the  many  structures,  especially  chure lies,  which 
he  raised  or  repaired,  and  the  valuable  gifts  wiili  which 
he  enriched  them.  In  his  temporal  poliiy  lie  rppeara 
to  have  been  mt)re  moderate  and  prudent  than  his  pre- 
elecessor,  Adrian  I,  wlio  was  perpetually  soliciting  Char- 
lemagne in  his  letters  for  fresh  grants  of  territory  to  his 
see.  Thirteen  letters  of  Leo  are  published  in  Labbe's 
Concilia,  vii,  1111-1127.  He  is  also  considered  the  au- 
thor of  the  Ejnstoloi  tid  Carolum  Magnum  imp.,  ex  edi- 


LEO  IV 


360 


LEO  IX 


tione  et  cum  iiotis  Hermanni  Conringii  (Helmst.  IG-tT, 
4to).  The  Enchiridion  Lmiiis  jxijiw,  containing  seven 
penitential  psalms  and  some  prayers,  has  been  errone- 
ously attributed  to  him.  See  I'h.  Jaft'e,  Her/.  Pontijic. 
(Berlin,  1851, 4to),  p.  215 ;  F.  Pagi,  Breviarium  historico- 
ckronolur/ico-criticum  illustriord  pontiff.  (4:to),  ii,  1 ;  J.  G. 
Faber,  Dissertatio  de  Leone  111,  papa  Romano  (Tubing. 
1718,  -tto) ;  jMilman,  Hist.  Latin  Christianity,  ii,  454  sq. ; 
IJankc,  Hist,  of  Papaci/,  i,  24  scp;  liaKvamm,  Poiitik  der 
Pdpste,  i,  304 ;  Neander,  Ch.  /list,  ii  (see  Index) ;  Kiddle, 
Jlist.  of  Papacy,  i,  320  ;  Bower,  Jlist.  Popes,  iv,  142  sq.; 
Schrockh,  Kirchenyesch.  xix,  (500  sq. ;  xx,  510 ;  xxii,  37 
sq.;  Reichel,  Soc  of  Rmne  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  72  sq. ; 
Lea,  Studies  in  Church  Hist.  p.  34  s(j.,  38,  58, 88  note,  179  ; 
Knyl.  Cyclop. ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  710 ; 
Gfrcirer,  Kirchenyesch.  iii,  1,  2. 

Leo  IV,  Pope,  was  a  native  of  Rome,  and  succeeded 
Scrgius  II  in  847.  He  was  hastily  elected,  and  conse- 
crated without  waiting  for  the  consent  of  the  emperor 
Lotharius,  because  Home  was  then  threatened  by  the 
Saracens,  who  occupied  part  of  the  duchy  of  Benevento, 
and  who  a  short  time  before  had  landed  on  the  banks  of 
the  Tiber,  and  plundered  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's  on 
the  Vatican,  which  was  outside  of  the  walls.  Leo's  con- 
secration, however,  was  undertaken  with  the  express 
reservation  of  the  emperor's  rights,  and  when,  in  order 
to  prevent  a  recurrence  of  tlie  violence  of  the  Saracens, 
Leo  inidertook  to  surround  the  basilica  and  the  suburb 
about  it  with  waUs,  the  emperor  sent  money  to  assist 
in  the  work.  The  building  of  this  Roman  suburb  oc- 
cupied four  3'ears,  and  it  was  named  after  its  founder, 
Ciritas  Leonina.  Leo  also  restored  the  town  of  Porta, 
on  the  Tiber,  near  its  mouth,  settling  there  some  thou- 
sands of  Corsicans,  vi\\o  had  run  away  from  their  country 
on  account  of  the  Saracens.  Tow^ers  were  built  on  both 
banks  of  the  river,  and  iron  chains  drawn  across  to  pre- 
vent the  vessels  of  the  Saracens  from  ascending  to  Rome. 
Tlie  port  and  town  of  Centum  Cellfe  being  forsaken  on 
account  of  the  Saracens,  Leo  built  a  new  town  on  the 
coast,  about  twelve  miles  distant  from  the  other,  which 
was  called  Leopolis ;  but  no  traces  of  it  remain  now,  as 
the  modern  Civita  Vecchia  is  built  on  or  near  the  site 
of  old  Centum  Celte.  Leo  IV  held  a  council  at  Rome 
in  853,  in  which  Anastasius,  cardinal  of  St.  Marcel,  was 
deposed  for  having  remained  fi\'e  years  absent  from 
Rome,  notwithstanding  the  orders  of  the  pope.  Leo 
died  in  July,  855,  and  fifteen  days  after  his  death  Bene- 
dict III  was  elected  in  his  place,  according  to  the  most 
authentic  text  of  Anastasius,  who  was  a  contemporary ; 
but  later  writers  introduce  between  Leo  IV  and  Benedict 
III  the  fabulous  pope  Joan  (q.  v.).  Leo  has  left  us  two 
entire  epistles,  as  also  fragments  of  several  others,  and  a 
good  homih^  which  are  contained  in  Labbe's  Cone.  See 
Baronius,  Annal.  xiv,  340;  Ciaconius,  i,  014;  Gfrorer, 
Kirchenyeschichte,  iii,  1,  2;  Baxmann,  Politik  d.  Pdpste, 
i,  281,  352;  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  History,  p.  Gl,  91 ;  Rid- 
dle, 1 1  Ut.  of  Papacy,  i,  330  sq. ;  Reichel,  See  of  Rome  in 
the  Midille  Ayes,  p.  90 ;  Labbe,  Concil.  ix,  995 ;  Gieseler, 
Eccles.  Jlist.  ii,  220  sq. ;  Ucrzof;,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  312 ; 
Mosheim,  Eccl.  Hist,  ii,  77  ;  Hoefer,  Xotw.  Bioy.  Giner. 
xxx,  711 ;  Enylish  Cyclopcedia,  s.  v. 

Leo  V,  Pope,  was  born  at  Priajii,  near  Ardea  (ac- 
cording to  some  at  Arezzo).  lie  entered  the  order  of 
Benedictines,  became  cardinal,  and  was  fuially  elected 
to  the  ])apal  chair  Oct.  28,  903.  A  few  days  afterwards, 
Christopher,  cardinal  jiriest  of  St.  Lorenzo,  in  Damaso, 
and  chaplain  of  Leo,  instigated  an  insurrection  at  Rome, 
and  made  tlic  pope  jirisoner,  under  the  plea  that  he  was 
incai>al)le  of  governing.  Christoidier  now  exacted  from 
Leo  a  formal  abdication,  and  the  promise  of  returning 
into  his  convent.  According  to  Sigonius,  Leo  died  "of 
grief"  in  his  prison  one  montli  and  nine  days  after  his 
election.  He  was  buried  in  ^t.  John  of  Lrtteran.  But 
Christo])her  himself  did  not  remain  long  in  the  papal 
chair,  as  a  new  revolt  of  the  Romans  drove  him  from  the 
usurped  see,  and  put  in  his  place  Sergius  III,  who  was 


the  favorite  of  the  celebrated  Marozia,  a  powerful  but 
licentious  woman,  who  disjwsed  of  everything  in  Rome. 
The  10th  century  may  well  be  termed  the  darkest  sera 
of  the  papacy.  See  Platina,  Historia  de  Vitis  Pontiji- 
cum,  etc. ;  Artaud  de  Montor,  Hist,  des  souverains  Pon~ 
tifes  Romains,  ii,  02  ;  Du  Chene,  Hist,  des  Popes ;  Bax- 
mann, Politik  der  Pdpste,  ii,  70  sq. ;  Bower,  Jlist,  of  the 
Popes,  V,  80;  Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  30;  Gene- 
hTa.Td,Chron. ;  Herzog, Real-Encyklop.\iu, 'Sib ;  Enylish 
Cyclopu'dia  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  711. 

Leo  VI,  Pope,  a  native  of  Rome,  succeeded  John  X 
July  0,  928,  and  died  seven  months  afterwards ;  some 
say  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  Marozia,  like  his  pre- 
decessor. He  was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VII. — Enylish 
Cyclopcedia ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioyr.  Generale,  xxx,  712 ; 
Bower,  History  of  the  Popes,  x,  95. 

Leo  VII,  Pope,  a  Roman,  sometimes  called  Leo  VI, 
succeeded  Jolm  XI,  the  son  of  Marozia,  January  8,  930. 
He  mediated  peace  between  Alberic,  duke  of  Rome,  and 
Hugo,  king  of  Italy,  who  had  offered  to  marry  Marozia, 
in  order  to  obtain  by  her  means  the  possession  of  Rome, 
but  was  driven  away  by  Alberic,  also  JNIarozia's  son. 
Leo  is  said  to  have  been  a  man  of  irreproachable  con- 
duct, but  little  is  known  of  him.  He  died  in  939,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Stephen  VIII.  We  have  of  hiin  an 
epistola  to  Hugo,  abbot  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  pubhshed 
in  D'Acher}''s  Spicileyium ;  two  others  to  Gerard,  arch- 
bishop of  Lorch,  and  to  the  bishops  of  France  and  Ger- 
many. See  jNIabillon,  A  nnales  Ordinis  S.  Benedicii,  vols, 
ii  and  iv;  '^hvca.iori,  Rerum  Italicarum  Scriptores,  voL 
iii;  Fleury,  Hist.  Ecclesiast.;  Haxonms,  Aftnal.  cent,  x; 
Bower,  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  v,  97  sq. ;  Reichel,  Roman  See 
in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p.  121 ;  Baxmann,  Politik  der  Pdpste, 
ii,  93 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii,  310 ;  Enylish  Cyclo- 
pcedia; Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  xxx,  712. 

Leo  VIII,  Pope,  a  Roman,  succeeded  John  XII, 
who  was  deposed  for  his  misconduct  by  a  council  assem- 
bled at  Rome,  in  presence  of  the  emperor  Otho  I,  in  903. 
But  soon  after  Otho  had  left  Rome,  John  XII  came  in 
again  at  the  head  of  his  partisans,  obliged  Leo  to  run 
away,  and  resumed  the  papal  office.  John,  however, 
shortly  after  died  or  was  murdered  while  committing 
adultery,  and  the  Romans  elected  Benedict  V.  Otho,  re- 
turning with  an  army,  took  the  city  of  Rome,  exiled  Ben- 
edict, and  reinstated  Leo,  who  died  about  905,  and  was 
succeeded  by  John  XIII.  See  Baronius,  A  nnal.  xvi,  129 ; 
Platina,  Historia,  p.  14 ;  Bower,  Hist,  of  the  Popes,  v,  112 
sq. ;  Riddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  ii,  42;  Reichel,  Roman 
See  in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p.  126  sq.,  210;  Baxmann,  Pol- 
itik der  Pdpste,  ii,  1 14 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioy.  Gen.  xxx,  713. 

Leo  IX  (Bruno),  Pofie,  bishop  of  Toul,  was  bom  in 
Alsace  in  1002,  and  was  cousin-german  of  the  emperor 
Conrad  the  Salic.  He  was  noted  for  great  scholarly  at- 
tainments, and  was  elected  in  1049  to  succeed  Damasus 
II,  at  the  joint  recommendation  of  the  emperor  Henry 
III  and  of  the  famous  Hildebrand  (afterwards  ( iregory 
VII),  who  became  one  of  Leo  IX's  most  trusted  advisers 
and  guides.  Indeed,  it  has  often  been  a  matter  of  com- 
ment that  the  reign  of  Leo  IX  was  rather  Gregorian  in 
tendency.  Leo  was  continually  in  motion  between  (ier- 
many  and  Italy,  holding  councils  and  endeavoring  to 
reform  the  discipline  and  morals  of  the  clergy,  and  also 
to  check  the  progress  of  the  Normans  in  Southern  Italy, 
against  whom  he  led  an  army,  but  was  defeated  in  Apu- 
lia and  taken  prisoner  by  the  Normans,  who  treated  liim 
witli  great  respect,  but  kept  him  for  more  than  a  year 
in  Benevento.  Having  made  peace  with  them  by  grant- 
ing to  them  as  a  fief  of  tlie  Roman  see  their  conquests 
in  Apulia  and  Calabria,  he  was  allowed  to  return  to 
Rome,  where  he  died  in  1054.  and  was  succeeded  by 
Victor  II.  Ainong  the  councils  lield  by  Leo  IX,  one 
was  convened  at  Rome  (1050)  against  Berengar  (ip  v.), 
and  in  favor  of  Lanfranc  (q.  v.).  Another  important 
council  held  during  his  pontificate  was  that  of  Rheims 
in  1049,  where  many  laws  were  enacted  against  simony, 
clerical  matrimonv,  and  the  conditions  and  relations  of 


LEO  X 


361 


LEO  X 


monks  and  priests.  Labbe  and  C<is.sart's  Cone,  contain 
nineteen  letters  of  this  iiopc  (ix,  949-1001).  Sec  Baro- 
nius,  Annul,  xvii,  l'J-107  ;  Muratori,  lucrum  Ilulicarum 
IScrijUares,  iii,  277, 278 ;  Gfrijrer,  Kirchenyeschichte,  iv,  1 ; 
Hotter,  Die  ikutschen  Pdbste,  ii,  3-214;  Baxmann,  Po^j- 
tik  der  I'dpste,  i,  359  sq. ;  ii,  191  sq. ;  Bower,  Hist,  of  the 
Popes,  V,  1(54  sq. ;  Kiddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacji,  ii,  105  sq. ; 
Ilunkler,  Leo  JX  u.  s,  Zeit  (Mayence,  1851);  Milman, 
Jlist.  of  Latin  Christianity,  iii,  240  S(j. ;  Kanke,  Ilist.  of 
the  Papacy  ;  Keichel,  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ayes,  p. 
189  sq.,  191  sq.,  217,  244,  292 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop. 
viii,  317  sq. ;  Enylish  Cydop.  s.  v.;  Hoefer,  Kouv.Bioy. 
Geiiirale,  xxx,  714. 

Leo  X  {Giorunni  de'  Medici),  pope  from  1513  to 
1521,  was  born  at  Florence  Dec.  11, 1475.  He  was  the 
second  son  of  the  celebrated  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (born 
Jan.  31, 1448 ;  died  April  8, 1492),  surnamcd  "  the  Mag- 
niticent,"  and  grandson  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici  (born  in 
1389,  (lied  in  14G4).  From  infancy  Giovanni  had  been 
destined  by  his  father  to  an  ecclesiastical  career,  for  to 
the  lot  of  Pietro,  the  elder  child,  fell  the  succession  in  the 
Florentine  government,  and,  as  Giovanni  early  showed 
signs  of  ability,  the  great  aim  of  Lorenzo  was  to  secure 
for  Ids  house,  by  his  second  child,  the  intiuence  of  the 
Church.  At  the  tender  age  of  seven  Giovanni  was  sub- 
jected to  the  tonsure,  and  at  once  presented  by  Louis 
XII  of  France  with  the  rich  living  of  the  abbey  of  Font- 
douce,  and  by  pope  Sixtus  IV  himself  with  that  of 
the  wealthy  convent  of  Passignano.  Various  other  rich 
livings  were  added  to  these  successively,  and  in  1488, 
finally,  the  youthful  ecclesiastic,  of  but  thirteen  j^ears  of 
age,  was  by  pojie  Innocent  VIII  (father-in-law  of  Gio- 
vanni's sister  Maddalena)  presented  with  the  cardinal's 
rank,  limited  by  the  condition  only  that  the  insignia  of 
this  distinction  should  not  be  assumed  until  his  studies 
had  been  completed  at  Pisa.  Hitherto  Ids  education 
had  been  intrusted  to  tutors  mainly,  and  among  them 
were  the  famous  Greek  historian  Chalcondylas,  and  the 
learned  Angelo  Poliziano;  he  noAv  set  out  at  once  for 
I'isa,  and  having  there  completed  his  theological  stud- 
ies in  1492,  was  on  March  the  9th  of  this  same  year  in- 
stalled at  Florence  into  the  cardinal's  position,  and  three 
days  after  set  out  for  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the 
Eternal  City.  Scarce  had  a  month  passed  his  induction 
to  the  cardinal's  dignitj^  when  intelligence  reached  Rome 
that  Lorenzo  the  iNIagniticent  was  no  more,  and  hastily 
Giovanni  retraced  his  steps  to  Florence,  to  afford  succor 
and  sujiport  to  his  weak  but  elder  brother  Pietro,  upon 
whom  now  depended  the  continuance  of  the  power  of 
the  Medici  over  Florence.  In  July  of  this  year  (1492) 
Innocent  VIII  died,  and  as  Giovanni  had  opposed  the 
election  of  his  successor,  Alexander  VI,  the  Medici  could 
no  longer  hope  for  support  from  the  papacy.  Blind- 
ly and  madly,  amid  all  these  disadvantages,  Pietro,  un- 
satisfied with  absolute  power  mdess  he  could  display 
the  ijomp  and  exercise  the  cruelties  of  despotism,  con- 
trived, in  the  short  space  of  two  years,  to  secure,  in- 
stead of  the  love  and  good  will,  the  hatred  of  the  Flor- 
entines. Their  enthusiastic  devotion  to  the  house  of 
the  Medici  hitherto  alone  prevented  any  attempt  to 
subvert  his  authority.  They  remained  quiet  even  in 
1494,  when  Charles  VIII  of  France  came  into  Italy  to 
enforce  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  when  Pi- 
etro joined  the  house  of  Aragon,  instead  of  becoming  a 
confederate  of  the  French,  as  his  ancestors  had  always 
been.  But  when  Pietro,  equally  presumptuous  in  secu- 
rity and  timid  in  danger,  terrified  by  tlie  unexpected 
success  of  the  French,  tied  to  the  camp  of  Charles,  and, 
kneeling  at  his  feet,  abandoned  himself  and  his  country 
to  his  mercy,  the  indignation  of  the  Florentines  coukl 
no  longer  be  stayed,  and,  entering  into  a  treatv  with  the 
French,  they  stipidated  especially  the  exile  of  the  :Medi- 
ci  (Nov.  1494).  After  his  capitulation  to  king  Charles, 
I'ietro  had  returned  to  Florence,  but  the  enraged  popu- 
lace made  his  stay  impossible,  and  he  quickly  tied  the 
city,  (iiovanni,  bokler  and  more  courageous  than  his 
elder  brother,  assisted  by  a  few  faithful  friends,  well- 


armed,  made  a  last  attempt  to  assert  the  Medicean  au- 
thority, and  jjut  down  the  insurrection  by  a  bold  exer- 
cise of  force.  It  soon,  however,  became  but  too  appa- 
rent to  the  young  cardinal  that  his  hope  was  all  vanity. 
"The  people  midtiplied  themselves  against  Pietro,"  as 
Guicciardiui  {Storia  Fiorentinu  [Opere  inedite],iii,  110) 
phrases  it,  and  Giovanni,  in  the  disguise  of  a  friar,  was 
glad  enough  to  find  himself  outside  the  city  gates,  and 
on  the  open  Bologna  road,  taking  the  same  road  as 
Pietro,  followed  by  their  younger  brother  Giidiano,  stiU 
a  mere  lad.  They  went  first  to  John  Bentivoglio  in 
Bologna,  but,  as  they  ^vere  not  received  here,  went  to 
Castello,  and  found  a  rel'uge  with  Vitelli.  In  this  and 
other  places,  the  Medici,  the  cardinal  included,  lived  for 
some  time,  having  frequent  endeavors  made  for  their 
restoration.  But  when  Giovanni  was  finally  persuaded 
that  all  such  efforts  were  fruitless,  he  decided  to  quit  his 
native  coimtry,  now  ravaged  by  foreign  armies,  and  be- 
trayed by  the  wretched  policy  of  pope  Alexander  \l, 
and  he  set  out  on  a  journey  to  France,  Germany,  and 
the  Netherlands.  For  the  assertion  that  the  cardinal 
undertook  this  journey  for  political  ends  there  is  not 
the  slightest  foundation.  While  abroad  he  sought  lit- 
erary associations  mainly.  He  courted  the  acciuaint- 
ance  of  men  of  learning,  and  not  unfrequently  displayed 
his  own  taste  for  literature  and  the  liberal  arts.  In 
1503,  upon  the  death  of  Alexander  VI,  against  whom  he 
cherished  a  bitter  hatred,  and  on  whose  account  only  he 
had  avoided  Home  after  the  expidsion  of  his  family  from 
Florence,  he  returned  to  the  banks  of  the  Tiber.  Pius 
III,  who  succeeded  Alexander  VI, lived  only  a  few  weeks, 
and,  upon  a  further  election,  the  pontifical  chair  was  oc- 
cupied by  Julius  II,  a  friend  and  admirer  of  Giovanni 
de'  Medici.  Our  cardinal's  elder  brother  had  died  in 
the  mean  time  (in  the  battle  of  Garigliano  in  1603  ),and, 
no  longer  distracted  by  the  imprudent  conduct  and  the 
wild  plans  of  an  imbecile,  he  gave  himseff  up  wholly  to 
the  interests  of  his  ecclesiastical  position.  By  the  friend- 
ship of  a  nephew  of  the  pontiff,  Galeotto  della  Povcre, 
he  was  brought  into  closer  relations  with  Julius  II,  and, 
after  the  latter  had  entered  Perugia  in  1506  (Sept.  12), 
cardinal  Giovanni  was  intrusted  with  the  government 
of  that  town,  and  only  a  short  time  after  was  honored 
with  the  appointment  of  papal  field  marshal,  mider  the 
title  of  "legate  of  Bologna,"  to  the  army  against  the 
French.  The  campaign,  however,  proved  rather  unsuc- 
cessful, and  at  the  battle  of  Kavenna  the  cardinal  was 
taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Milan,  whence  he  made  his 
escape  while  the  French  soldiers  were  busy  in  prepara- 
tions for  their  removal  to  France.  The  cardinal's  great 
aim,  now  that  the  French  had  quitted  Lombardy  and  the 
Florentine  republic,  was  to  re-establish  his  house  in  the 
government  of  Flor<?nce.  During  the  first  eight  years 
of  their  exile  the  IVIedici  had  made  four  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts to  regain  their  power;  on  the  failure  of  their 
last  attempt,  their  successfid  opponent.  Pietro  Soderini, 
had  been  chosen  gonfaloniere  for  life :  to  dethrone  So- 
derini, then,  was  the  great  object  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  cardinal.  The  gonfaloniere's  reign  thus  far  had  been 
noted  for  its  moderation  and  benign  intiuence  on  Flor- 
ence, and  had  secured  to  the  coimtry  great  prosjierity; 
but  Soderini's  integrity  was  not  unimpeachable  to  the 
mind  of  the  Medici,  and  (iiovanni  appealed  to  the  Holy 
Leayue,  consisting  of  the  pope,  the  emperor,  the  Vene- 
tians, and  Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  to  imdertake  the  res- 
toration of  the  Jlcdici,  on  the  ground  that  Soderini 
showed  great  partiality  to  foreigners,  and  that  his  gov- 
ernment was  extremely  corrupt.  To  secure  the  services 
of  the  Holy  Leuyue  no  charges  against  Soderini  ivere 
really  needed,  but  he  brought  them,  and  promptly  they 
replied.  A  body  of  5000  Spaniards,  brave  to  ferdcity, 
were  marched  imdcr  Kaymond  de  Cardona  against  Flor- 
ence in  August,  1512.  On  their  way  they  stormed  the 
town  of  Prato,  and  massacred  the  citizens,  which  so  in- 
timidated the  Florentines  that  they  immediately  capit- 
ulated, and  consented  to  the  return  of  the  Medici  as  pri- 
vate citizens.     Cardinal  de'  Medici  and  his  brother  Gi- 


LEO  X 


3G2 


LEO  X 


uliano  soon  after  entered  Florence,  and,  though  they  had 
asked  only  tlioir  restoration  as  private  citizens,  without 
any  share  in  the  government,  they  had  hardly  been  re- 
admitted when  they  forced  the  signoria,  or  executive, 
to  immediately  call  a  '•  parlamento,"  or  general  assem- 
bly of  tlie  people,  in  the  great  square  (September).  This 
general  assembly  of  the  sovereign  peojile  had  repeatedly 
been  used  by  ambitious  men  as  a  ready  instrument  of 
their  views,  and  it  proved  such  on  this  occasion.  All 
the  laws  enacted  since  the  expidsion  of  the  Medici  in 
1494  were  abrogated.  A  "  balia,"  or  commission,  was  ap- 
pointed, consisting  of  creatures  of  that  family,  with  dic- 
tatorial powers,  to  reform  the  state.  No  bloodshed,  how- 
ever, accompanied  the  reaction ;  but  Soderini,  having 
been  deposed  by  the  establishment  of  this  new  form  of 
government,  he  and  other  citizens  opposed  to  the  Me- 
dici were  banished,  and  "  thus  once  again,  after  an  exile 
of  eighteen  years,  the  fatal  Medici  were  restored  to  Flor- 
ence ;  once  again  fixed  their  fangs  in  the  prey  they  had 
been  scared  away  from,  and  '  the  most  democratical  de- 
mocracy in  Europe'  was  once  again  muzzled  and  chain- 
ed. A  conspiracy  of  priest  and  soldier — that  detesta- 
ble and  ominous  combination,  more  baneful  to  human- 
ity than  any  other  of  the  poisonous  mischiefs  comjw)und- 
ed  out  of  its  evil  passions  and  blind  stupidities — had  as 
usual  trampled  out  the  hojies  and  possibilities  of  social 
civilization  and  progress"  (TroUope,  iv,  348). 

Scarcely  had  the  Medici  re-established  themselves  at 
Florence  when  news  came  from  Itome  that  the  supreme 
pontiff  had  died.  It  was  on  the  20th  of  February,  1513, 
that  "  the  furious  nature"  of  his  holiness  the  pope  Julius 
II  was  quieted  forever.  Leaving  his  brother  Giidiano, 
and  his  nejihew  Lorenzo,  son  of  Pietro,  at  the  head  of 
the  affairs  of  Florence,  "  our  cardinal  posts  up  in  all 
haste  to  Kome,"  says  Trollope  (iv,  351),  '•  to  see  whether 
mayhap  Providence,  in  the  utter  inscrutableness  of  its 
wisdom,  may  consider  him,  Giovanni  de'  IMedici,  as  the 
best  and  fittest  person  to  be  intrusted  with  heaven's 
vicegerency,"  accompanied  in  this  excursion  to  the  con- 
clave by  Filippo  Strozzi — son  of  the  great  banker,  the 
founder  of  the  still  well-known  Strozzi  palace,  possessor 
of  one  of  the  then  largest  fortunes  in  Florence,  and  "  on 
■whose  young  shoidders  was  one  of  the  longest  heads 
that  day  in  Florence" — as  his  friend,  companion,  and  .  .  . 
banker.  "  Especially  in  this  last  capacity  was  Filippo 
necessary  to  the  asi)iring  cardinal,  so  soon  to  become 
]iope  by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  capital  of  Strozzi." 
The  younger  members  of  the  conclave  had  previously 
decided  to  elect  one  of  their  own  age  as  successor  to  Ju- 
lius II.  and  upon  cardinal  de'  Medici,  only  thirty-seven 
years  old,  fell  their  choice,  infiuenced,  as  we  have  seen 
by  tlic  ((notation  from  Trollope,  in  a  great  measure  by 
the  exertions  of  the  banker  Strozzi.  One  of  the  first 
acts  of  the  new  pontiff,  who  assumed  the  name  of  Leo 
X,  was  to  appoint  two  men  of  learning,  Bembo  and  Sado- 
leto,  for  his  secretaries.  He  next  sent  a  general  amnes- 
ty to  be  iiublishcd  at  Florence,  where  a  conspiracy  had 
been  discovered  against  the  Mediciifor  which  two*  indi- 
viduals had  been  executed,  and  others,  with  the  cele- 
brated aiachiavelli  among  the  rest,  had  been  arrested 
and  put  to  the  torture.  Leo  ordered  Giuliano  even  to 
release  the  prisoners  and  recall  those  that  Avere  banished, 
Soderini  among  the  rest.  This  accomplished,  Giuliano 
•was  invited  to  Pome,  where  he  was  made  gonfalioncre 
of  the  Holy  Church.  "AH  the  rich  and  lucrative  of- 
fices of  the  apostolic  court  were  conferred  on  Florentines, 
not  a  little  to  the  disgust  of  the  Poman  world"  (Trollo]ic. 
iv,  359).  Of  course,  that  Leo  shoidd  do  anything  and 
everything  to  enhance  the  dignity  and  greatness  of  the 
Medicean  family  no  one  could  object  to,  and,  conse- 
quently, no  one  had  aught  to  say  when  he  ajipointed  his 
nephew  Lorenzo,  the  eldest  son  of  Pietro,  a  profligate 
young  scapegrace,  but  the  ohIv  heir  remaining  to  suc- 
ceed in  the  government  of  Florence,  governor  of  the  re- 
public and  general  in  cbief.  with  absolute  and  supreme 
autliority  over  all  the  Tuscan  fnrces  contributed  by  the 
commonwealth  to  the  armies  of  a  new  league  formed  in 


1515  by  the  emperor,  the  king  of  Aragon,  the  duke  of 
Milan,  and  the  Florentines  against  France  and  Venice. 
To  have  made  Lorenzo,  as  Leo  would  have  liked  to 
do,  sovereign  prince,  under  the  title  of  duke  or  some 
other  like  distinction,  would  have  been  premature,  but 
with  the  appointment  as  made  no  one  found  fault,  and  it 
passed  generally  approved.  Nor  was  any  objection  raised 
to  Leo's  further  action  in  behalf  of  Florence,  constituting 
it  a  dependency  of  Rome,  which  it  continued  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  His  cousin  Giulio  de'  jNIedici, 
archbishop  of  Florence,  on  the  decease  of  Julius  II,  Leo 
X  at  once  promoted  to  the  cardinal's  dignity,  and,  in  ad- 
dition, intrusted  him  with  the  legateship  of  Bologna. 
By  these  new  positions  the  influence  of  the  Medici  had 
been  greatly  improved,  but  the  ever-plotting  Leo,  far- 
seeing  as  he  was,  comprehended  clearly  that  still  more 
was  needed  to  secure  to  his  house  the  throne  of  Florence. 
Upon  his  accession  to  the  pontificate  he  found  the  war 
renewed  in  Northern  Italy.  Loius  XII  had  sent  a  fresh 
arm}-,  under  La  Trimouille,  to  invade  the  duchy  of  Mi- 
lan. The  Swiss  auxiliaries  of  duke  IMaximilian  Sforza 
defeated  La  Trimouille  at  Novara,  and  the  French  were 
driven  out  of  Italy.  The  Venetians,  however,  had  allied 
themselves  with  Louis  XII,  and  Leo  sent  Bembo  to  Ven- 
ice to  endeavor  to  break  the  alliance.  Differences  oc- 
curred between  Leo  and  Alfonso  d'Este,  duke  of  Ferrara, 
who  demanded  the  restoration  of  Eeggio,  taken  from 
him  by  Julius  II,  which  Leo  promised,  but  never  per- 
formed ;  on  the  contrary,  he  purchased  lilodena  of  the 
emperor  jMaximilian,  tlisregarding  the  rights  of  the  house 
of  Este  to  that  town.  The  pope  held  likewise  Parma 
and  Piacenza,  and  it  appears  that  he  intended  to  form 
out  of  these  a  territory  for  his  brother  Giuliano,  and  he 
made  attempts  to  surprise  Ferrara  also  with  the  same 
view.  His  predecessor  Jidius  had  had  in  view  the  in- 
dependence of  all  Italy,  and  he  boldly  led  on  the  league 
for  this  purpose;  Leo  had  a  narrower  object — his  own 
aggrandizement  and  that  of  his  family,  and  he  pursued  it 
with  a  more  cautious  and  crooked  policy.  To  secure  tlie 
adhesion  of  Louis  XII,  Leo  reopened  the  Council  of  the 
Lateran,  which  had  begun  under  Julius  II,  for  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  schism  produced  by  the  Council  of  Pisa, 
convoked  by  Louis  XII  in  order  to  check  the  power  of  Ju- 
lius, who  was  his  enem}'.  For  such  proceedings  there  was 
now  no  longer  any  reason,  and  Louis  XII  gladly  made 
his  peace  with  Leo  in  1514,  renounced  the  Council  of 
Pisa,  and  acknowledged  that  of  the  Lateran.  But  in  the 
following  year  Louis  XII  died,  and  his  successor,  Fran- 
cis I,  among  other  titles  assumed  that  of  duke  of  !Milan. 
Under  him  a  new  Italian  war  opened.  The  Venetians 
joined  Francis  I,  while  the  emperor  Maximilian,  Ferdi- 
nand of  Spain,  duke  Sforza,  and  the  Swiss  made  a  league 
to  oppose  the  French.  The  pope  did  not  openly  join 
the  league,  but  he  ncgf>tiated  with  the  Swiss  by  means 
of  the  cardinal  of  Sion,  and  paid  them  considerable 
sums  to  induce  them  to  defend  the  north  of  Italy.  The 
S^viss  were  posted  near  Susa,  but  Francis,  led  by  old  Tri- 
vulzio,  passed  the  Alps  by  the  Col  de  I'Argentier,  en- 
tered the  plains  of  Saluzzo,  and  marched  upon  Pavia, 
wliilo  the  Swiss  hastened  back  to  defend  ]Milan.  The 
battle  of  Marignano  was  fought  on  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber, 1515.  The  Swiss  made  desperate  efforts,  and  woidd 
probably  have  succeeded  had  not  Alviano,  with  part  of 
the  Venetian  troops,  appeared  suddenly  with  cries  of 
"Viva  San  ]\Iarco,"  which  dispirited  the  Swiss,  who  be^ 
lieved  that  the  whole  Venetian  army  was  coming  to  the 
assistance  of  the  French.  The  result  was  the  retreat  of 
the  Swiss,  and  the  entrance  of  the  French  into  Milan, 
who  took  possession  of  the  duchy.  Leo  now  saw  clear- 
ly that  the  salvation  of  his  house  lay  in  a  union  with 
France,  and  at  once  made  proposals  to  Francis,  who,  in 
turn,  eagerly  embraced  the  proffered  aid  of  the  Church. 
It  was  on  the  21st  of  October,  1515,  that  news  reached 
Florence  of  this  new  alliance  concluded  by  the  holy  fa- 
ther and  the  French  king  Francis  I  for  the  mutual  de- 
fence of  their  Italian  states,  the  king  obliging  himself 
specially  to  protect  the  pontiff,  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo  de' 


LEO  X 


363 


LEO  X 


Medici,  and  the  Florentines,  and  that  both  Lorenzo  and 
Giuliano  should  receive  commissions  in  the  French  ser- 
vice, with  pay  and  pensions.  If  there  had  been  danf,'er 
to  the  Medici  government  in  Florence,  it  threatened 
from  the  side  of  France,  but  that  danger  they  escaped  by 
this  new  alliance,  brought  about,  in  a  great  measure,  by 
the  sympathy  whioh  the  two  parties  felt  for  each  other. 

At  a  meeting  which  these  new  allies  subsequently 
held  at  Bologna  (December,  1515)  a  marriage  was  agreed 
uj)on  between  Lorenzo,  the  pope's  nephew,  and  Made- 
leine de  Boulogne,  niece  of  Francis  de  Bourbon,  duke  of 
Vendome,  from  which  marriage  Catharine  de'  Medici, 
after\\-ards  queen  of  France,  was  born,  and  thus  the  un- 
ion of  the  French  and  Florentine  interests  became  more 
closely  cemented.  But  iu  ecclesiastical  affairs  also  new 
measures  were  taken  by  a  concordat,  only  abrogated  by 
the  French  Revolution,  which  regulated  the  appoint- 
ment to  the  sees  and  livings  in  the  French  kingdom. 
Listead  of  capitular  election,  the  king  was  to  nominate, 
the  pope  to  collate  to  episcopal  sees.  Annates  were  re- 
stored to  the  pope,  who  also  received  a  small  stipulated 
patronage  in  place  of  his  indefinite  prerogative  of  re- 
serving benetices.  It  is  true  the  Parliament  and  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  both  opposed  this  concordat,  but  the 
king  and  the  pope  each  secured  what  they  desired.  To 
the  king  thus  fell  the  real  power  and  the  essential  pat- 
ronage of  the  Church ;  by  the  pope  the  recognition  of 
his  own  authority  was  obtained.  The  two,  as  Reichel 
{See  of  Borne  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  538)  has  aptly  said, 
by  this  new  measure,  "  shared  between  them  the  ancient 
liberties  of  the  Galilean  Church.  Tlie  rising  freedom 
of  the  laity  was  thereliy  crushed ;  the  pope  recovered 
most  of  his  ancient  power."  Nothing  could  seem  bright- 
er now  than  the  Medicean  prospects  and  the  future  of 
the  papacy.  There  was  only  one  more  thing  to  be  im- 
mediately accomplished — to  make  Lorenzo  a  sovereign 
prince  ''by  grace  of  God,  or,  at  all  events,  clearly  by 
grace  of  God's  vicegerent  on  earth."  L'pon  the  most 
Hagrant  of  pretences,  the  duke  of  Urbino,  Francesco 
Maria  della  Kevcre,  Avas  deposed,  and  upon  Lorenzo  fell 
the  mantle  of  the  duchy's  sovereignty,  and  at  last  the 
measure  of  Leo's  ambition  was  nearly  full.  (In  1519, 
upon  the  death  of  Lorenzo,  the  duchy  of  Urbino  was  add- 
ed to  the  territory  of  the  Church.)  This  family  ambi- 
tion, however,  by  no  means  found  pleasure  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Koman  people,  while  the  Florentines  were  flattered 
by  the  advance  of  their  "  first  citizens"  to  the  position  of 
lirince  and  pope.  Prominent  among  the  enemies  of  the 
IVIedici  was  the  house  of  Petrucci,  headed  by  the  cardi- 
nal of  that  name,  who  wa^s  led  into  a  conspiracy  to  mur- 
der the  pope  by  the  latter's  expatriation  of  his  brother 
from  Sienna.  Not  satisfied  with  the  acquisition  of  the 
duchy  of  L^rbino,  Leo  longed  also  for  the  possession  of 
the  free  state  of  Sienna,  lying  between  the  territories  of 
the  Church  and  those  of  the  republic  of  Florence,  and  to 
this  end  sent  Borghesi,  its  governor,  into  exile.  At  first 
Borghesi's  brother,  cardinal  Petrucci,  formed  the  mad 
design  of  stabbing  Leo  on  their  first  meeting,  but  he 
finally  abandoned  this  enterprise  as  too  daring,  and  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  instead  to  cause  the  death  of  Leo 
X  by  poison.  Fortunately  for  Leo,  the  plot  to  take  his 
life  was  timely  discovered,  and  the  cardinal  expiated  the 
intended  crime  with  his  life  by  secret  strangling,  while 
many  others  of  like  social  standing  suffered  abasement 
and  othgr  punishment.  To  secure  himself  against  a 
second  attempt  of  the  kind,  Leo  now  (in  1517)  created  a 
whole  host  of  able  and  experienced  Florentines  cardinals 
— no  less  than  thirty-one  of  them  altogether. 

It  was  about  this  time  also  that  the  Lateran  Council  ap- 
proached itsclose,  and  that  the  measures  were  inaugurated 
which  resulted  so  unfavorably  to  the  cause  of  the  papacy 
and  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  have  made  the  year  1517 
forever  memorable  in  the  ecclesiastical  annals  for  the 
foundation  and  commencement  it  gave  to  the  revolution 
in  the  Church,  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Reformation  (q.  v.).     One  of  the  greatest  desires  of  Leo 


plete  strnctnre  commenced  under  .Julius  II — the  building 
of  St.  Peter's  church.  Leo,  who  had  made  for  himself  a 
name  as  the  jjrotector  and  patron  of  art,  and  had  well- 
nigh  revived  the  Periclean  age  of  the  Greeks,  could  not 
brook  the  thought  that,  while  he  was  pontiff  within  the 
walls  of  the  Paternal  City,  this  great  enterprise,  likeh'  to 
immortalize  the  name  of  its  patron  in  the  annals  of  art, 
should  be  passed  over,  and,  finding  the  coffers  of  the 
papacy  drained  by  his  predecessor,  saw  only  one  way  in 
which  to  secure  the  necessary  funds  for  so  stupendous  an 
undertaking — the  sale  of  indulgences  (q.  v.),  securing  to 
the  contributor  for  this  object  forgiveness  of  sin  in  any 
form  (comp.  Mosheim,  7icc/.  Hist,  ii,  06,  note  6 ;  Bower, 
Hist,  of  Papacij,  vii,  409  sq.;  Fvobeitson,  Ilisf.  of  Beirpi  of 
Charles  V,  Harper's  edit.,  p.  125  sq.,  especially  the  foot- 
notes on  p.  120).  Such  utter  disregard  of  the  essence 
of  religion  resulted  in  one  of  the  boldest  assaults  on  the 
Romish  Church  that  it  had  ever  sustained.  The  very 
thought  that  forgiveness  of  sin  M'as  to  be  offered  on  sale 
for  money  "  nmst  have  been  mortally  offensive  to  men 
whose  convictions  on  that  head  had  been  acquired  from 
contemplating  the  eternal  relation  l)etween  God  and 
man,  and  who,  moreover,  had  learned  what  the  doctrine 
of  Scripture  itself  was  on  the  subject"  {llanke,  Hist.  Pap. 
i,  60).  In  Saxony,  especially,  men  of  jiiety  and  thought 
generally  commended  the  interpretation  which  Lnthcr 
gave  to  this  subject.  They  all  regretted  the  delusion  of 
the  people,  who,  being  taught  to  rely  for  the  pardon  of 
their  sins  on  the  indulgences  which  they  could  secure  by 
purchase,  did  not  think  it  incumbent  on  themselves  either 
to  study  the  doctrines  of  genuine  Christianity,  or  to  prac- 
tice the  duties  which  it  enjoins.  Even  the  most  unthink- 
ing were  shocked  at  the  scandalous  behavior  of  the  Do- 
minicans— .John  Tetzel  (q.v.)  and  his  associates,  who  had 
the  sale  of  indulgences  intrusted  to  them — and  at  the 
manner  in  which  they  spent  the  funds  accumulated  from 
this  traffic.  These  sums,  which  liad  been  piously  be- 
stowed in  hopes  of  obtaining  eternal  salvation  and  hap- 
pine.is,  they  saw  squandered  by  tlie  Dominican  friars  in 
drunkenness,  gaming,  and  low  debauchery,  and  ■'  all  be- 
gan to  wish  that  some  clieck  were  given  to  this  com- 
merce, no  less  detrimental  to  society  than  destructive  to 
religion"  (Robertson,  p.  126).  Indeed,  even  the  princes 
and  nobles  objected  to  this  traffic ;  they  were  irritated  at 
seeing  their  vassals  drained  of  so  much  wealth  in  order 
to  replenish  the  treasury  of  a  profuse  pontiff,  and  when 
Luther's  warm  and  impetuous  temper  did  not  suffer  him 
any  longer  to  conceal  his  aversion  to  the  unscriptural 
doctrine  of  the  Thomists,  or  to  continue  a  silent  specta- 
tor of  the  delusion  of  his  country,  from  the  pulpit  in 
the  great  church  of  Wittenberg  he  inveighed  bitterly 
against  the  false  opinions,  as  well  as  the  Avicked  lives, 
of  the  preachers  of  indulgences  (see  Liisclif  r's  Reforma- 
tionsalcten,  i, 729).  "  Indignation  against  Roman  impost- 
ure increased;  universal  attention  and  sympathy  were 
directed  towards  the  bold  champion  of  the  triith''  (Giese- 
ler,  Eccles.  Hist.  [Harper's  edit.]  iv,  33).  On  Oct.  31, 
1517,  finally,  to  gain  also  the  suffrage  of  men  of  learn- 
ing, Luther  published  ninety-five  theses  against  the 
traffic  in  indulgences,  setting  forth  his  objections  to  this 
abuse  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Not  that  he  supposed 
these  points  fully  established  or  of  undoubted  certainty, 
but  he  advanced  them  as  the  result  of  his  own  in\  esti- 
gation,  and  as  sulyects  of  incpiiry  and  disputation  unto 
others,  that  he  might  be  corrected  ii'  his  position  could  be 
impugned.  He  sent  them  to  the  neighboring  bishops 
with  a  petition  for  the  abolition  of  the  evil  if  his  views 
were  found  to  be  well  grounded,  and  appointed  a  day  on 
which  the  learned  churchmen  might  publicly  dispute 
the  point  at  issue,  either  in  person  or  by  writing ;  sub- 
joining to  them,  however,  solemn  protestations  of  his 
high  respect  for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his  imjilicit 
submission  to  its  authority.  Many  zealous  champions 
immediately  arose  to  defend  opinions  on  which  the 
wealth  and  power  of  the  Church  were  founded;  in  es- 
pecial manner  the  opposition  of  the  Dominicans  (q.  v.) 


X,  as  pope  of  Rome,  was  the  continuation  of  the  incom-  !  was  roused,  for  the  spirit  of  this  order  had  become  pe- 


LEO  X 


36- 


LEO  X 


culiarly  sensitive  on  account  of  some  recent  humiliations, 
pnificiilarly  by  the  fate  of  Savonarola  (<!•  v.),  the  events 
at  J5jrnc',  and  by  the  still  surviving  controversy  with 
Ufujlilin  (q.  v.),  aside  from  the  fact  that  the  different 
mendicant  orders  cherished  constant  jealousy  against 
each  other.  (The  conjecture  of  some  that  the  jealousy 
of  the  Augustine  monk  was  apparent  in  Luther's  attack 
on  Tetzel  because  to  the  Dominicans  had  been  intrusted 
the  indulgence  traffic  is  too  ridicidous  to  need  repetition 
here.  Comp.  however.  Gieseler,  Eccks.  Hist,  iv,  "25,  note 
I"  ;  Mosheim,  Eccles.  Hist.  bk.  iv,  cent,  xvi,  sec.  i,  ch.  ii, 
note  IS.)  In  opposition  to  Luther's  theses,  Tetzel  him- 
self came  forward  with  counter  theses,  which  he  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort -on -the -Oder.  Prominent  among 
others  also  were  Eck  (q.  v.),  the  celebrated  Augsburg 
divine,  and  Prierias  (q.  v.),  the  inqiusitor  general,  who 
botli  replied  to  the  Augustine  monk  with  all  the  viru- 
lence of  scholastic  disputants.  "  But  the  manner  in 
which  they  conducted  the  controversy  did  little  service 
to  their  cause.  Luther  attemjitcd  to  combat  indulgences 
by  arguments  founded  in  reason  or  derived  from  the 
Scriptures;  they  produced  nothing  in  support  of  them 
but  the  sentiments  of  the  schoolmen,  and  the  conclusions 
of  the  canon  law,  and  the  decrees  of  popes.  The  deci- 
sion of  judges  so  partial  and  interested  did  not  satisfy 
the  people,  who  began  to  call  into  question  even  the  au- 
thority of  these  venerable  guides  when  they  foimd  them 
standing  in  direct  opposition  to  the  dictates  of  reason 
and  the  determination  of  the  divine  law"  (Robertson,  p. 
128).     SeeLuTHEii;  Kekokmation. 

At  Kome  these  controversies,  though  they  had  be- 
come a  matter  of  interest  to  all  the  German  people,  were 
looked  upon  with  great  indifference.  Leo  judged  it  sim- 
ply a  wrangling  of  two  mendicant  orders,  and  he  was 
determined  to  let  the  Augustinians  and  Dominicans  set- 
tle their  own  quarrels.  The  adversaries  of  Luther,  how- 
ever, feared  for  their  cause,  and  they  saw  no  other  way 
b}^  which  to  secure  anew  peace  to  themselves,  and  the 
respect  of  the  people,  than  by  a  wholesale  slaughter  of 
the  Reformer  and  his  friends.  The  solicitations  of  the 
Dominicans  at  the  Vatican  became  daily  more  frequent 
and  urgent;  and  when  at  last  it  became  necessary  for 
Leo  to  take  some  decided  action,  he  simply  commission- 
ed his  cardinal  legate  Cajetan  (().  v.)  to  bring  the  Au- 
gustinian  friar  to  his  senses,  and  Luther  was  summoned 
t(i  and  promptly  appeared  at  the  Diet  of  Augsburg,  in 
October,  1518.  If  Leo  ever  committed  a  blunder,  it  was 
done  in  this  instance  by  appointing  to  the  task  of  con- 
verting Luther  a  monastic  of  the  very,  order  he  had  so 
seriously  attacked  for  its  complicity  in  the  indulgence 
tralHc.  If  Luther  was  ever  so  much  inclined  to  yield, 
a  Dominican  was  certainly  not  the  proper  agent  to  ac- 
comiilish  such  a  purpose.  Cajetan,  moreover,  treated 
Luther  rather  imperiously,  and  peremptorily  required 
him  to  confess  his  errors,  before  the  least  attempt  had 
been  made  to  reply  to  his  arguments,  and  of  course  our 
Augustiuian,  high-spirited  as  he  was,  turned  away  in 
disgust,  and  appealed  a  pupa  noii  bene  infurmato  ad  me- 
liits  infoniuimhua ;  and  afterwards,  when  the  whole  doc- 
trine of  indulgence,  as  it  had  been  developed  up  to  the 
)>resent  time,  was  conlirmed  by  a  papal  bull,  the  new 
lieretic  api)ealed  from  the  pope  to  a  general  council  (at 
WitK'nlKTg,  \ov.  2.S,  1 0 |,s ).  I5y  this  time,  however,  the 
strife  had  assumed  m(jre  gigantic  proportions;  around 
LutluT  were  now  gathered  the  great,  and  the  strong, 
and  the  learned  of  the  Teutonic  race.  A  special  help- 
meet lie  had  found  in  liis  colleagues  of  the  lately  founded 
high  school  of  learning  at  Wittenberg;  and  as  in  the  13th 
century  from  Oxford  and  Prague  had  i)roccedcd  the 
action  against  the  Latin  system,  so  it  now  proceeded 
from  Wittenberg,  until  it  terminated  in  the  Reformation. 
A\'lien  too  late,  the  Roman  court  realized  the  mistake  it 
had  committed  in  intrusting  Cajetan  with  the  settle- 
ment of  this  difficulty,  and  another  legate,  the  pope's 
own  chamberlain,  Charles  of  IMiltitz  (q.  v.),  was  dis- 
patclie<l  in  December  (1.51H)  to  give  assurances  to  the 
electoral  prince  Frederick,  by  the  valuable  present  of  the 


consecrated  golden  rose  (q.  v.),  of  the  good  intentions  of 
pope  Leo  towards  Saxony,  and  at  the  same  time,  if  pos- 
sible, to  conciliate  Luther,  in  whom  was  now  seen  the 
representative  of  Wittenberg  University,  and  at  whose 
back  stood  one  to  whom  even  his  enemies  confess  but 
few  men  of  any  age  can  be  compared,  either  for  learning 
and  luiowledge  of  both  human  and  divine  thmgs.  or  for 
richness,  suavity,  and  facility  of  genius,  or  for  industry 
as  a  scholar — Philip  Melancthou  (q.  v.).  Unfortunately 
for  the  cause  of  the  Dominicans,  this  very  elector  of 
Saxony,  who  had  identitied  himself  with  and  become 
the  cliampion  of  the  cause  of  the  Wittenberg  reform 
movement,  was  now,  upon  the  death  of  JIaximilian  I, 
made  regent  of  the  empire  in  northern  Germany  (Jan. 
12, 1.519),  and  Miltitz  saw  only  one  way  in  which  to  set- 
tle the  controversy — by  appeasing  the  wrath  of  Luther. 
He  accordingly  flattered  '•  the  friar  of  Wittenberg,"  as 
he  was  contemptuously  called  at  Rome,  by  all  manner 
of  kindness,  assured  him  that  his  case  had  been  misrep- 
resented to  Leo,  and  actually  succeeded  in  inducing  Lu- 
ther to  promise,  not,  indeed,  recantation,  as  he  desired, 
but  a  promise  to  be  silent  if  his  opponents  were  silent, 
and  an  open  declaration  of  obedience  to  the  see  of  Rome : 
thus  the  whole  matter  apparently  had  reached  its  end. 
The  opponents,  however,  were  not  silent;  the  contro- 
versy was  renewed  with  greater  animosity  than  before. 
See  Carlstaijt;  Eck;  Leipsic  Disputation.  Lu- 
ther was  forced  to  reply ;  the  primacy  of  the  pope  and 
other  questions  became  involved,  which  obliged  addi- 
tional research  and  study  on  the  part  of  the  reformers, 
and  "  in  this  way  Luther  gained  so  thorough  an  insight 
into  the  errors  and  corruption  of  the  Roman  Church  that 
he  gradually  began  to  see  the  necessity  of  separating 
himself  from  it.  He  felt  himself  called  as  a  soldier  of 
God  to  fight  against  the  wiles  and  deceit  of  the  devil, 
by  which  the  Church  was  corrupted"  (Gieseler,  iv,  42). 
This  he  did  hereafter,  fearless  of  consequences,  by  both 
his  pen  and  tongue.  Luther's  was  a  nature  that  recoil- 
ed from  no  extremity.  The  result  was  "  the  bull  of  con- 
demnation," issued  June  15,  1520,  which  brought  about 
the  formal  abjuration  of  the  papacy  on  the  part  of  Lu- 
ther by  the  public  burning  of  the  bull,  together  with  the 
papal  law-books,  Dec.  10  of  this  very  year.  January  3, 
1521,  came  the  bull  of  excommunication,  and  a  demand 
for  its  execution  by  the  Diet  of  Worms,  the  body  to 
which  Luther  appealed.     See  Reformation. 

While  these  religious  disputes  were  carried  on  wnth 
great  warmth  in  Germany,  and  threatened  the  very 
existence  of  Romanism,  pope  Leo  was  much  more  con- 
cerned with  what  occurred  around  him  in  Italy.  A  pol- 
itician of  the  best  sort  in  the  affairs  of  his  native  coun- 
try, ever  solicitous  for  its  welfare,  he  saw  greater  danger 
calling  for  ])rompter  action  on  the  political  horizon  than 
any  that  had  yet  appeared,  in  his  estimation,  on  that  of 
ecclesiasticism.  Leo,  indeed,  trembled  for  Florence  at 
the  prospect  of  beholding  the  imperial  crown  placed  on 
the  head  of  the  king  of  Spain  and  of  Naples,  and  the 
master  of  the  New  World  ;  nor  was  he  less  afraid  of  see- 
ing the  king  of  France,  who  was  the  duke  of  Milan  and 
lord  of  Genoa,  exalted  to  that  dignity.  He  even  fore- 
told that  the  election  of  either  of  them  would  be  fatal 
to  the  independence  of  the  holy  see,  to  the  peace  of 
Italy,  and  pcrhajis  to  the  lil)erties  of  Europe.  Put  June 
28,  1519,  the  king  of  Spain  was  elected  successor  to 
Maximilian.  This  was,  indeed,  an  event  calculated  to 
cause  a  series  of  infinite  perplexities  to  God's  -vicegerent 
on  earth.  So  the  important  decision  was  taken,  a  .se- 
cret league,  offensive  and  defensive,  signed  with  the 
new  Cffisar  on  July  8, 1521,  by  which  it  was  stipulated 
that  the  duchy  of  jMilan  was  to  be  taken  from  the 
French  and  given  to  Francesco  Maria  Sforza,  and  Par- 
ma and  I'iacenza  to  be  restored  to  the  pope.  Leo 
subsidized  a  bodyof  Swiss,  and  Prospero  Colonna,  with 
the  Spaniards  from  Naples,  joined  the  papal  forces  at 
Bologna,  crossed  the  Po  at  Casalmaggiore,  joined  the 
Swiss,  and  drove  the  French  governor  Lautrec  out  of 
Milan.     In  a  short  time  the  duchy  of  Milan  was  once 


LEO  X 


365 


LEODEGAR 


more  clear  of  the  French,  and  restored  to  the  dominion 
of  Sforza.  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  again  occupied  by 
the  papal  troops.  At  the  same  time  Leo  declared  Al- 
fonso d'Este  a  rebel  to  the  holy  see  for  having  sided 
with  the  French,  while  the  duke,  on  his  part,  complain- 
ed of  the  bad  faith  of  the  pope  in  keephig  possession  of 
Slodena  and  Keggio.  The  news  of  the  taking  of  Milan 
was  celebrated  at  Pome  with  public  rejoicings,  but  in 
the  midst  of  all  tliis  Leo  fell  ill  on  Nov.  25,  and  died 
Dec.  1, 1521,  not  without  reasonable  suspicion  of  poison, 
tin«ugh  some  have  maintained  that  he  died  a  natural 
death.  (See  Trollope,  IJist.  of  Flurence,  iv,  385  sq.,  who 
quotes  strong  proof  in  favor  of  the  assertion  that  Leo  X 
tlicd  of  poison.) 

Personally  Leo  \vas  generous,  or  rather  prodigal ;  he 
was  fond  of  splendor,  luxury,  and  magnificence,  and 
therefore  often  in  want  of  money,  which  he  was  obUged 
to  raise  by  means  not  often  creditable.  He  had  a  dis- 
cerning taste,  was  a  ready  patron  of  real  merit,  was 
fond  of  wit  and  liumor,  not  always  refined,  and  at 
times  degenerating  into  buffoonery :  this  was,  indeed, 
one  of  his  principal  faidts.  His  state  policy  was  like 
that  of  his  contemporaries  in  general,  and  not  so  bad 
as  tliat  of  some  of  them.  He  contrived,  however,  to 
keep  Pome  and  the  papal  territory,  as  well  as  Flor- 
ence, in  jjrofound  peace  during  his  reign — no  trifling 
boon — while  all  the  rest  of  Italy  was  ravaged  by  French, 
and  Germans,  and  Spaniards,  who  committed  all  kinds 
of  atrocities.  He  was  by  no  means  neglectful  of  his 
temporal  duties,  although  he  was  fond  of  conviviality 
and  ease,  and  many  charges  have  been  brought  against 
his  morals.  He  did  not,  and  perhaps  could  not,  enforce 
a  strict  discipline  among  the  clergy  or  the  people  of 
Pome,  where  profligacy  and  licentiousness  had  reigned 
ahnost  uncontrolled  ever  since  the  pontificate  of  Alex- 
ander VL  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  any  one 
should  have  been  able  to  say  of  a  pope  so  distinguished 
as  a  patron  of  learning  as  Leo  X  that  in  his  splendid 
and  luxuriant  palace  Christianity  had  given  place,  both 
in  its  religious  and  moral  influence,  to  the  revived  phi- 
losophy and  the  unregulated  manners  of  Greece ;  that 
the  Vatican  was  visited  less  for  the  purpose  of  worship- 
ping the  footsteps  of  the  apostles  than  to  admire  the 
great  worlds  of  ancient  art  stored  in  the  papal  palace 
(comp.  London  Quart.  Rer.  183G,  p.  294  sq. ;  Taine,  Jtal// 
[Pome  and  Xaples],  p.  185).  As  a  pontificate,  that  of 
Leo  X,  though  it  lasted  only  nine  years,  "  forms  one  of 
the  most  memorable  epochs  in  the  history  of  modern 
Europe,  whether  we  consider  it  in  a  political  light  as  a 
period  of  transition  for  Italy,  when  the  power  of  Charles 
Y  of  Spain  began  to  establish  itself  in  that  country,  or 
whetht-r  we  look  upon  it  as  that  period  in  the  liistory 
of  the  Western  Church  wliicli  was  marked  by  the  mo- 
mentous event  of  Luther's  Reformation.  Put  there  is  a 
third  and  a  more  favorable  aspect  under  which  the  reign 
of  Leo  ought  to  be  viewed,  as  a  flourishing  epoch  for 
learning  and  the  arts,  which  were  encouraged  by  that 
pontiff,  as  they  had  been  by  his  father,  and,  indeed,  as 
they  h.".ve  been  by  his  family  in  general,  and  for  Avhich 
the  glorious  appellation  of  the  age  of  Leo  X  has  been 
given  to  the  first  part  of  the  10th  century"  (Engl.  C>j- 
('/(ip.).  The  services  wliich  Leo  rendered  to  literature 
are  many.  He  encouraged  the  study  of  tJreek,  founded 
a  (ireek  college  at  Pome,  established  a  Greek  press,  and 
gave  the  direction  of  it  to  .John  Lascaris ;  he  restored 
the  Ponian  University,  and  filled  its  numerous  chairs 
with  professors;  he  directed  the  collecting  of  MSS.  of 
tlic  classics,  and  also  of  Oriental  writers,  as  well  as  the 
searching  after  antiquities;  and  by  his  example  encour- 
aged others,  and  among  tlieni  the  wealthy  merchant 
Cliigi,  to  the  same.  He  patronized  men  of  talent,  of 
whom  a  galaxy  gathered  round  him  at  Pome.  He  cor- 
responded with  Erasmus,  JNIachiavelli,  Ariosto,  and  other 
great  men  of  his  time.  He  restored  the  celebrated  li- 
brary of  his  family,  wliich,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  Med- 
ici, had  l)een  plundered  and  dispcrsc<i.  and  which  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  BibUoteca  Laiirenziana  at 


Florence.  In  short,  Leo  X,  if  not  the  most  exemplary 
among  popes,  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
and  meritorious  of  Italian  princes.  See  Guicciardini, 
Storia  d' Italia ;  Poscoe,  Life  and  Pontijicate  of  Leo  X 
(Lend.  1805, 4  vols.  4to) ;  Farroni,  Vita  Leonis  X  (1797) ; 
Audin,  Leon  X  (1844) ;  Giovio,  Vita  Leonis  X  (1C51) ; 
Artaud  de  Montor,  llistoire  des  Souvet-ains  papes,\o\.  iv. 
For  the  bulls  and  speeches  of  pope  Leo  X,  see  Fabricius, 
Bihliotheca  Lutina  Mtdim  et  Injirmai  yEtatis ;  Sismondi, 
IList.  des  liejxiMiques  Italiemies ;  Panke,  Hist,  of  the  Pa- 
imctj,  vol.  i,  ch.  ii ;  Schrcickh,  Kirchengesch.  xxxii,  491 
sq. ;  xxxiv,  83,  91 ;  and  his  Kirchengesch.  s.  d.  Ref.  i,  76 
sq.,  314  sq. ;  iii,  207  sq.,  211  sq. ;  Paumer,  Gesch.  der  Pa- 
dagogik,  i,  04  sq. ;  Bower,  IJist.  of  the  Popes,  vii,  400  sq. ; 
Trollope, //zs/or/y  of  Florence  (Lond.  1865,  4  vols.  8vo), 
especiallv  vol.  iv,  book  x ;  Leo,  Gesch.  Italiens,  vol.  v,  ch. 
iii.     (J.H.W.) 

Leo  XI,  Pope  {A  lessandro  de  Medici"),  a  descendant 
of  the  house  of  the  Medici,  was  bom  at  Florence  in  1535. 
After  representing  Tuscany  for  some  years  at  the  court 
of  pope  Pius  y,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Pistoia  in  1573, 
and  archbishop  of  Florence  in  1574.  Made  cardinal  in 
1583,  he  was  sent  by  his  predecessor,  Clement  YIH,  leg- 
ate a  latere  to  France  to  receive  Henrj'  lY  into  the 
bosom  of  the  Poman  Catholic  Church.  He  Avas  very 
old  when  elected,  on  the  1st  of  April,  1G05,  by  the  ut- 
most exertions  of  the  French,  against  the  wishes  of  the 
Spanish.  He  died  on  the  27th  of  the  same  month,  it  is 
said,  from  the  fatigue  attending  the  ceremony  of  taking 
possession  of  the  patriarchal  church  of  St.  John  the  Lat- 
eran.  See  Artaud  de  jMontor,  Histoire  des  Soiirerains 
Ponfifes  ;  Bower,  History  of  the  Pojxs,  vii,  476  ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Eiog.  Generale,  xxx,  725;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leo  XII,  Pope  (cardinal  Annihale  della  Genga), 
was  born  in  the  district  of  Spoleto  in  17G0,  of  a  noble 
family  of  the  Pomagna;  was  made  archbishop  of  Tyre 
in  1793,  and  was  later  employed  as  nuncio  to  Germany 
and  France  by  Pius  YII,  who  made  him  a  cardinal  in 
1816.  On  the  death  of  this  pontiff  he  was  elected  pope, 
m  September,  1823.  He  was  well  acquainted  with  di- 
plomacy and  foreign  politics,  and  in  the  exercise  of  his 
authority,  and  in  asserting  the  claims  of  his  see,  he  as- 
sumed a  more  imperious  tone  than  his  meek  and  benev- 
olent predecessor.  He  re-established  the  right  of  asy- 
lum for  criminals  in  the  churches,  and  enforced  the 
strict  observance  of  fast  days.  He  was  a  declared  en- 
emy of  the  Carbonari  and  other  secret  societies.  He 
proclaimed  a  jubilee  for  the  year  1825;  and  in  his  cir- 
cular letter  accompanying  the  bull,  addressed  to  the 
patriarchs,  primates,  archbishops,  and  bishops,  he  made 
a  violent  attack  on  the  Bible  Societies,  as  acting  in  op- 
position to  the  decree  of  the  Comicil  of  Trent  (session 
iv)  -concerning  the  publication  and  use  of  the  sacred 
books.  Leo  also  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  new 
states  of  South  America  for  the  sake  of  flllLng  up  the 
vacant  sees.  He  gave  a  new  organization  to  the  uni- 
versity of  the  Sapienza  at  Pome,  which  consists  of  five 
colleges  or  faculties,  viz.,  theology-,  law,  medicine,  plii- 
losophy,  and  philology;  and  he  increased  the  number  of 
the  professors,  and  raised  their  emoluments.  He  pub- 
lished in  October,  1824,  a  Moto  l^roprio,  or  decree,  re- 
forming the  administration  of  the  papal  state,  and  also 
the  administration  of  justice,  or  Procedura  Civile,  and 
he  fixed  the  fees  to  be  paid  by  the  litigant  parties.  He 
corrected  several  abuses,  and  studied  to  maintain  order 
and  a  good  police  in  his  territories.  He  died  February 
10, 1829,  and  was  succeeded  bv  Pius  YIII.  See  Engl. 
Cyclop.  8.  v. ;  Pudoni,  Leone  XII  e  Pio  VIII  (1829) ; 
Schmid,  Trauerre  de  mif  Leo  XII  (1829) ;  Artaud  de 
IMontor,  Iliitoire  du  pajw  Leon  XII  (1843,  2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Wiseman,  Recollections  of  the  last  four  Popes  (see  In- 
dex). 

Leodegar,  a  saint  (in  French  St.IJger),  was  born 
about  616.  He  was  educated  by  his  uncle  (some  say 
his  grandfather),  the  bishop  of  Poitiers,  who  made  him 
archdeacon.     Leodegar  was  afterwards  called  to   the 


LEOX 


366 


LEON 


court  as  adviser  of  Bathilde,  and  tutor  of  her  young  son 
Chotaire.  lu  659  lie  was  appointed  bishop  of  Autun. 
That  diocese  was  tlicu  in  a  rather  dilajiidated  condition, 
an  I  Leodei^ar  api)Hcd  liiniself  at  uncc  to  its  restoration, 
lie  supported  the  poor,  instriirted  the  elcrgy  and  the  peo- 
ple, decorated  and  enriched  tlie  churches,  and  reformed 
the  morals  of  convents  by  introducing  the  rule  of  St. 
Benedict,  for  which  purpose  he  held  a  synod  at  the  end 
of  (570.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  securing  to  Cliil- 
derie  11,  of  Austrasia,  the  western  part  of  France  in 
()70 ;  but  the  tickle  monarch  did  not  long  consent  to  be 
ruled  by  his  advice,  and  Leodegar  was  finally  disposed 
of  by  public  execution  after  Chilileric's  death,  being  ac- 
cused of  complicity  in  his  murder,  in  (J78.  His  death  is 
commemorated  in  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church  Oct.  2. 

Leoii  DA  MoDKN.v  (bex-Isaac  ben-Moudecai), 
also  called  Jehudah  Arje  Modunege,  one  of  the  most  cel- 
ebrated Italian  rabbis,  the  Jewish  John  Knox  of  the 
lOth  century  in  Italy,  was  born  in  Venice  April  23, 1571, 
of  an  ancient  and  literary  family,  originalh'  from  France. 
Leon  displayed  his  talents  and  extraordinary  intellect- 
ual endowments  at  a  most  tender  age.  The  Sabbatic 
lesson  [see  HaphtarahJ,  it  is  said,  he  read  before  the 
Avhole  congregation  in  the  synagogue  when  he  was  only 
two  and  a  half  years  old,  and  he  began  to  preach  (""^Tl) 
when  he  had  scarce  reached  the  age  of  ten.  At  thir- 
teen Leon  came  before  the  pidjlic  with  a  treatise  against 
gambling  with  dice  and  cards  (entitled  "T^'O  "ID, 
first  published  in  159(3,  and  reprinted  in  French,  Latin, 
and  German),  and  thus  active,  and  retaining  all  the 
vigor  and  elasticity  of  youth,  he  remained  through  lii'e, 
though  subjected  to  great  suffering  by  the  great  misfor- 
tune of  passing  his  days  by  the  side  of  an  insane  wife, 
and  by  following  his  promising  sons  to  an  early  grave. 
With  a  genius  so  fertile,  and  a  mind  so  well  endowed, 
coupled  with  a  thirst  for  learning  and  devotedness  to 
Biblical  literature  and  exegesis,  master  of  the  Latin, 
Italian,  and  Hebrew,  he  surveyed  the  whole  theological 
and  philosophical  field  with  ease,  and  became  the  author 
of  numerous  poetical,  liturgical,  ethical,  doctrinal,  po- 
lemical, and  cxegetical  works.  Unfortimately,  ho-,v- 
ever,  for  Leon  Modena,  he  was  fickle  in  mind,  and  loth 
to  adhere  long  to  one  opinion,  in  consequence  of  which 
we  find  him  to-day  the  decided  exponent  of  jMosaism, 
to-morrow  the  staunch  defender  of  Kabbinism,  the  next 
day  in  favor  of  a  total  abrogation  of  the  whole  ceremo- 
nial law,  and  perhaps  on  the  day  following  an  apologist 
for  Christianity,  because,  as  he  expressed  it,  Judaism 
formed  its  base.  Both  the  orthodox  and  liberal  Jews 
claim  Leon  as  the  exponent  of  their  doctrines;  but  we 
think  that  justly  he  can  be  claimed  only  by  the  Re- 
formed Jewish  Church,  for  his  masterpiece  is,  after  all, 
the  Kol  Sahol  {hiZ':i  ^1p)>  ^^^^  existence  of  which  was 
long  known,  but  it  was  only  in  the  present  centur\-  that 
the  1\IS.  was  discovered  in  the  library  of  the  duke  of 
I'arma.  It  was  then  drawn  from  its  hiding-place,  and 
was  published  under  the  supervision  of  the  late  rabbi 
Reggio  in  np::pn  rj^na  (tiorz,  1852);  an  English 
translation  appeared  in  The  Jewish  Times  (New  York), 
in  the  last  numbers  of  1871.  This  work  contains  a  con- 
cise and  terse  ex|)osition  of  the  religious  philosophy  of 
Judaism,  and  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  the  various  cere- 
monial practices,  and  is  written  from  a  most  liberal 
stand-point.  He  also  wrote  "im  '3,  a  treatise  on  Me- 
tempsychosis, in  whicli  he  takes  ground  against  the 
Cahalists  (published  in  n^:p  Cr-i.  j).  Gl  sq.)  ■.—I/ebreio 
and  Italian  Dictionai'j),  caW'A  min"'  M^J  ("The  Cap- 
tivity of  Judah"),  or  "i^T  ^'rSJ  ("Explanation  of 
Words"),  in  which  he  exjilains  in  Italian  all  the  difficult 
expressions  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  which  is  preceded 
by  grammatical  rules  (Venice,  I(;i2;  I'.-rdua,  ](;40;  also 
printed  in  the  margin  of  the  Hel)rew  Bibles  published 
for  the  use  of  the  Italian  Jews,  folhiwing  tiie  order  of 
the  canonical  books)  ■.—llabbinival  and  Jtalian  Vvcabu- 


lari/,  called  iT^IX  ^S  ("The  Lion's  Mouth"),  of  which 
the  Italian  title  is  RaccoUa  delle  vnci  Rubin,  non  Hehr. 
n'e  Cliulil.,  etc.  (Padua,  1040;  appended  to  the  preceding 
work ;  afterwards  printed  separately  in  Venice,  1G48) : — 
A  polemical  treatise  against  the  Cabalists,  wliom  he  de- 
spised and  derided,  on  the  genuineness  of  their  inter- 
pretation of  the  Pentateuch  {Sohar),  entitled  i"iX  "iSD 
cni:  (edited  by  Dr.  Flirst,  Leipzic,  1840)  : — Historia  dei 
Riti  Uebraici  ed  observanza  der/li  llebrei  di  quesii  tempi, 
or  the  history  of  the  rites,  customs,  and  manner  of  life 
of  the  Jews,  consisting  of  thirteen  chapters,  and  written 
in  Italian  (Paris,  1637  ;  in  a  revised  form,  Venice,  1638). 
This  celebrated  and  most  useful  manual  was  translated 
into  English  by  Edmund  Chilmead  (Lond.  IGoO);  and 
also  edited  by  Simon  Ockley,  under  the  title  Ilistory  of 
the  present  Jews  throughout  the  World  (London,  1707),  in 
Picard's  Ceremonies  and  R<H<jitius  Customs  of  the  vari- 
ous Nations  of  the  hiown  World,  vol.  i  (London,  1733)  ; 
into  French  by  father  Simon,  who  prefaced  it  with  an 
elaborate  account  of  the  Karaites  and  Samaritans  (Par. 
1674);  into  Dutch  (Amsterd.  1683),  and  into  Latin  by 
Grosgebauer,  Historia  rituum  Judaorum  (Frankfort-on- 
the-ilain,  1693) : — Commentar;/  on  the  Books  of  Samuel : 
— Commentar;/  on  the  Jive  Mef/illotli,  i.  e.  the  Song  of 
Songs,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Esther: — 
Commentary  on  the  Psalms : — Commentary  on  Provei-bs : 
— Commentary  on  the  Sabbatic  Lessons : — and  a  polemi- 
cal work  against  Christianity,  entitled  ^^m  ');"2;  but 
several  of  these  works  have  not  as  yet  been  published. 
Leo  died  in  Venice,  where  he  was  chief  rabbi,  in  1648. 
See  his  autobiography,  entitled  «TTiiTi  ""TI,  extant  only 
in  MS.,  from  which  extracts  were  made  by  Carmoly,  i?ei'. 
Orirnfak  (1842),  p.  49  sq.,  and  Reggio,  nbnpn  rD"in3 
(1852) ;  Fiirst,  Bibl.  Judaica,  ii,  383  sq.;  Steinschneider, 
Cataloyus  Libr.  Ilebr.  in  Bibl.  Bodleiana,  col.  1345-56 ; 
Der  Israeatische  Volkslehrer  (Frankfort -on -the -Main, 
1854),  iv,  91  sq.,  186  sq.,  247  sq. ;  1855,  v,  396  sq. ;  Geiger, 
in  Liebermann's  Volkskalender-Jahrbuch,  1856;  Gratz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  141  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol. 
ii,  s.  V. 

Leon  or  Leone,  Jacob  Jehudah,  a  Jewish  \^-riter 
of  note,  who  was  born,  of  Moorish  descent,  in  1614,  in 
Holland,  and  tlourished  first  at  Jliddelburg  and  later  at 
Amsterdam,  is  noted  as  a  writer  on  the  Temple  model 
(compare  Retrato  del  Templo,  Middelb.  1642,  or  Hebrew 
Pr"^!!  r.'^DSr,  Amst.  1650),  and  as  an  illustrator  of  the 
Talraudical  writings.  He  also  figured  prominenth-  as 
a  polemical  writer,  contending  for  the  inspiration  of  the 
O.-T.  writings,  while  he  ruthlessly  attacked  the  (iospel 
doctrines.  He  is  now  generally  supposed  to  ha\e  been 
the  author  of  Colloquium  JMiddelburgense  (attributed  by 
Fabricius  to  Manasse  ben-Israel),  and  of  Con  diff'erentes 
theologos  de  la  Christianidad.  Leon  died  after  1671.  See 
Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  x,  24  sq.,  200  sq. ;  Fiirst,  Biblioth. 
Jud.  ii,  232  s(i. 

Leon,  Luis  Ponce  de,  a  Spanish  ecclesiastic,  was 
born  at  Belmonte.  in  the  south  of  Spain,  in  1527  (ac- 
cording to  the  Tesoro  de  los  Prosadores  Espafioles  por 
Ochod  [Paris,  1841],  at  Granada;  and  according  to  St. 
Antonio  and  Ticknor  at  Belmonte  in  15281.  He  stud- 
ied at  Salamanca,  entered  in  1543  the  order  of  the  Au- 
gustines,  and  was  thereafter  known  under  the  name  of 
Luis  de  Leon.  Having  been  received  D.I).,  he  was  in 
1561  appointed  to  a  professorship  at  St.  Thomas.  His 
knowledge  and  success  created  him  many  enemies,  at 
the  head  of  whom  were  the  Dominicans  of  Granada. 
Accused  of  heresy  and  of  having  translated  parts  of  the 
Bible  into  tlic  vernacidar,  contrary  to  the  orders  of  the 
Sanctum  Olhcium,  he  was  in  1572  imprisoned  in  the 
dungeon  of  the  Inquisition  at  Valladolid,  and  appeared 
over  fifty  times  before  the  high  court.  His  defence, 
which  is  extant,  contains  200  closely-written  pages  in 
the  purest  Castilian.  Although  iniable  to  ])rove  anj'- 
thiug  against  him,  his  judges  condemned  him  to  the 


LEONARD 


367 


LEONARDONI 


rack ;  but  this  sentence  was  reversed  by  the  Inquisito- 
rial high  court  of  Madrid,  and  he  was  liberated  with 
the  advice  of  being  more  careful  in  future.  In  1578  he 
returned  to  his  convent  and  resumed  his  otHco.  He 
thereafter  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  tlieologj'  and 
to  the  duties  of  his  order;  but  his  health  never  recov- 
ered entirely  from  the  shock  it  had  undergone  while  in 
the  prisons  of  the  Inquisition.  He  became  general  and 
provincial  vicar  of  his  order  in  Salamanca,  and  died  in 
1591.  His  principal  writings  are  poems  in  Latin  and  in 
Spanish ;  the  latter  are  distinguished  for  beauty  of  lan- 
guage and  purity  cf  style.  His  original  jjieces  have 
been  published,  with  a  German  translation,  by  C.  B. 
SchlUter  and  W,  Storck  (Minister,  1853).  His  whole 
works,  consisting  of  the  above,  together  with  transla- 
tions from  the  classics,  the  Psalms,  and  jiarts  of  the  book 
of  Job,  were  collected  and  published  (iNIadrid,  1804-16,  G 
vols.).  See  Quevedo,  Vita  de  L.  de  L.  (Madrid,  1G31) ; 
Herzog,  Real-Eiicyklopddie,  s.  v. 

Leonard,  St.,  a  French  nobleman  who  flourished  in 
the  first  half  of  the  Gth  century,  was  a  convert  and  pu- 
pil of  Kemigius.  He  retired  at  first  into  a  convent  near 
Orleans,  and  aftenvards  into  a  hermitage  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Limoges.  Here  he  applied  himself  to  the 
conversion  of  the  people.  A  few  followers  soon  gath- 
ered around  him,  and  he  founded  the  convent  of  No- 
blac.  He  took  special  interest  in  prisoners,  and  the  le- 
gend relates  that  centuries  after  his  death  prisoners 
were  released  and  captives  brought  back  from  distant 
countries  through  his  intercession.  His  prayers  arc  said 
to  have  saved  the  life  of  the  queen  of  France  in  a  dan- 
gerous confinement,  and  he  became  also  the  protector  of 
travellers.  He  died  in  559,  and  is  commemorated  on 
the  6th  of  November.  He  is  especially  recognised  in 
France  and  in  England. — Herzog,  Recti- Encyklop.  viii, 
332  ;  Migne,  Nour.  Encyc.  Theolo(j.  ii,  1168.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Leonard,  Abiel,  S.T.D.,  an  army  chaplain  and 
Congregational  minister,  was  born  at  Plymouth,  Mass., 
Nov.  5, 1740;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1759;  and 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  original  Church  in  Woodstock, 
Conn.,  in  1763.  In  1775  he  was  appointed  chaplain  in 
the  Revolutionary  army,  and  was  in  the  service  of  his 
country  until  1778,  when  he  went  home  on  a  furlough 
to  see  his  sick  child.  Having  remained  longer  than 
the  appointed  time,  he  found,  upon  his  return,  that  he 
was  superseded,  which  news  so  affected  him  that  he  put 
an  end  to  his  life  in  the  western  part  of  Connecticut, 
Aug.  14, 1778.  Dr.  Leonard  was  an  elegant  speaker,  and 
published  two  sermons.     See  Contj.  Qiiur.  1861,  p.  350. 

Leonard,  George  (1),  a  Congregational,  and  sub- 
sequently an  Episcopal,  minister,  was  born  in  Bliddle- 
borongh,  Mass.,  April  6, 1783;  graduated  at  Dartmouth 
College  in  1805;  studied  with  Dr.  Perkins,  of  West 
Hartford;  and  was  ordained  over  the  Church  in  Can- 
terbury, Conn.,  in  1808.  After  two  years  he  was  dis- 
missed, and  preached  in  various  places  in  Massachu- 
setts. In  1817  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  the  Episco- 
pal Church  by  bishop  Griswold;  admitted  to  priest's 
orders  the  following  year  at  Marblehead;  and  was  rec- 
tor of  Trinity  Church,  Cornish,  N.  IL,  and  of  St.  Paul's, 
Windsor,  Vt.,  until  his  death,  which  took  place  at  the 
house  of  his  sister  in  Salisbury,  N.  IL,  June  28,  1834. 
"Disinterested  and  judicious  counsellor,  open-hearted 
and  honest  man,  and  a  sincere  Christian."  Several  of  his 
sermons  were  published.  See  Coiif/.  Qttai:  1859,  p.  354. 
Leonard,  George  (2),  a  Baptist  minister,  was  born 
in  Kaynliam,  Bristol  Co.,  Mass.,  Aug.  17,  1802;  entered 
Brown  University  in  September,  1820;  graduated  in 
1824;  and  after  being  for  some  time  a  subordinate  in- 
structor in  the  Columbia  College  at  Washington,  went 
to  the  Newton  Theological  Institution  to  study  theologv. 
In  August,  1826,  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Second 
liaptist  Church  of  Salem,  Mass.,  and  while  there  filled 
also  the  office  of  secretary  of  the  Salem  Bible  Transla- 
tion and  Foreign  Mission  Society;  but  his  health  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  that  position  iu  1829.     Having 


somewhat  recovered,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Church 
in  Portland,  Me.,  in  October,  1830.  Here  he  labored 
faithfully  and  successfully  until  his  death,  Aug.  11, 1831. 
He  wrote  a  Dissertation  on  the  Duty  of  Churches  in  ref- 
erence to  Temperance  (published  in  the  Christian  Watch- 
man, 1829).  The  year  after  his  death  (1832),  a  small 
volume  containing  twelve  of  his  Sermons,  together  with 
the  sermon  delivered  on  the  occasion  of  his  death  bj'  the 
Pev.  Dr.  Babcock,  was  published  under  the  direction  of 
his  widow.— Sprague,  A  nnals  of  the  A  mer.  Puljnt,  vi,  729. 

Leonard,  Josiah,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Kingsborough,  IST.  Y.,  April  15, 1816.  He  grad- 
uated from  Union  College  in  1837,  and  finished  his  the- 
ological course  in  Union  Seminary.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  ministry  in  1840,  and  was  pastor  of  the  following 
churches  successively:  Mexicoville,  N.  Y.,  18i0-42; 
Oswego,  1842-45 ;  Delhi,  1845-48  ;  Fulton,  111.,  1856-71. 
In  1872  he  became  stated  supply  at  Clinton,  la.,  where 
he  died,  Feb.  22, 1880.     (W.  P.  S.) 

Leonard,  Levi  Washburn,  D.D.,  a  Congrega- 
tional minister,  was  born  at  S.  Bridgewater,  INIass.,  June 
1, 1790,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  L^niversity,  where 
he  graduated  in  1805.  He  then  studied  theology  at 
Cambridge,  and  Sept.  6, 1820,  became  pastor  at  Dii'bhn, 
N.  H.,  where  he  continued  until  1854.  He  died  at  Ex- 
eter Dec.  12, 1864.  He  published  several  school-books 
and  other  works  of  general  interest  only. — Drake,  Diet, 
of  A  merican  Biography,  s.  v. ;  Appleton,  A  mer.  Annual 
Cyclopcedia.  1864,  p.  623. 

Leonard,  Zenas  Lockwood,  a  Baptist  preach- 
er, was  born  at  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  January  16,  1773. 
In  June,  1790.  he  was  converted,  and  shortly  after  joined 
the  church  in  ]\Iiddleborough.  In  May,  1792,  he  entered 
the  sophomore  class  of  Brown  University,  and  graduated 
with  honor  in  1794.  On  leaving  college  he  commenced 
a  course  of  theological  study  with  Rev.  W.  Williams,  of 
Wrenthani,  Mass.  In  1796  he  was  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Baptist  church  in  Sturbridge,  Mass.  The  next  year 
he  opened  a  grammar-school,  which  he  continued  for  sev- 
eral years.  Mr.  Leonard  was  active  in  procuring  a  divi- 
sion of  the  Warren,  R.  I.,  Baptist  Association,  Nov.  3, 180 1 , 
and  the  formation  of  the  Sturbridge  Association,  Sept.  30, 
1802.  He  was  particularly  active  in  promoting  promi- 
nent benevolent  objects,  especially  the  Sabbath-school, 
the  temperance  cause,  African  colonization,  and  missions. 
On  Oct.  13, 1832,  he  was,  by  his  own  request,  dismissed 
from  the  charge  of  his  congregation.  For  six  terms  he 
represented  his  district  in  the  councils  of  the  state.  Sir. 
Leonard  manifested  supreme  deference  to  the  authority, 
truth,  and  spirit  of  the  Gospel;  stability  of  purpose;  un- 
compromising advocacy  of  the  cause  of  freedom,  right- 
eousness, and  public  virtue;  and  unwearied  activity  in 
performing  the  various  duties  of  his  profession.  His  pie- 
ty was  of  steady  progress,  ripening  continually  until  his 
death.  He  died  June  24, 1841.  The  only  printed  pro- 
ductions of  his  pen,  with  the  exception  of  contributions 
to  various  periodicals,  are  the  Circular  Letters  to  the 
Association  for  the  years  1802,  1810,  1822,  and  1825.— 
Sprague,  Annals  of  the  Anier.  Pulpit,  vi,  347  sq. 

Leonardo  da  Porto  Maurizio,  a  noted  mission- 
ary priest  and  the  founder  of  the  Brotherhood  of  the 
Heart  of  Jesus,  was  born  in  Liguria  in  1676.  While 
yet  a  youth  he  became  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  and  a 
member  of  the  Order  of  the  Reformed  Franciscans.  He 
was  especially  active  in  promoting  the  doctrine  of  the 
immaculate  conception.  He  died  about  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century,  and  was  sainted  by  Pius  VI  in  1796. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.     See  Vinci. 

Leonardoni,  Francesco,  an  Italian  painter,  was 
born  at  Venice  in  1654;  visited  Spain  and  settled  at 
Madrid;  gained  great  eminence  as  a  portrait-painter; 
executed  several  historical  works  for  the  churches,  char- 
acterized by  a  grand  style  of  design  ;  and  died  at  Madrid 
in  1711.  Among  his  principal  works  are  a  large  altar- 
piece  of  the  Incarnation,  in  the  Church  of  San  Geronimo 
el  Real,  at  Madrid :— and' two  subjects  from  the  Life  of 


LEONBRUNO 


3G8 


LEONTIUS 


St.  Joseph,  in  the  Church  of  the  Colegio  de  Atocha.  See 
Spooner.  Biorj.  Hist,  of  Fine  A  rts,  s.  v. 

Leonbruno,  Lokknzo.  an  Italian  painter,  was  born 
at^Mantiia  in  14*^9;  studied  under  count  Castiglione,  the 
friend  ol'Kaphael;  appointed  painter  to  the  duke  of  Man- 
tua; t^ave  offence  to  (iiulio  Komano,  in  consequence  of 
which  lie  was  obliged  to  quit  Mantua;  settled  at  INIilan, 
and  died  there  about  1537.  Three  of  his  pictures  at  Man- 
tua are  ver\'  highly  praised,  viz.,  St.  Jerome : — The  Meta- 
morphosis of  Midas :  — and  The  Body  of  Christ  in  the  A  rms 
of  the  Virgin.    See  Spooner,  Biofj.  Hist,  of  Fine  Arts,  s.  v. 

Leonidas,  father  of  the  celebrated  Origen,  was  a 
Christian  martyr  of  the  3d  century.  Previous  to  his 
execution,  his  son,  in  order  to  encourage  him,  wrote  to 
him  as  follows :  "  Beware  that  your  care  for  us  does  not 
make  you  change  your  resolution !''  The  father  accept- 
ed the  heroic  exhortation  of  the  son,  and  yielded  his 
neck  joyfully  to  the  stroke  of  the  executioner.— Fox, 
Book-  of  Martyrs,  p.  23. 

Leouistae  is  the  name  by  which  the  Waldenses  are 
sometimes  referred  to,  and  is  derived  from  Leoua  (Lyons). 

Leontes,  an  important  river  of  northern  Palestine, 
doubtless  the  present  Litany,  which  bursts  in  a  deep 
chasm  through  the  Lebanon  range  (Kobinson,  Res.  iii, 
409  sq. ;  Kitter,  ^rcZA-.x  vii,  48  sq.;  '&m\t\\,  Diet,  of  Class. 
Geog.  s.  v.).    For  a  description,  see  Lebanon. 

Leontius,  a  Christian  martyr  and  saint,  probably 
of  Arabian  firigin,  was  born  at  Vicentia,  in  Venetia,  in 
the  3d  century  after  Christ.  He  afterwards  moved 
to  Aquileia,  in  Venetia,  where,  in  company  with  St. 
Carpophorus,  who  was  either  his  brother  or  intimate 
friend,  he  distinguished  himself  by  zeal  in  favor  of 
Christianity.  For  this  offence  they  were  both  brought 
before  the  governor  Lysias,  and  after  being  tortured  in 
various  modes,  and,  according  to  the  legend,  miracu- 
lously delivered,  they  were  at  last  beheaded,  probably 
A.U.  300.  Their  memory  is  celebrated  by  the  Romish 
Church  on  Aug.  28.  See  the  Acta  Sanctorum  (in  Aug. 
20),  where  several  difficulties  are  critically  discussed  at 
length. — Smith,  Diet,  of  Or.  and  Rom.  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Antiocii,  a  learned  Syrian  theologian 
of  the  early  Church,  was  born  in  Phrygia  about  the  close 
of  the  3d  or  the  opening  of  the  4th  century.  He  was  a 
disciple  of  the  martyr  Luciaiuis,  and,  having  entered  the 
Church,  was  ordained  a  presbyter.  In  order  to  enjoy 
without  scandal  the  society  of  a  young  female,  Eusto- 
lius  or  Eustolia,  to  whom  he  was  much  attached,  he 
mutilated  himself,  but,  notwithstanding,  did  not  escape 
suspicion,  and  was  finally  deposed  from  his  office.  On 
the  deposition,  however,  of  Stephanus,  or  Stephen,  bish- 
op of  Antioch,  he  was,  by  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantius  and  the  predominant  Arian  party,  appointed  to 
that  see  about  348  or  349.  Leontius  died  about  A.D. 
358.  Of  his  writings,  which  were  numerous,  nothing 
remains  except  a  fragment  of  what  Cave  describes,  we 
know  not  on  what  authority,  as  Orutio  in  Passionem  S. 
Bahyhe  (cited  in  the  Paschal  Chronicle  in  the  notice  of 
the  Decian  persecution).  In  this  fragment  it  is  dis- 
tinctly asserted  that  both  the  emperor  Philip  and  his 
wife  were  avowed  Christians  (Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.  ii, 
2G;  Sozomen,  Hut. Eccles.  iii,  20;  Theodoret,  Hist. Eccles. 
ii,  10,  24 ;  Philostorgius,  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  15, 17, 18 ;  Atha- 
nasius,  Apolog.  de  Fuga  sua,  c.  2(5;  Hist.  Arianor.  ad 
Monachos,  c.  28 ;  Chron.  Ptisch.  i,  270,  289,  ed.  Paris ;  p. 
210,  231,  ed. Venice;  p.  503,  535,  ed.  Bonn;  Cave.  Hist. 
Lilteraiia,  i,  211,  ed.  Oxon.  1740-43 ;  Fabricius, Biblioth. 
Grcpca,  vlii,  324). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Rom.  Biog. 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Leontius  of  Arabissus,  in  Cappadocia,  of  which 
town  he  was  bishop,  nourished  as  an  ecclesiastical  writer. 
The  period  in  which  he  lived,  however,  is  quite  uncer- 
tain. Photius  has  noticed  tw()  of  his  works*:  1.  EIq  tijv 
KTiciv  \6yoQ  {Sernio  de  Creatione^,  and,  2.  Ei'f  tov  AaZr 
apov  {De  Lazaro),  and  gives  extracts  from  both  these 
works  (Photius,  Cod.  272).     See  also  Cave,  Hist.  Liiier, 


i,  551;  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grceca,  viii,  824;  x,  268,  771.— 
Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Arelate,  or  Arles,  was  bishop  of 
tliat  city  about  the  middle  of  the  5th  century.  Several 
letters  were  written  to  him  by  pope  Ililarius,  A.D.  401- 
4G7,  which  are  given  in  the  Concilia,  and  a  letter  of  Le- 
t)ntius  to  the  pope,  dated  A.D.  4G2,  is  also  given  in  the 
j  Concilia  and  in  D'Achery's  Sjncilef/ium  (v,  578  of  the 
[original  edition,  or  iii,  302  in  the  edition  of  De  la  Barre, 
Paris,  1723,  folio).  Leontius  presided  in  a  council  at 
Ai'les,  held  A.D.  475,  to  condemn  an  error  into  which 
some  had  fallen  respecting  the  doctrine  of  predestina- 
tion. He  appears  to  have  died  in  A.D.  484.  He  ia 
mentioned  bv  Sidonius  ApoUinaris  {Epist.  vii,  6).  See 
CoHcil.  iv,  col.  1039, 1041, 1044  (1828,  ed.  Labbe) ;  Cave, 
Hist.  Lilt,  i,  449 ;  Fabricius,  Bihl.  Grceca,  viii,  324 ;  xii, 
653  ;  Bibl.  Med.  et  Infm.  Latinitatis,  v,  268  (ed.  JMansi) ; 
Tillemont,  Memoires,  xvi,  38.  —  Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek 
and  Roman  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leontius  of  Byzantium  (1),  an  ecclesiastical  -writ- 
er of  the  latter  part  of  the  0th  and  commencement  of  tha 
7th  century,  is  sometimes  designated,  from  his  original 
profession,  Scholasticus,  i.  e.  pleader.  As  there  are  sev- 
eral works  of  that  period  which  bear  the  name  of  Leon- 
tius, distinguished  by  various  surnames,  it  is  sometimes 
doubtful  to  whom  they  should  be  assigned.  According 
to  Oudin,  Leontius  flourished  as  an  inmate  of  the  mon- 
astery which  had  been  founded  by  St.  Saba  near  .Jeru- 
salem, and  was  for  a  time  its  abbot  (/>e  Scripto?:  Eccles. 
i,  col.  1462,  etc.).  Cave,  confounding  two  different  per- 
sons bearing  this  name,  places  our  Leontius  in  the  reign 
of  Justinian,  but  from  one  of  the  works  with  which 
he  is  credited  it  is  evident  that  he  flourished  half  a  cen- 
tury later.  The  works  which  appear  to  be  by  our  Leon- 
tius are  as  follows:  1.  SxoXia  (Scholia),  taken  down 
from  the  lips  of  Theodorus  (first  published  with  Latin 
version  by  Leunclavius,  and  commonly  cited  by  the 
title  De  Sectis  in  a  volume  containing  several  other 
pieces  [Basle,  1578,  8vo],  and  reprinted  in  the  .4  uctari- 
iim  Bibiiothecce  Pafrum  of  Ducaaus,  vol.  i  [Paris,  1624, 
folio],  in  the  Bibliotheca  Patriun,  vol.  xi  [Paris,  1644, 
foL],  and  m  the  Bibliotheca  Patrum  of  Galland,  xii,  625, 
etc.  [Venice,  1728,  folio].  The  Latin  version  alone  is 
given  in  several  other  editions  of  the  Biblioth.  Patrum). 
2.  Contra  Eutychianos  et  Kestorianos  Libri  ires,  s.  con- 
futatio  utriusque  Fictionis  inter  se  contraries.  Some 
inaccurately  speak  of  the  three  books  into  which  this 
work  is  divided  as  distinct  works.  3.  Liber  adveisus  eos 
qui  prof erunt  nobis  queedam  Aj)ollinarii,falso  inscripta 
nomine  Sanctorum  Patrum,  s.  adversus  Fraudes  Apol- 
linaristurum,  4.  Solutiones  Argumentationum  Sereri. 
5.  Dubitationes  hypothetical  et  dejinientes  contra  eos  qui 
negant  in  Christo  post  Unionem  duas  veras  Naturas. 
These  pieces  have  not  been  printed  in  the  original,  but 
in  a  Latin  version  from  the  papers  of  Franciscus  Turri- 
anus  (published  by  Canisius  in  his  I^eetioties  Antique, 
vol.  iv,  or  ii,  525,  etc.,  ed.  Basnage,  and  reprinted  in  the 
Bibliotheca  Patrum,  vol.  ix  [Lyons,  1677,  folio],  and  in 
the  above-mentioned  volume  of  Galland).  6.  Apologia 
Concilii  Chalcedonensis  (printed,  with  a  Latin  version 
and  notes,  by  Antonio  Bougivianni,  in  the  Concilia,  vii, 
799,  ed.  INIansi  [Florence,  1762.  folio],  and  reprinted  by 
Galland,  /,  c).  In  the  title  of  this  work  Leontius  is 
called  Monachus  Jlierosolymitanus,  but  the  word  Hie- 
rosolymitanus  is  possibly  an  error  of  the  transcriber. 
At  any  rate,  Galland  identities  the  writer  with  our  Leon- 
tius, and  the  subject  of  the  work  makes  it  probable  that 
he  is  right.  7.  Adverstis  Eutychianvs  {s.  Sever-ianos)  et 
Nestorianos  in  octo  libros  distinctum  (described  by  Canis- 
ius as  being  extant  in  jNIS.  at  Munich,  and  by  Fabricius 
as  occurring  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Palatine  library). 
8.  Liber  de  Duplici  Xatura  in  Christo  contra  Hccresin 
Monophysitarum  (Labbe  and  Cave  speak  of  this  as  ex- 
tant in  MS.  at  Vienna,  and  they  acid  to  it  Disputatio 
contra  Philosophum  A  rianum ;  this,  however,  seems  to  be 
an  extract  from  Gelasius  of  Cyzicus),  which  probably  is 


LEONTIUS 


369 


LEOPARD 


one  of  tho  discussions  between  the  "holy  bishops"  of  the 
orthodox  party  and  the  "  philosophers"  wlio  embraced 
the  op})<>site  side,  and  the  Leontius  who  took  a  part  in  it 
was  a  bisliop  of  the  C'appadocian  Oesarea,  and  contem- 
porary of  ALhanasins.  'J.  According  to  Nicephorus  Cal- 
listus  (//.  E.  xviii,  43),  our  Leontius  wrote  also  "an  admi- 
rable work,"  in  thirty  books,  unfortunately  lost,  in  which 
he  overtlirew  the  tritheistic  heresy  of  John  the  Labori- 
ous, and  firmly  established  the  orthodox  doctrine.  Cave 
also  ascribes  to  our  Leontius  Oraiio  in  medium  Pente- 
costem  et  in  Ccecum  a  Natii'itate,necnon  in  illud:  Nolite 
judicare  secundum  fudem  (published  by  Combelis,  with 
a  Latin  version,  in  his  Auctarium  Novum,  vol.  i  [Paris, 
1648,  fol.]).  Itis  so  given  by  the  editors  oi  the  Bibliofh. 
Patrum,  vol.  ix  (Lyons,  1G71,  folio),  but  Fabricius  (Bibl. 
Orccca,  viii,  321)  ascribes  the  homily  to  Leontius  of  Ne- 
apolis,  while  Galland  omits  it  altogether.  A  homily  on 
the  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan,  printed  among  the 
supposititious  works  of  Chrysostom  {Opera,  vii,  50ti,  ed. 
Savill),  seems  also  to  be  a  production  of  our  Leontius. 
There  are  various  homilies  extant  in  MS.  by  "  Leontius 
presbyter  ConstantinopoUtanus."  See  Canisius,  Vita  Le- 
on/ii  in  Bihlioth.  Patmim,  vol.  ix  (Lyons,  1677,  fol.),  and 
Lecliones  A  ntiqiice,  i,  527,  etc.,  cd.  Basnage  :  Cave,  Hist. 
Litt.  i,  543  ;  Vossius,  De  Histoi-icis  Greeds  Liber,  iv,  c.  18  ; 
Fabricius,  Bibliotheca  Gi-csca,  viii,  309,  etc.,  318 ;  xii,  648  ; 
Oudin,  De  Scriptoribus  et  Scriptis  Ecdes.  i,  col.  1462 ; 
Mansi,  Concil.  vii,  col.  797,  etc. ;  Galland,  Bibl.  Patrum, 
xii,  Prolerjom.  c.  20. — Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biofj.  ii,  756  sq. 

Leontius  of  Byzantium  (2),  the  author  of  a  part 
of  the  Xpoi'oypff^i'a,  lived  in  the  reign  of  Constantine 
Porphyrogenitus.  A  second  portion,  bringing  the  work 
down  to  the  second  year  of  Romanus,  son  and  successor 
of  Porphjnrogenitus,  and  probably  only  reaching  or  de- 
signed to  reach  a  later  period,  is  an  addition  by  another 
hand.  In  fact,  the  work  which  is  entitled  Xpovoyprt- 
0('a,  Chronor/raphia,  is  composed  of  tliree  parts,  by  three 
distinct  writers:  (1.)  The  history  of  the  emperor  Leo  V, 
the  Armenian,  Michael  II  of  Aurorium,  Theophilus,  the 
son  of  Michael,  and  iMichael  III  and  Theodora,  the  son 
and  widow  of  TheophUus ;  by  the  so-called  Leontius, 
from  the  materials  supplied  by  Constantine  Porphyro- 
genitus. (2.)  The  life  of  Basil  the  Macedonian,  by  Con- 
stantino himself  (though  Labbe  and  Cave  would  assign 
this  also  to  Leontius) ;  and  (3.)  The  lives  of  Leo  VI  and 
Alexander,  the  sons  of  Basil,  and  of  Constantine  Por- 
phjTogenitus,  and  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
liomanus  II;  by  an  unknown  later  hand.  This  third 
part  is  more  succinct  than  the  former  parts,  and  is  in  a 
great  degree  borrowed,  with  little  variation,  from  known 
and  existing  sources.  The  first  edition  of  the  Chrono- 
graphia  prepared  for  publication  with  a  Latin  version 
Avas  by  Comberis,  and  was  published  in  the  Paris  edition 
of  the  Byzantine  historians,  forming  a  part  of  the  volume 
entitled  Ol  ptrci  Qeo(t>fip]]v,  Scriptoi-es  post  Theojihanem 
(1685,  folio);  again  pubhshed  in  the  Venetian  reprint 
( 1729,  folio),  and  again,  edited  by  Bekker  (Bonn,  1838, 
8vo).  The  life  of  Basil  by  Constantine  Porphyrogeni- 
tus was  printed  separately  as  early  as  1653,  in  the  2tijtt- 
/((/c-ti  of  Allatius  (Cologne,  8vo).  See  Fabricius,  BihI. 
Grwca,  vii,  681 ;  viii,  318 ;  Cave,  Hist.  Lift,  ii,  90.— Smith, 
Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman  Bior/raphy,  ii,  757  sq. 

Leontius  of  Neapolis  (or  of  Hagiopolit,  accord- 
nig  to  his  own  authority),  in  Cyprus,  who  was  bishop 
of  that  city,  which  Le  Quien  {Oriens  Christianus,  ii, 
1061)  identities  with  the  Nova  Lcmissus,  or  Nemissus, 
or  Neraosa,  that  rose  out  of  the  ruins  of  Amathus, 
flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  and  the  early 
part  of  the  7th  century.  Baronius,  Possevino,  and  oth- 
ers call  Leontius  bishop  of  Salamis  or  Constantia,  but  in 
the  records  of  the  second  Nicene  or  seventh  General 
Council,  held  A.D.  787,  Actio  iv  (Condlia,  vii,  col.  236, 
ed.  Labbe ;  iv,  col.  193,  ed.  Hardouin ;  viii,  col.  884,  ed. 
Coleti;  and  xiii,  col.  44,  ed.  Mansi),  he  is  expressly  de- 
scribed as  bishop  of  Neapolis,  in  Cvprus.  His  death  is 
v.— A  A 


said  to  have  occurred  between  620  and  630.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  Aoyoi  inrep  rJ/c  Xpiartai'M'  anoXoyiag 
Kara,  lovSaiojv  Kal  ncpi  tlicovojv  tCjv  ayiwv,  Sermo- 
?ies  j)ro  DeJ'ensione  Cliristianorum  contra  Judaos  ac  de 
inuvjinibus  Sanctis.  A.  long  extract  from  the  fifth  of 
these  sermons  was  read  at  the  second  Nicene  Council 
{Concilia,  1.  c.)  to  support  the  use  of  images  in  worship; 
and  several  passages,  most  of  them  identical  with  those 
cited  in  the  council,  are  given  by  John  of  Damascus  in 
his  third  oration,  and  in  De  Iniaginibus  {Oj^era,  i,  373, 
etc.,  ed.  Le  Quien).  A  Latin  version  of  another  portion 
of  one  of  these  discourses  of  Leontius  is  given  in  the 
Lectiones  A  ntiquw  of  Canisius,  i,  793,  edit.  Basnage  : — 
Biog  Tov  uyiov  'itiiavvov  apxtiTTiaKoiTOV  'AXiuiT^pii- 
ac:  TOV  'EXtfiixoi'Oc,  Vita  Sandi  Joannis  A  rchiepisco/A 
A lexandriw  Cofjnomento  Eleemonis,  s.  Eleemosynarii.  See 
John  the  Aljisgiveh.  This  life  by  Leontius  was  men- 
tioned in  the  second  Nicene  Council  {Condlia,  vol.  cit., 
col.  246  Labbe,  202  Hardouin,  896  Coleti,  53  Mansi),  and 
is  extant  in  No.  8  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Vienna. 
An  ancient  Latin  version  by  Anastasius  Bibliothccarius 
is  given  by  Kosweid  {De  Vitis  Patrum,  pars  i),  Surius 
{De  Probatis  Sanctorum  Vitis),  and  Bollandus  {Ada 
Sanctorum,  Januarj',  ii,  498,  etc.).  The  accomit  of  St. 
Vitalis  or  Vitalius,  given  in  ihaAda  Sanctorum  of  Bol- 
landus (January),  i,  702,  is  a  Latin  version  of  a  ]iart  of 
this  life  of  John  the  Almsgiver: — Bi'o^  Toi'  ualov  2i)- 
peiov  Toij  aaXoii,  Vita  Sancta  Symeonis  Simplicis,  or 
Biof  Kal  noXirtia  ruv  6/3/3a  'Svfitwv  roC  cut  XpiiTTOv 
tTTovopaaSiVTOi:  ^aXov,  Vita  et  Conversatio  Abbaiis 
Symeonis  qui  coynominatus  est  Stidtus propter  Christum, 
was  also  mentioned  in  the  Nicene  Council  (/.c),and  pub- 
lished in  the  A  da  Sanct.  of  the  BoUandists  (July),  i,  136, 
etc.  The  other  published  works  of  Leontius  are  homi- 
lies :  Sermo  in  Simc07icm  qiiando  Doniinimi  in  Ulncis  sus- 
cepit : — In  Diemfestum  medics  Pentecostes ;  both  with  a 
Latin  version  in  the  Novum  A  uctarium  of  Combefis,  vol.  1 
(Par.  1648,  fol.).  As  Leontius  is  recorded  to  have  writ- 
ten many  homilies  in  honor  of  saints  {tyKwpia  f.nd  for 
the  festivals  of  the  Church  {—ai'tiyvpiicoi  Xuyoi),  espe- 
cially on  the  transfiguration  of  our  Saviour,  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  some  of  those  extant  under  the  name  of  Le- 
ontius of  Constantinople  may  be  by  him.  He  wrote 
also  UapaXXijXwi'  Xiiyoi  /3',  Parallelorum,  s.  Locorum 
communium  Thtoloyicorum  Libri  ii;  the  first  book  con- 
sisted of  tCuv  Biiiui',  and  the  other  rwv  c'n'^pwTrirujv. 
Turrianus  possessed  the  second  book ;  but  whether  that 
or  the  first  is  extant,  we  know  not;  neither  has  been 
published.  It  has  been  thought  that  John  of  Damas- 
cus, in  his  Parallela,  made  use  of  those  of  Leontius. 
Fabricius  also  inserts  among  the  works  of  our  Leontius 
the  homily  E/^  tu  [Saia,  In  Festum  {s.  Ramos)  I'alma- 
rum,  generally  ascribed  to  Chrysostom,  and  printed 
among  his  doubtful  or  spurious  works  (vii,  334,  ed.  Sa- 
viU;  X,  767,  ed.  Montfaucon,  or  x,  915,  and  xiii,  354,  in 
the  recent  Parisian  reprint  of  Montfaucon's  edition). 
Maldonatus  {ad  Joan,  vii)  mentions  some  MS.  Commen- 
tarii  in  Joamiem  by  Leontius,  and  an  Oratio  in  laudeni 
S.  Epiphanii  is  mentioned  by  Theodore  Studita  in  his 
A  ntirrheticu^  Secmulus,  a]iud  Sismondi,6|/'/7.  v,  130.  (See 
Fabricius,  Bibl.  Grceca,  viii,  320,  etc. ;  Cave,  Hist.  Litt.  i, 
550 ;  Oudin,  De  Sci'iptor.  Ecclesiustids,  i,  col.  1575,  etc. ; 
Vossius,  De  Ilistor.  Grccc.  lib.  ii,  c.  23 ;  Le  Quien,  Oriens 
Christianus,  ii,  col.  1062;  Acta  Sanctor.  JuW,  v,  131.) — 
Smith,  Did.  of  Greek  and  Roman  Bioyraphy,  ii,  768. 

Leopard  (Ileb.  "TOS,  niima-',  so  called  as  being 
spotted,  Cant,  iv,  8  ;  Isa.  xi,  6  ;  Jer.  v,  6 ;  xiii,  23 ;  Hos. 
xiii,  7 ;  Hab.  i,  8 ;  Chald.  "1^3,  nemar',  Dan.  vii,  6 ;  Gr. 
TTc'ipoaXig,  Dan.  vii,  6 ;  Rev.  xiii.  2  ;  Ecclus.  xxviii,  23). 
Though  zoologists  differ  in  opinion  respecting  the  iden- 
tity of  the  leopard  and  the  panther,  and  dispute,  sup- 
posing them  to  be  distinct,  how  these  names  shoidd  be 
respectively  applied,  and  by  what  marks  the  animals 
should  be  distinguished,  nevertheless  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  namer  of  the  Bible  is  that  great  spotted 
feline  which  anciently  infested  the  Syrian  mountains, 


LEOPARD 


370 


LEOPOLD  II 


and  even  now  occurs  m  the  wooded  ranges  of  Lebanon, 
for  the  Arabs  still  use  ninir,  the  same  word  slightly 
modified,  to  denote  that  animal.  The  Abyssinian  name 
differs  scarcely  from  either;  and  in  all  tliese  tongues  it 
means  sjjotted.  Pigikris,  according  to  Kirscher,  is  the 
Coptic  name ;  and  in  English  "leopai-d"  has  been  adopt- 
ed as  the  most  appropriate  to  represent  both  the  Hebrew 
word  and  the  Greek  ndpoaXti;  (which  is  imitated  in  the 
Talmudic  Dbl"i2,  Mishna,/j;((6((  .1/e^.  viii,  2),  although 
the  Latin  leopardus  is  not  found  in  any  author  anterior 
to  the  fcjurth  century,  and  is  derived  from  a  gross  mis- 
take in  natural  history.  Gesenius  {TItts.  Ilt-b.  p.  443) 
contends  that  the  scriptural  animal  was  rather  striped 
than  spotted  (rm3"i5n,  Jer.  xiii,  23),  and  thinks  that 
not  improbably  the  iiffer  was  also  comprised  under  this 
name,  as  the  Hebrews  had  no  specific  name  for  that  an- 
imal {Thesaur.  p.  889).     The  panther  {Fdis  pardus  of 


Syrian  Panther  {Felis  Pardus). 


Linn.)  lives  in  Africa  (Strabo,  xvii,  828;  Pliny,  x,  94), 
Arabia  (Strabo,  xvi,  774,  777),  as  well  as  on  Lebanon 
(Seetzen,  xviii,  343 ;  Burckhardt,  Trav.  i,  99),  and  the 
hills  of  middle  Palestine  (Schubert,  iii,  119),  not  to  men- 
tion more  distant  countries,  as  India,  America,  etc.  The 
most  graphic  description  of  the  (African  and  Arabian) 
panther  is  by  Ehrenberg  (Symbol,  jiht/s.  Mammal,  dec. 
2,  pi.  17).  The  variety  of  leopard,  or  rather  panther, 
of  SjTia  is  considerably  below  the  stature  of  a  lioness, 
but  very  heavy  in  proportion  to  its  bulk.  Its  general 
form  is  so  well  known  as  to  require  no  description  be- 
yond stating  that  the  spots  are  rather  more  irregular, 
and  the  color  more  mixed  with  whitisli,  than  in  the 
other  pantherine  felinaj,  excepting  the  Felis  Uncia  or 
Felis  Irbis  of  High  Asia,  which  is  shaggy  and  almost 
white  (Sonnini,  Trai:  i,  395).  It  is  a  nocturnal,  cat-like 
animal  in  habits,  dangerous  to  all  domestic  cattle,  and 
sometimes  even  to  man  (comp.  Plin.  x,  94;  Hom.  J/;/mn 
in  Ven.  71 ;  Oppian,  Ci/ner/.  iii,  70  sq. ;  Cyrill.  Alex,  in 
JIos.  1.  c. ;  Tsetz.  Chiliad,  ii,  45;  Poiret,  Voi/age,  i,  224). 
In  the  Scriptures  it  is  constantly  placed  in  juxtaposition 
with  the  lion  (Isa.  xi,  (J ;  Jer.  v,  G  ;  Hos.  xiii,  7  ;  Ecclus. 
xxviii,  23  [27 J  ;  comp.  .Elian,  i'.  //.  xiv.  4)  or  the  wolf. 
The  swiftness  of  this  animal,  to  which  Habakkuk  (i,  8) 
compares  the  Chakkean  liorses.  and  to  which  Daniel  (vii, 
G)  alludes  in  tlie  winged  leopard,  is  well  known.  So  great 
is  the  tlc'xibility  of  its  body  that  it  is  able  to  take  sur- 
prising leaps,  to  climb  trees,  or  to  crawl  snake-like  ujion 
the  ground.  Jeremiah  and  Ilosea  (as  above)  allude  to 
the  insidious  habit  of  this  animal,  which  is  abundantlv 
confirmed  l)y  the  observations  of  travellers:  the  leop- 
ard will  take  up  its  position  in  some  spot  near  a  vil- 
lage, and  watch  for  some  favorable  opportunity  fur  plun- 
der. Erom  tlie  Canticles  (as  above)  we  learn  that  tlie 
hilly  ranges  of  Lebanon  were  in  ancient  limes  frequent- 
ed by  these  animals,  and  it  is  luiw  not  uncommonly  seen 
in  and  about  Lebanon,  anil  the  soutliern  maritime  moun- 


tains of  Syria  (Kitto,  Pict.  Bible,  note  on  Cant,  iv,  8). 
There  is  in  Asia  Minor  a  species  or  variety  of  panther, 
much  larger  than  the  Syrian,  not  unfrequent  on  the 
borders  of  the  snowy  tracts  even  of  Mount  Ida,  above 
ancient  Troy ;  and  the  group  of  these  spotted  animals 
is  spread  over  the  whole  of  Southern  Asia  to  Africa. 
From  several  names  of  places  (e.  g.  Beth-Nimrah,  etc.), 
it  appears  that,  in  the  earlier  ages  of  Israelitish  domin- 
ion, it  was  sufficiently  numerous  in  Palestine,  and  re- 
cent travellers  have  encountered  it  there  (see  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  1848,  p.  (5(39 ;  Lynch's  Expedition,  p.  212).  Leop- 
ard skins  were  worn  as  a  part  of  ceremonial  costume  by 
the  superiors  of  the  Egyptian  priesthood,  and  by  other 
personages  in  Nubia;  and  the  animal  itself  is  represent- 
ed in  the  processions  of  tributary  nations  (Wilkinson,  i, 
285,  291,  319).  In  Dan.  vii,  7,  "the  third  .stage  of  the 
prophetical  vision  is  symbolized  under  the  form  of  a 
leopard  with  wings,  representing  the  rapidly  formed 
Macedonian  empire;  its  four  heads  corresponding  to  the 
division  of  Alexander's  dominions  among  his  four  gen- 
erals. In  Kev.  xiii,  2,  the  same  animal  is  made  a  type 
of  the  spiritual  power  of  the  Eoman  hierarchy,  support- 
ed by  the  secular  power  in  maintaining  Paganism  in 
opposition  to  Christianity.  See  generally  Bochart,  Ili- 
eroz.  ii,  100  sq. ;  Schoder,  Specim.  hieroz.  i,  4G  sq. ;  We- 
myss,  Claris  Symbolica,  s.  v.;  Wood,  Bible  Animals,  p. 
29  sq. ;  Thomson,  Land  ami  Book;  ii,  156  sq. 

Leopold  II  of  Germany  (1790-1792)  and  I  of  Tus- 
cany (1705-1790),  the  second  son  of  jNIaria  Theresa  of 
Austria  and  her  husband  Francis  of  Lorraine,  is  noted 
in  Church  History  for  the  part  he  took  in  the  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  of  Tuscany,  which,  after  Maria  Theresa  had 
succeeded  to  the  Austrian  dominions,  according  to  trea- 
ties, establishing  the  independence  of  Tuscany  as  a 
state  separate  from  the  hereditary  states  of  Austria,  de- 
volved upon  Leopold,  his  elder  brother  Joseph  being  the 
presumptive  heir  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  His  prin- 
cipal reforms  in  Tuscany  concerned  the  administration  of 
justice  and  the  discipline  of  the  clergy  in  his  dommions. 
By  his  "Motu  proprio"  in  178G,  he  promulgated  a  new 
criminal  code,  abolished  torture  and  the  pain  of  death, 
and  established  penitentiaries  to  reclaim  ofFendeis.  In 
the  ecclesiastical  department,  after  having  instituted 
various  reforms,  he  actually,  in  July,  1782,  abolished  the 
Inquisition  in  Tuscan^-,  and  placed  the  monks  and  nuns 
of  his  dominions  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  respective 
bishops.  The  discovery  of  licentious  practices  carried 
on  in  certain  nunneries  in  the  to-»nis  of  Pistoja  and  Prato 
Avith  the  connivance  cf  their  monkish  directors  induced 
Leopold  to  investigate  and  reform  the  -whole  system  of 
monastic  discipline,  and  he  intrusted  Kicci,  bishop  of 
Pistoja,  with  full  i)ower  for  that  purpose.  This  occa- 
sioned a  long  and  angrj-  controversy  with  the  court  of 
Pome,  which  pretended  to  have  the  sole  cognizance  of 
matters  affecting  individuals  of  the  clergy  and  monastic 
orders.  Leopold,  liowever,  carried  his  point,  and  the 
pope  consented  that  the  bishops  of  Tuscany  shoidd  have 
the  jurisdiction  over  the  convents  of  their  respective  di- 
oceses. Picci,  who  had  high  notions  of  religious  purity, 
and  was  by  his  enemies  accused  of  Jansenism,  attempt- 
ed other  reforms :  he  endeavored  to  enlighten  the  people 
as  to  the  proper  limits  of  image-worship  and  the  invo- 
cation of  saints ;  he  suppressed  certain  relics  which  gave 
occasion  to  superstitious  practices;  he  encouraged  the 
spreading  of  religious  works,  and  especially  of  the  Gos- 
pel, among  his  Hock  ;  and,  lastly,  he  assembled  a  dioce- 
san council  at  Pistoja  in  September,  1786,  in  which  he 
maintained  tlie  siiiritual  independence  of  the  bishops. 
He  advocated  the  use  of  the  liturgy  in  the  oral  language 
of  the  country,  he  exposed  the  abuse  of  indulgences,  ap- 
proved of  the  four  articles  of  the  (iallican  Coimcil  of 
1G82,  and,  lastly,  appealed  to  a  national  council  as  a  le- 
gitimate and  canonical  means  for  terminating  contro- 
versies. Sever.al  of  Picci's  propositions  were  condemned 
by  the  po])e  in  a  bull  as  scandalous,  rash,  and  injurious 
to  the  Holy  See.  Leo|)old  supported  IJicci,  but  he  could 
not  prevent  his  being  annoyed  in  many  ways,  and  at  last 


LEOPOLD  IV 


371 


LEPROSY 


he  saw  him  forced  to  resign  his  charge.  (For  further  de- 
tails of  tliis  curious  controversy, see  Potter,  \'ie  de  Scipion 
de  Rkei  [Brussels,  l^'io,  3  vols. 8vo].)  Leopold  liimself 
convoked  a  council  at  Florence  of  the  bishops  of  Tus- 
cany in  1787,  and  proposed  to  them  tifty-seven  articles 
concerning  the  reform  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  He 
enforced  residence  of  incumbents,  and  forbade  plurali- 
ties; suppressed  many  convents,  and  distributed  their 
revenues  among  the  poor  benefices  —  thus  favoring  the 
parochial  clerg}%  and  extending  their  jurisdiction,  as 
he  had  supjiorted  and  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishops.  He  forbade  the  publication  of  the  bidls  and 
censures  of  liome  without  the  approbation  of  the  gov- 
ernment ;  he  enjoined  the  ecclesiastical  courts  not  to  in- 
terfere with  laymen  in  temporal  matters,  and  restrain- 
ed their  jurisdiction  to  spiritual  affairs  only;  and  he 
subjected  clergymen  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary 
courts  in  all  criminal  cases.  All  these  were  considered 
in  that  age  as  very  bold  innovations  for  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic prince  to  undertake.    See  Ricci. 

Leopold  IV,  margrave  of  Austria,  son  of  Leopold 
III,  was  born  Sept.  29,  1073.  He  was  educated  by  the 
priest  Udalrich,  under  the  direction  of  Altmann,  bishop 
of  Passau,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1096.  His  chief 
object  during  his  whole  reign  was  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  his  subjects.  He  avoided  war,  and  husbanded 
the  resources  of  his  countrj-  with  great  care.  He  was 
about  to  accompany  the  emperor,  Henry  IV,  in  a  cru- 
sade to  Jerusalem,  when  the  insuiTection  of  the  emper- 
or's son,  Henry  V,  obliged  him  to  change  his  plans.  At 
first  he  went  to  assist  the  emperor  (in  1105),  but  some- 
what later  he  was  influenced  by  his  brother-in-law, 
Borzywoy  H,  duke  of  Bohemia,  and  the  promises  of 
Henry  V,  to  join  the  latter,  to  whose  sister  Agnes,  wid- 
ow of  Frederick  of  Suabia,  he  was  married  in  HOG.  The 
remainder  of  his  reign  passed  in  peace  and  prosperity, 
although  occasionally  (especially  in  1118)  he  was  sub- 
jected to  annoyances  by  the  inroads  of  the  Hungarians. 
In  11  "25,  after  the  death  of  Henry  V,  he  was  spoken  of 
for  emperor,  but  declined  in  favor  of  Lothaire,  duke  of 
Saxony.  Leopold  died  Nov.  15, 1130,  and  was  canonized 
by  pope  Innocent  YIH  in  1485.  He  founded  a  large 
number  of  convents,  among  which  are  those  of  Neuburg, 
of  ]\Iariazell,  and  of  the  H0I3'  Cross,  and  built  a  number 
of  churches.  See  A.  Klein,  Gesch.  des  Christenthums  in 
Oesterrcich  (Vienna,  1840),  vol.  i  and  ii ;  Leopold  d.  I/ei- 
liffe  (Vien.  1835) ;  L.  Lang,  B.  hi.  Leopold  (Kcullingen, 
1836);  Fez,  Vita  sancti  Leojyoldi ;  same,  Sc7i2)fores  Re- 
rum  A  iistriacarvm,  i,  575  ;  Poltzraann,  Compendium  vi- 
im  S.  Leopoldi ;  Jaffe,  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Reiches  unter 
Lothar  dem  Sachsen  (Berlin,  1843) ;  and  his  Geschichte  d. 
deutsch.  Reiches  v.  Konrad  III  (Han.  1845)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  332 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
XXX,  797. 

Leper  (some  form  of  '.i'^'i,  to  smite  with  a  providen- 
tial infliction ;  XtTrpMS).     See  Lepkosv. 

Leporius,  a  monastic  who  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  4th  and  the  early  part  of  the  5th  century,  a 
native  of  (iaul,  embraced  asceticism  under  the  auspices 
of  Cassianus  about  the  opening  of  the  5th  centurj',  at 
Marseilles,  where  he  enjoyed  a  high  reputation  for  pu- 
rity and  holiness.  Advancing  the  view  that  man  did 
not  stand  in  need  of  divine  grace,  and  that  Christ  was 
born  with  a  human  nature  only,  he  was  excommunica- 
ted in  consequence  of  these  heretical  doctrines.  He  be- 
took himself  to  Africa,  and  there  became  familiar  with 
Aurelius  and  St.  Augustine,  by  whose  instructions  he 
profited  so  much  that  he  not  only  became  convinced  of 
his  errors,  but  drew  up  a  solemn  recantation  addressed 
to  Proculus,  bishop  of  Marseilles,  and  Cyllinnius,  the 
bishop  of  Aix  (see  below  as  to  the  title  and  value  of  this 
treatise),  while  four  African  prelates  bore  witness  to  the 
sincerity  of  his  conversion,  and  made  intercession  on  his 
behalf.  Although  now  reinstated  in  his  ecclesiastical 
privileges,  Leporius  does  not  seem  to  have  returned  to 
his  native  co.untry,  but,  laying  aside  the  profession  of  a 


monk,  was  ordained  a  presbyter  by  St.  Augustine,  A.D. 
425,  and  appears  to  be  the  same  Leporius  so  v.armly 
praised  in  the  discourse  l)e  Vita  et  Mvribus  Clei-iconim. 
We  know  nothing  further  regarding  his  career  except 
that  he  was  still  alive  in  430  (Cassianus,  De  Incurn.  i, 
4).  The  treatise  above  alluded  to  is  still  extant,  under 
the  title  Libellus  emendationis  sire  satitfuctionis  ad 
Episcopos  Gallicr,  sometimes  with  the  addition  Conjes- 
sionem  Fidei  CatholictB  continens  de  Mysterio  Incnrna- 
tionis  Christi,  cum  Lrroris  liristini  Detestatione.  It  was 
held  in  very  high  estimation  among  ancient  divines, 
and  its  author  was  regarded  as  one  of  tl>e  firmest  bul- 
warks of  orthodoxy  against  the  attacks  of  the  Nesto- 
rians.  Some  scholars  in  modern  times,  especiallj'  Ques- 
nel,  who  has  written  an  elaborate  dissertation  on  the 
subject,  have  imagined  that  we  ought  to  regard  this  as 
a  tract  composed  and  dictated  by  St.  Augustine,  found- 
ing their  opinion  partly  on  the  style,  and  partly  on  the 
terms  in  which  it  is  quoted  in  the  acts  of  the  second 
Council  of  Chalcedon  and  earlj'  documents,  and  partly 
on  certain  expressions  in  an  epistle  of  Leo  the  (Jreat 
(clxv,  edit.  Quesnel) ;  but  their  arguments  are  far  from 
being  conclusive,  and  the  hypothesis  is  generally  reject- 
ed. Fragments  of  the  Libellus  were  first  collected  by 
Sismondi  from  Cassianus,  and  inserted  in  his  collection 
of  Gaidish  councils  (i,  52).  The  entire  work  was  soon 
discovered  and  published  by  the  same  editor  in  his 
Opuscula  Dogmalica  Vetei'wn  quinque  Scriptomm  (Par. 
1630,  8vo),  together  with  the  letter  of  the  African  bish- 
ops in  favor  of  Leporius.  It  will  be  found  also  in  the 
collection  of  councils  by  Labbe  (Paris,  1671,  folio) ;  in 
Garnier's  edition  oi  Marius  Mercator  (Paris,  1673,  fol.), 
i,  224;  in  the  Bihliotheca  Patriim  Max.  (Lugd.  1677), 
vii,  14 ;  and  in  the  Bihliotheca  Patrimi  of  Galland  (Ven. 
1773).  ix,  396.  Consult  the  dissertation  of  Quesnel  in 
his  edition  of  the  works  of  Leo,  ii,  906  (ed.  Paris) ;  His- 
toire  Litteraire  de  la  France,  ii,  167;  the  second  disser- 
tation of  Garnier,  his  edition  of  M.  Mercator,  i,  230 ;  the 
Prolegomena  of  Galland ;  Schonemann,  Bihliotheca  Patr. 
Latt.  ii,  §  20. — Smith,  Dz'rf.  Greek  and  Roman  Biography, 
vol,  ii,  s.  V. 

Leprosy  (T'"'^^,tsara'dth,  a  smiling,  because  sup- 
posed to  be  a  direct  visitation  of  heaven;  Gr.  XsTrpo,  so 
called  from  its  scaliness,  hence  English  "  leper,"  etc.),  a 
name  that  was  given  by  the  Greek  jihysicians  to  a  scaly 
disease  of  the  skin.  During  the  Dark  Ages  it  was  indis- 
criminately applied  to  all  chronic  diseases  of  the  skin, 
and  more  particularly  to  elephantiasis,  to  which  latter, 
however,  it  docs  not  bear  the  slightest  resemblance. 
Hence  prevailed  the  greatest  discrepancy  and  confusion 
in  the  descriptions  that  authors  gave  of  the  disease,  un- 
til Dr.Wnian  restored  to  the  term  lepra  its  original  sig- 
nification. In  the  Scriptiu-es  it  is  applied  to  a  foul  cu- 
taneous disease,  the  description  of  which,  as  well  as  the 
regulations  connected  therewith,  are  given  in  Lev.  xiii, 
xiv  (comp.  also  Exod.  iv,  6, 7;  Numb,  xii,  10-15  ;  2  Sam. 
iii,29;  2  Kings  v,  27;  vii,  3;  xv,  5;  Matt,  viii,  2;  x,  8, 
etc.).  In  the  discussion  of  this  subject  we  base  our  ar- 
ticle upon  that  of  Ginsburg,  in  Kitto's  Cyclopcedia,  but 
with  extensive  additions  and  modifications  from  other 
sources. 

I.  Scriptural  and  Talmudical  Statements. — (I.)  Leprosy 
in  Human  Beings. — 1.  Cases  and  Symjjtejms  of  Bihliccd 
Leprosy. — Lev.  xiii,  2-44,  which  describes  this  distem- 
per as  laying  hold  of  man,  gives  six  different  circum- 
stances under  which  it  may  develop  itsel£  They  are  as 
follows : 

(1.)  The  first  circumstance  mentioned  in  Lev.  xiii, 
2-6  is  that  it  may  develop  itself  without  any  apparent 
cause.  Hence  it  is  enjoined  that  if  anj-  one  should  no- 
tice a  rising  or  swelling  (r.N?l'),  an  eruption  or  scab 
(rnao),  or  a  glossy  pimple  (n~in3)  in  the  skin  of  his 
flesh,  which  may  terminate  in  leprosy  (r""i:i),  he  is  at 
once  to  be  taken  to  the  priest,  who  is  to  examine  it  and 
pronounce  it  leprosy,  and  the  man  unclean,  if  it  exhibits 
these  two  symptoms,  viz.  a,  the  hair  of  the  affected  spot 


LEPROSY 


372 


LEPROSY 


changed  from  its  natural  black  color  to  white;  and,  6, 
the  s])Ot  deeper  than,  the  general  level  of  the  skin  of  the 
hudy  (^vcr.  "2. 3 ).  I5ut  if  these  two  symptoms  do  not  ap- 
])ear  in  the  bright  pimiile,  the  priest  is  to  shut  him  up 
fur  seven  days,  examine  him  again  on  the  seventh  day, 
.•;nd  if  the  disease  appears  to  have  made  no  progress 
(hiring  this  time,  he  is  to  remand  the  patient  for  another 
seven  days  (ver.  4,5),  and  then,  if  on  inspecting  it  again 
lie  finds  that  the  bright  spot  lias  grown  darker  (nnz), 
and  that  it  has  not  spread  on  the  skin,  he  is  to  pro- 
nounce it  a  simple  scab  (PnSD'a  mED),  and  the  per- 
son clean  after  washing  his  garments  (ver.  C).  If,  how- 
ever, the  pustule  spreads  over  the  skin  after  it  has  been 
pronounced  a  simple  scab  and  the  individual  clean,  the 
]iriest  is  to  declare  it  leprosy,  and  the  patient  unclean 
(  ver.  7, 8 ).  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  symptoms  which 
indicated  scriptural  leprosy,  as  the  Mishna  rightly  re- 
marks {Xegaim,  iii,  3),  are  bright  pimples,  a  little  de- 
]ircsscd,  turning  the  hair  white,  and  spreading  over  the 
i.kin. 

As  the  description  of  these  symptoms  is  very  concise, 
and  requires  to  be  specilied  more  minutely  for  practical 
purposes,  the  spiritual  guides  of  Israel  defined  them  as 
follows :  Both  the  bright  pimple  (rriil2)  and  the  swell- 
ing spot  (rX'13),  when  indicative  of  lepros}-,  assume  re- 
spectively one  of  two  colors,  a  principal  or  a  subordinate 
one.  The  principal  color  of  the  bright  pimple  is  as 
■white  as  snow  (3>'UD  HT"),  and  the  subordinate  resem- 
bles plaster  on  the  wall  (h'Z'^'nT^  1'^'OZ) ;  whilst  the 
principal  color  of  the  rising  spot  is  like  that  of  an  egg- 
shell (iljin  D1"ip2),  and  the  secondary  one  resembles 
white  wool  ("pb  "n^D,  Negaim,  i,  1) ;  so  that  if  the  af- 
fected spot  in  the  skin  is  inferior  in  whiteness  to  the 
film  of  an  egg  it  is  not  leprosy,  but  simply  a  gathering 
(Maimouides,  On  Leprosy,  i,  1  j.  Any  one  may  examine 
the  disease,  except  the  patient  himself  or  his  relatives, 
but  the  priest  alone  can  decide  whether  it  is  leprosy  or 
not,  and  accordingly  pronounce  the  patient  unclean  or 
clean,  because  Deut,  xxi,  5  declares  tliat  the  priest  must 
decide  cases  of  litigation  and  disease.  But  though  the 
priest  only  can  pronounce  the  decision,  even  if  he  be  a 
child  or  a  fool,  yet  he  must  act  upon  the  advice  of  a 
learned  layman  in  those  matters  {Negaim,  iii,  1 ;  Mai- 
monides,  l.  c,  ix,  1, 2).  If  the  priest  is  blind  of  one  eye, 
or  is  weak-sighted,  he  is  disqualified  for  examining  the 
distemper  (Mishna,  I.  c,  ii,3).  The  inspection  must  not 
take  place  on  the  Sabbath,  nor  early  in  the  morning,  nor 
in  the  middle  of  the  day,  nor  in  the  evening,  nor  on 
cloudy  days,  because  the  color  of  the  skin  cannot  prop- 
erly be  ascertained  in  these  hours  of  the  day;  but  in  the 
third,  fourth,  tilth,  seventh,  eighth,  or  ninth  hour  (Xe- 
gaim,  ii,  2) ;  and  the  same  priest  who  inspected  it  at  first 
must  examine  it  again  at  the  end  of  the  second  seven 
days,  as  another  one  could  not  teU  whether  it  has  spread. 
If  he  should  die  in  tlie  interim,  or  be  taken  ill,  another 
one  may  examine  him,  but  not  pronounce  him  unclean 
(Maimonides,  On  Leprosy,  ix,  4).  There  must  be  at  least 
two  hairs  white  at  the  root  and  in  t'ne  body  of  the 
bright  spot  before  the  patient  can  be  declared  unclean 
(Maimonides,  /.  c,  ii,  1).  If  a  bridegroom  is  seized  with 
this  distemper  he  must  be  left  alone  during  the  nuptial 
■week  (A>//ui/»,  iii,  2). 

(2. )  The  second  case  is  of  leprosy  reappearing  after  it 
has  been  cured  (Lev.  xiii,  0-17),  where  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent treatment  is  enjoined.  If  a  person  who  has  once 
been  healed  of  this  disease  is  brought  again  to  the  priest, 
.mid  if  tlie  latter  finds  a  white  rising  in  the  skin  (rX'iJ 
ni^P ),  which  has  changed  the  liair  into  white  and  con- 
tains live  flesh  ("^n  "1C3),  he  is  forthwith  to  recognise 
tlierein  the  reappearance  of  the  old  malady,  and  declare 
the  patient  unclean  without'  any  qiiarantiue  whatever, 
since  the  case  is  so  evident  that  it  re()uires  no  trial  (ver. 
!)-l  1).  There  were,  however,  two  phases  of  this  return- 
ed distemper  which  exempted  tlie  patient  from  imclean- 


ness.  If  the  leprosy  suddenly  covered  the  whole  body 
so  that  the  patient  became  perfectly  white,  in  which 
case  there  could  be  no  appearance  of  live  tie.sh  (ver.  12, 
13),  or  if  the  whiteness,  after  having  once  diminished 
and  allowed  live  flesh  to  appear,  covers  again  the  whole 
body,  then  the  patient  was  clean  (ver.  14-17).  This, 
most  probably,  was  regarded  as  indicative  of  the  crisis, 
as  the  whole  evil  matter  thus  brought  to  the  surface 
formed  itself  into  a  scale  which  dried  and  peeled  off. 
The  only  other  feature  which  this  case  represents  be- 
sides the  symptoms  already  described  is  that  leprosy  at 
times  also  spread  over  the  whole  skin  and  rendered  it 
perfectly  white.  As  to  the  live  flesh  ("^n  "i-3),  the 
Sept.,  the  Chaldee,  the  Mishna,  and  the  Jewish  rabbins, 
ill  accordance  with  ancient  tradition,  take  it  to  denote 
sound  Jlesh,  or  a  spot  in  the  flesh  assuming  the  appear- 
ance of  life  after  it  had  been  paled  by  the  whiteness 
overspreading  the  whole  surface.  The  size  of  this  spot 
of  live  flesh  which  renders  the  patient  unclean  must,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  be  at  least  that  of  a  lentil  (Mai- 
monides, /.  c,  iii,  1-3). 

(3.)  The  third  case  is  of  leprosy  developing  itself  from 
an  inflammation  ("pn'jT)  or  a  burn  ('CX  rill's),  which 
is  to  be  recognised  by  the  same  symptoms  (Lev.  xiii, 
18-28).  Hence,  when  these  suspicious  signs  were  dis- 
cernible in  that  part  of  the  skin  which  was  healed  of  an 
inflammation,  the  patient  was  to  go  to  the  priest,  who 
was  at  once  to  pronounce  it  leprosy  developed  from  an  in- 
flammation, if  the  symptoms  were  unmistakable  (ver.  19, 
20).  If  the  priest  found  these  marks,  he  remanded  the 
patient  for  seven  days  (ver.21),and  if  tlie  disorder  spread 
over  the  skin  during  the  time  the  patient  was  declared 
leprous  and  unclean  (ver.  22) ;  but  if  it  remained  in  the 
same  condition,  he  pronounced  it  the  cicatrix  of  the  in- 
flammation ("pncn  r3"ijl)  and  the  patient  clean  (ver. 
23).  The  same  rules  applied  to  the  suspicious  appearance 
of  a  burn  (ver.  24-28).  According  to  the  Hebrew  canons, 
■pn'13  is  defined  inflammation  arising  from  '"an  injury 
received  from  the  stroke  of  wood  or  a  stone,  or  from  hot 
olive  husks,  or  the  hot  Tiberian  water,  or  from  anything, 
the  heat  of  which  docs  not  come  from  fire,  whilst  Til-O 
denotes  a  burn  from  live  coals,  hot  ashes,  or  from  any 
heat  which  proceeds  from  fire"  (Negaim,  ix,  1 ;  Maimon- 
ides. 0«  Lep)-6sy,  V,  1).  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  a 
difference  in  the  treatment  of  the  suspicious  symptoms 
in  (1.)  and  (3.).  In  the  former  instance,  where  there  is 
no  apparent  cause  for  the  symptoms,  the  suspected  in- 
valid has  to  undergo  two  remands  of  seven  days  before 
his  case  can  be  decided ;  whilst  in  the  latter,  where  the 
inflammation  or  the  burn  visibly  supplies  the  reason  for 
this  suspicion,  he  is  only  remanded  for  one  week,  at  the 
end  of  which  his  case  is  finally  determined. 

(4.)  The  fourth  case  is  leprosy  on  the  head  or  chin 
(Lev.  xiii,  29-37),  which  is  to  be  recognised  by  the  af- 
fected spot  being  deeper  than  the  general  level  of  the 
skin,  and  by  the  hair  thereon  having  become  thin  and 
yellowish.  When  these  symptoms  exist,  the  priest  is 
to  pronounce  it  a  scall  (pTI),  which  is  head  or  chin 
leprosy,  and  declare  the  patient  unclean  (ver.  30).  But 
if  this  disonh'r  on  the  head  or  chin  does  not  exhibit  these 
symptoms,  tlie  patient  is  to  be  remanded  for  seven  days, 
when  the  priest  is  again  to  examine  it,  and  if  he  finds 
that  it  has  neither  epread  nor  exhibits  the  required  cri- 
teria, he  is  to  order  the  patient  to  cut  off  all  the  liair  of 
his  head  or  cliin,  except  that  which  grows  on  the  af- 
flicted spot  itself  and  remand  liim  for  another  ^veek,  and 
then  pronounce  liim  clean  if  it  continues  in  the  same 
state  at  the  expiration  of  this  period  (ver.31-34);  and  if 
it  spreads  after  lie  has  been  pronounced  clean,  the  priest 
is  forthwith  to  declare  him  unclean  without  looking  for 
anj'  yellow  hair  (ver.  35, 3(5).  The  Jewish  canoiis  define 
pr'i  by  "an  affection  on  the  head  or  chin  which  causes 
the  hair  on  these  affected  parts  to  fall  off  by  the  roots, 
so  that  the  [ilace  of  the  hair  is  quite  bare"  (Maimonides, 
On  Lejyrosy,  viii,  1).     The  condition  of  the  hair,  consti- 


LEPROSY 


373 


LEPROSY 


tuting  one  of  the  leprous  symptoms,  is  described  as  fol- 
lows :  "  pi  is  small  or  short,  but  if  it  be  long,  though  it 
is  yellow  as  gold,  it  is  no  sign  of  uneleanness.  Two  yel- 
low and  short  hairs,  whether  close  to  one  another  or  far 
from  each  other,  whetlier  in  the  centre  of  the  neihek  or 
on  the  edge  thereof,  no  matter  whether  the  netheh  pre- 
cedes the  yellow  hair  or  the  yellow  hair  tl(e  nethek,  are 
symptoms  of  uncleanness"  (Maimonides.  /.  c,  viii,  5). 
The  manner  of  shaving  is  thus  described :  "  The  hair 
round  the  scall  is  all  shaved  off  except  two  hairs  which 
are  close  to  it,  so  that  it  might  be  known  thereby  ^vhetller 
it  spread"  {Neyaim,  x,  5). 

(5.)  The  fifth  case  is  leprosy  which  shows  itself  in 
white  polished  spots,  and  is  not  regarded  as  unclean 
(Lev.  xiii,  38, 39).  It  is  called  hohak  (pri3,  from  pr!3, 
tobe  n'hite),  or,  as  the  Sept.  has  it,  aX(t>ug,  vitilirjo  alba, 
white  scurf. 

(6.)  The  sixth  case  is  of  leprosy  either  at  the  back  or 
in  the  front  of  the  head  (Lev.  xiii,  40-44).  When  a 
man  loses  his  hair  either  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of 
his  head,  it  is  a  simple  case  of  baldness,  and  he  is  clean 
(ver.40,4]).  But  if  a  wliitish  red  spot  forms  itself  on  the 
bald  place  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of  the  head,  then 
it  is  leprosy,  which  is  to  be  recognised  b}'  the  fact  that 
tlie  swelling  or  scab  on  the  spot  has  the  appearance  of 
leprosy  in  the  skin  of  the  body;  and  the  priest  is  to 
declare  the  man's  head  leprous  audimclean  (ver.  42-44). 
Though  there  is  only  one  symptom  mentioned  whereby 
head  leprosy  is  to  be  recognised,  and  nothing  is  said 
about  remanding  the  patient  if  the  distemper  should 
appear  doubtful,  as  in  the  other  cases  of  leprosy,  yet  the 
ancient  rabbins  inferred  from  the  remark, "  It  is  like  lep- 
rosy in  the  skin  of  the  flesh,"  that  all  the  criteria  spec- 
ified in  the  latter  are  implied  in  the  former.  Hence  the 
Hebrew  canons  submit  that  "there  are  two  symptoms 
which  render  baldness  in  the  front  or  at  the  back  of  the 
head  unclean,  viz.  live  or  sound  flesh,  and  spreading; 
tlic  patient  is  also  shut  up  for  them  two  weeks,  because 
it  is  said  of  them  that '  they  are  [and  therefore  must  be 
treated]  like  leprosy  in  tlie  skin  of  the  flesh'"  (Lev. 
xiii,  43).  Of  course,  the  fact  that  the  distemper  in  this 
instance  develops  itself  on  baldness^  precludes  white 
hair  being  among  the  criteria  indicating  uncleanness. 
The  manner  in  which  the  patient  in  question  i*  de- 
clared luiclean  by  two  symptoms  and  in  two  weeks  is  as 
follows:  "  If  live  or  sound  flesh  is  found  in  the  bright 
sjxit  on  the  baldness  at  the  back  or  in  the  front  of  the 
head,  he  is  pronounced  unclean  ;  if  there  is  no  live  flesh 
he  is  shut  up  and  examined  at  the  end  of  the  week,  and 
if  live  flesh  has  developed  itself,  and  it  has  spread,  he 
is  declared  unclean,  and  if  not  he  is  shut  up  for  another 
week.  If  it  has  spread  during  this  time,  or  engendered 
live  flesh,  he  is  declared  unclean,  and  if  not  he  is  pro- 
noimced  clean.  He  is  also  pronounced  unclean  if  it 
spreads  or  engenders  sound  flesh  after  he  has  been  de- 
clared clean"  {Negaim,  x,  10 ;  Maimonides,  On  Leprosy, 
V,  9, 10). 

2.  Reyidations  about  the  Conduct  and  Purification  of 
leprous  Men. — Lepers  w'ere  to  rend  their  garments,  let 
the  hair  of  their  head  hang  down  dishevelled,  cover 
themselves  up  to  the  upper  lip,  like  mourners,  and  warn 
off  every  one  whom  they  happened  to  meet  by  calling  out 
"  Unclean !  unclean  !"  since  they  defiled  every  one  and 
everytliing  they  touched.  For  tliis  reason  they  were 
also  obliged  to  live  in  exclusion  outside  the  camp  or 
city  (Lev.  xiii,  45,  4G ;  Numb,  v,  1-4;  xii,  10-15;  2 
Kings  vii,  3,  etc.).  "  The  very  entrance  of  a  leper  into 
a  house,"  according  to  the  Jewish  canons,  "  renders  ev- 
erything in  it  unclean"  {Neyaim,  xii,  11;  Kelim,  i,  4). 
"  If  he  stands  under  a  tree  and  a  clean  man  passes  by, 
he  renders  him  unclean.  In  the  synagogue  which  he 
wislies  to  attend  they  are  obliged  to  make  him  a  sep- 
arate compartment,  ten  handbrcadths  high  and  four  cu- 
bits long  and  broad ;  he  has  to  be  the  first  to  go  hi,  and 
the  last  to  leave  the  synagogue"  {Neyaim.,  xii,  12 ;  Mai- 
monides, On  Leprosy,  x,  12)  ;  and  if  he  transgressed  the 


prescribed  boundaries  he  was  to  receive  forty  stripes 
{Pesachim,  G7,  «).  All  this  only  applies  to  those  who 
had  been  jironounced  lepers  by  the  priest,  but  not  to 
those  who  were  on  quarantine  {Neyaim,  i,  7).  The 
rabbinic  law  also  exempts  women  from  the  obligation 
to  rend  their  garments  and  let  the  hair  of  their  head 
fall  down  {Sota,  iii,  8).  It  is  tlierefore  no  wonder  that 
the  Jews  regarded  leprosy  as  a  living  death  (comp.  Jo- 
sephus,  ^4  ?if.  iii,  11,3,  and  the  well-known  rabbinic  say- 
ing r'23  SViTn  ""ll^J'S),  and  as  an  awful  punishment 
from  the  Lord  (2  Kings  v,  7  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  20),  which 
they  wished  all  their  mortal  enemies  (2  Sam.  iii,  29 ;  2 
Kings  V,  27). 

The  healed  leper  had  to  pass  through  two  stages  of 
purification  before  he  could  be  received  back  into  the 
community.  As  soon  as  the  distemper  disappeared  he 
sent  for  the  priest,  who  had  to  go  outside  the  camp  or 
town  to  convince  himself  of  the  fact.  Thereupon  the 
priest  ordered  two  clean  and  live  birds,  a  piece  of  cedar 
wood,  crimson  wool,  and  hyssop ;  killed  one  bird  over  a 
vessel  containing  spring  water,  so  that  the  blood  might 
run  into  it,  tied  together  the  hyssop  and  the  cedar  wood 
with  the  crimson  wool,  put  about  them  the  tops  of  the 
wings  and  the  tip  of  the  tail  of  the  living  bird,  dipped 
all  the  four  in  the  blood  and  water  which  were  in  the 
vessel,  then  sprinkled  the  hand  of  the  healed  leper  seven 
times,  let  the  bird  loose,  and  pronounced  the  restored 
man  clean  (Lev.  xiv,  I  7;  Neyaim,  yM,  1).  The  healed 
leper  was  then  to  wash  his  garments,  cut  off  all  his  hair, 
be  immersed,  and  return  to  the  camp  or  city,  but  re- 
main outside  his  house  seven  daj-s,  which  the  Mishna 
{Neyaim,  xiv,  2),  the  Chaldee  Paraphrase,  Maimonides 
{On  Leprosy,  xi,  1),  etc.,  rightly  regard  as  a  euphemism 
for  exclusion  from  connubial  intercourse  during  that  time 
(ver.  8),  in  order  that  he  might  not  contract  impurity 
(comp.  Lev.  xv,  18).  With  this  ended  the  first  stage 
of  purification.  According  to  the  Jewish  canons,  the 
birds  are  to  be  "  free,  and  not  caged,"  or  sparrows ;  the 
piece  of  cedar  wood  is  to  be  "  a  cubit  long,  and  a  quar- 
ter of  the  foot  of  the  bed  thick ;"  the  crimson  wool  is  to 
be  a  shekel's  weight,  i.  e.  320  grains  of  barley ;  the  hys- 
sop must  at  least  be  a  handbreadth  in  size,  and  is  nei- 
ther to  be  the  so-called  Greek,  nor  ornamental,  nor  Ko- 
man,  nor  wild  hyssop,  nor  have  any  name  whatever ; 
the  vessel  must  be  an  earthen  one,  and  new ;  and  the 
dead  bird  must  be  buried  in  a  hole  dug  before  their 
ej'es  {Neyaim,  xiv,  1-G ;  Maimonides,  On  Leprosy,  xi,  1), 

The  second  stage  of  purification  began  on  the  seventh 
day,  when  the  leper  had  again  to  cut  off  the  hair  of  his 
head,  his  beard,  eyebrows,  etc.,  wash  his  garments,  and 
be  immersed  (Lev.  xiv,  9).  On  the  eighth  day  he  had 
to  bring  two  he-lambs  without  blemish,  one  ewe-lamb 
a  year  old,  three  tenths  of  an  ephah  of  fine  flour  mixed 
with  oil,  and  one  log  of  oil ;  the  one  he-lamb  is  to  be  a 
trespass-offering,  and  the  other,  with  the  ewe-lamb,  a 
burnt  and  a  sin-offering ;  but  if  the  man  was  poor  he 
was  to  bring  two  turtle-doves,  or  two  yomig  pigeons, 
for  a  sin-offering  and  a  burnt-offering,  instead  of  a  he- 
lamb  and  a  ewe-lamb  (ver.  10, 11,  21).  With  tliese  of- 
ferings the  priest  conducted  the  healed  leper  before  the 
presence  of  the  Lord.  What  the  offerer  had  to  do,  and 
how  the  priest  acted  when  going  through  these  cere- 
monies, cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the  following 
graphic  language  of  the  Jewish  tradition.  '•  The  priest 
approaches  the  trespass-offering,  lays  both  his  hands  on 
it,  and  kills  it,  when  two  priests  catch  its  blood,  one 
into  a  vessel,  and  the  other  in  his  hand ;  the  one  Avho 
caught  it  into  the  vessel  sprmkles  it  against  the  wall  of 
the  altar,  the  other  goes  to  the  leper,  who,  having  been 
immersed  in  the  leper's  chamber  [which  is  m  the  wom- 
en's court],  is  waiting  [outside  the  court  of  Israel,  or  the 
men's  court,  opposite  the  eastern  door]  in  the  porch  of 
Nicanor  [with  his  face  to  the  west].  He  then  puts  his 
head  into  [the  court  of  Israel],  and  the  priest  puts  some 
of  the  blood  upon  the  tip  of  his  right  ear;  he  next  puts 
in  his  right  hand,  and  the  priest  puts  some  blood  upon 
the  thumb  thereof;  and,  lastly,  puts  in  his  right  le<j, 


LEPROSY 


374 


LEPROSY 


and  the  priest  puts  some  blood  on  the  toe  thereof.  The 
priest  then  takes  some  of  the  log  of  oil  and  puts  it  into 
the  left  hand  of  his  fellow-priest,  or  into  his  own  left 
liand,  dips  the  finger  of  his  right  hand  in  it,  and  sprin- 
kles it  seven  times  towards  the  holy  of  holies,  dipping 
his  finger  every  time  he  sprinkles  it ;  whereujton  he  goes 
to  the  leper,  puts  oil  on  those  parts  of  his  body  on  which 
he  had  previously  put  blood  [i.  e.  the  tip  of  tlie  ear,  the 
thumb,  and  the  toe],  as  it  is  written, '  on  the  place  of 
tlic  blood  of  the  trespass-offering'  [Lev.  xiv,  28],  and 
what  remains  of  the  oil  in  the  hand  of  the  priest  he 
puts  on  the  head  of  him  who  is  to  be  cleansed,  for  an 
atonement"  {Xt'ffaim,  xiv,  8-10  ;  Maimonides,  Hilchoth 
Mi'chosrei  Kepora,  iv).  It  is  in  accordance  with  this 
]ircrogative  of  the  priest,  who  alone  could  pronounce  the 
leper  clean  and  readmit  him  into  the  congregation,  that 
(lirist  commanded  the  leper  whom  he  had  healed  to 
show  himself  to  this  functionary  (Matt,  viii,  2,  etc.). 

(II.)  Leprous  Garments  and  Vessels. — Leprosy  in  gar- 
ments and  vessels  is  indicated  by  two  symptoms,  green 
or  reddish  spots,  and  spreading.  If  a  green  or  reddish 
spot  shows  itself  in  a  woollen  or  linen  garment,  or  in  a 
leather  vessel,  it  is  indicative  of  leprosy,  and  must  be 
shown  to  the  priest,  who  is  to  shut  it  up  for  a  week. 
If,  on  inspecting  it  at  the  end  of  this  time,  he  finds  that 
the  spot  has  spread,  he  is  to  pronounce  it  inveterate 
leprosy  (n"iX"2"2  T""!^),  and  unclean,  and  burn  it  (Lev. 
xiii,  47-52) ;  if  it  has  not  spread  he  is  to  have  it  washed, 
and  shut  it  up  for  another  week,  and  if  its  appearance 
has  then  not  changed,  he  is  to  pronounce  it  unclean  and 
burn  it.  though  it  has  not  spread,  since  the  distemper 
rankles  in  the  front  or  at  the  back  of  the  material  (ver. 
53-55).  But  if,  after  washing  it,  the  priest  sees  that 
the  spot  has  become  weaker,  he  is  to  cut  it  out  of  the 
material;  if  it  reappears  in  any  part  thereof,  then  it  is  a 
developed  distemper,  and  the  whole  of  it  must  be  burned ; 
and  if  it  vanishes  after  washing,  it  must  be  washed  a 
second  time,  and  is  clean  (ver.  56-59).  The  Jewish 
canons  define  the  color  green  to  be  like  that  of  herbs, 
ami  red  like  that  ofj'air  crimson,  and  take  this  enact- 
ment literally  as  referring  strictly  to  wool  of  sheep  and 
flax,  but  not  to  hemp  and  other  materials.  A  material 
made  of  camel's  hair  and  sheep's  wool  is  not  rendered 
imclean  by  leprosy  if  the  camel's  hair  preponderate,  but 
is  unclean  when  the  sheep's  wool  preponderates,  or  when 
both  are  equal,  and  this  also  applies  to  mixtures  of  flax 
and  hemp.  Dyed  skins  and  garments  are  not  rendered 
unclean  by  leprosy ;  nor  are  vessels  so  if  made  of  skins 
of  aquatic  animals  exposed  to  leprous  uncleanness  {Xe- 
f/aim,xi,2,3;  Maimonides,  ?<^ *■(//). xi,l;  xii,10;  xiii,l-3). 

(III.)  Leprous  Houses.  —  Leprosy  in  houses  is  indi- 
cated by  the  same  three  symptoms,  viz.  spots  of  a  deep 
green  or  reddish  hue,  depressed  beyond  the  general 
level,  and  spreading  (Lev.  xiv,  33-48).  On  its  appear- 
ance the  priest  was  at  once  to  be  sent  for,  and  the  house 
cleared  of  everything  before  his  arrival.  If,  on  inspect- 
ing it,  he  found  the  first  two  symptoms  in  the  walls,  viz. 
a  green  or  red  spot  in  the  wall,  and  depressed,  he  shut  the 
house  up  for  seven  days  (ver.  34-38),  inspected  it  again 
on  the  seventh  day,  and  if  the  distemper  spread  in  the 
wall  he  had  the  atfect(<l  stones  taken  out,  the  inside  of 
tlie  house  scraped  all  round,  the  stones,  dust,  etc.,  cast 
into  an  unclean  jilace  without  the  city,  and  other  .stones 
and  plaster  put  on  the  wall  (ver.  39-42).  If,  after  all  this, 
the  spot  rcai)pcared  and  sjiread,  he  pronounced  it  invet- 
erate leprosy,  and  luulean,  had  the  house  pulled  down, 
and  the  stones,  timlier,  jilaster,  etc.,  cast  into  an  unclean 
phice  withiiut  the  city,  declared  every  one  unclean,  till 
evening,  who  had  entered  it.  and  ordered  every  one  who 
had  either  slept  or  eaten  in  it  to  wash  his  garments 
(ver.  43^7). 

As  to  the  purification  of  the  houses  wliicli  haVe  been 
cured  of  leprosy,  the  process  is  t4ie  same  as  tluit  of  healed 
men,  except  that  in  the  case  of  man  the  priest  sprinkles 
seven  times  u|)on  his  hand,  while  in  tliat  of  tlie  liouse 
he  sprinkles  seven  times  on  the  u]iper  door-post  without. 
Of  course  the  sacrifices  which  the  leprous  man  had  to 


bring  in  his  second  stage  of  purification  are  precluded 
in  the  case  of  the  house  (Maimonides,  On  Leprosi/,  xv,  8). 

3.  Prevalence,  Contagion,  and  Curahleness  of  Leprosy. 
— Though  the  malicious  story  of  Manetho  that  the 
Egyptians  expelled  the  Jews  because  they  were  afflict- 
ed with  leprosy  (Josephus,  Ap.  i,  20),  which  is  rejieated 
by  Tacitus  (lib.  v,  c.  3),  is  rejected  by  modern  histo- 
rians and  critics  as  a  fabrication,  yet  Michaclis  {Lau-s 
of  Moses,  art.  209),  Thomson  {The  Land  and  tlie  Hook, 
p.  652),  and  others  stiU  maintain  that  this  disease  was 
'•extremely  prevalent  among  the  Israelites."  Against 
this,  however,  is  to  be  urged  that,  1.  The  very  fact  that 
such  strict  examination  was  enjoined,  and  that  every 
one  who  had  a  pimple,  spot,  or  boil  was  shut  up,  shows 
that  leprosy  could  not  have  been  so  widespread,  inas- 
much as  it  would  require  the  imprisonment  of  the  great- 
mass  of  the  people.  2.  In  cautioning  the  people  against 
the  evil  of  leprosy,  and  urging  on  them  to  keep  strict- 
ly to  the  directions  of  the  priest,  Moses  adds,  '■•Remem- 
ber what  the  Lord  thy  God  did  to  Miriam  on  the  way 
when  you  came  out  of  Egypt"  (Dent,  xxiv,  9).  Now 
allusion  to  a  single  instance  which  occurred  on  the  way 
from  Egypt,  and  which,  therefore,  was  an  old  case,  nat- 
urally implies  that  leprosy  was  of  rare  occurrence  among 
the  Jews,  else  there  would  have  been  no  necessity  to 
adduce  a  by-gone  case ;  and,  3.  Wherever  leprosy  is  spo- 
ken of  in  later  books  of  the  Bible,  which  does  not  often 
take  place,  it  is  only  of  isolated  cases  (2  Kings  vii,  3 ; 
XV,  5),  and  the  regulations  are  strictly  carried  out,  and 
the  men  are  shut  up  so  that  even  the  king  himself 
formed  no  exception  (2  Kings  xv,  5). 

That  the  disease  ^vas  not  contagious  is  evident  from 
the  regulations  themselves.  The  priests  had  to  be  in 
constant  and  close  contact  with  lepers,  had  to  examine 
and  handle  them;  the  leper  who  was  entirely  covered 
was  pronounced  clean  (Lev.  xiii,  12,  13) ;  and  the  priest 
himself  commanded  that  all  things  in  a  leprous  house 
should  be  taken  out  before  he  entered  it,  in  order  that 
they  might  not  be  pronounced  unclean,  and  that  they 
might  be  used  agam  (Lev.  xiv,  36),  which  most  unquee- 
fionablj'  implies  that  there  was  no  fear  of  contagion. 
This  is,  moreover,  corroborated  by  the  ancient  Jewish 
canons,  which  were  made  by  those  very  men  who  had 
personally  to  deal  with  this  distemper,  and  according  to 
which  a  leprous  minor,  a  heathen,  and  a  proselyte,  as 
well  as  leprous  garments,  and  houses  of  non-Israelites,  do 
not  render  any  one  luiclean ;  nor  does  a  bridegroom, 
who  is  seized  with  this  malady  during  the  nuptial  week, 
defile  any  one  during  the  first  seven  days  of  his  mar- 
riage (com p.  Xegaim,  iii,  1,2;  vii,  1 ;  xi,  1 ;  xii,  1 ;  Mai- 
monides, On  Leprosy,  vi,  1;  vii,  1,  etc.).  These  canons 
would  be  utterly  inexplicable  on  the  hypothesis  that  the 
distemper  in  question  was  contagious.  The  enactments, 
therefore,  about  the  exclusion  of  the  leper  from  society, 
and  about  detilement,  were  not  dictated  by  sanitarv  cau- 
tion, but  had  their  root  in  the  moral  and  ceremonial 
law,  like  the  enactments  about  the  separation  and  un- 
cleanness of  mensfruous  women,  of  those  who  had  an 
issue  or  touched  the  dead,  which  are  joined  with  lepro- 
sy. Being  regarded  as  a  punishment  for  sin.  which  (iod 
himself  intlicted  ui)ou  the  dis(jl)edient  ( Ivxod.  xv.  2(); 
Lev.  xiv,  35),  this  loathsome  disease,  with  the  jjcculiar 
rites  connected  therewith,  was  especially  selected  as  a 
typical  representation  of  the  pollution  of  sin,  in  which 
light  the  Jews  always  viewed  it.  Thus  we  are  told  that 
"  leprosy  comes  upon  man  for  seven,  ten.  or  eleven 
things:  for  idolatry,  profaning  the  name  of  God,  un- 
chastity,  theft,  slander,  false  witness,  false  judgment, 
perjur\-,  infringing  the  borders  of  a  neigldior,  devising 
malicious  plans,  or  creating  discord  between  brothers" 
{Erachin,  16,  17;  Baba  Bathra,  164;  Aboth  de  R.  Xa- 
than,  ix  ;  Midrash-Rabba  on  Lerit.  xiv).  "  Cedar  wood 
and  hyssop,  the  highest  and  the  lowest,  give  the  leper 
liurity.  Why  these?  Because  pride  was  the  cause  of 
the  distemper,  which  cannot  be  cured  till  man  becomes 
humble,  and  keeps  himself  as  low  as  hyssop"  (Midrash 
Kabba,  Koheleth,  p.  104). 


LEPROSY 


375 


LEPROSY 


As  to  ihe  curahleness  of  the  disease,  this  is  unques- 
tionably irapUed  in  the  minute  regulations  about  the 
sacritices  and  conduct  of  those  ^vho  were  restored  to 
health.  Besides,  in  the  case  of  jNIiriam,  we  (ind  that 
shutting  her  up  for  seven  days  cured  her  of  leprosy 
(Numljixii,  11-13). 

II.  Identity  of  the  Biblical  Leprosy  u-ith  the  modem 
Distemper  hecn-ing  this  Name.  —  It  would  be  useless  to 
discuss  the  different  disorders  which  have  been  palmed 
upon  the  Mosaic  description  of  leprosy.  A  careful  clas- 
sification and  discrimination  is  necessary. 

1.  The  Greeks  distinguished  three  species  of  lej^ra, 
the  specific  names  of  which  were  aXcpocXtvKt),  and  fii- 
\ac,  which  may  be  rendered  the  ritiliyo,  the  u-hite  and 
the  black:  Now,  on  turning  to  the  Mosaic  account,  we 
also  find  three  species  mentioned,  which  were  all  in- 
cluded under  the  generic  term  of  r"lil3,  hahereth,  or 
"  bright  spot"  (Lev.  xiii,  2-4, 18-28).  The  first  is  called 
pilia,  hohak,  which  signifies  "  brightness,"  but  in  a  sub- 
ordinate degree  (Lev.  xiii,  39).  This  species  did  not 
render  a  person  unclean.  The  second  was  called  H'liia 
n3a!f>,  hahereth  lebandh.  or  a  bright  white  bahereth.  The 
characteristic  marks  of  the  hahereth  lebandh  mentioned 
by  Moses  are  a  glossy  white  and  spreading  scale  upon 
an  elevated  base,  the  elevation  depressed  in  the  middle, 
the  hair  on  the  patches  participating  in  the  whiteness, 
and  the  patches  themselves  perpetually  increasing.  This 
was  evitlently  the  true  leprosy,  probably  corresponding 
to  the  vrhite  of  the  Greeks  and  the  viilyaris  of  modern 
science.  The  third  was  tltlS  T'lna,  bahereth  Icehdh, 
or  dusky  bahereth,  spreading  in  the  skin.  It  has  been 
thought  to  correspond  with  the  black  leprosy  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  nif/ricans  of  Dr.Willan.  These  last  two 
were  also  called  r?"^^,  tsardaih  (i.  e.  proper  leprosy), 
and  rendered  a  person  unclean.  There  are  some  other 
slight  affections  mentioned  by  name  in  Leviticus  (chap, 
xiii),  which  the  priest  was  reqiured  to  distinguish  from 
leprosy,  such  as  rxilJ,  seeth ;  PStJ,  shaphdl;  pr,3,  ne- 
thek;  "pHT,  shechen,  i.  e.  "elevation,"  "  depressed,"  etc. ; 
and  to  each  of  these  Dr.  Good  (Study  of  Med.  v,  590)  has 
assigned  a  modern  systematic  name.  But,  as  it  is  use- 
less to  attempt  to  recognise  a  disease  otherwise  than  by 
a  description  of  its  symptoms,  we  can  have  no  object  in 
discussing  his  interpretation  of  these  terms.  We  there- 
fore recognise  but  two  species  of  real  leprosy. 

(I.)  Proper  Leprosy. — This  is  the  kind  specifically  de- 
nominated ri";in3,  Jo /;ere?/?,  whether  white  or  black,  but 
usuall}'  called  ichite  leprosy,  by  the  Arabs  hurras;  a  dis- 
ease not  unfrequent  among  the  Hebrews  (2  Kings  v,  27 ; 
Exod.  iv,  6;  Numb,  xii,  10),  and  often  called  lepra  Mo- 
saica.  It  was  regarded  by  them  as  a  divine  infliction 
(hence  its  Heb.  name  ri^"niS,  tsardath,  a  stroke  i.  e.  of 
God),  and  in  several  instances  we  find  it  such,  as  in  the 
case  of  Miriam  (Numb,  xii,  10),  Gehazi  (2  Kings  v,  27), 
and  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi,  16-23),  from  which  and  oth- 
er intlications  it  appears  to  have  been  considered  hered- 
itary-, and  incurable  by  human  means  (comp.  2  Sam.  iii, 
29;  2  Kings  v,  7).  From  Deut.  xxiv,  8,  it  appears  to 
have  been  weU-known  in  Egypt  as  a  dreadful  disease 
(comp.  Description  de  PEyypte,  xiii,  159  sq.).  The  dis- 
tinctive marks  given  by  Moses  to  indicate  this  disease 
(Lev.  xiii)  are,  a  depression  of  the  sutface  and  whiteness 
or  yellowness  of  the  hair  in  the  spot  (ver.  3,  20, 25, 30),  or 
a  spreading  of  the  scaliness  (ver.  8,  22,  27,  30),  or  raw 
Jlesh  in  it  (ver.  10,  14),  or  a  white-reddish  sore  (ver.  43). 

The  disease,  as  it  is  known  at  the  present  day,  com- 
mences by  an  eruption  of  small  reddish  spots  slightly 
raised  above  the  level  of  the  skin,  and  grouped  in  a  cir- 
cle. These' spots  are  soon  covered  by  a  very  thin,  semi- 
transparent  scale  or  epidermis,  of  a  whitish  color,  and 
very  smooth,  which  in  a  httle  time  falls  off,  and  leaves 
the  skin  beneath  red  and  uneven.  As  the  circles  in- 
crease in  diameter,  the  skin  recovers  its  healthy  appear- 
ance towards  the  centre ;  fresh  scales  are  formed,  which 


are  novr  thicker,  and  superimposed  one  above  the  other, 
especially  at  the  edges,  so  that  the  centre  of  the  scale 
appears  to  be  depressed.  The  scales  are  of  a  grayish- 
white  color,  and  have  something  of  a  micaceous  or  pearly 
lustre.  The  circles  are  generallj'  of  the  size  of  a  shil- 
ling or  half  crown,  but  they  have  been  known  to  attain 
half  a  foot  in  diameter.  Tlie  disease  generally  affects 
the  knees  and  elbows,  but  sometimes  it  extends  over  the 
whole  body,  in  which  case  the  circles  become  contiucnt. 
It  does  not  at  aU  affect  the  general  health,  and  the  only 
inconvenience  it  causes  the  patient  is  a  slight  itching 
when  the  skin  is  heated;  or,  in  inveterate  cases,  when 
the  skin  about  the  joints  is  much  thickened,  it  may  in 
some  degree  impede  the  free  motion  of  the  limbs.  It  is 
common  to  both  sexes,  to  almost  all  ages,  and  all  ranks 
of  society.  It  is  not  in  the  least  infectious,  but  it  is  al- 
ways diflicult  to  be  cured,  and  in  old  persons,  when  it  is 
of  long  standing,  may  be  pronounced  incurable.  It  is 
commonly  met  with  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  occasion- 
ally in  America.    Its  systematic  name  is  Lepra  vidgaris. 

Moses  prescribes  no  natural  remedy  for  the  cure  of  lep- 
rosy (Lev.  xiii).  He  requires  only  that  the  diseased 
person  should  show  himself  to  the  priest,  and  that  the 
priest  should  judge  of  his  leprosy ;  if  it  appeared  to  be  a 
real  leprosy,  he  separated  the  leper  from  the  company 
of  mankind  (Lev.  xiii,  45, 46 ;  comp.  Numb,  v,  2 ;  xii,  10, 
14;  2  Kings  vii,  3;  xv,  5;  Josephus,  .J^jw?,  i,  31;  Ant. 
iii,ll,3;  jr«r«,v,5,6;  see  Wetstein,A''.  7'.i,175;  Light- 
foot,  Ilor.  Heb.  p.  861 ;  Withob,  Ojmsc.  p.  169  sq.).  Al- 
though the  laws  in  the  jMosaic  cotie  respecting  this  dis- 
ease are  exceedingly  rigid  (see  Michaelis,  Orient.  BibL 
xvii,  19  sq. ;  Medic,  hermeneut.  Untersitch.  p.  240  sq.),  it 
is  by  no  means  clear  that  the  leprosy  was  contagious. 
The  fear  or  disgust  which  was  felt  towards  such  a  pe- 
culiar disease  might  be  a  sufficient  cause  for  such  severe 
enactments.  AU  intercourse  with  society,  however,  was 
not  cut  off  (Matt,  viii,  2  ;  Luke  v,  12;  xvii,  12),  and  even 
contact  with  a  leper  did  not  necessarily  impart  unclean- 
ness  (Luke  xvii,  12).  They  were  even  admitted  to  the 
synagogue  (Lightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  p.  802).  Similar  liber- 
ties are  still  allowed  them  among  the  Arabians  (Nie- 
buhr,  Beschr.  p.  136) ;  so  that  we  are  probably  to  regard 
the  statements  of  travellers  respecting  the  utter  exclu- 
sion of  modern  lepers  in  the  East  as  relating  to  those 
affected  with  entirely  a  different  disease,  the  elephanti- 
asis. In  Lev.  xiv  are  detailed  particular  ceremonies 
and  offerings  (compare  Matt,  viii,  4)  to  be  officially  ob- 
served by  the  priest  on  behalf  of  a  leper  restored  to- 
health  and  purity.  See  D.  C.  Lutz,  De  duab.  avib.  pur- 
gationi  leprosi destinatis  eanmdemgue  mysterio, Hal.  1737 ; 
Biihr,  Symbol,  ii,  512  sq. ;  Baumgarten,  Comment.  I,  ii, 
170  sq. ;  Talmud,  tract  Negaim,  vi,  3 ;  Otho,  Lex.  Rahb, 
p.  365  sq. ;  Ehenferd,  in  Meuschen,  N.  T.  Tedmud.  p.  1057. 

(II.)  Elephantiasis.  —  This  more  severe  form  of  cu- 
taneous, or,  rather,  scrofulous  disease  has  been  con- 
founded with  leprosy,  from  which  it  is  essentially  differ- 
ent. It  is  usually  called  tubercular  leprosy  (Lepra  nodosa, 
Celsus,  Med.  iii,  25),  and  has  generally  been  thought  to 
be  the  disease  with  which  Job  was  afflicted  (""l  "i"!^^, 
Job  ii,  7 ;  comp.  Deut.  xxviii,  35).  See  Jon's  Disease. 
It  has  been  thought  to  be  alluded  to  by  the  term  ''botch 
of  Egypt"  (nin:a-3  "pn-a,  Deut.  xxviii,  27),  where  it  is 
said  to  have  been  endemic  (Pliny,  xxvi,  5;  Lucret.  vi, 
1 1 12  sq. ;  comp.  AretiEus,  Cappod.  morh.  diut.  ii,  13  ;  see 
Ainslie,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  i,  282 
sq.).  The  Greeks  gave  the  name  of  elephantiasis  to 
this  disease  because  the  skin  of  the  person  affected  with 
it  was  thought  to  resemble  that  of  an  elephant,  in  dark 
color,  ruggedness,  and  insensibility,  or,  as  some  have 
thought,  because  the  foot,  after  the  loss  of  the  toes, 
when  the  hollow  of  the  sole  is  filled  up  and  the  ankle 
enlarged,  resembles  the  foot  of  an  elephant.  The  Arabs 
called  it  Judhum,  which  means  '•  mutilation,"  ''  amputa- 
tion," in  reference  to  the  loss  of  the  smaller  members. 
They  have,  however,  also  described  another  disease,  and 
a  very  different  one  from  elephantiasis,  to  which  they 


LEPROSY 


sve 


LEPROSY 


gave  the  name  of  Da'L  fil,  wliich  means  literally  mor- 
hus  ekphas.  The  disease  to  which  they  applied  this 
name  is  called  by  modern  writers  tlie  tumid  Barbadoes 
leg,  and  consists  in  a  thickening  of  the  skin  and  subcu- 
taneous tissues  of  the  leg,  but  presents  nothing  resem- 
bling  tlie  tubercles  of  elephantiasis.  Now  the  Latin 
translators  from  the  Arabic,  tinding  that  the  same  name 
existed  both  in  the  Greek  and  Arabic,  translated  DcCl 
fil  by  elephantiasis,  and  thus  confounded  the  Barbadoes 
k'g  with  the  Arabic  Jndliuin,  while  this  latter,  which 
was  in  reality  elephantiasis,  they  rendered  by  the  Greek 
term  lepra.  See  Kleyer,  in  Miscell.  iwt.  curios.  1G83,  p. 
8 ;  Bartholin.  Morb.  J3ibl.  c.  7  ;  Michaelis,  Einkit.  iiis  A . 
T.  i,  58  sq. ;  Eeinhard,  Bibelkrank.  iii,  52. 

Elephantiasis  first  of  all  makes  its  appearance  by 
spots  of  a  reddish,  yellowish,  or  livid  hue,  irregularly 
disseminated  over  the  skin  and  slightly  raised  above  its 
surface.  These  spots  are  glossy,  and  appear  oily,  or  as 
if  they  were  covered  with  varnish.  After  they  have 
remained  in  this  way  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  they 
are  succeeded  by  an  eruption  of  tubercles.  These  are 
soft,  roundish  tumors,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea 
to  that  of  an  olive,  and  are  of  a  reddish  or  livid  color. 
They  are  principally  developed  on  the  face  and  ears, 
but  in  the  course  of  years  extend  over  the  whole  body. 
The  ftice  becomes  frightfully  deformed ;  the  forehead  is 
traversed  by  deep  lines  and  covered  with  numerous  tu- 
bercles; the  eyebrows  become  bald,  sv/eUed,  furrowed 
by  oblique  lines,  and  covered  with  nipple-like  eleva- 
tions ;  the  eyelashes  fall  out,  and  the  eyes  assume  a  fixed 
and  staring  look ;  the  lips  are  enormously  thickened  and 
shining;  the  beard  falls  out;  the  chin  and  ears  are  en- 
larged and  beset  with  tubercles;  the  lobe  and  alae  of  the 
nose  are  frightfully  enlarged  and  deformed ;  the  nostrils 
irregidarly  dilated,  internally  constricted,  and  excoria- 
ted ;  the  voice  is  hoarse  and  nasal,  and  the  breath  intol- 
erably fetid.  After  some  time,  generally  after  some 
years,  many  of  the  tubercles  idcerate,  and  the  matter 
which  exudes  from  them  dries  to  crusts  of  a  brownish 
or  blackish  color;  but  this  process  seldom  terminates  in 
cicatrization.  The  extremities  are  affected  in  the  same 
way  as  the  face.  The  hollow  of  the  foot  is  swelled  out, 
so  that  the  sole  becomes  fiat;  the  sensibility  of  the  skm 
is  greatly  impaired,  and,  in  the  hands  and  feet,  often 
entirely  lost;  the  joints  of  the  toes  ulcerate  and  fall  off 
one  after  the  other;  insupportable  foetor  exhales  from 
the  whole  body.  The  patient's  general  health  is  not 
affected  ftr  a  considerable  time,  and  his  sufferings  are 
not  always  of  the  same  intensity  as  his  external  defor- 
mity. Often,  however,  his  nights  are  sleepless  or  dis- 
turl)P(l  by  frightful  dreams;  he  becomes  morose  and 
melancholy;  he  shuns  the  sight  of  the  healthy  because 
he  feels  what  an  object  of  disgust  he  is  to  them,  and  life 
becomes  a  loathsome  burden  to  him ;  or  he  falls  into  a 
state  of  apathy,  and,  after  many  years  of  such  an  exist- 
ence, he  sinks  either  from  exhaustion  or  from  the  super- 
vention of  internal  disease. 

About  the  period  of  the  Crusades  elephantiasis  spread 
itself  like  an  epidemic  over  all  Europe,  even  as  far  north 
as  the  Faroe  Islands;  and  henceforth,  owing  to  the 
above-named  mistakes,  every  one  became  familiar  with 
leprosy  under  the  form  of  tiic  terrible  disease  that  has 
just  been  described.  Leper  or  lazar-houses  abounded 
everywhere :  as  many  as  2000  are  said  to  have  existed 
iu  France  alone.  In  the  leper  hospital  in  Edinburgh 
the  imnates  begged  for  the  general  community— sitting 
for  the  purpose  at  the  door  of  the  hospital.  They  were 
obliged  to  warn  those  approaching  them  of  the  presence 
of  an  infected  fellow-mortal  by  using  a  wood  rattle  or 
clapper.  The  infected  in  European  countries  were 
obliged  to  enter  leper  hospitals,  and  were  considered  le- 
gfilly  and  politically  dead.  The  Church,  taking  the 
same  view  of  it.  performed  over  them  the  solemn  cere- 
monies for  the  burial  of  tlie  dead — the  priest  closing 
the  ceremony  by  throwing  u|ion  them  a  shovelful  of 
earth.  The  disease  was  considered  to  be  contagious 
possibly  only  on  account  of  the  belief  that  was  enter- 


tained respecting  its  identity  with  Jewish  leprosy,  and 
the  strictest  regulations  were  enacted  for  secluding  the 
diseased  from  society'.  Towards  the  commencement  of 
the  17th  century  the  disease  gradually  disapijearetl  from 
Europe,  and  is  now  mostly  confined  to  intertropical 
coimtries.  It  existed  in  Faroe  as  late  as  1G7G,  and  in 
the  Shetland  Islands  in  173G,  long  after  it  had  ceased  in 
the  southern  parts  of  Great  Britain.  This  fearful  dis- 
ease made  its  appearance  in  the  island  of  Guadaloupe 
iu  the  year  1730,  introduced  by  negroes  from  Africa, 
producing  great  consternation  among  the  iidiabitants. 
In  Europe  it  is  now  principally  confined  to  Norway, 
where  the  last  census  gave  2000  cases.  It  visits  occa- 
sionally some  of  the  sea-port  localities  of  Spain.  It  has 
made  its  appearance  in  the  most  different  climates,  from 
Iceland  through  the  temperate  regions  to  the  arid  plains 
of  Arabia — in  moist  and  drj^  localities.  It  still  exists 
in  Palestine  and  Egypt — the  latter  its  most  familiar 
home,  although  Dr.  Kitto  thinks  not  in  such  numerous 
instances  as  in  former  ages.  The  physical  causes  of  the 
malady  arc  uncertain.  The  best  authors  of  the  present 
day  who  have  had  an  opportmiity  of  observing  the  dis- 
ease do  not  consider  it  to  be  contagious.  There  seems, 
however,  to  be  little  doubt  as  to  its  being  hereditarj'. 
See  Good's  Study  of  Medicine,  iii,  421 ;  Kayer,  Mai.  de 
la  Peau,  ii,  296;  Simpson,  On  the  Lepers  and  Leper- 
houses  of  Scotland  and  England,  in  Edinb.  Medical  and 
Surgiccd  Journal,  Jan.  1, 1842 ;  J.  Gieslesen,  De  elephan- 
tiasi  Norvegica  (Havn.  1785) ;  Michael.  U.  orient  Bibl. 
iv,  1G8  sq. ;  B.  Haubold,  Vitiliginis  leproseB  rarioris  his- 
ioria  c.  ejncrid  (Lips.  1821) ;  C.  J.  HiUe,  Rai-ioris  morbi 
elejihantiasi  paiiicdi  similis  histor.  (Lips.  1828)  ;  Kosen- 
baum,  in  the  Hall.  Encyklop.  xxxiii,  254  sq. 

Elephantiasis,  or  the  leprosy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  is 
the  disease  from  which  most  of  the  prevalent  notions 
concerning  leprosy  have  been  derived,  and  to  which  the 
notices  of  lepers  contained  in  modem  books  of  travels 
exclusively  refer.  It  is  doubtful  whether  ain-  of  the 
lepers  cured  by  Christ  (Matt,  viii,  3 ;  ]\Iark  i,  42 ;  Luke 
V,  12,  13)  were  of  this  class.  In  nearly  all  Oriental 
towns  persons  of  this  description  are  met  with,  excluded 
from  intercourse  with  the  rest  of  the  community,  and 
usually  confined  to  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town.  Dr. 
Kobinson  says,  with  reference  to  Jerusalem,  '"Within 
the  Zion  Gate,  a  httle  towards  the  right,  are  some 
miserable  hovels,  inhabited  by  persons  called  lepers. 
Whether  their  disease  is  or  is  not  the  leprosy  of  Scrip- 
ture I  am  unable  to  affirm ;  the  symptoms  described  to 
us  were  similar  to  those  of  elephantiasis.  At  any  rate, 
they  are  pitiable  objects,  and  miserable  outcasts  from 
society.  They  all  live  here  together,  and  intermarry 
only  with  each  other.  The  children  are  said  to  be 
healthy  until  the  age  of  puberty  or  later,  when  the  dis- 
ease makes  its  appearance  in  a  finger,  on  the  nose,  or  in 
some  like  part  of  the  body,  and  gradually  increases  as 
long  as  the  victim  survives.  They  were  said  often  to 
live  to  the  age  of  forty  or  fifty  years"  {Bib.  Res.  i,  359). 
With  reference  to  their  presence  elsewhere,  he  remarks, 
'•  There  are  said  to  be  leprous  persons  at  Nablus  (She- 
chem)  as  well  as  at  Jerusalem,  but  we  did  not  here  meet 
with  them"  (ih.  iii,  113  note).  On  the  reputed  site  of 
the  house  of  Naaman.  at  Damascus,  stands  at  the  pres- 
ent day  a  hospital  filled  with  unfortunate  patients,  the 
victims  affected  like  him  with  leprosy.     See  Plague. 

2.  That  the  Mosaic  cases  of  true  leprosy  were  confined 
to  the  former  of  these  two  dreadful  forms  of  disease  is 
evident.  The  reason  why  this  kind  of  cutaneous  dis- 
temper alone  was  taken  cognizance  of  by  the  law  doubt- 
less was  because  the  other  was  too  well  marked  and  ob- 
vious to  require  any  diagnostic  particularization.  With 
the  scriptural  symptoms  before  us,  let  us  c(mipare  the 
most  recent  description  of  modern  leprosy  oT  the  malig- 
nant type  given  by  an  eye-witness  who  examined  this 
subject:  "The  scab  comes  on  by  degrees,  in  different 
parts  of  the  body ;  tlie  hair  falls  from  the  head  and  eye- 
brows; the  nails  loosen,  decay,  and  drop  oft";  joint  alter 
joint  of  the  fingers  and  toes  shrink  up,  and  slowly  fall 


LEPROSY 


377 


LEPROSY 


away ;  the  gums  arc  absorbed,  and  the  teeth  disappear ;  i 
the  nose,  the  eyes,  the  tongue,  and  the  palate  arc  slowly 
consumed ;  and,  linally,  the  wretched  victim  shrinks 
into  the  earth  and  disappears,  while  medicine  has  no 
power  to  stay  the  ravages  of  this  fell  disease,  or  even  to 
mitigate  sensibly  its  tortnrcii'\'lhomson,  Lund  and  Bool; 
p.  Goo,  etc.) ;  and  again,  "  Sauntering  down  the  Jaffa 
road,  on  my  approach  to  the  Holy  City,  in  a  kuid  of 
dreamv  maze,  ,  ,  .  I  was  startled  out  of  my  reverie  by 
the  suilden  apparition  of  a  cnjwd  of  beggars, '  sans  eyes, 
sans  nose,  sans  hair,  sans  everything.'  They  held  up 
towards  me  their  handless  arms,  miearthly  sounds  gur- 
gled through  throats  without  palates"  (ibid.  p.  651). 
We  merely  ask  by  what  rules  of  interpretation  can  we 
deduce  from  the  Biblical  leprosy,  which  is  described  as 
consisting  in  a  rising  scab,  or  bright  spot  deeper  than 
the  general  level  of  the  skin,  and  spreading,  sometimes 
exhibiting  live  tlesh,  and  which  is  non-contagious  and 
curalile,  that  loathsome  and  appalling  malady  described 
by  Dr. Thomson  and  others? 

3.  x\s  to  the  leprosy  of  garments,  vessels,  and  houses, 
the  ancient  Jewish  tradition  is  that  "  leprosy  of  gar- 
ments and  houses  was  not  to  be  found  in  the  world  gen- 
erallv,  but  was  a  sign  and  a  miracle  in  Israel  to  guard 
them  against  an  evil  tongue"  (Maimonides,  O/i  Leprosij, 
xvi,  10).  Some  have  thought  garments  worn  by  lep- 
rous patients  intended.  The  discharges  f)f  the  diseased 
skin  absorbed  into  the  apparel  would,  if  infection  were 
possible,  probably  convey  disease,  and  it  is  known  to  be 
highly  dangerous  in  some  cases  to  allow  clothes  which 
have  so  imbibed  the  discharges  of  an  ulcer  to  be  worn 
again.  The  words  of  Jude,  ver.  23,  may  seem  to  counte- 
nance this^  "  Hating  even  the  garment  spotted  by  the 
flesh."  But,  1st,  no  mention  of  infection  occurs;  2d,  no 
connection  of  the  leprous  garment  with  a  lejjrous  human 
wearer  is  hinted  at;  3d,  this  would  not  help  us  to  ac- 
count for  a  leprosy  of  stone  walls  and  plaster.  Thus 
Dr.  Mead  («;;  stq^.)  speaks  at  any  rate  plausibly  of  the 
leprosy  of  garments,  but  becomes  unreasonable  when  he 
extends  his  explanation  to  that  of  walls.  There  is  more 
probability  in  the  idea  of  Sommer  (Bibl.  A  bhandlungen, 
i,  2"24)  that  what  is  meant  are  the  fusting-stains  occa- 
sioned by  damp  and  want  of  air,  and  which,  when  con- 
firmed, cause  the  cloth  to  moidder  and  fall  to  pieces. 
Micliaelis  thought  that  wool  from  sheeji  which  had  died 
of  a  particular  disease  might  fret  into  holes,  and  exhib- 
it an  appearance  like  that  described  in  Lev.  xiii,  47,  59 
(Michaelis,  art.  ccxi,  iii,  290,  291).  But  woollen  cloth 
is  far  from  being  the  only  material  mentioned ;  nay, 
there  is  even  some  reason  to  think  that  the  words  ren- 
dered in  the  A.V.  "  warp"  and  "  woof"  are  not  those  dis- 
tinct parts  of  the  texture,  but  distinct  materials.  Linen, 
however,  and  leather  are  distinctly  particularized,  and 
the  latter  not  only  as  regards  garments,  but  "  anything 
(ht.  vessel)  made  of  skin" — for  instance,  bottles.  This 
classing  of  garments  and  house-walls  with  the  human 
epidermis  as  leprous  has  moved  the  mirth  of  some  and 
the  wonder  of  others.  Yet  modern  science  has  estab- 
lished what  goes  far  to  vindicate  the  Mosaic  classifica- 
tion as  more  philosophical  than  such  cavils.  It  is  now 
known  that  there  are  some  skin-diseases  which  originate 
in  an  acarus,  and  others  which  proceed  from  a  fungus. 
In  these  we  may  probably  find  the  solution  of  the  para- 
dox. The  analogy  between  the  insect  which  frets  the 
human  skin  and  that  which  frets  the  garment  that  cov- 
ers it,  between  the  fungous  growth  that  lines  the  crev- 
ices of  the  epidermis  and  that  which  creeps  in  the  inter- 
stices of  masonry,  is  close  enough  for  the  purposes  of  a 
ceremonial  law,  to  which  it  is  essential  that  there  should 
be  an  arbitrary  element  intermingled  with  provisions 
manifestly  reasonable.  Michaelis  {ibid.  art.  ccxi,  iii, 
293-9)  has  suggested  a  nitrous  efilorescence  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  stone,  produced  by  saltiietre,  or  rather  an  acid 
containing  it,  and  issuing  in  red  spots,  and  cites  the  ex- 
ample of  a  house  in  Lubeck ;  he  mentions,  also,  exfolia- 
tion of  the  stone  from  other  causes;  but  probably  these 
appearances  would  not  be  developed  without  a  "greater 


degree  of  damp  than  is  common  in  Palestine  and  Arabia. 
It  is  manifest,  also,  that  a  disease  in  the  human  subject 
caused  by  an  acarus  or  a  fungus  would  be  certainly  con- 
tagious, since  the  propagative  cause  coidd  be  transferred 
from  person  to  person.  Some  physicians,  indeed,  assert 
that  only  such  skin-diseases  are  contagious.  Hence, 
perhaps,  arose  a  further  reason  for  marking,  even  in  their 
analogues  among  lil'eless  substances,  the  strictness  with 
■which  forms  of  disease  so  arising  were  to  be  shunned. 

Whatever  the  nature  of  the  disorder  might  be,  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  as  Bauragarten  has  remarked  (Comm. 
ii,  175),  that  in  the  house  respect  was  had  to  its  pos- 
sessor, since  when  it  came  to  be  in  a  good  condition  a 
cleansing  or  purification  quite  analogous  to  the  man's 
was  prescribed.  He  was  thus  taught  to  see  in  his  ex- 
ternal environments  a  sign  of  what  was  or  might  be  in- 
ternal. The  later  Jews  appear  to  have  had  some  idea 
of  this,  though  others  viewed  it  differently.  Some  rab- 
bins say  that  God  sent  this  plague  for  the  good  of  the 
Israelites  into  certain  houses,  that,  they  being  pulled 
down,  the  treasure  which  the  Amorites  had  hidden  there 
might  be  discovered  (Patrick  on  Lev.  xiv,  34).  But 
"  there  is  good  reason,"  adds  the  learned  prelate,  '•  from 
these  words  ['I  put  the  plague  of  leprosy  upon  a  house'], 
to  think  that  this  plague  was  a  supernatural  stroke. 
Thus  Aberbanel  understands  it :  '  When  he  saith  "  I  put 
the  plague,"  it  shows  that  this  thing  was  not  natural, 
but  proceeded  from  the  special  providence  and  pleasure 
of  the  blessed  God.'  So  the  author  of  Seplier  Cosri  (pt. 
ii,  §  58) :  God  inflicted  the  plague  of  leprosy  upon  houses 
and  garments  as  a  punishment  for  lesser  sins,  and  when 
men  continued  still  to  midtiply  transgressions,  then  it 
invaded  their  bodies.  Maimonides  will  have  this  to  be 
the  punishment  of  an  evil  tongue,  i.  e.  detractions  and 
calumny,  which  began  in  the  walls  of  the  offender's 
house,  and  went  no  farther,  but  vanished  if  he  repented 
of  his  sin  ;  but  if  he  persisted  in  his  rebellious  courses, 
it  proceeded  to  his  household  stuff;  and  if  he  still  went 
on,  invaded  his  garments,  and  at  last  his  body"  {More 
Niboclnm,  [it.  iii,  cap.  47). 

Finally,  as  to  the  moral  design  of  all  these  enactments. 
"  Every  leper  was  a  living  sermon,  a  loud  admonition  to 
keep  unspotted  from  the  world.  The  exclusion  of  lepers 
from  the  camp,  from  the  holy  city,  conveyed  figuratively 
the  same  lesson  as  is  done  in  the  New  Testament  pas- 
sages (Kev.  xxi,  27;  Eph.  v,  5).  . .  .  It  is  only  when  we 
take  this  view  of  the  leprosy  that  we  account  for  the 
fact  that  just  this  disease  so  frequently  occurs  as  the 
theocratic  punishment  of  sin.  The  image  of  sin  is  best 
suited  for  reflecting  it :  he  who  is  a  sinner  before  (iod  is 
represented  as  a  sinner  in  the  eyes  of  man  also,  by  the 
circumstance  that  he  must  exhibit  before  men  the  image 
of  sin.  God  took  care  that  ordinarily  the  image  and 
the  thing  itself  were  perfectly  coincident,  although,  no 
doubt,  there  were  exceptions"  (Hengstenberg,  Christol. 
on  Jer.  xxxi,  39).     See  LTxcleanness. 

Literature. — Besides  the  above  notices  and  canons  on 
leprosy  given  in  the  Mischna,  tract  Ne(/aim ;  also  by  INIai- 
monides,  Yod  Ila-Chezaka  Hilchoth  Mechosse  Kajxini, 
cap.  iv,  and  Hilchoth  Tamaih  Tsoraoth ;  and  by  Kashi 
and  Pashbam,  Commentar.  on  Lev.  xiii,  xiv;  see,  among 
modern  Avriters,  Mead,  Medica  Sacra,  in  his  Medical 
Works  (Edinb.  1765),  iii,  160,  etc.;  Michaelis,  Laws  of 
Moses  (Lond.  1814),  iii,  257-305;  Mason  i\ooA,The  Study 
of  Medicine  (Lond.  1825),  v,  585  sq. ;  Schilling,  L)e  lepra 
Commentationes  (Lugd.  Bat.  1778);  Hensler,  J 'oni  abend- 
Idndischen  Aussatze  im  Mitielalter  (Hamb.  1790) ;  Jahn, 
Biblische  Archdolo(/ie  (Vienna,  1818),  I,  ii,  355  sq.;  Biihr, 
Symbolik  des  Moscnschen  Cultus  (Heidclb.  Is.'lO),  ii,  459 
sq.,  512  sq. ;  Sommer,  Biblische  Abharidlinnjen,  vol.  i 
(Bonn,  1846)  ;  I'runer,  Die  Krankheiten  des  Orients  (Er- 
lang.  1847),  p.  163  sq. ;  Trusen,  Die  Sitten,  Gebrauche  tmd 
Krankheiten  der  Allen  Ilebr.  (Bresl.  1833)  ;  Saalschlitz, 
Das  Mosai^che  Recht  (Berlin,  1853),  i,  217  sq.;  Keil, 
Ihmdbuch  der  Biblischen  A  rchaolofjie  (Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  1858),  i,  270  sq.,  288  sq. ;  Bonorden,  L^epra  squa- 
mosa (HaL  1795) ;  Lutz,  Le  avibus  purgat.  leprosi  (Hal. 


LE  QUIEX 


3V8 


LESLEY 


IT')?");  ■\Vithof,  De  Uprosariis  vet.  Ifebrworum  (Duisb. 
17,')ti):  Murray, Ni^tuiid  hprce  (Giitt.  1749);  J.Thomas. 
Ik-  lipra  Gra'cor.ct  JiidiFor.  (Basil.  1708);  Norberg,  Z'e 
hprn  A  rubum  (Lond.  I7!l()) ;  Hilan*,  Observ.  on  the  £>is- 
(((.sr.s-  of  Barbmhes  (Lond.  1769),  p.  326  .sq. ;  Sprengel, 
Pathol,  iii,  79-1-835;  Frank,  De  curandis  homin.  morUg, 
I.  ii,  476 ;  Scbnurrer,  in  the  Halle  Encyhlop.  vi,  451  sq. ; 
Itiist.  llandb.  d.  Chirurij.  ii,  581  sq. ;  Roussille-Chamseru. 
Ui  rlitrches  sur  le  veritable  Caractere  de  la  Lepre  des 
I/ebiiii.T,  and  Relation  Chirurr/.  de  VArviee  de  VOi'ient 
(Paris,  1804);  Cazcnave  and  Hchedel,  yl  i/%«  Pratique 
des  Maladies  de  la  Peau  ;  Aretreus,  Morb,  Chron.  ii,  13  ; 
Fracastorius,  De  Moi-bis  Contagiosis ;  Johajines  Manar- 
dus,  Epist.  Medic,  vii,  2,  and  to  iv,  3,  3,  §  1 ;  Avicenna, 
De  Medic,  v,  28,  §  19;  also  Dr.  Sim  in  tlie  North  Amer- 
ican  Chirm-gical  Review,  Sept.  1859,  p.  876  ;  Hecker,  Die 
Elephantiasis  oder  Lep)ra  Arabica  (Lchr,  1858) ;  also  the 
monographs  cited  by  Volbeding,  Index,  p.  42 ;  and  by 
Hase,  Leben  Jcsii,  p.  137.  The  ancient  authorities  are 
Hippocrates,  Proi-rhetica,  lib.  xii,  ap.  fin. ;  Galen,  Expli- 
catio  Une/uarum  Hippocratis,  and  De  A  rt.  Curat,  lib,  ii ; 
Cclsus.  De  Medic,  v,  28,  §  19.     See  Disease. 

Le  Quien,  Michael,  a  Dominican,  who  was  bom  at 
Boulogne  in  1661,  was  remarkable  for  bis  learning  in 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic,  and  in  Oriental  Church  His- 
tory. His  Joannis  Damasceni  opera  (Paris,  1712,  in  two 
folio  volumes)  is  a  superior  edition  of  that  father.  His 
most  important  work  is  Oriem  Christianus,  insiiper  et 
Africa,  an  account  of  the  churches,  patriarchs,  etc.,  of 
the  East  (3  vols.  8vo),  the  first  part  of  which  appeared 
before,  the  second  part  after  the  author's  death,  which 
took  place  at  the  convent  in  St.  Honore  in  1733. 

Lerins,  Convent  of,  one  of  the  oldest,  and  once 
one  of  the  most  important  monastic  establishments  in 
France,  is  situated  in  the  island  of  St.  Honore,  on  the 
coast  of  Provence,  opposite  Antibes.  The  legend  con- 
cerning its  origin  is  as  follows:  Honoratus,  a  man  of 
noble  descent,  and  who  had  even  been  once  consul,  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith,  together  with  his  brother,  in 
spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  liis  family.  They  first  re- 
lired  to  an  island  near  Marseilles,  but  Honoratus  after- 
wards went  back  to  Provence,  where  he  settled  at  Le- 
rins, under  the  protection  of  the  bishop  of  Fryus.  His 
re])utation  for  sanctity  induced  many  to  join  him,  and 
they  lived,  some  in  communities  {coenobites'),  others  as 
hermits  in  separate  cells.  It  was  the  time  when  raon- 
achism  was  lately  introduced  into  Europe  from  the  East, 
and  convents  were  arising  along  the  shores  of  the  ]Med- 
iterranean,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Italy  (Gallinara,  Gor- 
gona,  Capraja),  of  Dahnatia,  and  of  France.  Slartinus 
had  just  established  a  convent  at  Turonum,  whose  rules 
■were  adopted  in  those  that  were  established  by  Cassian. 
The  statement  that  the  Cassian  rules  were  first  intro- 
duced at  Lerins  is  therefore  erroneous.  Under  Honora- 
tus, who  was  aftero'ards  appointed  bishop  of  Aries,  the 
last-named  convent  made  rapid  progress.  Lerins  be- 
came one  of  the  most  important  schools  for  the  clergy 
of  Southern  Gaul,  and  furnished  a  large  number  of  bish- 
ops, among  whom  we  will  mention  Hiiarius  of  Aries  and 
Eucherius  of  Lyons:  at  that  time  monks  were  often 
made  bisliops.  In  the  5th  century  the  convent  became 
imbued  with  semi-1'elagiaii  ideas,  wliich  thence  spread 
into  Southern  France.  In  tlie  7tli  century  the  monks  of 
Lerins  seem  to  have  relaxed  in  their  obedience  to  their 
rule,  for  (iregory  wrote  to  the  abbot  Conon  inviting 
him  to  reform  their  morals.  This  reform  was  accom- 
plished by  a  Benedictine  abbot,  Aigulf,  but  only  after  a 
struggle  which  for  a  while  threatened  to  destroy  the 
convent,  the  opposition  party  going  so  far  as  to  call  in 
the  assistance  of  ncigbiioring  \ords,  and  murdering  the 
abbot  and  some  of  his  followers.  Still,  as  the  reform 
liad  been  inaugurated,  the  convent  resumed  its  former 
jirosperit}-,  and  in  the  beginnfng  of  the  8th  century'  its 
abbot  counted  3700  monks  mider  his  command.  Soon 
after,  however,  it  was  overrun  by  the  Saracens  from 
Spain ;  the  abbot  Porcarius,  in  prevision  of  this  event. 


sent  thirty-six  of  tlie  younger  monks  and  forty  children 
to  Italy,  while  be  and  those  who  remained  were  mur- 
dered, with  the  exception  of  four,  who  were  retained 
prisoners.  They  escaped  after  a  while,  and,  having  re- 
turned to  Lerins,  formed  the  nucleus  of  a  new  convent. 
In  997,  under  the  renowned  Odilo,  the  convent  once  more 
rose  to  eminence,  and  attained  its  greatest  fame  under 
Adalbert  (1030-1066).  Eaymvmd,  count  of  Barcelona, 
gave  the  monks  a  whole  convent  in  Catalonia,  and  they 
had  possessions  in  France,  Italy,  Corsica,  and  the  islands 
belonging  to  Italj\  A  nunnen,-  at  Tarascon,  established 
by  the  seneschal  of  Provence,  was  also  subject  to  their 
rule,  together  with  a  large  number  of  canonici  retfuhires, 
to  whom  the  abbot  Giraud  gave  two  churches  in  1226, 
under  the  condition  that  they  should  always  remain 
subject  to  the  rule  of  Lerins.  Their  prosperity  decreas- 
ing, the  abbot,  Augustin  Grimald,  afterwards  bishop  of 
Grasse,  connected  them  with  the  Benedictines  in  1505, 
and  this  fusion  received  in  1515  the  sanction  of  pope 
Leo  X  and  of  Francis  I.  In  1635  the  island  was  taken 
by  the  Spaniards,  who  retamed  it  until  1657;  and,  al- 
though the  convent  continued  to  exist,  it  lost  hence- 
forth all  its  importance.  SeeVincentius  Barralis,  Chro- 
nolofjium  Sanctorum  et  aliorum  clarorum  virorum  insu- 
la Lerinensis  (1613);  Abrege  de  VHistoii-e  de  I'Ordre  de 
S.  Benoist,  par  la  Congregation  de  St.Maur,  i,  215  sq., 
468  sq. ;  ii,  245 ;  Hist,  des  Ordres  Monastiqites,  i,  116  sq. 
— Herzog,  Rectl-EncyUojmdie,  viii,  333  sq. 

Lesbonax  (At o-/3wi'a^,  a  son  of  Potamon  of  IMyt- 
ilene,  a  philosopher  and  sophist,  lived  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus. He  was  a  pupil  of  Tiraocrates,  and  the  father 
of  Polemon,  who  is  known  as  the  teacher  and  friend  of 
Tiberius.  Suidas  says  that  Lesbonax  wrote  several  iihil- 
osophical  works,  but  does  not  mention  that  he  was  an 
orator  or  rhetorician,  although  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  is  the  same  person  as  the  Lesbonax  who  wrote 
fjeXtra'i  fJijTopiKai  and  ipwrtKai  t—t<Tro\ai  (see  Photius, 
Bibl.  cod.  74,  p.  52). — Smith,  Diet,  of  Greek  and  Roman 
Biograjihy,  ii,  772. 

Le'shem  (Heb.  id.  C;^?,  agent,  as  in  Exod.  xxviii, 
19,  etc, ;  Sept.  Aiaip  v.  r.  Aaxic),  a  city  in  the  northern 
part  of  Palestine  (Josh,  xix,  47) ;  elsewhere  called  La- 
ISH  (Judg.  xviii,  7).     See  Dan. 

Leshem.     See  Ligure. 

Lesley,  John,  a  very  celebrated  Scotch  prelate,  was 
born  in  1527,  and  was  educated  in  the  Laiiversity  of 
Aberdeen.  In  1547  he  was  made  canon  of  the  cathedral 
chiu-ch  of  Aberdeen  and  Murray,  and  after  this  he  trav- 
elled into  France,  and,  pursuing  his  studies  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Toulouse,  Poitiers,  and  I'aris,  finally  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  He  continued  abroad  till 
1554,  when  he  was  commanded  home  by  the  queen  re- 
gent, and  made  official  and  vicar  general  of  the  diocese 
of  Aberdeen ;  and,  entering  into  the  priesthood,  he  be- 
came parson  of  Une.  About  this  time,  the  Keformed 
doctrine,  beginning  to  spread  in  Scotland,  was  zeal- 
ously opposed  by  Lesley ;  and  at  a  solemn  dispute  be- 
tween the  Protestants  and  Papists,  held  in  1560  at  Ed- 
inburgh, Lesley  was  a  principal  chamjiion  on  the  side 
of  the  latter.  However,  this  was  so  far  from  putting  an 
end  to  the  divisions  that  they  daily  increased,  and,  occa- 
sioning many  disturbances  and  commotions,  both  parties 
agreed  to  invite  home  the  queen,  who  was  then  absent 
in  Franco.  On  this  errand  Lesley  was  employed  by  the 
Roman  Catholics,  and  made  such  dispatch  that  he  came 
to  Yitri.  where  queen  IMarj-  was  then  lamenting  the  death 
of  her  husband,  tlie  king  of  France,  several  days  before 
lord  James  Stuart,  sent  by  the  Protestants.  Having  de- 
livered to  her  his  credentials,  he  told  her  majesty  of  lord 
James  Stuart's  mission,  and  actually  succeeded  in  per- 
suading her  to  embark  with  him  for  Scotland.  Imme- 
diately upon  his  arrival  home  he  was  appointed  senator 
to  the  College  of  Justice  and  a  privy  councillor,  and  a 
short  time  after  was  presented  with  the  living  of  Lun- 
dores,  and,  upon  the  death  of  Sinclair,  was  made  bishop 


LESLIE 


379 


LESS-(IUS) 


of  Ross.  While  in  this  position  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  coun- 
try, and  secured  to  the  Scots  what  are  commonly  called 
'•the  black  acts  of  Parliament"  (ISGO).  During  the 
flight  of  queen  INIary  to  England  he  defended  her  cause 
against  the  Covenanters.  In  1579  he  was  made  suffra- 
gan bishop  and  vicar  general  of  Kouen,  in  Normandy, 
and,  after  persecution  and  imprisonment,  died  in  159(5. 
His  writings  are  not  of  particidar  interest  to  theological 
students.  See  AUibone,  Diet,  of  BritisK  and  A  merican 
A  ut/iors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Collier,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Enrjland  (see 
Index,  vol.  viii). 

Leslie,  Charle.s,  a  prominent  writer  in  the  politi- 
cal and  theological  controversies  of  the  17th  century, 
was  the  son  of  bishop  John  Leslie,  of  the  Irish  sees  of 
Kaphoe  and  Clogher,  and  was  born  in  Ireland  about 
1650,  and  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  His 
course  in  life  was  very  eccentric.  In  1671  he  went  to 
England  to  study  law,  but  in  a  few  years  turned  him- 
self to  divinity,  was  admitted  into  orders,  and,  settling 
in  Ireland,  became  chancellor  of  Connor.  He  was  living 
in  Ireland  at  the  time  of  the  lievolution,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  some  disputations  with  the  IJoman 
Catholics  on  the  side  of  the  Protestant  Church.  Though 
a  zealous  Protestant,  he  scrupled  to  renounce  his  alle- 
giance to  king  James,  and  to  acknowledge  king  William 
as  his  rightful  sovereign.  There  was  thus  an  end  to 
his  prospects  in  the  Church,  and,  leaving  Ireland,  he 
went  to  luigland,  and  there  employed  himself  in  writing 
many  of  his  controversial  works,  especially  those  on  the 
political  state  of  the  country.  When  James  II  was 
dead,  Leslie  transferred  his  allegiance  to  his  son,  the 
Pretender;  and,  as  he  made  frequent  visits  to  the  courts 
of  the  exiled  princes,  he  so  far  fell  under  suspicion  at 
home  that  he  thought  proper  to  leave  England,  and 
join  himself  openly  to  the  court  of  the  Pretender,  then 
at  Bar-le-Duc.  He  was  still  a  zealous  Protestant,  and 
had  in  that  court  a  private  chapel,  in  which  he  was  ac- 
customed to  officiate  as  a  minister  of  the  Protestant 
Church  of  England.  When  the  Pretender  removed  to 
Italy,  Leslie  accompanied  him  ;  but,  becoming  at  length 
sensible  of  the  strangeness  of  his  position,  a  Protestant 
clergyman  in  the  court  of  a  zealous  Roman  Catholic, 
and  age  coming  on,  and  with  it  the  natural  desire  of 
dying  in  the  land  which  had  given  liim  birth,  he  sought 
and  obtained  from  the  government  of  king  George  I,  in 
1721,  permission  to  return.  He  died  at  Glaslough,  in 
the  county  of  llonaghan,  in  1722.  Leslie's  writings  in 
the  political  controversies  of  the  time  were  all  in  sup- 
port of  high  monarchical  principles.  His  theological 
writings  were  controversial;  they  have  been  distributed 
into  the  six  following  classes:  those  against,  1,  the 
Quakers;  2,  the  Presbyterians;  3,  the  Deists;  4,  the 
Jews;  5,  the  Socinians;  and,  G,  the  Papists.  Some  of 
them,  especially  the  book  entitled  A  short  and  easy 
Method  with  the  Deists,  are  still  read  and  held  in  esteem. 
Towanls  the  close  of  his  life  he  collected  his  theological 
writings,  and  published  them  in  two  folio  volumes  (1721). 
They  were  reprinted  at  Oxford  (1832,  7  vols.  8vo).  His 
other  numerous  works  have  not  been  published  uniform- 
ly. Among  them  we  notice  A  View  of  the  Times,  their 
J'rincipks  and  Practices,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Lond.  1750,  6  vols. 
12mo):  —  The  Massacre  of  Glencoe  (Anon.,  Lond.  1703, 
4t()); — The  Axe  laid  to  the  Root  of  Christianity,  etc. 
(Lond.  1706,  4to)  : — Querela  temporum,  or  the  Danger  of 
the  Church  of  England  (Lond.  1695, 4to) : — A  Letter,  etc., 
against  the  sacramental  Test  (Lond.  1708,  4to) : — Answer 
to  the  Remarks  on  his  first  iJialogue  against  the  Socin- 
ians. Bayle  styles  him  a  man  of  great  merit  and  learn- 
ing, and  adds  that  he  was  the  lirst  who  wrote  in  Great 
Britain  against  the  fanaticism  of  Madame  Bourignon : 
his  books,  he  further  says,  are  much  esteemed,  and  es- 
pecially his  treatise  The  Snake  in  the  Crass.  Salmon 
observes  that  his  works  must  transmit  him  to  posterity 
as  a  man  thoroughly  learned  and  truly  pious.  Dr. 
Hickes  says  that  he  made  more  converts  to  a  sound 
faith  and  iioly  life  than  any  man  of  the  age  in  which  he 


lived;  that  his  consummate  learning,  attended  by  the 
lowest  humility,  the  strictest  piety  without  tlie  least 
tincture  of  narrowness,  a  conversation  to  the  last  degree 
lively  and  spirited,  yet  to  the  last  degree  innocent, 
made  him  the  delight  of  mankind.  See  Biog.  Brit. ; 
Enci/c.  Brit. ;  Jones,  Christ.  Biog. ;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ; 
Darling,  Cyclop.  Bibliog.  ii,  1825 ;  Allibone,  Bictioiun-y 
of  British  and  A  mei-ican  A  uthors^  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leslie,  John,  D.D.,  a  noted  prelate  of  the  Irish 
Church,  father  of  the  celebrated  Charles  Leslie,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  family,  and  born  in  the  north 
of  Scotland  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
and  was  educated  at  Aberdeen  and  at  Oxford.  Af- 
terwards he  travelled  in  Spain,  Italy,  Germany,  and 
France.  He  spoke  French,  Spanish,  and  Italian  with 
the  same  propriety  and  fluency  as  the  natives;  and  wa;; 
so  great  a  master  of  the  Latin  that  it  was  said  of  him 
when  in  Spain,  "  Solus  Lesleius  Latine  loquitur."  He 
continued  t^venty-two  years  abroad,  and  during  that 
time  was  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle,  and  in  the  expedition 
to  the  isle  of  Rlie  with  the  duke  of  Buckingham.  He 
was  all  along  conversant  in  courts,  and  at  home  was 
happy  in  that  of  Charles  I,  who  admitted  him  into  his 
privy  council  both  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  in  which 
stations  he  was  continued  by  Charles  II  after  the  Resto- 
ration. His  chief  preferment  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
was  the  bishopric  of  the  Orknej's,  whence  he  was  trans- 
lated to  Raphoe,  in  Ireland,  In  1633,  and  the  same  year 
sworn  a  privy  councillor  in  that  kingdom.  During  the 
Rebellion  he  openly  and  valiantly  espoused  the  cause 
of  his  royal  master,  and  after  the  Restoration  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  Clogher.  He  died  in  1671.  See  Cham- 
bers, Biog.  of  Eminent  Scotsmen,  s.  v. 

Less,  Gottfried,  a  noted  German  theologian  of 
the  Pietistic  school,  was  born  in  1736  at  Conitz,  in  West 
Prussia.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Baumgarten,  professor  of 
theology  at  Gottingen.  He  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Halle  and  Jena,  and  in  1762  became  court  preacher  at 
Hanover.  He  was  rather  a  practical  than  scholastic 
theologian,  and  was  inclined  both  to  Mysticism  and  Pi- 
etism. Less  was  author  of  a  work  on  the  authenticity, 
uncorrupted  preservation,  and  credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  has  been  translated  from  German  into 
English,  and  highly  commended  by  Michaelis  and 
Marsh.  It  is  not  .so  prolix  as  Lardner.  The  (ierman 
title  is  Betceis  der  Wahrheit  der  christlichen  Religion, 
(1768).  He  also  wrote  Ueher  die  Religion  (1786):  ■ — Ver- 
such  ehwr  praktischen  Dogmatik  (1779)  :  —  Christliche 
Moral  (1777). 

Less(ius),  Leoxiiard,  a  Jesuit  moralist,  was  born 
at  Brecht,  in  Brabant,  Oct.  1, 1554,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Leyden,  to  which,  after  a  two  years' 
stay  at  Rome,  he  was  called  as  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  in  1585.  The  pope  had  just  condemned 
seventy-six  propositions  of  Bajus,  whom  the  Jesuits,  dis- 
ciples of  Scotus,  had  attacked;  but  soon  Less  and  Hamel 
falling  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  Pelagianism,  the 
faculty,  after  due  remonstrance,  solemnly  condemned 
also  fifty-four  ]iropositions  contained  in  their  lectures. 
Still,  as  several  universities  of  note  were  inclined  to 
judge  moderately  of  Less's  heretical  tendency,  he  re- 
tained his  position,  and  remained  in  high  standing,  es- 
pecially with  his  order.  He  died  Jan.  5, 1623.  His  nu- 
merous and  well-written  essays  on  morals  partake  of 
the  sophistry  so  often  employed  in  his  order.  Among 
the  most  important,  we  notice  his  Libri  iv  dejustitia  et 
jure,  cetei'isque  virtutibus  cardinalibus,  often  reprinted 
since  1605  (last  edit.  Lugd.  1653,  folio),  with  an  appen- 
dix by  Theophile  Ra3-naud  pro  Leon.  Less,  de  licito  iisu, 
cequivocationum  et  mentulium  reservationum.  Also  the 
first  volume  of  his  0pp.  theol.  (Paris,  1651,  foL;  Antw. 
1720);  and  his  essays  De  libero  arbitrio,  De  providen- 
tia,  De  perfectionibus  divinis,  etc.  He  followed  the  sys- 
tem of  the  scholastic  moralists,  of  whom  Schrockh  (A'jV- 
chengesch.  seit  d.  Reform,  iv,  104)  says:  "They,  in  fact, 
continued  the  old  method  of  their  predecessors  since  the 


LESSER 


380 


LESSING 


13th  century,  in  so  far  as  that  branch  of  theology  was 
then  advanced,  i.  e.  treating  it  as  a  dependence  of  the 
dogmatic  sj'stem;  yet  they  differed  from  them  inas- 
nuieh  as  they  set  forth  their  views  in  large  works  of 
tlieir  own,  evinced  more  learning,  a  better  style,  and  a 
certain  regartl  for  the  times  in  which  they  lived.''  Less 
attacked  also  the  Protestant  Church  in  his  Consnltatio. 
gtite  Jides  et  I'elirjio  sit  capessenda  (Amstelod.  1609;  last 
edit.  1701).  His  chief  argument  was  that  that  Church 
did  not  exist  before  the  Reformation ;  he  was  triumph- 
antly answered  on  this  point  by  Balthasar  ]\Ieisner,  of 
Wittenberg  (f  162C),  in  his  Consnltatio  catholica  dejide 
Luthcrana  capessenda  et  Romano -])apistira  deserenda 
(l()"2o).  Still  Less  always  retained  the  highest  consider- 
ation in  his  Church,  was  even  reputed  to  work  miracles, 
and  was  finally  canonized.  See  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
^)a(/tV,  viii,  340 ;  Gieseler,  Kirchen  6'e«V;.  vol.  iii;  Linsen- 
mann,  Michael  Baius  (Tiib.  18G7). 

Lesser,  Friedrich  Ciikistian,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  ]\Iay  29, 1692,  at  Nordhausen.  \i\  early  life 
he  manifested  a  desire  for  the  knowledge  of  natural  his- 
torv,  and  m  this  department  he  afterwards  distinguished 
himself  greatly.  In  1712  he  entered  the  University  of 
Halle,  to  study  medicine,  but  soon  altered  his  plan,  and 
entered  on  the  study  of  theology,  by  the  advice  of  the 
learned  theological  professor  Francke.  He  finished  his 
theological  studies  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  and  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Church  in  his  native  city  in  1716;  in 
addition  to  it, he  assumed  in  1724  the  supervision  of  the 
Orphan  House.  In  1739  he  became  pastor  at  the  col- 
legiate church  of  St.  Martin,  and  in  1743  of  St.  Jacob's 
Church.  He  died  Sept,  17, 1754.  Besides  his  works  on 
natural  history,  in  some  of  which  he  endeavored  to  com- 
bine natural  history  with  theology,  e.  g.  Theology  of 
Stones  (Lithotheoloffia,  Hamh.  1735, 8 vo);  Theology  of 
Insects  (De  sapientia,  omnipotentia  et providentia  ex  par- 
iilrns  insectorum  coffnoscenda,  etc.,  Nordh.  1735, 8vo),  etc., 
he  left  productions  of  a  theological  character,  of  which 
a  complete  list  is  given  by  Doring  in  his  Gelthrt.  Theejl. 
Dtutschlands,  ii,  287  sq. 

Lessey,  Theophilus,  a  distinguished  English  AV(  s- 
leyan  minister,  was  born  in  Cornwall  April  7, 1787;  en- 
tered the  regidar  ministry  about  1808;  and  after  labor- 
ing with  great  ability  and  success  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  was  in  1839  made  president  of  the 
Conference,  and  died  June  10,  1841.  Mr.  Lessey  was 
one  of  the  most  eminent  preachers  and  eloquent  plat- 
form speakers  of  his  time,  and  was  the  familiar  friend 
of  James  Montgomery,  the  poet,  Richard  Watson,  and 
Hubert  Hall.  Many  instances  of  his  remarkable  elo- 
cpience  are  recorded,  and  many  souls  were  saved  bj'  his 
preaching. — Wakeley,  Heroes  of  Methodism,  p.  396 ;  Ste- 
vens, IJist.  of  Methodism  (see  Index).      (G.  L.  T.) 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  the  generator  of 
modern  Gorman  literature  of  the  18th  century,  both  sec- 
ular and  ecclesiastic,  declared  by  Macaulay  to  have  been 
''  beyond  dispute  the  first  critic  in  Europe,"  who  ''  in  the 
same  breath  convulsed  powerfully  both  the  dramatic 
and  theological  world,  and  by  Ins  critical  acuteness  has 
laid  hands  on  both,  and  has  produced  polemics  and  called 
forth  controversy  in  art  as  well  as  in  religion,  without 
having  left  behind  him  a  linished  system  in  either  de- 
(lartment,  indeed  without  having  been  a  professional 
jioet  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word,  or  a  professional 
theologian." 

Life. — Lessing  was  born  at  Kamcntz  (Camenz),  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  Jan.  22,  1729.  His  father  was  the  Prot- 
estant (Lutheran)  "pastor  primarius"  of  the  place,  and 
was  widely  noted  for  his  learning,  especially  in  the  his- 
torical department.  Designed  for  the  ministry,  young 
Lessing  was  trained  by  his  pious  jvirents  "  in  the  way  he 
should  go;"  and  he  was  not  sim[)ly  taught  what  he 
should  believe,  but  how  and  why  he  should  believe. 
Long  before  he  was  old  enough  to  be  sent  to  school  the 
youth  displayed  an  uncommon  desire  for  books.  After 
thorough  preparation  at  an  elementary  school,  he  en- 


tered at  the  age  of  twelve  the  high-school  at  Meissen, 
and  of  his  extraordinary  diligence  in  study  a  sufficient 
idea  may  be  formed  when  it  is  stated  that  while  there 
he  perused  a  number  of  classic  authors  besides  those 
which  entered  into  the  regular  course,  translated  the 
third  and  fourth  books  of  EncUd,  drew  up  a  history  of 
mathematics,  and,  on  taking  leave  of  it,  delivered  a  dis- 
course "  De  Mathematica  Barbarorum."  In  1746  he  was 
ready  to  proceed  to  the  university,  and,  as  his  parents 
liad  fondly  hoped,  to  enter  upon  the  studies  which  should 
fit  him  for  the  ministry  of  the  word  of  God.  His  moth- 
er, in  particular,  designed  that  her  Gotthold  Ephraim 
"  should  be  a  real  man  of  (lod." 

Like  an  earnest  and  artlent  student,  which  he  always 
proved  himself,  Lessing  now  devoted  his  time  to  all  the 
studies  which  that  university  encouraged,  except  the 
one  upon  which  the  family  hopes  were  set — theology; 
and  this  need  not  be  wondered  at,  if  we  will  but  glance 
for  a  moment  at  a  programme  of  the  lectures  in  the  four 
faculties  of  that  high-scliool  upon  Lessing's  entry.  In 
theology,  jurisprudence,  medicine,  and  philosophy  twen- 
ty-two lectures  were  delivered  weekly,  yet  the  names 
of  the  lecturers  were  prominent  only  in  the  last-named 
department ;  they  were  notably  obscure  in  that  of  the- 
ology. In  philosophy  Gottsched  was  lecturing  ujion  the 
early  Greek  philosophers,  Christ  upon  Horace  and  Ovid, 
.Tocher  upon  the  Reformation,  Winckler  upon  Epictetus, 
3Iuller  upon  logic.  May  upon  ethics,  and  Heinsius  upon 
rectihnear  and  spherical  trigonometry.  Ernesti,  the  fu- 
ture noted  theologian,  was  yet  lecturing  in  the  depart- 
ment of  ancient  literature,  and  it  was  by  his  direct  and 
jjermanent  influence,  as  well  as  by  the  exertions  of  pro- 
fessor Christ,  that  Lessing  was  led  to  enter  upon  the  pro- 
found philological  studies,  which  finalh'  resulted  in  such 
great  service  to  classical  literature  and  art.  Thrown 
into  company  with  IMylius,  an  old  schoolmate  of  his, 
and  an  ardent  advocate  of  the  stage  as  a  means  of  moral 
reform,  and  other  auditors  of  professor  Kiistner,  who  was 
then  lecturing  on  dramatic  art,  Lessing  acquired  a  de- 
cided taste  for  the  theatre,  and  ■was  tinally  led  to  aban- 
don his  classical  studies  altogether,  not  only  devoting 
himself  more  fully  to  this  one  study,  but  actually  com- 
ing to  entertain  the  thought  of  going  on  the  stage  him- 
self. His  conduct  greatly  displeased  his  parents  and  his 
sister,  who  warned  him  against  it  as  being  not  merely 
trifling,  but  sinful.  But  Lessing  continued  in  his  course. 
Driven  further,  also,  by  the  announcement  that  the  fam- 
ily could  contribute  no  allowance  for  his  sujiport  except 
with  extreme  difficulty,  he  determined  to  shift  for  him- 
self, and  decided  for  his  subsistence  hereafter  to  devote 
his  talents  to  poetry,  criticism,  and  belles-lettres,  as  that 
field  of  literature  which  had  been  least  of  all  cultivated 
by  his  countrymen,  and  where,  besides  having  fe\v  rivals, 
he  might  employ  his  pen  with  greater  advantage  to  oth- 
ers as  well  as  to  himself.  His  first  productions  were  one 
or  two  minor  dramatic  pieces,  which  were  printed  in  a 
journal  entitled  Ermnntei'iuu/en  ziim  Ver(piiir/en,  In  the 
meanwhile  the  gossip  about  his  relation  to  the  ungodly 
Mylius,  who  had  by  this  time  become  his  most  intimate 
associate,  spread,  and  reached  the  ears  of  his  aged  par- 
ents. Desperate  measures  only  could  secure  his  return 
to  the  parental  hearthstone.  IMadame  Lessing  was  over- 
whelmed with  grief;  her  (iotthold  Ephraim  must  be  re- 
stored to  her  innnediate  influence,  or  he  would  forever 
be  lost  to  the  Church  and  the  blessings  of  religion,  and 
for  once  the  end  should  justify  the  means.  Accordingly, 
the  youthful  sinner  was  written  to:  "On  receipt  of  this, 
start  at  once ;  your  mother  is  dying,  and  wishes  to  speak 
to  you  before  her  death."  Of  course,  no  sooner  had  the 
letter  reached  Lessing  than  we  find  him  starting  for  the 
little  country  to\vn.  His  personal  appearance  and  as- 
surances of  his  good  intentions,  both  as  a  Christian  and 
an  obedient  son,  soon  quieted  the  disconsolate  jiarents, 
and  he  was  suffered  once  more  to  return  to  Leipsic. 
From  this  place  he  removed  in  1750  to  Berlin — the  home 
of  freethinkers,  whither  the  arch-atheist  Mylius  had  pre- 
ceded him  some  time — certainly  not  a  very  comforting 


LESSING 


381 


LESSING 


turn  in  his  personal  history  for  his  well-nigh  despairing 
parents. 

Lessing  was  now  t^venty  years  of  age.  He  had  no 
money,  no  recommendations,  no  friends,  scarcely  any  ac- 
quaintances— nothing  but  his  cheerful  courage,  his  con- 
fidence in  his  own  powers,  and  the  discipline  acquired 
through  past  privations.  He  was  so  poor  that  he  was 
unable  to  obtain  even  the  decent  clothing  necessary  to 
make  a  respectable  appearance.  He  applied  for  aid  to 
his  parents,  but  they  neither  felt  able  nor  willing  to  grant 
his  recpiest,  and  he  had  no  other  course  open  to  him  but 
to  throw  himself  upon  the  influence  and  resources  of  his 
old  schoolmate,  INIylius,  who  was  now  editing  a  paper  in 
Berlin.  By  this  friend's  exertions,  oftentimes  not  stop- 
ping short  of  real  sacrifices,  Lessing  managed  to  exist. 
Master  of  English,  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish,  he  found 
work  in  translating  from  these  languages,  while  he  also 
contributed  largely  to  different  literary  journals  of  the 
Prussian  metropolis.  Gradually  he  was  introduced  to 
the  notice  of  the  scholars  of  the  citj",  among  them  Men- 
delssohn, the  Jewish  philosopher,  and  Nicolai,  the  noted 
publisher  and  author  of  works  of  value  in  the  depart- 
ment of  secular  German  literature.  Indeed,  the  associa- 
tion of  Mendelssohn  the  Jew,  and  Lessing  the  Chris- 
tian, has  perhaps  had  greater  influence  on  the  position 
which  Lessing  assumed  in  after  life  than  any  he  had 
with  other  persons.  Both  were  j-et  young  rpen.  The 
former  had  come  to  Berlin  from  Dessau  in  indigent  cir- 
cumstances, ignorant  of  the  German  language,  but  de- 
termined, nevertheless,  to  rise  above  his  condition,  and 
to  master  not  only  the  German,  Latin,  and  English,  but 
also  the  intricate  subject  of  philosophy ;  and  in  this  at- 
tempt he  hail  so  wcU  succeeded  that  at  the  first  meethig 
of  Lessing  and  IMendelssohn,  in  1751,  the  latter  was  al- 
ready acknowledged  a  man  of  superior  ability  and  a 
scholar.  They  recognised  in  each  other  qualities  that 
could  well  be  used  vniitedly  for  the  good  of  humanity, 
and  they  soon  were  content  only  when  in  each  other's 
society.  For  two  hours  every  day  regularly  they  met 
and  discussed  together  literary  and  philosophical  sub- 
jects. Lessing  came  to  comprehend  the  truth  that  vir- 
tue, honor,  and  nobility  of  character  coiUd  be  found  in  the 
Jew  also,  which  the  people  of  his  day,  led  by  a  narrow- 
minded  clergy,  were  prone  to  disbelieve:  and  this  gave 
rise  first  to  his  important  play  entitled  iJie  Judcn,  and 
later  to  his  chef-d'oeuvre,  Xfit/ia7i  der  Weise  (transL  by 
j;ilen  Frothingham,  N.Y.  1871, 12mo,  with  which  compare 
the  essays  by  Ktmo  Fischer  [Mannheim,  18G5]  and  David 
Strauss  [Berlin,  1866, 8vo,  2d  ed.],  and  Griitz,  Gesc/i.der 
Juden,  xi,  35  sq.;  also  the  works  on  German  literature  at 
the  end  of  this  article).  Near  the  close  of  1751  Lessing 
decided  to  return  once  more  to  the  university,  and  this 
time  chose  Wittenberg,  to  penetrate  into  '•  the"  innermost 
sanctuary  of  book-worm  erudition."  For  nearly  a  year 
he  here  gave  himself  up  to  the  study  of  jjhilology  and 
history,  especially  that  of  the  Reformation  and  the  Re- 
formers. His  reputation  as  a  critic  grew  daily,  and  in 
five  years  after  his  first  entry  at  Berlin  lie  was  counted 
among  the  most  eminent  literati  of  the  Prussian  capital. 
Even  at  this  early  age  Lessing  had  ventured  into  the 
whole  circle  of  a;sthetic  and  literary  interests  of  the  day, 
never  faiUng  to  bring  their  essential  points  into  notice, 
and  subjecting  them  to  an  exhaustive  treatment,  not- 
withstanding the  fragmentary  form  of  the  composition, 
while  in  point  of  style  he  had  already  attained  an  apt- 
ness and  elegance  of  language,  a  facile  grace  and  sport- 
ive humor  of  treatment,  sucli  as  few  writers  of  that  day 
had  even  dreamed  of.  "  His  manner  lent  enchantment 
to  the  dryest  subjects,  and  even  the  dullest  books  gained 
interest  from  his  criticisms."  It  was  during  his  sojourn 
at  Berlin  that,  with  his  and  Mendelssohn's  assistance, 
Nicolai  (q.v.)  started  the  Lihrury  of  Polite  Literat.  (1757) 
and  the  Unicersal  (.'ennmi  Library  (1765).  (See  Hurst's 
Hagenbach,  Ck.  Iligf.  mh  and  19/A  Cent.  i.  278,  307.) 

In  1760  the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Berlin  honored 
itseh  by  conferring  membership  on  Lessing,  and  shortlv 
alter  a  somewhat  lucrative  position  fell  to  his  lot  i'n 


Breslau,  whither  he  at  once  removed,  and  where  he  re- 
mained five  years.  It  is  in  this,  the  chief  city  of  Silesia, 
that  most  of  Lessing's  valuable  contributions  to  the  de- 
partment of  general  literature  were  prepared.  After  a 
short  visit  to  his  parents,  Lessing  returned  in  1765  to 
Berlin,  then  removed  to  Hamburg,  and  iu  1770  finally 
started  for  Wolfenblittel,  to  assume  the  duties  of  libra- 
rian to  the  duke  Frederick  ^^'illiam  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick, a  position  congenial  to  his  taste,  and  here  he  re- 
mained until  his  death,  Feb.  15, 1781. 

Theolof/ical  Position. — We  here  consider  Lessing  as  a 
writer  and  thinker  of  the  18th  centuiy,  but  in  so  far  only 
as  the  works  which  he  published,  both  his  own  produc- 
tions and  those  that  were  sent  forth  with  his  approval, 
affected  the  theological  world  in  his  day  and  since,  more 
especially  in  Germany.  Originally  intended  for  the 
pulpit,  Lessing  suddenly  came  to  entertain  the  belief 
that  morality,  which  to  him  was  only  a  synonym  of  re- 
ligion, should  be  taught  not  only  from  the  puljiit,  but 
also  on  the  stage.  Germany,  in  his  day,  was  altogeth- 
er Frenchified.  "  We  are  ever,"  said  he  himself,  '•  the 
sworn  imitators  of  everything  foreign,  and  especially 
are  we  humble  admirers  of  the  never  sufficiently  ad- 
mired French.  Everything  that  comes  to  us  from  over 
the  Khine  is  fair,  and  charming,  and  beautilul,  and  di- 
vine. We  rather  doubt  our  senses  than  doubt  this. 
Rather  woidd  we  persuade  ourselves  that  roughness  was 
freedom;  license,  elegance;  grimace,  expression ;  a  jingle 
of  rhymes,  poetry;  and  shrieking,  music,  than  entertain 
the  slightest  misgiving  as  to  the  superiority  which  that 
amiable  people,  that  first  people  in  the  world  (as  they 
modestly  term  themselves),  have  the  good  fortune  to 
possess  in  eventhing  which  is  becoming,  and  beautiful, 
and  noble."  Such  had  been  the  doctrines  taught  by  the 
great  rider  Frederick  II  himself,  and  no  wonder  the  peo- 
ple soon  fell  into  the  frivolous  ways  of  the  French ;  and, 
as  the  literature  is  said  to  be  the  index  of  a  people, 
we  need  feel  no  surprise  at  Lessing's  great  onslaught 
on  Gottsched  and  his  followers  while  yet  a  student  of 
the  university  in  which  this  leader  of  the  school  of 
French  taste  held  a  j  n.f^ssorship.  Nor  must  it  be  for- 
gotten that  the  history  of  literature  stands  in  unmis- 
takable connection  with  the  history  of  the  thinking 
and  struggling  intellect  generally,  and  consequently, 
also,  with  the  historj'  of  rehgion  and  philosophy.  One 
is  reflected  in  the  other.  The  uifluence  of  the  vapid 
spirit  of  French  literature  of  the  age  of  Voltaire  was 
transferred  to  (ierman  ground,  and  soon  the  fruits  be- 
came apparent  in  the  general  spread  of  French  illumin- 
ism  (q.  V.)  and  a  sort  of  hmnanism.  See  Rousseau. 
The  great  German  philosopher  Wolf,  following  closely 
in  the  footsteps  of  Leibnitz,  had  sought  to  check  this 
rapid  flow  of  the  Germans  towards  infidelity  by  a  sys- 
tem of  philosophy  that  shoidd  lay  securely  the  foiuida- 
tions  for  religion  and  moralitj',  '-fully  persuaded  that 
the  so-called  natural  religion,  which  he  .  . .  expected  to 
be  attained  by  the  efforts  of  reason,  and  which  related 
more  to  the  belief  in  God  and  in  immortality  than  to 
anything  else,  would  become  the  very  best  stepping- 
stone  to  the  temple  of  revealed  religion"  (Hagenbach, 
C/i.  Ilist.  IHth  and  19th  Cent,  i,  78).  Indeed,  the  theolo- 
gians themselves  sought  to  prove,  by  the  malhcmatioal, 
demonstrative  method,  the  truth  of  the  doctrines  of  rev- 
elation, and  the  fiilsity  of  infidelity,  forgetting  altogether 
the  great  fact  tliat  '"that  sharp  form  of  thought  which 
bends  itself  to  mathematical  formulas  is  not  for  every 
man,  least  of  all  for  the  great  mass ;"  and  had  it  not  been 
for  the  influence  which  pietism  was  exerting  in  the  18th 
century  upon  orthodox  Christianity,  the  latter  must 
have  suffered  beyond  even  the  most  ardent  expectations 
of  the  most  devoted  German  Yoltaireans.  As  it  was, 
even,  there  gradually  arose  a  shallow  theology,  destitute 
of  ideas,  and  limited  to  a  few  moral  commonjilaccs,  known 
under  the  name  of  neoloyy  (q.  v.),  which,  at  tlie  time  of 
Lessing's  appearance,  controlled  the  German  mind.  Sec 
Semleu.  An  active  thinker  like  Lessing.  who,  when  yet 
a  youth,  could  write  to  his  father  that  "  the  Christian 


LESSING 


382 


LESSING 


religion  is  not  a  thing  whioli  one  can  accept  upon  the 
word  and  honor  of  a  parent,"  but  that  the  way  to  tlie 
possession  of  the  truth  is  for  him  only  '-who  has  once 
wisely  doubted,  and  by  the  ]iiUh  of  inquiry  attained  con- 
viction, or  at  least  striven  to  attain  it,"  such  a  one  was 
not  liicely  to  remain  passive  in  this  critical  period  of  the 
history  of  thouglit.    Unfortunately,  however,  the  mature 
Les.sing  had  sliifted  from  the  position  of  the  youthful 
in(iuirer,  and,  instead  of  accepting  the  truth  when  at- 
tained by  conviction,  he  had  come  to  believe  that  truth 
is  never  to  be  accepted.     "  It  is  not  the  truth  of  which 
a  man  is,  or  thinks  he  is,  in  possession  that  measures 
the  worth  of  the  man,  but  the  honest  eftbrt  he  has  made 
to  arrive  at  the  truth ;  for  it  is  not  the  possession  of 
truth,  but  the  search  for  it,  that  enlarges  those  powers 
in  which  an  ever-growing  capacity  consists.    Possession 
satisties,  enervates,  corrupts."     "  If  God,"  he  says,  "  held 
ail  truth  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left  hand  nothing 
but  the  ever-restless  instinct  for  truth,  though  with  the 
condition  of  forever  and  ever  erring,  and  should  say  to 
mc.  Choose,  I  Avould  bow  reverently  to  his  left  hand 
and  say,  Father,  give;  pure  truth  is  for  thee  alone!" 
Thus,  forgetting  altogether  that  Christianity  is  not  a 
striving  after  truth,  but  possession  of  the  truth,  Lessing 
became  unconsciously  one  of  the  greatest  promoters  of 
liationalism  in  its  worst  form  (corny).  lluTSt,IJ istori/  of 
Ihitioiudisiii,  p.  147, 149).     We  say  Lessing  imconsciously 
became  the  promoter  of  Uationalism ;  for,  with  Dorner 
(^Gesch.  (/.  Protest.  Theol.  p.  731),  we  believe  that  his  ob- 
ject was  not  to  write  against  religion,  but  against  theol- 
ogy ;  not  against  Christianity,  but  onlj'  against  the  poor 
proofs  that  were  advanced  in  its  behalf.     Indeed,  his 
own  words  on  Diderot's  labors  condemn  the  charge  so 
often  brought  against  Lessing,  that  he  was  an  outright 
opponent  of  Christianity,  a  pure  deist,  and  nothing  more. 
In  reviewing  one  of  Diderot's  works,  he  says :  "A  short- 
sighted dof/matisf,  u-ho  avoids  nothing  so  carefully  as  o 
doubt  of  the  niemorial  maxims  that  make  his  system,  will 
fjather  a  host  of  errors  from  this  worh     Our  author  is 
one  of  those  philosophers  who  give  themselves  more 
trouble  to  raise  clouds  than  to  scatter  them.    Wherever 
the  fatal  glance  of  their  eyes  fall,  the  pillars  of  the  firm- 
est truth  totter,  and  that  which  ^ve  have  seemed  to  see 
quite  clearly  loses  itself  in  the  dim,  uncertain  distance ; 
instead  of  leading  us  by  twilight  colonnades  to  the  lumin- 
ous throne  of  tnith,  they  lead  lis  by  the  ways  of  fancied 
splendor  to  the  dusky  throne  of  falsehood.     Suppose, 
then,  such  philosophers  dare  to  attack  opinions  that  are 
sacred.     The  danger  is  small.     The  injury  which  their 
dreams,  or  realities — the  thing  is  one  with  them — inflict 
npon  society  is  as  small  as  tliat  is  great  which  they  in- 
flict who  would  bring  the  consciences  of  all  imder  the 
yoke  of  their  own." 

While  librarian  of  Wolfenblittel,  Lessing  discovered 
there  a  IMS.  co])y  of  the  long-forgotten  work  of  Berengar 
Ol.  V.)  of  Tours  against  l-,anfranc  ((j.  v. \  which  proved 
t  hat  some  of  the  views  of  the  Lutheran  Church  concern- 
ing the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  had  already  been  ad- 
vanced by  one  of  the  most  eminent  teachers  of  the  11th 
centurj-.  Here  was  an  evident  service  to  theologj',  and 
for  it  he  was  commended  bj'  the  theological  world.  Not 
so,  however,  when,  with  the  same  intent  to  serve,  he  sent 
forth  a  work  which  for  years  had  been  waiting  for  a 
printer  and  an  e(Utor.  It  is  true  the  work  was  of  de- 
cided infidel  tendency,  but  Lessing  never  could  hesitate 
on  that  account  to  give  to  the  world  what  had  been  in- 
tended fur  its  perusal  and  judgment,  and  he  therefore 
sent  forth  "the  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments,''  as  they  are 
termed,  in  his  Beilriiye  zur  Gesch.  der  Liferatur  (1774- 
1778),  which  treat,  1,  of  the  tolerance  of  tlie  Deists;  2,  of 
the  accusations  brought  against  human  reason  in  the 
pulpit;  3,  of  the  imiK)Ssibility  of  a  revelation  \vhich  all 
men  could  believe  in  in  the  same  manner;  4,  of  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Israelites  through'the  lied  Sea?  5,  of  the  O. 
Test,  not  having  been  written  with  the  intention  of  re- 
vealing a  religion ;  G,  of  the  history  of  the  resurrection. 
The  last  essay,  especially,  called  forth  a  storm  of  oppo- 


sition, but  this  did  not  prevent  Lessing's  publishing  in 
1778  a  final  essay  on  the  object  of  Jesus  and  of  the  apos- 
tles.    With   the  views  of  these  fragments,  however, 
Lessing  by  no  means  himself  coincided.     See  AVolfen- 
BUTTEL  Fkagmknts.     They  were  intended  simply  to 
induce  deeper  researches  on  the  part  of  theologians,  and 
to  establish  a  more  stringent  system  of  criticism.     He 
desired  to  raise  from  a  deep  lethargj-,  and  to  purify  from 
all  imcritical  elements,  the  orthodox  whom  he  had  so 
valiantly  defended  against  neology,  and  proved  that  this 
was  his  intention  by  the  manner  in  which  he  opposed 
the  attempt  of  the  nationalists  to  substitute  the  intui- 
tions of  reason  for  the  dictates  of  the  heart  and  for  the 
promptings  of  faith.     "  What  else,"  he  asks,  "  is  this 
modern  theologj'^  when  compared  with  orthodoxy  than 
filthy  water  with  clear  water?     With  orthodoxy  we 
had,  thanks  to  God,  pretty  much  settled ;  between  it  and 
philosophy  a  barrier  had  been  erected,  behind  which 
each  of  these  could  walk  in  its  own  waj'  without  mo- 
lesting the  other.     But  what  is  it  that  they  are  now 
doing?     They  pull  down  this  barrier,  and,  under  the 
pretext  of  making  us  rational  Christians,  they  make  us 
most  irrational  j)hilosophe7-s.    In  this  ^^•e  agree  that  our 
old  religious  sj-stem  is  false,  but  I  should  not  like  to  say 
with  you  [he  is  writing  to  his  brother]  that  it  is  a  patch- 
work got  up  by  jugglers  and  scmiphilosophcrs.    I  do  not 
knovi'  of  anything  m  the  world  in  which  human  inge- 
nuity has  more  shown  and  exercised  itself  than  in  it.    A 
patchwork  by  jugglers  and  scmiphilofophcrs  is  that  re- 
ligious sj-stem  which  they  would  put  in  the  place  of  the 
old  one,  and,  in  doing  so,  would  pretend  to  more  rational 
philosophy  than  the  old  one  claims."     When  assailed 
by  Gcitzc  (q.  V.)  as  attacking  the  faith  of  the  Church  by 
his  publication  of  the  Fragments,  he  replied  that,  even  if 
the  Fragmcntists  were  right,  Christianity  was  not  there- 
by endangered.    Lessing  rejected  the  letter,  but  reserved 
the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures.     With  him  the  letter  is  not 
the  spirit,  and  the  Bible  is  not  religion.     "Consequent- 
ly, objections  against  the  letter,  as  well  as  against  the 
Bible,  are  not  precisely  objections  against  the  spirit  and 
religion.     For  the  Bible  evidently  contains  more  than 
belongs  to  religion,  and  it  is  a  mere  supposition  that,  in 
this  additional  matter  which  it  contains,  it  must  be 
equally   infallible.     Moreover,  religion   existed  before 
there  was  a  Bible.     Christianity  existed  before  evan- 
gelists and  apostles  had  written.    However  much,  there- 
fore, may  depend  upon  those  Scriptures,  it  is  not  possi- 
ble that  the  whole  truth  of  the  Christian  religion  should 
depend  upon  them.     Since  there  existed  a  period  in 
which  it  was  so  far  spread,  in  which  it  had  already 
taken  hold  of  so  many  souls,  and  in  which,  neverthe- 
less, not  one  letter  was  written  of  that  which  has  come 
down  to  us,  it  must  be  possible  aleo  that  everything 
which  evangelists  and  prophets  have  written  might  be 
lost  again,  and  yet  the  religion  taught  by  them  stand. 
The  Christian  religion  is  not  true  because  the  evange- 
lists and  apostles  taught  it,  but  they  taught  it  because 
it  is  true.     It  is  from  their  internal  truth  that  all  writ- 
ten documents  cannot  give  it  internal  truth  when  it  has 
none"  (Lessing's  Werlce,  ed.  by  Lachmann,  x,  10,  as  cited 
by  Kahnis,  Hist,  of  German  Protestantism,  p.  152, 153). 
Lessing  also  distinguished  between  the  Christian  relig- 
ion an<l  the  religion  of  Christ;  "the  latter,  being  a  life 
immediately  implanted  and  maintained  in  our  heart, 
manifests  itself  in  love,  and  crai  neither  stand  nor  fall 
with  the  [facts  of  the]  Gospel.     The  truths  of  religion 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  facts  of  historj'"  (Hurst, 
Rationalism,  p.  154).     "Althougli  I  may  not  have  the 
least  objection  to  the  facts  of  the  Gospel,  this  is  not  of 
the  slighest  consequence  for  my  religious  convictions. 
Although,  historically,  I  may  have  nothing  to  object  to 
Christ's  having  even  risen  from  the  dead,  must  I  for 
that  reason  accept  it  as  true  that  this  very  risen  Christ 
was  the  Son  of  God?"     Scripture  stands  in  the  same 
relation  to  the  Church  as  the  plan  of  a  large  building  to 
the  building  itself.     It  woidd  be  ridiculous  if,  at  a  con- 
flagration, people  were  first  of  all  to  save  the  jilan ;  but 


LESSING 


383 


LESSING 


just  as  ridiculous  is  it  to  fear  any  clanger  to  Christianity 
from  an  attack  upon  Scripture.  In  liis  Diiplix  Lessing 
maintained,  in  reference  to  tlic  history  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, tliat  it  contains  irreconcilable  contradictions ;  but 
he  held  also  that  it  does  not  follow  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  resurrection  is  unhistorical.  "Wlio  has  ever 
ventured  to  draw  the  same  inference  in  profane  history? 
If  Livy,  Polybius,  Dionysius,  and  Tacitus  relate  the  very 
same  event,  it  may  be  the  very  same  battle,  the  very 
same  siege,  each  one  differing  so  mucli  in  the  details 
that  those  of  the  one  completely  give  the  lie  to  those  of 
the  other,  has  any  one,  i'or  that  reason,  ever  denied  the 
event  itself  in  which  thej'  agree  ?" 

Such  are  the  thoughts  which  Lessing  advanced  in 
his  theological  polemical  writings,  particularly  in  the 
controversy  with  pastor  Gotze  after  the  ]Hiblication  of 
the  so-called  "  WolfenbiUtel  Fragments,"  but  to  present 
from  them  a  connected  theological  system  strictly  de- 
liuiiig  Lessing's  stand-point  has  not  yet  been  made  pos- 
sible. Indeed,  we  would  say  with  Hagenbach  (Church 
Hist.  ofiSth  and  19/A  Cent.'i,  288)  that  "he  had  none." 
But  just  as  much  difficulty  we  woidd  find  in  assigning 
Lessing  a  place  anywhere  in  any  theological  system  of 
thought  already  in  vogue.  Eeally,  we  think  all  that 
can  be  done  for  Lessing  is  to  consider  in  how  far  his 
writings  justify  the  disposition  that  has  been  made  of 
him  as  a  theological  writer.  There  are  at  present  three 
different  classes  of  theologians  who  claim  him  as  their 
ally  and  support.  By  some  he  has  been  judged  to  have 
hold  the  position  of  a  rather  positive,  though  not  exact- 
ly orthodox  character.  This  judgment  is  based  upon 
liis  views  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  in  his  Erziehung 
des  Menschenr/eschkcktes.  (He  there  says:  "What  if  this 
doctrine  [of  the  Trinity]  should  lead  human  reason  to 
acknowledge  that  God  cannot  possibly  be  understood  to 
bo  one,  m  that  sense  in  which  all  finite  things  are  one? 
that  his  unity  must  be  a  transcendental  unity,  which 
does  not  exclude  a  kind  of  plurality,"  evidently  explain- 
ing the  Trinity  as  referring  to  the  essence  of  the  Deity.) 
By  others,  either  in  praise  or  condemnation,  he  has  been 
adjudged  a  "freethinker;"  while  still  others  have  pro- 
nounced him  guilty  not  only  of  a  change  of  opinion — of 
a  change  from  the  camp  of  orthodoxy  to  heterodoxy — 
but  have  also  given  him  up  in  despair,  as  incapable  of 
having  cherished  any  positive  opinion,  because  he  was 
so  many-sided  in  his  polemics ;  indeed,  he  had  himself 
explicitly  declared  that  he  preferred  the  search  for  the 
possession  of  the  truth.  The  first  to  break  a^vay  from 
one  and  all  of  these  classifications  has  been  Dr.  J.  A. 
"  Dorner  (^Gesch.  der  protest.  Theol.  [Munich,  18G7,  8vo], 
p.  722  sq.),  who  assigns  Lessing  a  position  similar  to 
that  generally  credited  to  Jacobi,  the  so-called  "philos- 
ojiher  of  faith"  (see  Jacobi),  and  for  this  there  is  cer- 
tainly much  in  favor  in  Lessing's  own  declarations ;  for, 
like  Jacobi,  he  held  that  reason  and  faith  have  nothing 
in  conriict  with  each  other,  but  are  one.  He  held  fast, 
likewise,  to  a  self-conscious  personal  God  of  providence, 
to  a  living  relation  of  the  divine  spirit  to  the  world,  to 
whom  a  place  belongs  in  the  inner  revelation,  notwith- 
standing that  he  assails  the  outer  revelation  in  its  his- 
torical credibility,  and  assigns  it  simply  a  place  in  the 
faith  of  authority  (Autoritiitsglauben).  "  It  is  true," 
says  Dorner  (p.  737),  "Lessing  has  particularly  aimed 
to  secure  for  the  purely  human  and  moral  a  jjlace  right 
by  the  side  of  that  general!}'  assigned  only  to  Christi- 
anity. But  lie  is  far  from  asserting  tliat  the  understand- 
ing (Vernunft)  of  humanity  was  from  the  beginning  per- 
fect, or  even  in  a  normal  development,  but  rather  holds 
it  to  be  developing  in  character,  and  in  need  of  educa- 
tion by  the  divine  Spirit,  whom  also  he  refuses  to  regard 
as  a  passive  beholder  of  the  acting  universe."  (We  have 
here  a  number  of  premises,  which  later  writers,  partic- 
ularly Schleiermacher,  have  taken  to  secure  for  histor- 
ical religion  a  more  worthy  position.)  Indeed,  right 
here,  in  the  attempt  to  make  humanity  progressive,  and 
this  progress  dependent  upon  revelation,  centred  the 
whole  of  Lessing's  theological  views.    "To  the  reason," 


he  said,  "  it  must  be  much  rather  a  proof  of  the  truth 
of  revelation  than  an  objection  to  it  when  it  meets  with 
things  that  suri)ass  its  own  conceptions,  for  what  is  a 
revelation  wliich  reveals  nothing?"  (Comp.  Hegel  on 
this  point  as  viewed  by  Hagenbach,  Ch.  Hist,  of  18th 
and  19//*  Cent,  ii,  30-1  sq.)  Thus  he  acknowledged  the 
truth  of  revelation,  though  he  woukl  not  regard  the  idea 
of  a  revelation  as  settled  for  all  time,  but  rather  as  (iod's 
gradual  act  of  training ;  and  to  elucidate  this  thought 
he  wrote,  in  1780,  iJle  Krzieltung  des  Menschencjeschlechtes 
(the  authorship  of  which  has  sometimes  been  denied 
him  :  comp.  Zeitsehr.  f.  d.  hist,  theol.  1839,  No.  3  ;  Guh- 
rauer,  Erziehung  des  Menschengeschlechtes  kritisch  und 
jihilosophisch  erortert  [Berlin,  18-H]),  a  work  in  which, 
concentrated  in  a  hundred  short  paragraphs,  is  a  system 
of  religion  and  philosophy — the  germ  of  Herder's  and 
all  later  works  on  the  education  of  the  human  race. 
"  Something  there  is  of  it,"  says  a  writer  in  the  West- 
minster Rev.  (Oct.  1871,  p.  222,  223), "that  reminds  the 
reader  of  Plato.  It  has  his  tender  melancholy  and  his 
undertone  of  Inspired  conviction,  and  a  grandeur  which 
recalls  that  moving  of  great  figures  and  shifting  of  vast 
scenes  which  we  behold  in  the  myth  of  Er.  There 
speaks  in  it  a  voice  of  one  crying  words  not  his  own  to 
times  that  are  not  yet  come." 

The  English  Deists,  as  Bolingbroke  and  Hobbcs,  had 
regarded  religion  only  from  the  stand-point  of  politics. 
"  Man,"  they  held,  "  can  know  nothing  except  what  his 
senses  teach  him,  and  to  this  the  intelligent  confine 
themselves ;  a  revelation,  or,  rather,  what  pretends  to 
be  one,  might  be  a  good  thing  for  the  populace."  Sec 
Deism.  Lessing  came  forward,  atul,  while  seeking  to 
make  morality  synonymous  with  religion,  aye,  with 
Christianity,  taught  that  in  revelation  only  lies  man's 
strength  for  development.  "  Revelation,"  says  Lessing, 
"is  to  the  whole  human  race  what  education  is  to  the 
individual  man.  Education  is  revelation  which  is  im- 
parted to  the  individual  man,  and  revelation  is  educa- 
tion which  has  been  and  still  is  imparted  to  the  human 

race Education  no  more  presents  everything  to 

man  at  once  than  revelation  does,  but  makes  its  com- 
munications in  gradual  development."  First  Judaism, 
then  Christianity ;  first  unity,  then  trinity ;  first  hap- 
piness for  this  life,  then  immortality  and  never-ending 
bliss.  (See  the  detailed  review  on  these  points  in 
Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch.  Hist,  of  18th  and  19th  Cent,  i, 
291  sq.)  The  elementary  work  of  education  was  the 
O.  T.  The  progress  to  a  more  advanced  book  is  marked 
by  the  timely  coming  of  Christ,  "  the  reliable  and  ])rac- 
tical  teacher  of  immortality ;  .  .  .  .  reliable  through  the 
prophecies  which  appeared  to  be  fulfilled  in  him,  through 
the  miracles  which  he  performed,  and  through  his  own 
return  to  life  alter  the  death  by  which  he  had  sealed  his 
doctrine;"  whose  disciples  collected  and  transmitted  in 
writing  his  doctrines, "  the  second  and  better  elementary 
book  for  the  human  race,"  expecting  (according  to  Bit- 
ter [Lessing's  philosophische  ii.  religiose  Grundsatze,  p. 
56  sq.])  the  complete  treatise  itself  in  the  fulfilment  of 
the  promises  of  Christianity.  Some  have  interpreted 
Lessing,  because  Christianity  is  spoken  of  as  the  sec- 
ond elementarg  work,  as  anticipating  another  religion, 
to  be  universally  enjoyed,  to  supersede  Christianity,  but 
for  this  we  can  see  no  reason,  and  side  with  Bitter. 

The  position  of  Lessing  has  sometimes  become  equiv- 
ocal by  the  peculiar  interpretation  of  his  Nathan  the 
Wise.  In  his  Education  of  Humanity,  Christianity  un- 
questionably is  the  highest  religion  in  the  scale;  in  his 
"  Nathan"  it  is  not  so.  Hence  it  has  been  asserted  by 
many.  Christian  writers  especially,  that  in  his  later 
years  Lessing  had  become  a  most  decided  Bationalist, 
and  Jacobi  even  asserted  that  he  had  died  a  Spino/.ist. 
(Compare  the  article  Jacobi,  and  the  literature  at  the 
end  of  this  article.)  The  former  interpretation  is  due, 
however,  to  wrong  premises.  Lessing  wrote  Nathan  the 
Wise  simply  for  one  object:  not  to  aggrandize  and  en- 
noble his  associate  and  friend  ^lendelssohn  the  Jew,  not 
to  dei)rive  Christianity  of  tlie  best  of  her  beauty,  but  only 


LESSING 


384 


LESSING 


to  toach  liumanity— ay,  to  the  followers  of  the  Christ 
of  the  Gospel  in  the  18rh  century,  the  great  lesson 
of  toleration.  The  great  French  infidel -jihilosoiiher 
Voltaire  had  sought  to  do  this,  hut  he  had  failed — had 
failed  utterly — and  only  because  his  idea  of  tolerance 
■was  rt'dly  intohraim.  lie  meant  entirely  too  much  by 
tolerance,  for  he  demanded  of  the  party  tolerating  not 
only  to  esteem  all  religions  alike,  to  be  content  with  any 
and  every  belief,  to  have  no  rights  in  conflict  with  an- 
other in  religious  matters,  but  to  be  obliged  to  conform 
to  the  notions  and  inclinations  of  others  out  of  mere 
politeness;  and  we  do  not  wonder  when  Hagenbach  (i, 
29)  says  that  '•  this  is  the  toleration  of  shallowness,  of 
cowardice,  of  religious  indecision,  of  religious  indiffer- 
ence— a  toleration  that  finally  and  easily  degenerates  into 
intolerance,  which  is  the  hatred  of  every  one  who  wish- 
es to  hold  and  to  profess  a  firm  and  positive  religion. 
Such  persons  must  come  at  last  to  regard  the  tolerating 
party  as  unj-ielding  and  stiff-necked.  Such  was  the 
toleration  of  the  Itomans,  which  was  so  much  praised 
by  Voltaire.  It  soon  came  to  an  end  with  the  Chris- 
tians, because  they  neither  coidd  nor  would  submit  to  a 
strange  worship.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  foolish  or 
more  opposed  to  true  toleration  than  precisely  this  ef- 
fort to  force  such  toleration  upon  those  who  do  not  agree 
with  us  in  opinion,  for  toleration  no  more  admits  of 
force  than  religion  does."  Leasing  believed  that  this 
grand  lesson  -^vas  yet  to  be  taught.  He  v.ould  teach  it 
especially  to  the  Christian,  who  stood  higher  in  the 
scale,  and  could  easily  influence  those  below  him ;  nay, 
he  believed  that  he  should  teach  it,  and  that  most  ef- 
fectually, by  practicing  it  upon  his  inferiors  in  belief. 
He  therefore  would  sha"me  the  Christian  by  examples 
most  noble  from  religions  generally  regarded  as  inferior, 
and  its  followers  as  more  fanatical.  Yet  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  Lessing  never  went  so  far  as  to  ignore 
his  own  religion,  for  these  grand  specimens  of  Judaism 
and  Blohammedanism  reveal  their  Christian  painter 
after  all,  when  once  the  lay  brother  is  made  to  say, 
"  Nathan,  you  arc  a  Christian.  Never  was  a  better" 
(act  iv,  scene  vii,  line  2).  He  would  teach  us  that  Chris- 
tianity is  the  most  perfect  of  all  religions,  but  that  the 
others  also  have  in  them  many  jiarts  which  go  to  make 
it  up ;  that  as  they  shall  modify  in  course  of  time,  so 
shall  also  Christianity  grow  on  to  iierfection  (see  above, 
Eitter's  view).  His  principal  fault  was  this,  that  his 
peculiar  view  of  revelation  led  him  to  believe  that  no 
religion  is  as  yet  absolutely  perfect,  and  that  therefore 
none  of  the  positive  religions  could  justly  claim  the  char- 
acter of  universality,  and  of  exclusive  privileges  and 
riglits ;  and  hence  he  regarded  all  religions  as  an  indi- 
vidualization of  reason,  according  to  time  and  place,  and 
a  product,  on  the  one  hand,  of  the  culture  of  a  people, 
and,  on  the  other,  of  divine  education  and  communica- 
tion, thus  making  Christianity  capable  also  of  an  objec- 
tive perfectibiUty.  (This  is  a  view  which  has  been  ad- 
vanced of  late  by  many  Christian  writers  of  Moham- 
medanism: comp.  Freeman,  The  Saracens  [Oxford  and 
London,  1870, 12mo],  lect.  i.)  Regarding  the  charge  of 
his  Spinozaism,  we  would  say  with  Mendelssohn,  who 
defended  Lessing  from  this  charge  after  his  death:  "  If 
Lessing  was  able  absolutely  and  without  all  further  lim- 
itation to  declare  for  the  system  of  any  man,  he  was  at 
that  time  no  more  with  himself,  or  he  was  in  a  strange 
humor  to  make  a  para<loxical  assertion  which,  in  a  seri- 
ous hfiur,  he  himself  again  rejected"  (Jacobi,  llV?-A'e,  vol. 
iv,  pt.  i,  ]i. 44  :  comp.  Knhnis.  <!trm.  Prof.  p.  104  sq. ;  Dor- 
ncr.  CiKch.  pniti.'il.  Tliaih  \\  I'l'^^.  See  Mkndei.ssohn. 
All  that  .lacobi  had  for  his  assertion  that  Lessing  died  a 
Pantheist  was  a  conversation  with  him  a  few  years  before 
Lessing's  death.  Upon  this  fact  I'rof.  Nichol  justly  ob- 
serves; "The  reporting  of  such  conversation  must  ever 
bo  protested  against  as  breach  of  confidejncc,  and  it  is 
almost  as  certainly  a  source  of  misrepresentation.  What 
thinker  does  not,  in  the  frankness  and  confidence  of  in- 
tercourse, give  utterance  at  times  to  momentary  impres- 
sions, as  if  thev  were  his  abiding  onesV     This  much  is 


unquestionable :  Lessing  has  not  written  one  solitary 
word  inconsistent  with  a  firmest  persuasion  in  the  per- 
sonality of  man.  This  great  writer,  indeed,  belongs  to 
a  class  of  minds  very  easily  misapprehended — minds 
which  none  but  others  in  so  far  akin  to  them  can  ritrht- 
ly  understand.  Oftenest  in  "antagonism,  or  in  a  critical 
attitude,  thinkers  like  Lessing  do  not  generally  express 
their  ichole  thought;  they  dwell  only  on  the  part  of  the 
common  thought  from  which  they  dissent.  So  far, 
however,  from  being  ruled  by  mere  negations,  it  is  cer- 
tainly more  probable  that  their  dissent  arises  from  a 
completer  view  and  possession  of  truth ;  and  that  their 
effort  is  confined  to  the  desire  to  separate  truth  from  er- 
ror, or,  at  all  events,  from  non-essentials."  Not  even  the 
modest  charge  that  Lessing  in  his  latest  j'ears,  by  reason 
of  his  affiliation  with  Nicolai  and  Mendelssohn,  inclined 
towards  liationalism,  can,  upon  examination,  be  sub- 
stantiated. His  own  words  from  Vienna,  whither  he 
had  gone  on  a  call  from  Joseph  H,  who  in  1769  invited 
all  the  great  and  learned  men  of  the  times  to  his  capital 
for  a  general  assemblage,  addressed  to  Nicolai,  who  had 
taken  this  occasion  to  ridicule  Vienna,  and  praise  his 
own  Berlin  by  contrast,  go  far  to  disprove  any  such  as- 
sertion :  "  Say  nothing,  I  pray  you,  about  your  Berlin 
freedom  of  thinking  and  writing.  It  is  reduced  simply 
and  solely  to  the  freedom  of  bringing  to  market  as  many 
gibes  and  jeers  against  religion  as  you  choose,  and  a 
decent  man  must  sjjeedily  be  ashamed  to  avail  himself 
of  this  freedom."  If  Lessing  is  to  be  classed  at  all  with 
Kationalists,  we  should  first  distinguish  between  the 
higher  Kationalism  of  humanity  and  its  doidjle-sighted 
compeer,  trivial  and  vulgar  Eationalism,  and  then  assign 
Lessing  a  ]ilacc  in  that  of  the  former,  for  to  it  alone  can 
he  be  claimed  to  have  rendered  intentional  aid. 

Of  his  .service  to  German  literature  generally,  it  maybe 
truly  said  "  he  found  Germany  without  a  national  litera- 
ture ;  when  he  died  it  had  one.  He  pointed  out  the  ways 
in  poetrv',  philosophy,  and  religion  by  which  the  nation- 
al mind  should  go,  and  it  has  gone  in  them"  ( Westm.Eev. 
Oct.  1871.  p.  223).  "  Honor,"  says  Menzel  {Gei-man  Lit. 
[transl.  by  C.  C.  Felton,  Bost.  1840, 3  vols.  12mo],  ii,  405), 
'■  was  the  principle  of  Lessing's  whole  life.  He  composed 
in  the  same  spirit  that  he  lived.  He  had  to  contend 
with  obstacles  his  whole  life  long,  but  he  never  bowed 
down  his  head.  He  struggled  not  for  posts  of  honor, 
but  for  his  own  independence.  He  might,  with  his  ex- 
traordinarj'  abilitj-,  have  rioted  in  the  favor  of  the  great, 
like  Goethe,  but  he  scorned  and  hated  this  favor  as  un- 
worthy a  free  man.  His  long  continuance  in  jirivate 
life,  his  services  Jis  secretarj'  of  the  brave  general  Tau- 
enzien  during  the  Seven  Years' War,  and  afterwards  as 
librarian  at  WolfenbUttel.  proved  that  he  did  not  aspire 

to  high  places He  ridiculed  Gellert,  Klopstock, 

and  all  who  bowed  their  laurel-crowned  heads  to  heads 
encircled  with  golden  crowns ;  and  he  himself  shunned 
all  contact  with  the  great,  animated  by  that  stainless 
spirit  of  pride  which  acts  instinctively  upon  the  motto 
Koli  me  tamierer 

Literature. — The  complete  works  of  Lessing  were 
first  published  at  Berlin  (1771,  32  vols.  12mo).  then  with 
annotations  by  Lachmann  (1839, 12  vols.),  and  by  Von 
jMaltzahn  (ISfw.  12  vols).  See  Karl  Gotthelf  Lessing, 
Lessimjs  Biofjraphie  (Berl.  1793,  2  vols.) ;  Danzel.  Less- 
ing, sein  Lthen  iind  seine  Werke  (1850),  continued  by 
Guhrauer  (18,53-541 ;  Stahr,  G.  E. Lessimj,  sein  L<h<n  ii.  s. 
Werke  (Oth  ed.  Berl.  1^<59,  2  vols.  12mo,  transl,  by  E,  P, 
Evans,  late  profc  ssor  at  i\Iich.  Univ.,  Boston,  18{i7,  2  vols. 
12mo) ;  H.  L'itter,  in  the  (wttineien  Studien  (1847);  Eit- 
ter,  Gesch.  d.  christl.  Pliilos.  ii,  480  sq, ;  Bohtz,  Lessimjs 
Pi-otestantismvs  und  Nath.  der  Weise ;  Lanp;,  Belif/ivse 
C/iaraktere,i,  2lb  f>q.x  Hope,  Lessinrj  und  Guize;  Eohr, 
Kleine  t/ieoltu/ische  Schriftei}  (Schleusingen,  1841,vol.  i); 
Schwarz,  Lessinr/  nls  Theolofje  (1854) ;  Gervinns,  Niition- 
al-Litcr.  d.  Dentschen,  iv,  318  sq.;  Mohnike,  Lessinf/iana 
(Lpz.  1843,  Svo) ;  Schlosser,  Gescli.  d.\W">.JnhrJnind.  iii,  2; 
Sclimidt.  Gesch.  d.</eist.  Lehens  in  Deutschld.  I'on  Leibnitz 
bis  an f  Lessing's  Tod;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch.  History 


LESSONS 


385 


LEUCOPETRIANS 


iSfh  and  IM  Cent.  vol.  i,  lect.  xiii ;  For.  Quart.  Rerieu-, 
XXV,  233  sq. ;  Westminst.  Rev.  1871,  Oct.,  art.  viii ;  Her- 
zog,  Real-EncyUop.  viii,  336  sq. ;  Kahnis,  Hist,  of  Ger- 
man Protestantism,  p.  145  sq.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Les-gons.     See  Lectionarium. 

Lestines.     See  Liptines. 

Iietaah.     See  Lizard. 

Lethe  (\!i^r],  oblivion),  in  the  Grecian  mythology, 
tlie  stream  of  forgetfulness  in  the  lower  world,  to  which 
the  departed  spirits  go,  before  passing  into  the  Elysian 
fields,  to  be  cleansed  from  all  recollection  of  earthly  sor- 
rows.    See  Hades. 

Le'thech  {T\\'^,  le'thel;  Septuag.  vijitk),  a  Hebrew 
word  which  occurs  in  the  margin  of  Hos.  iii,  2 ;  it  signi- 
fies a  measure  for  grain,  so  called  from  em ptijiufj  ox  pour- 
ing out.  It  is  rendered  "  a  half  homer'"  in  the  A.  V.  (af- 
ter the  Vulg.),  which  is  probably  correct.     See  Homer. 

Leti,  Gregory,  a  historian,  born  at  Milan  in  1G30, 
who  travelled  in  various  countries,  became  Protestant 
at  Lausanne,  was  for  a  time  well  received  at  the  court 
of  Charles  H  in  England,  and  died  at  Amsterdam  in 
1701.  He  wrote,  among  other  things.  Life  of  Sixtus 
V: — Life  of  Philip  II : — Monarchy  of  Louis  XIV: — 
Life  of  Cromwell; — Life  of  Queen  Elizabeth : — Life  of 
Charles  V. 

Letter  stands  in  only  two  passages  of  the  Bible 
in  its  narrow  sense  of  an  alphabetical  character  {ypa^i- 
fia,  in  the  plural,  Luke  xxiii,  38;  and  prob.  Gal.  vi,  11, 
7r»;X('Kotf  ypcifiixam  ;  A.  V.  "  how  large  a  letter,"  rather 
in  what  a  bold  hand) ;  elsewhere  it  is  used  (for  ISO,  a 
book;  ypdr/jjua, either  sing. or  plur. ;  but  more  definitely 
for  the  later  lleb.n'iSX  [Chald.X'^.nx], 'ind?  [Chald. 
id.  also  C5ri5J  ;  tTriaroXij)  in  the  sense  of  an  ejiistle  (q. 
v.).     See  Alphabet;  Writing. 

LETTER,  the,  a  term  used  especially  by  the  apostle 
Paul  in  opposition  to  the  spirit;  a  way  of  speaking  very 
common  in  the  ecclesiastical  style  (Kom.  ii,  27,  29 ;  vii, 
6 ;  2  Cor.  iii,  6,  7).  In  general,  the  word  letter  {yfjajx- 
jxa)  is  used  to  denote  the  Mosaic  law.  The  law,  con- 
sidered as  a  simple  collection  of  precepts,  is  but  a  dead 
form,  which  can  indeed  command  obedience,  but  cannot 
awaken  love.  This  distinction  is  shown  with  great  skiU 
in  Schloiermacher's  Sermon:  Christus,  d.Befreier  r.d. 
Siinde  u.  d.  Gesetz  (in  his  Sdmmt.  Werlce,  ii,  25  sq.).  The 
law  cannot  but  be  something  outward,  which,  as  the 
expression  of  another's  wiU,  appeals  more  to  our  com- 
prehension than  to  our  will  or  to  our  feelings.  This  is 
the  reason  why  the  law  is  the  source  of  the  knowledge 
of  sin,  and  does  not  impart  the  life-giving  power.  But 
that  the  Mosaic  law  was  called  the  letter  (jQapjict')  re- 
sults from  the  fact  of  its  being  the  irrittc7i  law.  So  liom. 
ii,  27,  29:  '-And  shall  not  uncircumcision,  which  is  by 
nature,  if  it  fulfil  the  law,  judge  thee,  who  by  the  letter 
and  circumcision  dost  transgress  the  law?  For  he  is 
not  a  Jew  which  is  one  outwardly,  neither  is  that  cir- 
cumcision which  is  outward  in  the  flesh;  but  he  is  a 
Jew  which  is  one  inwardl}-,  and  circumcision  is  that  of 
the  heart,  in  the  spirit,  and  not  in  the  letter,  whose 
praise  is  not  of  men,  but  of  God."  The  meaning  of 
this  passage  is,  When  the  heathen  does  by  nature  that 
which  the  law  requires,  he  puts  to  shame  the  Jew  who 
in  Scripture  and  by  circumcision  transgresses  the  law. 
For  he  is  not  a  true  Israelite  who  is  so  outwardlj-  only, 
and  merely  through  physical  circumcision  (as  the  sign 
of  the  covenant) ;  but  he  only  who  is  in^vardly  a  Jew, 
his  heart  also  being  circumcised,  and  consequently  after 
the  spirit,  and  not  merely  after  the  letter  (or  outward 
form).  Such  a  one  is  not  merely  praised  by  men,  but 
loved  by  God.  Again,  Rom.  vii.G:  "But  now  we  are 
delivered  from  the  law,  that  being  dead  wherein  we 
were  held ;  that  we  should  serve  in  newness  of  spirit, 
and  not  in  the  oldness  of  the  letter."  Being  now  Chris- 
tians, we  ought  to  carry  the  law  in  our  heart,  and  not 
merely  fulfil  it  outwardly  as  a  mere  letter.  2  Cor.  iii,  6, 
v.— Bb 


for  the  letter  (i.  e.  the  IMosaic  law)  killeth  (brings  about 
death  inasmuch  as  it  discovers  sin,  Kom.  vii,  9 ;  vi,  23  ; 
1  Cor.  XV,  56),  but  the  Spirit  (the  holy  Spirit  imparted 
through  faith)  giveth  life  (i.  e.  eternal  life,  Kom.  viii,  10). 
Once  more,  2  Cor.  iii,  7 :  "  But  if  the  ministration  of 
death  (of  the  letter),  written  and  engraven  in  stones, 
was  glorious  .  .  .  how  shall  not  the  ministration  of  the 
Spirit  be  rather  glorious?"  The  law  of  Moses  is  inca- 
pable of  giving  life  to  the  soul,  and  justifying  before 
God  those  who  are  most  servilely  addicted  to  the  literal 
observance  of  it.  These  things  can  be  effected  only  by 
means  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  and  of  that  Spirit  of  truth 
and  holiness  which  attends  it,  and  makes  it  effectual  to 
the  salvation  of  the  soul. — Krchl,  Keu-Test.  Handwijr- 
terbuch.     See  Law  of  Moses. 

Letters,  EncyclicaL    See  Literje  Encyclics. 

Letters  of  Orders,  a  document  usually  of  parch- 
ment, and  signed  by  the  bishop,  with  his  seal  appended, 
in  v.'hich  he  certifies  that  at  the  specified  time  and  place 
he  ordained  to  the  office  of  deacon  or  priest  the  clergy- 
man whose  name  is  therein  mentioned. 

Lettice,  John,  D.D.,  an  English  clergyman  and  poet, 
was  born  in  Northamptonshire  in  1737,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his  first  degree  in 
1761.  He  soon  obtained  eminence  as  a  pulpit  orator. 
In  1785  he  was  presented  to  the  living  of  Peasemarsh, 
and  later  with  a  prebend  in  the  cathedral  of  Chichester. 
He  died  in  1832.  Among  his  works  are  The  Conversion 
of  St.  Paul,  a  poetical  essay,  which  secured  him  a  prize 
from  his  alma  mater  in  1764: — The  Antiqtdties  of  Iler- 
culaneum,  a.  translation  from  the  Italian  (1773): — The 
Immortality  of  the  Soul,  translated  from  the  French 
(1795).  See  Bioff.  Diet,  of  Living  A  uthors  (Lond.  181(5)  ; 
Alllbone,  Diet,  of  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Thomas,  Biogr. 
Diet.  s.  V. 

Let'tus  (Aarroiic  v.  r.  'Attovq;  Vulg.  Acchus),  a 
"  son  of  Sechenias,"  one  of  the  Levites  who  returned 
from  Babylon  (1  Esd.  viii,  29),  evidently  the  Hattush 
(q.  V.)  of  the  Heb.  text  (Ezra  viii,  2). 

Letu'shim  (Heb.  Letushim',  dipiiz:?,  hammered, 
plur. ;  Sept.  AaTovmelp),  the  second  named  of  the  three 
sons  of  Dedan  (grandson  of  Abraham  by  Keturah),  and 
head  of  an  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  him  (Gen. 
XXX,  3  ;  and  Vulg.  at  1  Chron.  i,  32).  B.C.  considera- 
bly post  2024.  See  Arabia.  "Fresnel  (Journ.  Asiat. 
iii"  serie,  vi,  217)  identifies  it  with  Tasm,  one  of  the  an- 
cient and  extinct  tribes  of  Arabia,  just  as  he  compares- 
Leummim  with  Umeiyim.  The  names  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  as  commencing  with  the  article.  Neverthe- 
less, the  identification  in  each  case  seems  to  be  quite  un- 
tenable. It  is  noteworthy  that  the  three  sons  of  the 
Keturahite  Dedan  are  named  in  the  plural  form,  evi- 
dently as  tribes  descended  from  him"  (Smith).  "  Fors- 
ter  supposes  {Geogr.  of  Arabia,  i,  334)  that  the  Letushim 
were  absorbed  in  the  generic  appellation  of  Dedanira 
(Jer.  XXV,  23 ;  Ezek.  xxv,  13 ;  Isa.  xxi,  13).  and  that 
they  dwelt  in  the  desert  eastward  of  Edom"  (Kitto). 
See  Leujijiim. 

Leucippus,  the  founder  of  the  atomistic  school  of 
Grecian  philosophy,  and  forerunner  of  Democritus  (q. 
v.).  Nothing  is  known  concerning  him,  neither  the 
time  nor  the  place  of  his  birth,  nor  the  circumstances 
of  his  life. 

Leucopetrians,  the  name  of  a  fanatical  sect  which 
sprinig  up  in  the  Greek  and  Eastern  churches  towards 
the  close  of  the  12th  century;  they  professed  to  believe 
in  a  double  trinity,  rejected  wedlock,  abstained  from 
flesh,  treated  with  "the  utmost  contempt  the  sacraments 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  all  the  various 
branches  of  external  worship ;  placed  the  essence  of  re- 
ligion in  internal  prayer  alone ;  and  maintained,  as  it  is 
said,  that  an  evil  being  or  genius  dwelt  in  the  breast  of 
every  mortal,  and  could  be  expelled  from  thence  by  no 
other  method  than  by  peqietual  supplication  to  the  Su- 
preme Being.    The  fomider  of  this  sect  is  said  to  have 


LEUMMIM 


386 


LEVELLERS 


been  a  person  called  Leucopeinis,  and  his  chief  disciple 
Tychicus,  who  corrupted  by  fanatical  interpretations 
several  boolis  of  Scripture,  and  particularly  the  Gospel 
of  Jlatthew.  This  account  is  not  undoubted. — Hender- 
son's Buck,  s.  V. 

Leiiin'mim  (Heb.  Leummim',  C^BXb,  peoples,  as 
often ;  Sept.  Xaw^idp),  the  last  named  of  the  three  sons 
of  Dctlan  (grandson  of  Abraham  by  Keturah),  and  head 
of  an  Arabian  tribe  descended  from  hira  (Gen.  xxv,  3 ; 
and  Vulsate  at  1  Chron.  i,  32).  B.C.  considerably  post 
2i)24.  See  Arabia.  They  are  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  the  AUumaoUe  (AWovfiaiwrai),  named  by  Ptol- 
emy (vi,7, 24)  as  near  the  Gerrha.>i,  which  appears  to  be 
a  corruption  of  the  Hebrew  word  with  the  art.  jirefixed. 
'•  He  also  enumerates  lAima  among  the  towns  of  Arabia 
Deserta  (v,  19),  and  Forster  (^Geogr.  of  Arabia,  i,  335) 
suggests  that  this  may  have  been  an  ancient  settlement 
of  the  same  tribe"  (Kitto).  "They  are  identified  by 
Frcsnel  (in  the  Journ,  Asiat.  iii"  serie,  vi,217)  with  an 
Arab  tribe  called  Umeiyim,  one  of  the  very  ancient  tribes 
of  Arabia  of  which  no  genealogy  is  given  by  the  Arabs, 
and  who  appear  to  have  been  ante-Abrahamic,  and  pos- 
sibly aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country"  (Smith). 
See  Letushim. 

Leun,  JoHAXN  Georg  Friedrich,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  Aug.  9, 1757,  at  Giessen.  In  1774  he 
entered  the  university  of  his  native  place;  in  1797  he 
became  deacon  at  Butzbach,  near  Giessen,  and  there  he 
remained  until  his  death,  March  15, 1823.  He  possessed 
an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages,  and 
was  a  profound  theologian.  Among  his  wurks  deserve 
special  notice.  Von  der  besien  Methodc,  die  liehrdische 
Sprache  zu  erlernen  (Giessen,  1787-8)  : — Handbuch  zur 
cursorischen  LeciUre  der  Blbelfiir  Anfdnger,  etc.  (Leg- 
mo,  1788-91,  4  th.  8)  : — Handbuch  zur  cursorischen  Lec- 
iUre der  Bibel  des  N.  T.  etc.  (ibid.  1795-9G,  3  th.  8).— 
Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  ii,292. 

Leusdeu,  Johanx,  a  very  celebrated  Dutch  Orien- 
talist and  theologian,  was  born  at  Utrecht  in  1624,  and 
was  educated  at  the  then  recently  founded  university  of 
his  native  place  and  at  Amsterdam,  paying  particular 
regard  to  the  Oriental  languages,  especially  the  He- 
brew. In  1649  he  was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Utrecht,  and  for  nearly  tifty  years  he  most  creditably 
discharged  the  duties  of  this  office,  for  which  he  had  fit- 
ted himself,  not  simply  at  the  universities  already  men- 
tioned, but  also  by  private  study  with  several  learned 
Jewish  rabbis.  He  died  in  1699,  regarded  by  all  as  one 
of  the  best  Hebrew  scholars  of  his  day,  the  Buxtorfs 
only  taking  precedence  in  rank.  Of  his  works  we  may 
say  that  the  writings  of  but  few  Biblical  scholars  of  that 
day  have  descended  to  us  which  can  be  said  to  be  of 
more  solid  utility  than  Leusden's.  "  If  they  are  defec- 
tive in  originality  of  genius  (the  amount  of  which  qual- 
ity, however,  it  is  impossible  rightly  to  determine  in 
works  like  our  author's),  they  undoubtedly  afford  evi- 
dence of  their  author's  varied  resources  of  learning, 
adorned  by  clearness  of  method  and  an  easy  style,  char- 
acteristics which  made  Leusden  one  of  the  most  re- 
nowned and  successful  teachers  of  his  age."  His  nu- 
merous works,  which  were  all  Biblical,  may  be  classed 
as  follows:  (1)  Critical,  (2)  Introductory,  and  (3)  Exe- 
getical.  Under  the  first  head  we  have  his  valuable 
Biblia  Ifehrcea  accuratissiina  notis  Ilebraicis  ei  lemmali- 
hus  illiistrafa:  ii/pis  Josephi  Athias  (Amstel.  1617  [2d 
ed.  1667],  the  first  critical  edition  by  a  Christian  editor 
["/Estimatissima  |)rimum  numeratis  vcrsibus,  primaque 
a  Christiano  adhibitis  jNISS.  facta."  Steinschneider,  Ca- 
tal.  Bndl.])  In  1694  he  joined  Eiscnmenger  in  publish- 
ing a  Hebrew  Bible  without  points.  The  (ircek  Scrip- 
tures also  received  his  careful  attention,  as  is  proved  by 
his  editions  of  the  (ireek  Test,  in  1675, 1688, 1693, 1698, 
1701,  and  by  his  edition  of  t'he  Seiituagint  (Amsterdam, 
1683).  After  his  death,  Schaaf  completed  a  valuable 
edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Test,  (with  Tremellius's  ver- 
eiou)  which  Leusden  had  begun.     Under  this  first  bead 


we  may  also  place  his  Hebrew  Lexicon  (1688) ;  Ele- 
mentary Heb.  Gram.,  which  was  translated  into  English, 
French,  and  German  (1668) ;  his  Compendia  of  the  O.  T. 
and  the  N.  Test,  (comprising  selections  of  the  originals, 
with  translations  and  grammatical  notes  in  Latin),  fre- 
quently reprinted;  his  Onomasticon  Sac?:  1665,  1684), 
and  his  still  useful  Claris  Hebr.  Vet.  Test,  (containing 
the  Masoretic  notes,  etc.,  besides  much  grammatical  and 
philological  information),  first  published  in  1683,  and 
his  Claris  Grcec.  N.  T.  (1672).  His  contributions  to  the 
second  head  of  Introduction  {Kinleiliiiiff)  and  sacred 
archasology  were  not  less  valuable  than  tlie  ^\orks  we 
have  already  commended.  Of  these  we  mention  three 
(sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  one  volume)  as  very  use- 
ful to  the  Biblical  student:  Philologiis  Hehr.  continens 
Qucesfiones  Hebr.  quce  circa  V.  Test.  Hebr. fere  moveri  so- 
lent  (Utrecht,  1656,  1672,  1695,  Amst.  1686,  are  the  best 
editions,  and  contain  his  edition  and  translation  of  Mai- 
monides's  Precepts  of  Moses,  p.  56)  ;  Philoloyus  Hebrceo- 
ntixtus,  una  cum.  Spidleff.  Philol.  (Utr.  1663,  etc.,  con- 
tains treatises  on  several  interesting  points  of  Hebrew 
antiquities  and  Talraudical  science);  Philolofjiis Hebrceo- 
Grcecus  e/eneralis  (Utr.  1670,  etc.)  treats  questions  relat- 
ing to  the  sacred  Greek  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  its 
Hebraisms,  the  Syriac  and  other  translations,  its  in- 
spired authors,  etc.,  well  and  succinctly  handled  (with 
this  work  occurs  Leusden's  translation  into  Hebrew  of  all 
the  Chaldee  portions  of  the  O.  T.).  Under  the  last,  or 
Exegetical  head,  we  have  less  to  record.  In  1656  (re- 
printed in  1692)  Leusden  published  in  a  Latin  transla- 
tion David  Kimchi's  Commentari-  on  the  prophet  Jo- 
nah {Jonas  illustratus),  and  in  the  following  year  a 
similar  work  (again  after  David  Kimchi)  on  Joel  and 
Obadiah  (Joel  ea-jdicatus,  adjunctus  Obadjas  illustratus). 
Well  worthy  of  mention  are  also  his  editions  (prepared 
with  the  help  of  Yillemandy  and  Morinus)  of  Bochart's 
works,  and  the  works  of  Lightfoot  (which  he  published 
in  Latin,  in  3  vols,  folio,  in  the  last  year  of  his  life)  and 
Poole  (whose  Synopsis  occurs  in  its  verj'  best  form  in 
Leusden's  edition,  1684,  5  vols,  folio).  See  Burmann, 
Trajectum  eruditorum ;  De  Vries,  Oratio  in  Obitum  J. 
Leusdenii  (1699);  Fahncim,Hist.Biblioth.  Grmc.  i,  244; 
Walch,  Biblioth.  Theol.  Selecta,  vols,  iii,  iv ;  Bu^graphie 
universelle  anc.  et  mod.  (1819)  xxiv,  357 ;  Elogia  Philo- 
gorum  qnorundeim  Hebrceonini  (Lub.  1708,  8vo) ;  Meyer, 
Gesch.  d.  Schrifterklarung,  p.  1 1 1, 174  sq. ;  Hoefer, Nouv. 
Bie>g.  Genercde,  xxxi,  11  sq. ;  Kalisch,  Heb.  Gram.  pt.  ii 
(Historical  Introd.),  p.  37 ;  and  in  Herzog, Reed-Encyklop. 
viii,  345,  346 ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  ii, 
s.  V. 

Leutard  orLeuthard,  a  French  fanatic,  flourished 
among  the  peasants  of  Chalons-sur-ilarne  about  A.D. 
1000.  He  claimed  the  enjoyment  of  spiritual  visions, 
and  authority  from  on  high  for  separation  from  his  fam- 
ily and  his  iconoclastic  idiosyncracies.  He  also,  by  like 
inspirations,  became  the  opponent  of  many  practices  of 
the  Church  which  had  their  authority  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures  of  both  the  O.  and  N.  T.,  and  supjiorted  his 
position  likewise  by  the  inspired  word  of  (iod.  The 
bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  Leutliard  flourished — 
Gebuin  by  name — treated  him  with  perfect  contempt, 
believing  him  insane,  and,  for  want  of  opposition,  few 
followers  were  found  by  Leuthard,  who  in  des]iair  de- 
stroyed himself  by  drowning. 

Levellers  or  Radicals,  a  political  and  religious 
sect  of  fanatics,  which  arose  in  the  army  of  Cromwell  at 
the  time  of  the  difficulty  between  the  Independents  and 
the  Long  Parliament  (1647),  advocating  entire  civil  and 
religious  liberty.  They  were  not  only  treated  as  trai- 
tors by  the  king,  but  persecuted  also  by  Crdmwell  as 
dangerous  to  the  state.  From  one  of  their  own  works. 
The  Leveller,  o'r  the  Principles  and  Maxims  conreming 
Govei-nment  and  Religion  of  those  commonly  called  Lev- 
ellers (Lond.  1658),  we  see  that  their  fundamental  prin- 
ciples included,  in  politics,  1,  the  impartial,  sovereign 
authority  of  the  law ;  2,  the  legislative  power  of  Parlia- 


LEVER 


387 


LEVI 


ment;  3,  absolute  equality  before  the  law;  and,  4,  the 
armini;'  of  the  people  in  order  to  enable  all  to  secure  the 
enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  also  to  protect  their  liber- 
ties. In  religion  they  claimed,  1,  absolute  liberty  of  con- 
science, as  true  religion,  with  them,  consisted  in  inward 
concurrence  with  revealed  religion ;  2,  freedom  for  every 
one  to  act  according  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge,  even 
if  this  knowl'  dgc  should  be  false — the  government  act- 
ing on  the  knowledge  and  conscience  of  the  people 
through  the  ministers  it  appoints;  3,  religion  to  be  con- 
sidered under  two  aspects:  one  as  the  correct  under- 
standing of  revelation,  and  this  is  quite  a  private  affair, 
in  regard  to  which  every  one  must  stand  or  fall  by  him- 
self; the  other  is  its  effects  as  manifested  in  actions, 
and  these  are  subject  to  the  judgment  of  others,  and  es- 
jjccially  of  the  authorities;  4,  they  condemned  all  strife 
on  matters  of  faith  and  forms  of  worship,  considering 
these  as  only  outward  signs  of  different  degrees  of  spir- 
itual enlightening.  This  sect,  like  many  others,  disap- 
peared at  the  time  of  the  Restoration.  See  Weingarten, 
Revuliitions  Kirchen  Enfjlands  (Lpz.  18G8) ;  Neale,  Hist, 
o/'ike  Purita)is  (see  Index,  vol.  ii.  Harper's  edition). 

Lever,  Thomas,  an  eminent  English  divine,  was 
born  in  Lancashire  in  the  early  part  of  the  IGth  centur\-. 
He  was  ordained  a  Protestant  minister  in  1550.  On 
the  accession  of  IMary  (1553)  he  retired  to  the  Conti- 
nent. He  afterwards  dissented  i'rom  the  Anglican 
Church  from  a  partiality  to  Calvinism.  He  died  in 
1577.  No  man  was  more  vehement  in  his  sermons 
against  the  waste  of  Church  revenues,  and  other  pre- 
vailing corruptions  of  the  court,  which  occasioned  bis'"- 
op  liidley  to  rank  him  with  Latimer  and  Knox.  Be- 
sides a  number  of  sermons,  he  published  a  Meditation  on 
tlie  Lorde's  Prayer  (1551) : — Ccrtaijne  Godly  Exercises: 
— and  a  Treatise  on  the  Danger  from  Synne,  etc.  (1571- 
1575).  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  ami  Ainer.  Authors, 
Tol.  ii,  s.  V. ;  Thomas,  Biog.  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Le'vi  (Heb.  iei-i',  "^ib,  toreaihed  [see  below],  being 
the  same  Heb.  word  also  signifying  "  Levite ;"  Sept,  and 
N.  T.  AivL  or  Aivd),  the  name  of  several  men. 

1.  Tlie  third  son  of  Jacob  by  his  wife  Leah.  This, 
like  most  other  names  in  the  patriarchal  history,  was 
connected  with  the  thoughts  and  feelings  that  gathered 
round  the  child's  birth.  As  derived  from  tllb,  to  ticinc, 
and  hence  to  adhere,  it  gave  utterance  to  the  hope  of 
the  mother  that  the  affections  of  Iier  husband,  which 
had  liitherto  rested  on  the  favored  Rachel,  would  at 
last  be  drawn  to  her.  "  This  time  will  my  husband  be 
joined  (rt'12'^)  unto  me,  because  I  have  borne  him  three 
sons"  ((ien.  xxix,  34).  B.C.  1917.  The  new-born  child 
was  to  be  a  Koii'wi-iaQ  fitfSaidjrijr  (.losephus,  Ant.  i,  19, 
8),  a  new  link  binding  the  parents  to  each  other  more 
closely  than  before.  The  same  etymology  is  recognised, 
though  with  a  higher  significance,  in  Numb,  xviii,  2 
(^T2^).  One  fact  only  is  recorded  in  which  he  appears 
jirominent.  The  sons  of  Jacob  had  come  from  Padan- 
Aram  to  Canaan  with  their  father,  and  were  with  him 
'•at  Shalem,  a  city  of  Shechem."  Their  sister  Dinah 
went  out "  to  see  the  daughters  of  the  land"  (Gen.  xxxiv, 
1 ).  i.  e.  as  the  words  probably  indicate,  and  as  Josephus 
distinctly  states  (A  nt.  i,  21),  to  be  present  at  one  of  their 
great  annual  gatherings  for  some  festival  of  nature-wor- 
ship, analogous  to  that  which  we  meet  with  afterwards 
among  the  Midianites  (Numb,  xxv,  2).  The  license  of 
the  time  or  the  absence  of  her  natural  guardians  ex- 
posed her,  though  yet  in  earliest  youth,  to  lust  and  out- 
rage. A  stain  was  left,  not  only  on  lier,  but  on  the  hon- 
or of  her  kindred,  which,  according  to  the  rough  justice 
of  the  time,  nothing  but  blood  could  wash  out.  The 
duty  of  extorting  that  revenge  fell,  as  in  the  case  of  Am- 
noii  and  Tamar  (2  Sam.  xiii,  22),  and  in  most  other 
states  of  society  in  which  polygamy  has  prevailed  (com- 
pare, for  the  customs  of  modern  Arabs,  J.  D.  Michaelis, 
quoted  by  Kurtz,  Hist,  of  Old  Crenanf,  i,  §  82,  p.  340), 
on  the  brothers  rather  than  the  father,  just  as,  in  the 


case  of  Rebekah,  it  belonged  to  the  brother  to  conduct 
the  negotiations  for  the  marriage.  We  are  left  to  con- 
jecture why  Reuben,  as  the  first-born,  was  not  foremost 
in  the  work,  but  the  sin  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
guilty  makes  it  possible  that  his  zeal  for  his  sister's 
purity  was  not  so  sensitive  as  theirs.  The  same  ex- 
planation may  perhaps  apply  to  the  non-appearance  of 
Judah  in  the  history.  Simeon  and  Levi,  as  the  next  in 
succession  to  the  first-born,  take  the  task  upon  them- 
selves. Though  not  named  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
O.  T.  till  xxxiv,  25,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  they 
were  "the  sons  of  Jacob"  who  heard  from  their  father 
the  wrong  over  which  he  had  brooded  in  silence,  and 
who  planned  tlieir  revenge  accordingly.  The  Sept.  does 
introduce  their  names  in  ver.  14.  The  history  tliat  fol- 
lows is  that  of  a  cowardly  and  repulsive  crime.  The  two 
brothers  exhibit,  in  its  broadest  contrasts,  that  union  of 
the  noble  and  the  base,  of  characteristics  above  and  be- 
low the  level  of  the  heathen  tribes  around  them,  ;vhich 
marks  much  of  the  history  of  Israel.  They  have  learned 
to  loathe  and  sconi  the  impurity  in  the  midst  of  which 
they  lived,  to  regartl  themselves  as  a  peculiar  people,  to 
glory  in  the  sign  of  the  covenant.  They  have  learned 
only  too  well  from  Jacob  an<l  from  Laban  the  lessons  of 
treachery  and  falsehood.  Tliey  lie  to  the  men  of  She- 
chem as  the  Druses  and  the  Maronites  lie  to  each  other 
in  the  prosecution  of  their  blood-feuds.  For  the  offence 
of  one  man  they  destroj^  and  plunder  a  whole  city. 
They  cover  their  murderous  schemes  with  fair  words 
and  professions  of  friendship.  They  make  the  very 
token  of  their  religion  the  instrument  of  their  perfidy 
and  revenge.  (Josephus  [A7it.  1.  c]  characteristically 
glosses  over  all  that  connects  the  attack  with  the  cir- 
cumcision of  the  Shechemitcs.  and  rejjresents  it  as  made 
in  a  time  of  feasting  and  rejoicing.)  Their  father,  timid 
and  anxious  as  ever,  utters  a  feeble  lamentation  (Blunt, 
Script.  Coincidences,  pt.  i,  §  8),  "  Ye  have  made  me  a 
stench  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  ...  I  being 
few  in  number,  they  shall  gather  themselves  against 
me."  With  a  zeal  that,  though  mixed  with  baser  ele- 
ments, foreshadows  the  zeal  of  Phinehas,  they  glory  in 
their  deed,  and  meet  all  remonstrance  with  the  question, 
•'  Should  he  deal  with  our  sister  as  with  a  harlot?"  Of 
other  facts  in  the  life  of  Levi,  there  are  none  in  which 
he  takes,  as  in  this,  a  prominent  and  distinct  part.  He 
shares  in  the  hatred  which  bis  brothers  bear  to  Joseph, 
and  joins  in  the  plots  against  him  (Gen.  xxxvii,  4). 
Reuben  and  Judah  interfere  severally  to  prevent  the 
consummation  of  the  crime  (Gen.  xxxvii,  21, 26).  Sim- 
eon appears,  as  being  made  afterwards  the  subject  of  a 
sharper  discipline  than  the  others,  to  have  been  fore- 
most— as  his  position  among  the  sons  of  Leah  made  it 
likely  that  he  woidd  1« — in  this  attack  on  the  favored 
son  of  Rachel ;  and  it  is  at  least  probable  that  in  this,  as 
in  their  former  guilt,  Simeon  and  Levi  were  brethren. 
The  rivalry  of  the  mothers  was  perpetuated  in  the  jeal- 
ousies of  their  children ;  and  the  two  who  had  shown 
themselves  so  keenly  sensitive  when  their  sister  had 
been  wronged,  make  themselves  the  instruments  and 
accomplices  of  tlie  hatred  which  originated,  we  are  told, 
with  the  baser-born  sons  of  the  concubines  (Gen.  xxxvii, 
2).  Then  comes  for  him,  as  for  the  others,  the  disci- 
pline of  suffering  and  danger,  tlie  special  education  by 
which  the  brother  whom  they  had  wronged  leads  them 
back  to  fiiithfulness  and  natural  affection.  The  deten- 
tion of  Simeon  in  Egypt  may  have  been  designed  at 
once  to  be  the  punishment  for  the  large  share  which  he 
had  taken  in  the  common  crime,  and  to  separate  the 
two  brothers  who  had  hitherto  been  such  close  compan- 
ions in  evil.  The  discipline  did  its  work.  Those  who 
had  been  relentless  to  Joseph  became  self-sacrificing  for 
Benjamin. 

After  this  we  trace  Levi  as  joining  in  the  migration 
of  the  tribe  that  owned  Jacob  as  its  patriarcli.  He,  with 
his  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  IMerari,  went  dowi  into 
Egypt  (Gen.  xlvi,  11).  As  one  of  the  four  eldest  sons 
we  may  think  of  him  as  among  the  five  (Gen.  xlvii,  2) 


LEVIATHAN" 


388 


LEVIATHAN 


that  were  specially  presented  before  Pharaoh.  (The  1 
Jewish  tradition  [^Tarrj.  Psmdojvn.']  states  the  five  to  | 
liave  been  Zebulun,  Dan,  Naphtali.  (iad,  and  Asher.)  \ 
Then  comes  the  last  scene  in  -wliich  his  name  appears. 
When  his  father's  death  draws  near,  and  the  sons  are 
gathered  round  him,  he  hears  the  old  crime  brought  up 
again  to  receive  its  sentence  from  the  lips  that  are  no 
longer  feeble  and  hesitating.  They,  no  less  than  the 
incestuous  first-born,  had  fori'eited  the  privileges  of  their 
birthright.  ''In  tlieir  anger  they  slew  men,  and  in  their 
wantonness  they  maimed  oxen"  (marg.  reading  of  the  A. 
Y. ;  Sept.  ii'tupoKoTTj/ffav  rafipoi').  Therefore  the  sen- 
tence on  those  who  had  been  united  for  evil  was,  that 
they  were  to  be  "divided  in  Jacob  and  scattered  in  Is- 
rael." How  that  condemnation  was  at  once  fidfilled  and 
turned  into  a  benediction,  how  the  zeal  of  the  patriarch 
reappeared  purified  and  strengthened  in  his  descend- 
ants, how  the  very  name  came  to  have  a  new  signifi- 
cance, will  be  foiuid  elsewhere.     See  Levite. 

The  history  of  Levi  has  been  dealt  with  here  in  what 
seems  the  only  true  and  natural  way  of  treating  it,  as  a 
histor}^  of  an  individual  person.  Of  the  theory  that 
sees  in  the  sons  of  Jacob  the  mythical  Eponymi  of  the 
tribes  that  claimed  descent  from  them — which  finds  in 
the  crimes  and  chances  of  their  lives  the  outlines  of  a 
national  or  tribal  chronicle — which  refuses  to  recognise 
tliat  Jacob  had  twelve  sons,  and  inaists.that  the  history 
of  Dinah  records  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  to  enslave  and  degrade  a  Hebrew  tribe  (Ewald,  Ge- 
gchic]ite,\,A6G^'M) — of  this  one  may  be  content  to  say, 
as  the  author  says  of  other  hypotheses  hardly  more  ex- 
travagant, '•  Die  Wissenschaft  verscheucht  alle  solche 
(lespenster"  {ibid,  i, 4G6).  The  book  of  Genesis  tells  us 
of  the  lives  of  men  and  women,  not  of  ethnological  phan- 
toms. A  3'et  wilder  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  by 
another  (jerman  critic.  P.  Redslob  {Die  alttesfamenil. 
j\amen,  Ilamb.  1846,  p.  24, 25),  recognising  the  meaning 
of  the  name  of  Levi  as  given  above,  finds  in  it  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  a  confederacy  or  synod  of  the  priests 
tliat  had  been  connected  with  the  several  local  worships 
of  Canaan,  and  who,  in  the  time  of  Samuel  and  David, 
were  gathered  together,  ;oi«ef/, " round  the  Central  Pan- 
theon in  Jerusalem."  Here,  also,  we  maj^  borrow  the 
terms  of  our  judgment  from  the  language  of  the  writer 
himself.  If  there  are  "  abgeschmackten  ctymologischen 
INlahrchen"  (Redslob,  p.  82)  connected  with  the  name  of 
Levi,  they  are  hardly  those  we  meet  with  in  the  narra- 
tive of  Genesis. — Smith.     See  Jacob. 

2.  Tlie  father  of  Jlatthat  and  son  of  Simeon  (INIaase- 
iah),  of  the  ancestors  of  Christ,  in  the  private  maternal 
line  between  David  and  Zerubbabel  (Luke  iii,  29).  B.C. 
post  876.  Lord  Hervey  thinks  that  the  name  of  Levi 
reappears  in  his  descendant  Lebbieus  (Geneal.  of  Cln-ist, 
p.  132).    See  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Chijist. 

3.  Father  of  another  Matthat  and  son  of  Melchi, 
third  preceding  IMarv,  among  Christ's  ancestors  (Luke 
iii,  24  ).     B.C.  considerably  ante  22. 

4.  (Afi'iV.)  Gne  of  the  apostles,  the  son  of  Alphseus 
(Mark  ii.  14;  Ijuke  v,  27,  29),  elsewhere  called  Mat- 
thew (Matt,  ix, 9). 

Levi'athan  (Ileb.  livyathan',  ''\^'^i^,  usually  de- 
rived from  !T^15,  a  vreuth,  with  adject,  ending  "i  ;  but 
perhaps  compounded  of  ^^7,  in-cathcd,  and  "jri,  a  sea- 
viunxtcr ;  occurs  Job  iii,  8;  xli,  1  [  Hebrew  xl,  25]  ^  Psa. 
Ixxiv,  14;  civ,  26;  Is.i.  xxvii,  1 ;  Sej)!.  ^ookiov,  but  to 
litya  Kiirotj  in  Job  iii,  8;  Vulg.  Lmatliaii,  but  draco  in 
Psa. ;  Auth.  Vers.  '•  Leviathan,"  l)ut  "  their  mourning" 
in  Job  iii,  8)  probalily  has  different  significations,  e.  g.  ; 
(1.)  A  serpent,  especially  a  large  one  (.fob  iii,  8),  hence 
as  the  symbol  of  the  hostile  kingdom  of  Babylon  (Isa. 
xxvii,  1).  (2.)  Specially,  the  rro(v;r///r  (.loli  xli,.!).  (3.) 
A  sea-monster  (Psa,  civ.  26  ) ;  troiiically.  for  a  cruel  ene- 
my (Psa.  Ixxiv,  14 ;  compare  Isa.  li,  9  ;  K/i'k.  xxix,  3). 
This  Heb;  word,  which  denotes  any  twisted  animal,  is 
especially  applicable  to  every  great  tenant  of  the  waters, 
such  as  the  great  marine  serpents  and  crocodiles,  and,  it 


may  be  added,  the  colossal  serpents  and  great  monitors 
of  the  desert.  See  Behemoth  ;  Dragon.  In  general 
it  points  to  the  crocodile,  and  Job  xli  is  unequivocally 
descriptive  of  that  saurian.  But  in  Isaiah  and  the 
I'salms  foreign  kings  are  evidently  apostrophized  under 
the  name  of  Leviathan,  though  other  texts  more  natu- 
rally api)ly  to  the  whale,  notwithstanding  the  objections 
that  have  been  made  to  that  interpretation  of  the  term. 
"  It  is  (pute  an  error  to  assert,  as  Dr.  Harris  {Did.  Xat, 
Hist.  Bib.),  Mason  Good  {Book  of  Job  translated^.  Mi- 
chaelis  {Supp.  1297),  and  Kosenmiiller  (quoting  Micha- 
elis  in  not.  ad  Bochart  Hieroz.  iii,  738)  have  done,  that 
the  whale  is  not  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Orca 
ejladiator  (Gray) — the  grampus  mentioned  by  Lee — the 
Physalus  antiquoruni  (Gray),  or  the  Rorqucd  de  hi  Jlfedi- 
terranee  (Cuvier),  are  not  uncommon  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean (Fischer,  Synops.  Mamm.  p.  525,  and  Lacepede, 
//.  A',  des  C'etaf.  p.  115),  and  in  ancient  times  the  species 
may  have  been  more  numerous"  (Smith).  See  Whale. 
The  word  crocodile  docs  not  occur  in  the  Auth.  Vers., 
although  its  Greek  form  KpoKoCtiXoQ  is  found  in  the 
Sept.  (Lev.  xi,  29,  where  for  the  "  tortoise,"  3U,  it  has 
KQOKO^iiKoq  \t()(jcnoc,  Vulg.  crocodilus)  ;  but  there  is  no 
specific  word  in  the  Hebrew  of  which  it  is  the  acknowl- 
edged representative.  "  Bochart  (iii,  769,  edit.  Rosen- 
mliller)  says  that  the  Talmudists  use  the  word  livyathan 
to  denote  the  crocodile ;  this,  however,  is  denied  by 
Lewysohn  (Zool.  des  Talm.  p.  155,  355),  who  says  that 
in  the  Talmud  it  always  denotes  a  ichale,  and  never  a 
crocodile.  For  the  Talmudical  fables  about  the  levia- 
than, see  Lewysohn  {Zool.  des  Talm.),  in  passages  re- 
ferred to  above,  and  Buxtorf,  Lexicon  Chald.  Talm.  s.  v. 
"ITilP"  (Smith).  Some  of  these  seem  to  be  alluded  to 
in  2  Esdr.  vi,  49, 52.  The  Egyptians  called  it  fsmok  (see 
Bunsen's  yEgyptens  Stellung,  i,  581),  the  Arabs  name  it 
tanise  (compare  x«/lh//7J,  Herod,  ii,  69);  but  Strabo  says 
that  the  Egyptian  crocodile  was  known  by  the  name  su- 
clms,  (sovxo'^1  probably  referring  to  the  sacred  species). 
It  is  not  only  denoted  by  the  leriallian  of  Job  xli,  1,  but 
probably  also  by  the  tannin  of  Ezek.  xxix,  3 ;  xxxii,  2 
(compare  Isa.  xxvii,  1 ;  li,  9)  ;  and  perhaps  by  the  ?ec-c/- 
beast  {Tiyp  P^n,  "spearmen")  of  Psa.  Ixviii,  30.  Others 
confound  the  leviathan  with  the  orca  of  Pliny  (ix,  5),  i. 
e.  probably  the  Physter  macrocephalus  of  Linn,  (see  Th, 
Hase,  De  Lenathan  Jobi,  Brem.  1723) ;  Schultens  under- 
stands the  fabulous  dragon  {Comment,  in  Job.  p.  1174 
sq. ;  compare  Oedmann,  Samml.  iii,  1  sq.)  ;  not  to  dwell 
upon  the  supposed  identification  with  fossil  species  of 
lizards  (Koch,  in  Llidde's  Zeitsclirift  f.  veryhicli  Erdl: 
jMagdeb.  1844 ).  In  the  detailed  description  of  Job  (^ch, 
xli),  probably  "  the  Egyptian  crocodile  is  depicted  in  all 
its  magnitude,  ferocity,  and  indolence,  such  as  it  was  in 
early  days,  when  as  j-et  unconscious  of  the  power  of 
man,  and  only  individually  tamed  for  the  purposes  of  an 
imposture,  wliich  had  sufficient  authority  to  intimidate 
the  public  and  protect  the  species,  under  the  sanctified 
pretext  that  it  was  a  type  of  pure  water,  and  an  emblem 
of  the  importance  of  irrigation;  though  the  people  in 
general  seem  ever  to  have  been  disposed  to  consider  it  a 
personification  of  the  destructive  jirinciple.  At  a  later 
period  the  Egyptians,  probably  of  such  places  as  Ten- 
tyris,  where  crocodiles  were  not  held  in  veneration,  not 
only  hunted  and  slew  them,  but  it  apjiears  from  a  statue 
that  a  sort  of  Bestiarii  could  tame  them  sufticicntly  to 
jierform  certain  exhibitions  mounted  on  their  backs. 
The  intense  musky  odor  of  its  fiesh  must  have  rendered 
the  crocodile  at  aU  times  very  unjialatable  food,  but 
breast-armor  was  made  of  the  horny  and  ridged  parts 
of  its  back.  Viewed  as  the  crocodile  of  the  Tliebaid,  it 
is  not  clear  that  the  leviathan  symbolized  the  Pharaoh, 
or  was  a  type  of  Egvpt,  any  more  than  of  several  Ro- 
man colonies  (even  where  it  was  not  indigenous,  as  at 
Nismes,  in  (iaul,  on  the  ancient  coins  of  which  the  fig- 
ure of  one  cliained  occurs),  and  of  cities  in  Phaniicia, 
Egypt,  and  other  parts  of  the  coast  of  Africa.  During 
the  Roman  sway  in  Egypt,  crocodiles  had  not  disap- 


LEVI  BEN-GERSON 


389 


LEVIRATE 


peared  in  the  Lower  Nile,  for  Seneca  and  others  alhide 
to  a  great  battle  fought  by  them  and  a  school  of  dolpliins 
in  the  Hcracleotic  branch  of  the  Delta.  During  the 
decline  of  the  state  even  the  hippopotamus  reappeared 
about  Pelusinm,  and  was  shot  at  in  the  17th  centur}^ 
(Hadzivil).  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades  crocodiles  were 
found  in  the  Crocodilon  river  of  earl}'  writers,  and  in 
the  Crocodilorum  lacus,  still  called  Moiat  el-Temsah, 
wliich  appear  to  be  the  Kerseos  river  and  marsh,  three 
miles  south  of  Cajsarea,  though  the  nature  of  the  local- 
ity is  most  appropriate  at  Nahr-el  Arsuf  or  el-Haddar" 
(Kitto).  (For  a  full  account  of  the  treatment  of  the 
crocodile  and  its  worship  in  Egypt,  see  Wilkinson's  .4  w. 
Ejupt.  i,  243  sq.)-     See  Kaiiah. 

Most  of  the  popular  accounts  of  the  crocodile  have 
been  taken  from  the  American  aUif/afor,  a  smaller  ani- 
mal, but  very  similar  in  its  habits  to  the  true  crocodile. 
See  generally  Herod,  ii,  (58  sq. ;  Diod.  Sic.  i,  35 ;  ^lian, 
Ilisi.  Amm.Y,2o\  xvii,  G;  xii,  15;  Ammianus  Marcell. 
xxii,  15;  Hasselquist,  Trm\  p.  344  sq. ,  Pococke,  East, 
i,  301  sq. ;  Oken,  Naturffesc/iickte,  III,  ii,  329  sq. ;  Cuvier, 
Anim.  K'uujd.  li,  21 ;  Thom,  in  the  JIalle  Enq/kloj}.  xxi, 
45G  sq. ,  Bochart,  Hieroz.  iii,  737  sq.;  Oedmann,  iii,  1 
sq. ;  vi,  53  sq. ;  A  nnales  du  Museum  dldstoire  natur.  vol. 
ix,  X ;  Jlinutoli,  Trav.  p.  246 ;  Koseiimiiller,  A Iterthumsk. 
IV,  ii,  244  sq.;  Denon,  Truv.  p.  291;  Norden,  Reise,  p. 
302.     Comp.  Crocodile. 

Levi  ben-Gerson.     See  Ralbag, 

Levi,  David,  a  noted  English  Jewish  writer,  was 
born  at  London  in  1740.  He  was  a  hatter  by  profession, 
but  ardently  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  Jewish  lit- 
erature, and  gained  great  reputation  by  several  learned 
]iublications,  of  which  the  principal  is  his  Linfjiia  Sacra, 
a  dictionary  and  grammar  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Tahnudic  dialects  (London,  1785-89,  3  vols.  8vo).  He 
wrote  also  Dissertations  on  the  Proiihedes  of  the  Old 
Testament  (1793,  2  vols.  8vo)  -.—Defence  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, in  Letters,  in  answer  to  Thomas  Paine's  Affe  of 
Reason  (1797,  8vo).  Levi  died  in  1799.  See  Lj'son's 
Environs,  sup.  vol.  European  Magazine  (1799) ;  London 
Gent.  Mag.  (1801) ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  ami  Amer. 
A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Levings,  Noah,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Methodist  Epis- 
copal minister,  was  born  in  Cheshire  County,  N.  H., 
Sept.  29,  179G,  and  early  removed  to  Troy,  N.  Y. ;  was 
converted  about  1812 ;  entered  the  New  York  Conference 
in  1818;  was  stationed  at  New  York  in  1827-8;  at 
Brooklyn  in  1829-30 ;  at  New  Haven  in  1831-2 ;  at  Al- 
bany in  1833  j  on  Troy  District  in  1838  ;  in  1843  at  Ves- 
try Street,  New  York ;  in  1844  was  finally  elected  finan- 
cial secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Society.  He  died 
at  Cincinnati  Jan.  9, 1849.  In  early  life  his  advantages 
for  education  were  limited,  but  the  vigor  of  his  mind 
and  untiring  effort  bore  him  above  all  obstacles,  and  he 
became  one  of  the  most  popular  and  useful  ministers  of 
his  time.  During  his  eighteen  pastoral  appointments. 
Dr.  Levings  is  said  to  have  "  preached  nearly  4000  ser- 
mons, delivered  65  addresses  and  orations,  and  to  have 
travelled  over  no  less  than  36,500  miles.  He  also  de- 
livered 275  addresses  for  the  American  Bible  Societj-." 
He  was  an  earnest  and  accomplished  minister ;  many 
souls  were  converted  under  his  labors ;  and  as  a  platform 
speaker  he  had  few  equals  amongst  the  ministry  of  his 
age.— Con/:  Min.  iv,  327 ;  Meih.  Qu.  Rev.  1849,  p.  515. 

Levirate  (from  the  law-Latin  term  lerir,  a  hus- 
band's Ijrother),  the  name  applied  to  an  ancient  usage 
of  the  Hebrews  (Gen.  xxxviii,  8  sq.),  reordained  by  Mo- 
ses (Deut,  XXV,  5-10;  comp.  Josephus,  Ant.  iv,  8,  23; 
Matt,  xxii,  24  sq.),  that  when  an  Israelite  died  without 
leaving  male  issue,  his  brother  (CS'^,  yaham',  which  was 
the  specific  term  applied  to  this  relation),  resident  with 
him,  was  compelled  to  marry  the  widow,  and  continue 
his  deceased  brother's  family  through  the  first-bom  son 
issuing  from  such  union  as  the  heir  of  the  former  hus- 
band (comp.  Jul.  Afric.  in  Eusebius,  Hist.  Ev.  i,  7).  If 
he  was  unwilling  to  do  so,  he  could  only  be  released 


from  the  obligation  by  undergoing  a  species  of  insult 
(Deut.  XXV,  9).  This  is  illustrated  in  the  case  of  Kuth 
(ch.  iii,  iv),  where,  however,  as  an  estate  was  involved, 
Boaz  is  styled  by  a  different  terra  (3Xi>,  an  avenger). 
The  Talmud  contains  a  very  subtile  exposition  of  this 
statute  (see  Mishna,  Jebanioth,  iii,  1 ;  comp.  Eduj.  iv,  8, 
on  Deut.  xxv,  9 ;  see  also  Jeham.  xii,  6 ;  comp.  Selden, 
Uxor  Hehr.  i,  12 ;  Cans,  Eherecht,  i,  167  sq.).  The  high- 
priest  appears  to  have  been  free  from  this  law  (Lev.  xxi, 
13),  and  there  must  doubtless  have  been  other  excep- 
tions, especially  in  the  case  of  aged  persons  and  pros- 
elytes (Mishna,  Jebam.  xi,  2).  A  similar  law  prevails 
among  the  natives  of  Central  Asia  (Bernary,  p.  34  sq. ; 
Niebuhr,  Beschr.  p.  70  ;  Bergeron,  Voyages,  i,  28)  and 
Abyssinia  (Bruce,  Trav.  ii,  223),  and  traces  of  it  existed 
among  the  ancient  Italians  (Diod.  Sic.  xii,  18).  This 
law  no  doubt  originated  in  the  love  of  offspring,  prover- 
bially strong  in  the  Eastern  bosom,  which  sought  this 
method  at  once  of  perpetuating  a  deceased  person's 
name  and  of  procuring  progeny  for  the  widow  (Jahn's 
Archceol.  §  157).  See  Kinsman.  The  law,  however, 
was  unquestionably  attended  with  great  inconveniences, 
for  a  man  cannot  but  think  it  the  most  unpleasant  of  all 
necessities  if  he  must  marry  a  woman  whom  he  has  not 
chosen  himself.  Thus  we  find  that  the  brother  in  some 
instances  had  no  inclination  for  any  such  marriage  (Gen. 
xxxviii ;  Ihith  iv),  and  stumbled  at  this,  that  the  first 
son  produced  from  it  could  not  belong  to  him.  Whether 
a  second  son  might  follow  and  continue  in  life  was  very 
uncertain;  and  among  a  people  who  so  highly  prized 
genealogical  immortality  of  name,  it  was  a  great  hard- 
sliip  for  a  man  to  be  obliged  to  procure  it  for  a  person 
already  dead,  and  to  run  the  risk  meanwhile  of  losing  it 
himself.  Nor  was  this  law  very  much  in  favor  of  the 
morals  of  the  other  sex ;  for,  not  to  speak  of  Tamar, 
who,  in  reference  to  it,  conceived  herself  justified  in  hav- 
ing recourse  to  most  improper  conduct,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  what  Ruth  did  (iii,  G-9),  in  order  to  obtain 
for  a  husband  the  person  whom  she  accounted  as  the 
nearest  kinsman  of  her  deceased  husband,  is,  to  say  the 
least,  by  no  means  conformable  to  that  modesty  and  del- 
icacy which  we  look  for  in  the  other  sex.  A  wise  and 
good  legislator  coidd  scarcely  have  been  inclined  to  pat- 
ronize any  such  law;  but  then  it  is  not  advisable  direct- 
ly to  attack  an  inveterate  point  of  honor,  because,  in 
such  a  case,  for  the  most  part  nothing  is  gained ;  and  in 
the  present  instance,  as  the  point  of  honor  placed  im- 
mortalit)'  of  name  entirely  in  a  man's  leaving  descend- 
ants behind  him,  it  was  so  favorable  to  the  increase  of 
population  that  it  merited  some  degree  of  forbearance 
and  tenderness.  Jloses  therefore  left  the  Israelites  still 
in  possession  of  their  established  right,  but,  at  the  same 
time,  he  studied  as  much  as  possible  to  guard  against 
its  rigor  and  evil  effects  by  limiting  and  moderating  its 
operation  in  various  respects.  In  the  first  place,  he  ex- 
pressly prohibited  the  marriage  of  a  brother's  widow  if 
there  were  children  of  his  own  alive.  Before  this  time, 
brothers  were  probably  in  the  practice  of  considering  a 
brother's  widow  as  part  of  the  inheritance,  and  of  ap- 
propriating her  to  themselves,  if  unable  to  buy  a  wife, 
as  the  Mongols  do,  so  that  this  was  a  very  necessary 
prohibition.  For  a  successor  jwcesumptivus  in  thoro,  whom 
a  wife  can  regard  as  her  future  husband,  is  rather  a  dan- 
gerous neighbor  for  her  present  one's  honor,  and  if  she 
happen  to  conceive  any  predilection  for  the  younger 
brother,  her  husband,  particularh'  in  a  southern  climate, 
will  hardly  be  secure  from  the  risk  of  poison.  In  the 
second  place,  Moses  allowed,  and,  indeed,  enjoined  the 
brother  to  marry  the  widow  of  his  childless  brother; 
but  if  he  was  not  disposed  to  do  so,  he  did  not  absolutely 
compel  him,  but  left  him  an  easy  means  of  riddance,  for 
he  had  only  to  declare  in  court  that  he  had  no  inclina- 
tion to  marry  her,  and  then  he  was  at  liberty.  This,  it 
is  true,  subjected  him  to  a  punishment,  which  at  first  ap- 
pears sufficiently  severe — the  slighted  widow  had  a  right 
to  revile  him  in  court  as  much  as  she  pleased ;  and  from 
his  pulling  off  his  shoe  and  delivermg  it  to  the  wido\v, 


LEVIS 


390 


LEVITE 


he  received  the  appellation  of  Barcsole,  which  anybody 
niight  apply  to  him  without  being  liable  to  a  prosecu- 
tion. 15ut  "this  intlictiou  was,  after  all,  merely  nominal, 
and  we  lind  that  it  did  not  prevent  the  rejection  of  the 
widow  wlien  there  was  a  decided  aversion  to  it  on  the 
]iart  of  the  surviving  relative  (Kuth  iv,  8).  The  law, 
however,  only  extended  to  a  brother  living  in  the  same 
city  or  countrj-,  not  to  one  residing  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance. Nor  did  it  affect  a  brother  havmg  already  a 
wife  of  his  own.  At  least,  if  it  had  its  origin  in  this, 
that  by  reason  of  the  price  required  for  a  wife,  often 
onlv  one  brother  could  marry,  and  the  others  also  wished 
to  do  the  same,  it  could  only  affect  such  as  were  unmar- 
ried ;  and  in  the  two  instances  that  occur  in  Genesis  (ch. 
xxxviii )  and  Kuth  (ch.  iv),  we  tind  the  brother-in-law, 
wliose  duty  it  was  to  marry,  apprehensive  of  its  proving 
hurtful  to  himself  and  his  inheritance,  which  could 
hardly  have  been  the  case  if  lie  had  previously  had  an- 
other wife,  or  (but  that  was  at  least  expensive)  could 
have  taken  one  of  his  own  choice.  When  there  was 
no  brother  alive,  or  when  he  declined  the  duty,  the 
levirate  law,  as  we  see  from  the  case  of  Kuth,  extended 
to  the  nearest  relation  of  the  deceased  husband,  as, 
for  instance,  to  his  paternal  uncle  or  nephew;  so  that 
at  last  even  quite  remote  kinsmen,  in  default  of  nearer 
ones,  might  be  obliged  to  undertake  it.  Boaz  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  very  nearly  related  to  Kuth,  as  he 
did  not  so  much  as  know  who  she  was  when  he  met  her 
gleaning  in  tlie  fields.  Nor  did  she  know  that  he  was 
any  relation  to  her  until  apprised  of  it  by  her  mother- 
in-law.  Among  the  Jews  of  the  present  day  levirate 
marriages  liave  entirely  ceased,  so  much  so  that  in  the 
marriage  contracts  of  the  very  poorest  people  among 
them  it  is  generally  stipulated  that  the  bridegroom's 
brother  shall  abandon  all  those  rights  to  the  bride  to 
which  he  could  lay  claim  by  the  law  in  question  (Mi- 
chaelis,  Mos.  Recht.  ii,  197  sq.).  See  Perizon.  De  consii- 
iutione  die.  super  dcfuncti  fruiris  more  dvcendu  (Hal. 
1 742) ;  F.  Bernarj',  De  Ilehrceor.  leviraiu  (Berlin,  1835) ; 
J.  JM.  Kedslob,  Die  Leviratsc/ie  bei  dm  IJehrdern  (Leip- 
sic,  1836) ;  C.  W.  F.  Walch,  De  lege  levir.  adfratres  non 
fjerm.sed  trihides  referenda  (Getting.  1703)  ;  HuUman, 
8taatsverf.  d.  Israel,  p.  190  sq. ;  Rauschenbusch,  De  lege 
leriratus  (Getting.  1765).     See  MARiaAGK. 

Le'vis  (A£j»('f)>  given  (1  Esdr.  ix,  14)  as  a  proper 
name,  but  meaning  simply  a  Levite,  as  correctly  ren- 
dered in  the  parallel  Hebrew  passage  (Ezra  x,  15). 

Le vison,  Mop.decai  Gujipei-,  a  learned  .Jewish  phy- 
sician and  commentator,  was  born  and  educated  at  Ber- 
lin, where  he  was  fellow-student  of  the  celebrated  phi- 
losopher Moses  Mendelssohn.  He  afterwards  removed 
to  London,  and  was  physician  in  one  of  the  hospitals 
(1790);  was  then  nominated  by  Gnstavus  HI,  of  Swe- 
den, to  a  professorial  chair  in  Upsala.  In  1781  he  re- 
turned to  his  native  place,  but  left  again  three  years 
later  for  Hamburg,  where  he  died  February  10.  1797. 
His  works  ilhistrativc  of  the  Bible  are  ^1  Commentary  on 
Ecclesiastes,  cahed  flbs^a  mSTP,  dedicated  to  Gusta- 
vus  III  (Hamburg,  1784).  This  elaborate  work  is  pre- 
ceded liy  live  introductions,  which  respectively  treat  on 
tlie  import  of  the  book,  the  appropriateness  of  its  name, 
Hebrew  synonymes,  roots,  the  verb  and  its  inflexions, 
the  names  of  the  Deity,  on  the  design  of  the  Bible,  etc. ; 
wlu  reupon  follows  the  Hebrew  text  with  a  double  com- 
nuntary :  one  explains  tlie  words  and  their  connection, 
and  the  other  gives  an  exjiosition  of  the  argument  of  the 
hook: — A  Treatise  on  Ilohj  Scripture,  pnljhshcd  at  the 
request  of  the  king  of  Sweden  (Lond.  1770) :— .1  Treatise 
on  tlie  Pintateuch,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Talmud,  entitled 
nb'ba  nnr-a  rbo  (Hamb.  I797):— .4  Hebrew  Lexicon, 
called  C^'i'l  wT  :— .4  Work  on  Jlebreio  Sijnohynws,  en- 
titled C'^ST'in  "£0  : — and'a  Hebrew  Grhmmar,  called 
iTmnn  "i'lpn  """.  The  last  three  Avorks  have  not 
as  yet  been  published.  See  Fiirst,  Bibliotheca  Judaica, 
ii,  238  sq. ;  Kitto,  Cyclop.  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Le'vite  C^^i^''^,  son  of  Levi,  ox  simply  *^)':i,Lev{, 
for  "I*;',  Dent,  xii,  18;  Judg.  xvii,  9, 11 ;  xviii,  3;  usu- 
ally in  the  plur.  and  with  the  art,  D"i'|ilbn;  Sejjt.  \tv- 
Irai),  a  patronymic  title  which,  besides  denoting  all  the 
descendants  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi,  25 ,  Lev.  xxv, 
32,  etc.;  Numb,  xxxv,  2;  Josh,  xxi,  3,  41),  is  the  dis- 
tinctive title  of  that  portion  of  it  which  was  set  apart 
for  the  subordinate  offices  of  the  sanctuary',  to  assist  the 
other  and  smaller  portion  of  their  own  tribe,  invested 
with  the  superior  functions  of  the  hierarchy  (1  Kings 
viii,  4;  Ezra  ii,  70,  John  i,  19,  etc.),  and  this  is  the  mean- 
ing which  has  perpetuated  itself.  Sometimes,  again,  it 
is  added  as  an  epithet  of  the  smaller  portion  of  the  tribe, 
and  we  read  of  "  the  priests  the  Levites".  (Josh,  iii,  3 ; 
Ezek.  xliv,  15).  See  Priest.  In  describing  the  insti- 
tution and  development  of  the  Levitical  order,  we  shall 
treat  of  it  in  chronological  order,  availing  ourselves 
largely  of  the  articles  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dictionaries. 
I.  Fivm  the  Exode  till  the  Monarchy. — This  is  the 
most  interesting  and  important  period  in  the  history  of 
the  Levitical  order,  and  in  describing  it  we  must  first  of 
all  trace  the  cause  which  called  it  into  existence. 

1.  Origin  and  Institution  of  the  Levitical  Order.  The 
absence  of  all  reference  to  the  consecrated  character 
of  the  Levites  in  the  book  of  Genesis  is  noticeable 
enough.  The  prophecy  ascribed  to  .Jacob  (Gen.  xlix, 
5-7)  was  indeed  fulfilled  with  singular  precision,  but  the 
terms  of  the  prophecy  are  hardly  such  as  would  have 
been  framed  by  a  later  writer,  after  the  tribe  had  gained 
its  subsequent  pre-eminence.  The  only  occasion  on 
which  the  patriarch  of  the  tribe  appears — the  massacre 
of  the  Shechemites — may  indeed  have  contributed  to 
influence  the  history  of  his  descendants,  by  fostering  in 
them  the  same  fierce,  wild  zeal  against  all  that  threat- 
ened to  violate  the  purity  of  their  race,  but  generally 
what  strikes  us  is  the  absence  of  all  recognition  of  the 
later  character.  In  the  genealogy  of  Gen.  xlvi,  11,  in 
like  manner,  the  list  does  not  go  lower  down  than  the 
three  sons  of  Levi,  and  they  are  given  in  the  order  of 
their  birth,  not  in  that  which  would  have  corresponded 
to  the  official  superiority  of  the  Kohathites.  There  are 
no  signs,  again,  that  the  tribe  of  Levi  had  any  special 
pre-eminence  over  the  others  during  the  Egyptian  bond- 
age. As  tracing  its  descent  from  Leah,  it  would  take 
its  place  among  the  six  chief  tribes  sprung  from  the 
wives  of  Jacob,  and  share  with  them  a  recognised  supe- 
riority over  those  that  bore  the  names  of  the  sons  of 
Bilhah  and  Zilpah.  Within  the  tribe  itself  there  are 
some  slight  tokens  that  the  Kohathites  were  gaining  the 
first  place.  The  classification  of  Exod.  vi,  16-25  gives 
to  that  section  of  the  tribe  four  clans  or  houses,  while 
those  of  Gershon  and  JMerari  have  but  two  each.  To  it 
belonged  the  house  of  Amram,  and  "Aaron  the  Levite" 
(Exod.  iv,  14)  is  spoken  of  as  one  to  Avhom  the  people 
woidd  be  sure  to  listen.  He  married  the  daughter  of  the 
chief  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Exod.  vi,  23).  The  work  ac- 
complished by  him,  and  by  his  yet  greater  brotlier,  would 
naturally  tend  to  give  prominence  to  the  family  and  the 
tribe  to  which  they  belonged,  but  as  yet  there  are  no 
traces  of  a  caste-character,  no  signs  of  any  intention  to 
establish  a  hereditary  priesthood.  L^p  to  this  time  the 
Israelites  had  worshipped  the  God  of  their  fathers  after 
their  fathers'  manner.  The  first-born  of  the  ])cop]e  were 
the  priests  of  tlie  people.  The  elilest  son  of  eaih  house 
inherited  the  priestly  office.  His  youth  made  him,  in 
his  father's  lifetime,  the  representative  of  the  jiurity 
which  was  connected  from  the  beginning  with  the 
thought  of  worsliip  (I^wald,  ,1  Iterthiim.  p.  273.  and  corap. 
Priest).  It  was  apparently  with  this  as  their  ances- 
tral worship  that  tlic  Israelites  came  up  out  of  Egypt. 
The  "young  me.n"  of  the  sons  of  Israel  offer  sacrifices 
(Exod.  xxiv,  5).  They,  we  may  infer,  are  the  priests 
who  remain  -with  tlie  people  while  Moses  ascends  the 
heights  of  Sinai  (xix,  22-24).  They  represented  the 
truth  that  tlie  wliole  people  were  "a  kingdom  of  priests" 
(xix,  0).     Neither  they,  nor  the  '•officers  and  judges" 


LEVITE 


391 


LEVITE 


appointed  to  assist  Moses  in  administering  justice  (xviii, 
25),  are  connected  iu  any  special  manner  with  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  The  first  step  towards  a  change  was  made  in 
the  institution  of  a  liereditary  priesthood  in  the  family 
of  Aaron  during  the  tirst  withdrawal  of  Moses  to  the 
solitude  of  Sinai  (xxviii,  1).  This,  however,  was  one 
thing ;  it  was  quite  another  to  set  apart  a  whole  tribe 
of  Israel  as  a  priestly  caste.  The  directions  given  for 
the  construction  of  the  tabernacle  imply  no  pre-emi- 
nence of  the  Levites.  The  chief  workers  in  it  are  from 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Dan  (Exod.  xxxi,  2-6).  The 
next  extension  of  the  idea  of  the  priesthood  grew  out 
of  the  terrible  crisis  of  Exod.  xxxii.  If  the  Levites  had 
been  sharers  in  the  sin  of  the  golden  calf,  they  were,  at 
any  rate,  the  foremost  to  rally  round  their  leader  when 
he" called  on  them  to  help  him  in  stemming  the  progress 
of  the  evil.  Then  came  that  terrible  consecration  of 
themselves,  when  every  man  was  against  his  son  and 
against  his  brother,  and  the  offering  with  which  they 
filled  their  hands  (D3i;;i  ^ixbri,  Exod.  xxxii,  29  ;  comp. 
Exod.  xxviii,  41)  was  the  blood  of  their  nearest  of  kin. 
The  tribe  stood  forth  separate  and  apart,  recognising 
even  in  this  stern  work  the  spiritual  as  higher  than  the 
natural,  and  therefore  counted  worthy  to  be  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  ideal  life  of  the  people,  "an  Israel  with- 
in an  Israel"'  (Ewiild,  Alterthiim.  p.  279),  chosen  in  its 
higher  representatives  to  offer  incense  and  burnt-sacri- 
fice before  the  Lord  (Deut.  xxxiii,  9, 10),  not  without  a 
share  in  the  glory  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  that  were 
worn  by  the  prince  and  chieftain  of  the  tribe.  From 
this  time,  accordingly,  they  occupied  a  distinct  position. 
Experience  had  shown  ho\v  easily  the  people  might  fall 
back  into  idolatr}^ — how  necessary  it  was  that  there 
should  be  a  body  of  men,  an  order,  numerically  large, 
and,  when  the  people  were  in  their  promised  home, 
equally  diffused  throughout  the  country,  as  attestators 
and  guardians  of  the  truth.  Without  this  the  individ- 
ualism of  the  older  worship  would  have  been  fruitful  in 
an  ever-multiplying  idolatry.  The  tribe  of  Levi  was 
therefore  to  take  the  place  of  that  earlier  priesthood  of 
the  first-born  as  representatives  of  the  holiness  of  the 
people. 

The  tabernacle,  with  its  extensive  and  regular  sacri- 
ficial service,  which  required  a  special  priestly  order  reg- 
ularly to  perform  the  higher  functions  of  the  sanctuary, 
was  the  special  occasion  which  also  called  into  being  the 
Levitical  staff  to  aid  the  priests  in  their  arduous  task, 
inasmuch  as  the  primitive  and  patriarchal  mode  of  wor- 
ship which  obtained  till  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle, 
and  according  to  which  the  first-born  of  all  Israelites 
performed  the  priestly  offices  (comp.  Exod.  xxiv,  5  with 
xix,  24,  and  see  First-born),  could  not  be  perpetuated 
under  the  newly-organized  congregational  service  with- 
out interfering  with  the  domestic  relations  of  the  people. 
It  was  for  this  reason,  as  wcU  as  to  secure  greater  effi- 
ciency in  the  sacred  offices,  that  the  religious  primogen- 
iture was  conferred  upon  the  tribe  of  Levi,  Avhich  were 
henceforth  to  give  their  undivide<l  attention  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  sanctuary  (Numb,  iii,  11-13).     The 
tribe  of  Levi  were  selected  because  they  had  manifested 
a  very  extraordinary  zeal  for  the  glory  of  God  (Exod. 
xxxii,  2G,  etc.),  had  already  obtained  a  part  of  this  re- 
ligious primogeniture  by  the  institution  of  the  hered- 
itary ]irlesthood  in  the  family  of  Aaron  (Exod.  xxviii, 
1),  and  because,  as  the  tribe  to  which  jMoses  and  Aaron 
belonged,  tliey  would  most  naturally  support  and  pro- 
mote the  institutions  of  the  lawgiver.     To  effect  this 
transfer  of  office,  the  first-born  males  of  all  the  other 
tribes  and  all  the  Levites  were  ordered  to  be  numbered, 
from  the  age  of  one  month  and  upwards;  and  when  it 
was  found  that  the  former  were  22,27;!,  and  tlie  latter 
22,000  (see  below),  it  was  arranged  tliat  22,000  of  the 
first-born  should  be  replaced  by  the  22,000  Levites,  that 
the  273  first-born  who  were  in  excess  of  the  Levites 
should  be  redeemed  at  the  rate  of  five  shekels  each,  be- 
ing the  legal  sum  for  the  redemption  of  the  first-born 
child  (Numb,  xviii,  10),  and  that  the  1305  shekels  be 


given  to  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  a  compensation  for  the 
odd  persons  who,  as  first-born,  belonged  to  Jehovah.  As 
to  the  difficulty  how  to  decide  which  of  the  first-born 
should  be  redeemed  by  paying  this  money,  and  which 
should  be  exchanged  for  the  Levites,  since  it  was  natu- 
ral for  every  one  to  wish  to  escape  this  expense,  the 
Jlidrash  (0/*  Numb,  iii,  17)  and  the  Talmud  relate  that 
"  Moses  wrote  on  22,000  tickets  Levite  C^lb  'p),  and  on 
273  Five  Shekels  (D'^^p'^U  U:^n),  mixed  them  all  up, 
put  them  into  a  vessel,  and  then  bid  every  Israelite  to 
draw  one.  He  who  took  out  one  with  Levite  on  it  waz 
redeemed  by  a  Levite,  and  he  who  drew  one  with  Fire 
Shekels  on  it  had  to  be  redeemed  by  payment  of  this 
sum"  {Sanhedrin,  17,  a).  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
this  ancient  tradition.  It  was  further  ordained  that  the 
cattle  which  the  Levites  then  happened  to  possess  should 
be  considered  as  equivalent  to  all  the  first-born  cattle 
which  all  the  Israelites  had,  without  their  being  num- 
bered and  exchanged  one  for  one,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
human  beings  (Numb,  iii,  41-51),  so  that  the  firstlings 
should  not  now  be  given  to  the  priest,  or  be  redeemed, 
which  the  Israelites  were  hereafter  required  to  do 
(Numb,  xviii,  15).  In  this  way  the  Levites  obtained  a 
sacrificial  as  well  as  a  priestly  character.  They  for  the 
first-born  of  men,  and  their  cattle  for  the  firstlings  of 
beasts,  fulfilled  the  idea  that  had  been  asserted  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  the  first-born  of  Egypt  (Exod. 
xiii,  12, 13). 

There  is  a  discrepancy  between  the  total  number  of 
the  Levites,  which  is  given  in  Numb,  iii,  39  as  22,000, 
and  the  separate  number  of  the  three  divisions  which 
is  given  in  verses  22,  28,  and  34,  as  follows :  Gershon- 
ites,7500-|-Kohathites,  8G00  +  Merarites,  6200  =^  22,30_0. 
Compare  also  verse  46,  where  it  is  said  that  the  22,273 
first-born  exceeded  the  total  number  of  Levites  by  273. 
The  Talmud  (Bechnroth,  5,  a)  and  the  Jewish  commen- 
tators, who  are  followed  by  most  Christian  expositors, 
submit  that  the  300  surplus  Levites  were  the  fir^t-born 
of  this  tribe,  who,  as  such,  could  not  be  substituted  for 
the  first-born  of  the  other  tribes,  and  therefore  were 
omitted  from  the  total.  To  this,  however,  it  is  objected 
that  if  such  an  exemption  of  first-born  had  been  intend- 
ed, the  text  would  have  contained  some  intimation  of  it, 
whereas  there  is  nothing  whatever  in  the  context  to  indi- 
cate it,  Iloubigant  therefore  suggests  that  a  h  has  drop- 
ped out  of  the  word  'db^  in  verse  28,  making  it  T:j':i,  and 
that  by  retaining  the  former  word  we  obtain  8300  instead 
of  8600,  which  removes  all  the  difficulty,  Philippson, 
Keil,  and  others  adopt  this  explanation.  The  number  of 
the  first-born  appears  disproportionately  small  as  com- 
pared with  the  population.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  conditions  to  be  fulfilled  were  that 
they  should  be  at  once  (1)  the  first  child  of  the  father, 
(2)  "the  first  child  of  the  mother,  and  (3)  males.  (Com- 
pare on  this  question,  and  on  that  of  the  difference  of 
numbers,  Kurtz,  History  of-the  Old  Covenant,  iii,  201.) 

2.  Division  of  the  Tribe  of  Levi. — As  different  fmtctions 
were  assigned  to  the  separate  houses  of  the  Levitical 
branch  of  the  tribe,  to  ivhich  frequent  references  are 
made,  wc  subjoin  the  following  table  from  Exod.  vi,  16- 
25,  italicizing  the  Aaronic  or  priestly  branch  in  order  to 
facilitate  these  references. 


«-"--{Sei. 


TAmram  ~ 


(.4f 


LEVI  {  KouATu 


(Moses. 
nCorah. 
<  NeriheK 


jEIcazar. 
\Ithainar. 


Izhar      ,-^,  ---, 
(Zithri. 
Hebron. 

jMishael. 
iUzzicl    -^Elzapliau. 

(Zithri. 
(Mahali. 
■\Mushi. 

N  B.— Those  mentioned  in  the  above  list  are  by  no 
means  the  only  descendants  of  Levi  iu  tlieir  respective 
generations,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that,  though  no 


Merari 


LEVITE 


392 


LEVITE 


sons  of  Libui,  Shiniei,  Hebron,  etc.,  are  here  given,  yet 
meulion  is  made  in  Numb,  iii,  21,  of  "the  family  of  the 
Libuitesaiid  the  family  of  the  8himeites;"  in  Numb,  xxvi, 
2S,  of  "  the  family  of  the  Libuites  ;"  and  in  Numb,  iii,  2T ; 
xxvi,  5S,  of  "the  family  of  the  Ilebronites;"  whilst  in  1 
Chrou.  xxlii,  several  sous  of  these  men  are  mentioned  by 
name.  Again,  no  sons  of  Mahali  and  Mushi  are  given, 
and  yet  they  appear  in  Numb,  iii  as  fathers  of  families  of 
the  Levites.  The  design  of  the  genealogy  in  question  is 
simply  to  give  the  pedigrees  of  Moses  and  Aaron,  and 
some  other  principal  heads  of  the  family  of  Levi,  as  is  ex- 
pressly stated  in  Exod.vi,  25:  "These  are  the  heads  ofthe 
fathers  of  the  Levites  according  to  their  families."  In 
these  heads  all  the  other  members  of  their  families  were 
included,  according  to  the  principle  laid  down  in  1  Chron. 
xxiii,  11 :  "Therefore  they  were  in  one  reckoning,  accord- 
ing to  their  father's  house."  ISome  names  are  also  men- 
tioned for  a  special  purpose,  e.  g.  the  sons  of  Izhar,  on  ac- 
count of  Ivorah,  who  was  the  leader  ofthe  rebellion  against 
liloses.  These  observations  afford  an  answer  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  to  the  conclusions  of  bishop  Coleuso  upon 
the  number  of  the  Levites  (The  Pentateuch  and  tlie  Hook 
of  Joshua  critically  examined,  i,  lOT-11'2). 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  Levitical  order  comprises 
the  whole  of  the  descendants  of  Gershon  and  Merari, 
and  those  of  Kohath  tlirough  Izhar  and  Uzziel,  as  well 
as  through  Amram's  second  son,  Moses ;  whilst  Aaron, 
Amram's  first  son,  and  his  issue,  constitute  the  priestly 
order.  It  must  here  be  remarked  that,  though  Kohath 
is  the  second  in  point  of  age  and  order,  yet  his  family 
■will  be  found  to  occupy  the  first  position,  because  they 
are  the  nearest  of  kin  to  the  priests. 

3.  A^e  and  Qucdljicatwns  for  Levitical  Service The 

only  qualification  for  active  service  specitied  in  the  Mo- 
saic law  is  mature  age,  which  in  Numb,  iv,  3,  23, 30,  39, 
43. 47  is  said  to  be  from  thirty  to  fift)-,  whilst  m  Numb, 
viii,  24,  25  it  is  said  to  commence  at  ticenty-five.  Vari- 
ous attempts  have  been  made  to  reconcile  these  two  ap- 
parently contradictory  injunctions.  The  Talmud  {Choi. 
24,  a),  Kashi  {Comment,  ad  loc),  and  Maimonides  {Joel 
Ha-Chezaha,  iii,  7, 3),  who  are  followed  by  some  Chris- 
tian commentators,  affirm  that  from  twenty-five  to  thirty 
the  Levites  attended  in  order  to  be  instructed  in  their 
duties,  but  did  not  enter  upon  actual  duties  until  they 
were  full  thirty  years  of  age.  But  this  explanation,  as 
Abrabanel  rightly  remarks,  "is  at  variance  with  the 
plain  declaration  ofthe  text,  that  the  Levites  were  called 
at  twenty-five  years  of  age  to  wait  vpon  the  service  of 
the  tahernacle,  which  clearly  denotes  not  instruction  for 
their  ministry,  but  the  ministry  itself"  {Commentar.  on 
Numh.  viii,  24).  Besides,  the  text  itself  does  not  give 
the  slightest  intimation  that  any  period  of  the  Levitical 
life  was  devoted  to  instruction.  Hence  Kashbam,  Aben- 
Ezra,  and  Abrabanel,  who  are  followed  by  most  modern 
expositors,  submit  that  the  twenty-five  years  of  age  re- 
fers to  the  Levites'  entering  upon  the  lighter  part  of 
their  service,  such  as  keeping  watch  and  performing  the 
lighter  duties  in  the  tabernacle,  whilst  the  thirty  years 
of  age  refers  to  their  entering  upon  the  more  onerous 
duties,  such  as  carrying  heavy  weights,  when  the  taber- 
nacle was  moved  about  from  place  to  jilace,  which  re- 
(piired  the  full  strength  of  a  man,  maintaining  that  this 
distinction  is  indicated  in  the  text  by  the  words  1125Jb 
Nw^?:bl,yb?-  labor  and  burdens,  when  the  thirty  years' 
work  is  spoken  of  (Numb,  iv,  30, 31),  and  by  the  omission 
of  the  word  Xw"^,  burden,  when  the  twenty-five  years' 
work  is  spoken  of  (Xnmb.  viii,  24,  etc.").  But  it  maj' 
fairly  be  ([uestioned  whctlior  man  is  more  fitted  for  ar- 
(hious  work  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  than  from  twenty- 
live  to  thirty.  Besides,  the  (iershonitcs  and  the  Mera- 
riies,  who  had  the  charge  of  the  heavier  burdens,  did  not 
carry  them  at  all  (coni|i.  Numb,  vii,  3-0,  and  sec.  4  be- 
low). According  to  another  ancient  .lewisli  interpreta- 
tion adojited  by  Biihr  {Symbol,  ii,  41)  and  others,  Numb, 
iv  treats  of  the  necessary  age  of  the  l.,evites  for  the  im- 
mediate rctiuircments  in  the  tcilderness,  whilst  Numb,  viii 
gives  their  His.fi  for  the  promised  land,  wlien  they  shall 
be  di\-idcd  among  the  tribes  arrd  a  larger  number  shall 
be  wanted  (Siphri  on  Numb.  riii).  Somewhat  similar 
is  Philippson's  explanation,  wlio  aflirms  that  at  the  first 
election  of  the  Levitical  order  the  required  age  for  ser- 


vice was  from  thirty  to  fifty,  but  that  all  future  Levites 
Iiad  to  commence  service  at  twenty-five.  The  Sept. 
solves  the  difficulty  by  uniformly  readmg  twenty-five 
instead  of  thirty. 

4.  Duties  and  Classification  ofthe  Levites. — The  com- 
mencement of  the  march  from  Sinai  gave  a  prominence 
to  their  new  character.  As  the  tabernacle  was  the  sign 
of  the  presence  among  the  people  of  their  unseen  King, 
so  the  Levites  were,  among  the  other  tribes  of  Israel,  as 
the  royal  guard  that  waited  exclusively  on  liim.  The 
warlike  title  of  "host"  is  specially  applied  to  them 
(comp.  use  of  N^2,  in  Numb,  iv,  3,  30 ;  and  of  ii:np,  in 
1  Chron.  i,  19).  As  such  they  were  not  included  in  the 
number  of  the  armies  of  Israel  (Numb,  i,  47 ;  ii,  33 ; 
xxvi,  02),  but  were  reckoned  separately  by  themselves. 
When  the  people  were  at  rest  they  encamped  as  guar- 
dians aroimd  the  sacred  tent;  no  one  else  might  come 
near  it  under  pain  of  death  (Numb,  i,  51 ;  xviii,  22). 
The  different  families  pitched  their  tents  around  it  in 
the  following  manner :  the  Gershonites  behind  it  on  the 
west  (Numb,  iii,  23),  the  Kohathites  on  the  south  (iii, 
29),  the  Merarites  on  the  north  (iii,  35),  and  the  priests 
on  the  east  (iii,  38).  See  Cajmp.  They  were  to  occupy 
a  middle  position  in  that  ascending  scale  of  consecration 
wliich,  starting  from  the  idea  of  the  whole  nation  as  a 
priestly  people,  reached  its  culmuiating  point  in  the 
high-priest,  who  alone  of  all  the  people  might  enter 
"  within  the  veil."  The  Levites  might  come  nearer 
than  the  other  tribes,  but  they  might  not  sacrifice,  nor 
burn  incense,  nor  see  the  "  holy  things"  of  the  sanctuary 
tiU  they  were  covered  (Numb.  iv.  15).  When  on  tlie 
march,  no  hands  but  theirs  might  strike  the  tent  at 
the  commencement  of  the  day's  journey,  or  carry  the 
parts  of  its  structure  during  it,  or  pitch  the  tent  agam 
when  they  halted  (Numb,  i,  51).  It  was  obviously  es- 
sential for  such  a  work  that  there  should  be  a  fixed  as- 
signment of  duties,  and  now,  accordingly,  we  meet  Avith 
the  first  outlines  of  the  organization  which  afterwards 
became  permanent.  The  division  of  the  tribe  into  the 
three  sections  that  traced  their  descent  from  the  sons  of 
Levi  formed  the  groundwork  of  it.  The  Levites  were 
given  as  a  gift  ('?  CSTS,  Nethirdm)  to  Aaron  and  his 
sons,  the  priests,  to  wait  upon  them,  and  to  do  the  sub- 
ordinate work  for  them  at  the  service  of  the  sanctuarj^ 
(Numb.  viii.  19;  xvii,  2-()).  They  had  also  to  guard 
the  tabernacle  and  take  charge  of  certain  vessels,  whilst 
the  priests  had  to  watch  the  altars  and  the  interior  of 
the  sanctuary  (i,  50-53;  viii,  19;  xviii,  1-7).  To  carry 
this  out  effectually,  the  charge  of  certain  vessels  and 
portions  of  the  tabernacle,  as  well  as  the  guarding  of  its 
several  sides,  was  assigned  to  each  of  the  tliree  sections 
into  which  the  tribe  was  divided  by  their  respective  de- 
scent from  the  three  sons  of  Levi,  i.  e.  Gerslion,  Kohath, 
and  INIerari,  as  follows : 

(1.)  The  Kohathites,  who  out  of  8600  persons  yielded 
2750  qualified  for  active  service  according  to  the  pre- 
scribed age,  and  who  were  under  the  leadership  of  Eliz- 
aphan,  had  to  occupy  the  south  side  of  the  tabernacle, 
and,  as  the  family  to  whom  Aaron  the  high-priest  and 
his  sons  belonged,  hatl  to  take  charge  of  the  lioly  things 
(Clpn  niT^'i'^),  viz.,  the  ark,  the  table  of  shew-liread, 
the  candlestick,  the  two  altars  of  incense  and  burnt-offer- 
ing, as  well  as  of  the  sacred  vessels  used  at  tlie  service 
of  these  holy  things,  and  tlie  curtains  of  the  holy  of  ho- 
lies. All  these  things  they  had  to  carry  on  tlieir  own 
shoulders  when  the  camp  was  broken  up  (Numb.  iii. 
27-32;  iv,  5-15;  vii,  9;  Dent,  xxxi,  25),  after  the  ])riests 
had  covered  them  with  the  dark  blue  cloth  which  was 
to  hide  them  from  all  profane  gaze;  and  thus  they  be- 
came also  the  guardians  of  all  the  sacred  treasures  which 
the  people  had  so  freelv  offered.  Eleazar,  the  head  of 
the  priests,  who  belonged  to  the  Kohathites,  and  was 
the  chief  commander  of  the  three  Levitical  divisions, 
had  the  charge  ofthe  oil  for  the  candlestick,  the  incense, 
the  daily  meat-offering,  and  the  anointing  oil  (Numtt 
iii,  32;  iv,  16). 


LEVITE 


393 


LEVITE 


(2.)  The  Gershonites,  who  out  of  7500  men  yielded 
2630  for  active  service,  and  who  were  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Ehasaph,  had  to  occupy  the  west  side  of  the  tab- 
ernacle, and  to  take  charge  of  the  tapestry  of  the  taber- 
nacle, all  its  curtains,  hangings,  and  coverings,  the  pil- 
lars of  the  tapestry  hangings,  the  implements  used  in 
connection  therewith,  and  to  perform  all  the  work  con- 
nected with  the  taking  down  and  putting  up  of  the  arti- 
cles over  which  they  had  the  charge  (Numb,  iii,  21-2(5 ; 
iv,  22-28). 

(3.)  The  Merarites,  who  out  of  G200  yielded  3200  ac- 
tive men.  and  who  were  under  the  leadership  of  Zuriel, 
had  to  occupy  the  north  side  of  the  tabernacle,  and  take 
charge  of  the  boards,  bars,  pillars,  sockets,  tent-pins,  etc. 
(Numb,  iii,  33-37 ;  iv,  39,  40).  The  two  latter  compa- 
nies, however,  were  allowed  to  use  the  six  covered  wag- 
ons and  the  twelve  oxen  which  were  offered  as  an  obla- 
tion to  Jehovah ;  tlie  Gershonites,  having  the  less  heavy 
portion,  got  two  of  the  wagons  and  four  of  the  oxen ; 
whilst  the  Merarites,  who  had  the  heavier  portions,  got 
four  of  the  wagons  and  eight  of  the  oxen  (Numb,  vii, 
3-'J ). 

Thus  the  total  number  of  active  men  which  the  three 
divisions  of  the  Levites  yielded  was  8580.  When  en- 
camped around  the  tabernacle,  they  formed,  as  it  were, 
a  partition  between  the  people  and  the  sanctuary ;  they 
had  so  to  guard  it  that  the  children  of  Israel  should  not 
come  near  it,  since  those  who  ventured  to  do  so  incurred 
the  penalty  of  death  (Numb,  i,  51 ;  iii,  38;  xviii,  22) ; 
nor  were  they  themselves  allowed  to  come  near  the  ves- 
sels of  the  sanctuary  and  the  altar,  lest  they  die,  as 
well  as  the  priests  (Numb,  xviii,  3-G).  Israelites  of  any 
other  tribe  were  strictly  forbidden  to  perform  the  Levit- 
ical  office,  in  order  '•  that  there  might  be  no  plague  when 
the  children  of  Israel  approach  the  sanctuarj'"  (Numb, 
iii,  10  ;  viii,  19;  xviii,  5) ;  and,  according  to  the  ancient 
Hebrew  canons,  even  a  priest  was  not  allowed  to  do  the 
work  assigned  to  the  Levites,  nor  was  one  Levite  per- 
mitted to  perform  the  duties  which  were  incumbent 
upon  his  felloAv  Levite  under  penalty  of  death  (^laimon- 
ides,  Ililchoth  Kele  Ila-Mikdush,  iii,  10). 

The  book  of  Deuteronomy  is  interesting  as  indicating 
more  clearly  than  had  Ijeen  done  before  the  other  func- 
tions, over  and  above  their  ministrations  in  the  taber- 
nacle, wliich  were  to  be  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Levi. 
Through  the  whole  land  they  were  to  take  the  place  of 
the  old  household  priests  (subject,  of  course,  to  the  special 
riglits  of  the  Aaronic  priesthood),  sharing  in  all  festivals 
and  rtgoicings  (Deut.  xii,  19;  xiv,  26,  27;  xxvi,  11). 
Every  third  year  they  were  to  have  an  additional  share 
hi  the  produce  of  the  land  (Deut.  xiv,  28;  xxvi,  12). 
The  people  were  charged  never  to  forsake  them.  To 
"  the  priests  the  Levites"  was  to  belong  the  office  of  pre- 
serving, transcribing,  and  interpreting  the  law  (Deut. 
xvii,  9-12;  xxxi,  26).  They  were  solemnly  to  read  it 
every  seventh  year  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Deut. 
xxxi,  9-13).  They  were  to  pronounce  the  curses  from 
Mount  Ebal  (Deut.  xxvii,  14). 

Such,  if  one  may  so  speak,  was  the  ideal  of  the  relig- 
ious organization  which  was  present  to  the  mind  of  the 
lawgiver.  Details  were  left  to  be  developed  as  the  al- 
tered circumstances  of  the  people  might  require.  The 
great  principle  was,  that  the  warrior -caste  who  had 
guarded  the  tent  of  the  captain  of  the  hosts  of  Israel 
should  be  throughout  the  land  as  witnesses  that  the 
people  still  owed  allegiance  to  him.  It  deserves  notice 
that,  as  yet,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  passages  that 
refer  to  the  priests,  no  traces  appear  of  their  character 
as  a  learned  caste,  and  of  the  work  which  afterwards  be- 
longed to  them  as  hymn-writers  and  musicians.  The 
hymns  of  this  period  were  probably  occasional,  not  re- 
curring (comp.  Exod.  XV ;  Numb,  xxi,  17  ;  Deut.  xxxii). 
Women  bore  a  large  share  in  singintj  them  ( Exod.  xv, 
20;  Psa.  Ixviii,  25).  It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  wives 
Olid  daughters  of  the  Levites,  who  must  have  been  with 
them  in  all  their  encampments,  as  afterwards  in  their 
cities,  took  the  foremost  part  among  the  "  damsels  play- 


ing with  their  timbrels."  or  among  the  "  wise-hearted," 
wlio  wove  hangings  for  the  decoration  of  the  tabernacle. 
There  are,  at  any  rate,  signs  of  their  presence  there  in 
the  mention  of  the  "  women  that  assembled"  at  its  door 
(Exod.  xxxviii,  8,  and  comp.  Ewald,  A  Iterthilm.  p.  297). 

5.  Consecration  of  the  Levites, — The  first  act  in  the 
consecration  of  the  Levites  was  to  sprinkle  them  with 
the  water  of  purifying  (nXIJn  i73),  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  the  same  used  for  the  purification  of  per- 
sons who  became  defiled  by  dead  bodies,  and  in  which 
were  mingled  cedar-wood,  hyssop,  scarlet,  and  ashes  of 
the  red  heifer  (Numb,  xix,  6, 9, 13),  and  was  designed  to 
cleanse  them  from  the  same  defilement  (comp.  Raslii, 
On  Numb,  viii,  7).  They  had,  in  the  next  place,  as  an 
emblem  of  further  purification,  to  shave  off  all  the  hair 
from  their  body,  "  to  teach  thereby,"  as  Ralbag  says, 
"  that  they  must  renounce,  as  much  as  was  in  their 
power,  all  worldly  things,  and  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  most  high  God,"  and  then  wash  their  gar- 
ments. After  this  triple  form  of  purification,  they  were 
brought  before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  along  with 
two  bullocks  and  thie  fiour  mingled  with  oil,  when  the 
whole  congregation,  through  the  elders  who  represented 
them,  laid  their  hands  upon  the  heads  of  the  Levites, 
and  set  them  apart  for  the  service  of  the  sanctuary,  to 
occupy  the  place  of  the  first-born  of  the  whole  congre- 
gation; whereupon  the  priests  waved  them  before  the 
Lord  (Numb,  viii,  5-14),  which  in  all  probability  was 
done,  as  Abrabanel  says,  by  leading  them  forward  and 
backward,  up  and  down,  as  if  saying.  Behold,  these  are 
henceforth  the  servants  of  the  Lord,  instead  of  the  first- 
born of  the  children  of  Israel.  '  The  part  which  the 
whole  congregation  took  in  this  consecration  is  a  very 
important  feature  in  the  Hebrew  constitution,  inasmuch 
as  it  most  distinctly  shows  that  the  Levitical  order  pro- 
caededj'roni  the  midst  oj' the  people  (Exod.  xxvLii,!),  was 
to  be  regarded  as  essentially  identical  with  it,  and  not 
as  a  sacred  caste  standing  in  proud  eminence  above  the 
rest  of  the  nation.  This  principle  of  equality,  which, 
according  to  the  Mosaic  law,  was  not  to  be  infringed  by 
the  introduction  of  a  priesthood  or  monarchy  (Deut. 
xvii,  14-20),  was  recognised  throughout  the  existence 
of  the  Hebrew  commonwealth,  as  is  evident  from  the 
fact  that  the  representatives  of  the  people  took  part  in 
the  coronation  of  kings  and  the  instalment  of  high- 
priests  (1  Kings  ii,  35 ;  with  1  Chron.  xxix,  32),  and  even 
in  the  daj's  of  the  Maccabees  we  see  that  it  is  the  people 
who  installed  Simon  as  high-priest  (1  Maccab.  xiv,  35). 

6.  Revenues  of  the  Leintes. — Thus  consecrated  to  the 
service  of  the  Lord,  it  was  necessary  that  the  tribe  of 
Levi  should  be  relieved  from  the  temporal  pursuits  of 
the  rest  of  the  people,  to  enable  them  to  give  themselves 
wholly  to  their  spiritual  functions,  and  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  to  preserve  them  from 
contracting  a  desire  to  amass  earthly  possessions.  For 
this  reason  they  were  to  have  no  territorial  possessions, 
but  Jehovah  was  to  be  their  inheritance  (Numb,  xviii, 
20;  xxvi,  62;  Deut.  x,  9;  xviii,  1,  2;  Josh,  xviii,  7). 
To  reward  their  labor,  which  they  had  henceforth  to 
perform  instead  of  the  first-bom  of  the  whole  peojjle,  as 
well  as  to  compensate  the  loss  of  their  share  in  the  ma- 
terial wealtli  of  the  nation,  it  was  ordained  that  they 
should  receive  from  the  other  tribes  the  tithes  of  the 
produce  of  the  land,  from  which  the  non-priestly  portion 
of  the  Levites  in  their  turn  had  to  offer  a  tithe  to  the 
priests  as  a  recognition  of  their  higher  consecration 
(Numb,  xviii,  21-24,  26-32;  Neh.  x,  37).  If  they  had 
had,  like  other  tribes,  a  distinct  territorj'  assigned  to 
them,  their  influence  over  the  people  at  large  would 
be  diminished,  and  they  themselves  would  be  likely  to 
forget,  in  labors  common  to  them  with  others,  their  own 
peculiar  calling  (Neh.  x,  37).  As  if  to  provide  for  the 
contingency  of  failing  crops  or  the  like,  and  the  conse- 
quent inadequacy  of  the  tithes  thus  assigned  to  them, 
the  Levite,  not  less  than  the  widow  and  the  orphan, 
was  commended  to  the  special  kinchiess  of  the  people 
(Deut.  xii,  19 ;  xiv,  27,  29). 


LEYITE 


394 


LEVITE 


But,  though  they  were  to  have  no  territorial  posses- 
sions, still  they  required  a  place  of  abode.  To  secure 
this,  and  at  the  same  time  to  enable  the  Levites  to  dis- 
soininate  a  knowledge  of  tlie  law  and  exercise  a  refined 
anil  intellectual  intluence  among  the  people  at  large, 
iijjon  whose  conscientious  paj'ment  of  the  tithes  they 
were  dependent  for  subsistence,  forty-eight  cities  were 
assigned  to  them,  six  of  which  were  to  be  cities  of  ref- 
uge for  those  who  had  inadvertently  killed  any  one 
(Numb.  XXXV,  1-8).  From  these  forty-eight  cities, 
which  they  obtained  immediately  after  the  conquest  of 
Canaan,  and  which  were  made  up  by  taking  four  cities 
from  the  district  of  every  tribe,  thirteen  were  allotted  to 
the  priestly  portion  of  the  Levitical  tribe.  Which  cit- 
ies belonged  to  the  priestly  portion  of  the  tribe,  and 
which  to  the  non-priestly  portion,  and  how  they  were 
distributed  among  the  other  tribes,  as  recorded  in  Josh. 
xxi,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

i.  KOUATUITES  : 

a  Pnp«t«  ( Jndah  and  Simeon 0 

ai^i^^s,ti, \Benjamin 4 

j Ephraim 4 

h  Not  Priests. . .  -I  Dan 4 

(Half  Mauasseh  (west) 2 

fHalf  Mauasseh  (east) 2 

..   „  Issachar 4 

11.  Geesuonites. ...-^  Asher 4 

t Naphtali. '.  3 

I  Zebulun 4 

iii.  Meeaeites <  Reuben 4 

(.Gad J 

Total 48 

Each  of  these  cities  was  required  to  have  an  outlying 
suburb  (T"i^'2,  TipodartLo)  of  meadow  land  for  the  pas- 
ture of  the  flocks  and  herds  belonging  to  the  Levites, 
the  dimensions  of  which  are  thus  described  in  Numb. 
XXXV,  4,  6 :  '•  And  the  suburbs  [or  pasture-ground  ]  of 
the  cities  which  ye  shall  give  unto  the  Levites  are  from 
the  wall  of  the  city  to  the  outside  a  thousand  cubits 
round  about;  and  ye  shall  measure  from  without  the 
city  the  east  corner  two  thousand  cubits,  and  the  south 
comer  two  thousand  cubits,  and  the  west  corner  two 
thousand  cubits,  and  the  north  corner  two  thousand  cu- 
bits, and  the  city  in  the  centre."  These  dimensions 
have  occasioned  great  difficulty,  because  of  the  apparent 
contradiction  in  the  two  verses,  as  specifying  first  1000 
cubits  and  then  2000.  The  Sept.,  Josephus  (^Ant.  iv,  4. 
3),  and  Philo  (Z>e  sacerd.  honorihus)  get  over  the  diffi- 
culty by  reading  2000  in  both  verses,  as  exhibited  in 
diagram  I,  a,  while  ancient  and  modern  commentators. 


Levitical  City. — Diagram  I,  a. 

who  rightly  adhere  to  the  text,  have  endeavored  to  rec- 
oncile the  two  verses  by  advancing  different  tlieories, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  most  noticeable:  1.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Talmud  (Kruhin,  b\,  a),  the  .sjiace  "  meas- 
ured from  the  wall  1000  cubits  round  about"'  was  used 
as  a  common  or  suburb,  and  the  space  measured  "from 
without  the  city  on  the  east  side,"  etc..  was  a  further 
tract  of  land  of  2000  cubits,  used  for  fields  and  vino- 
yards,  the  former  being  "  the  suburbs"  properly  ^o  called, 
and  the  latter  "  the  fields  of  the  suburbs,"  as  represented 
in  diagram  I,  h.  Against  this  view,  however,  which  is 
tlie  most  simple  and  rational,  and  which  is  adopted  by 
^Mainionidcs  {liilrhoth  Shnnitii  Ve-.Iohil,  xiii,  2),  bishop 
I'atrick,  and  most  English  expositors,  it  is  urged  that 


Levitical  City. — Diagram  I,  h. 

it  is  not  said  that  the  2000  cubits  are  to  be  measured  in 
aU  directions,  but  only  in  the  east,  south,  etc.,  direction, 
or,  as  the  Hebrew  has  it,  east,  south,  etc.,  corner  (nx£). 
2.  It  means  that  a  circle  of  1000  cubits  radius  was  to  be 
measured  from  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  then  a  square 
circumscribed  about  that  circle,  each  of  whose  sides  was 
2000  cubits  long,  as  exhibited  in  diagram  II.  But  the 
sono  cubits  aonooiiV.ts 


two  cubits 

Diagram  II. 


•2IXXI  cokita 

Diagram  III. 


Levitical  City. 

objection  to  this  is  that  the  1000  cubits  were  to  be 
measured  "  from  the  wall  of  the  city,"  and  not  from  the 
centre.  3.' The  1000  cubits  were  measured  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  wall  of  the  city,  and  then  perpendicular  to 
these  distances,  i.  e.  parallel  to  the  walls  of  the  city,  the 
2000  cubits  were  measured  on  the  north,  south,  east,  and 
west  sides,  as  shown  in  diagram  III.  This,  however,  is 
obviously  incorrect,  because  the  sides  would  not  be  2000 
cubits  long  if  the  city  were  of  finite  dimensions,  but 
plainly  longer.  4.  It  is  assumed  that  the  city  was  built 
in  a  circular  form,  with  a  radius  of  1500  cubits,  that  a 
circle  was  then  described  with  a  radius  of  2500  cubits 
from  the  centre  of  the  city,  i.  e.  at  a  distance  of  1000 
cubits  from  the  walls  of  the  citj',  and  that  the  suburbs 
were  inclosed  between  the  circumferences  of  the  two 
circles,  and  that  the  corner  of  the  circumscribed  square 
was  1000  cubits  from  the  circumference  of  the  outer  cir- 
cle.    Compare  diagram  IV.     But  the  objection  to  this 


Levitical  City.— Diagram  IV. 

is  that  by  Euclid,  i,  47,  the  square  of  the  diagonal  equals 
the  sum  of  the  stpiare  of  the  sides,  whereas  in  this  figure 
3.500=  does  n'jt  equal  2500=  -|- 2500\    The  assigned  length 


LEVITE 


395 


LEVITE 


of  the  diagonal  varies  about  35  cubits  from  its  actual 
value.  5.  The  city  is  supposed  to  be  of  a  circular  form  ; 
round  it  a  circle  is  described  at  a  distance  of  1000  cubits 
from  its  walls;  tlien  from  the  walls  2000  cubits  are 
measured  to  the  north,  south,  east,  and  west  corners — 
the  whole  forming  a  starliice  hgure,  as  exliibited  in  dia- 
gram V.    This  view,  which  is  somewhat  fanciful,  strict- 


Levitical  Citj'.— Diagram  V. 

ly  meets  the  requirements  of  the  Hebrew  text.  6.  The 
1000  cubits  are  measured  from  the  centre  in  four  direc- 
tions at  right  angles  to  one  auotlier,  and  perpendicular 
to  each  of  these  a  side  of  2000  cubits  long  is  drawn,  the 
■whole  forming  a  square.  But  in  this  case  the  condition 
of- 1000  cubits  round  about"  is  not  fulfilled,  the  distance 
of  the  centre  from  the  corners  of  the  square  being  plain- 
ly more  than  1000  cubits.  7.  The  '•  1000  cubits  round 
about"  is  equivalent  to  1000  cubits  square,  or  305  Eng- 
lish acres.  8.  The  city  is  supposed  to  be  square,  each 
side  measuring  1000  or  500  cubits,  and  then,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  1000  cubits  in  all  directions  from  the  square, 
another  square  is  descril)e(l,  as  represented  in  diagrams 
VI,  (I,  and  VI,  b.     But  this  incurs  the  objection  urged 


•2(100  cuWts 

2000  cuWIS 

- 

N 

w 

S 

E 

Levitical  City— Di:ii:;iain  VI, 


:d; 


against  (i,  that  the  1000  cubits  can- 
not be  said  to  be  measured  "  round 
about,"  the  distance  from  the  corner 
of  the  city  to  the  corner  of  the  pre- 
cincts being  plainly  more  than  1000 
cubits.  Upon  a  review  of  all  these 
theories,  we  incline  to  the  ancient 
Jewish  view,  which  is  stated  first, 
Leviiiial  City.— Di-  and  against  which  nothing  can  be 
agmm  VI,  b.  g^iti^  if  wq  take  "  on  the  south,  east," 
etc.,  simply  to  mean,  as  it  often  does,  in  all  dii-ections, 
instead  of  fuur  distinct  points.  It  presupposes  that  the 
cities  were  built  in  a  circular  form,  which  was  usual  in 
the  cities  of  antiquity,  botli  because  the  circle  of  all  fig- 
ures comprises  the  largest  area  witliin  the  smallest  per- 
iphery, and  because  the  inhabitants  could  reach  every 
part  of  the  walls  in  the  shortest  time  from  all  directions, 
if  necessarj-,  for  purposes  of  defence. 

These  revenues  have  been  thought  exorbitant  beyond 


all  bounds;  for,  discarding  the  unjustifiable  conclusion 
of  bishop  Colenso,  that  "  forty-four  people  [  Levites  ],  with 
the  two  priests,  and  their  families,  had  forty-eight  cit- 
ies assigned  to  them"  (The  Pentateuch,  etc.,  i,  112),  and 
adhering  to  the  scriptural  numbers,  we  still  have  a  tribe 
which,  at  the  second  census,  numbered  23,000  males, 
with  no  more  than  12,000  arrived  at  man's  estate,  re- 
ceiving the  tithes  of  000,000  people;  "consequently,"  it 
is  thought "  that  each  individual  Levite,  without  having 
to  deduct  seed  and  the  charges  of  husbandry,  had  as 
much  as  five  Israelites  reaped  from  their  fields  or  gain- 
ed on  their  cattle"  (Michaelis,  Laics  of  Moses,  i,  252). 
Add  to  this  that,  though  so  small  in  number,  the  Le- 
vites received  forty-eight  cities,  while  other  tribes  which 
consisted  of  more  than  doidile  the  number  of  men  re- 
ceived less  cities,  and  some  did  not  get  more  than  twelve 
cities.  But  in  all  these  calculations  the  following  facts 
are  ignored  :  1.  The  tithes  were  not  a  regular  tax,  but  a 
religious  duty,  which  was  greatly  neglected  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  2.  Even  from  these  irregular  tithes  the  Levites  had 
to  give  a  tithe  to  the  priests ;  3.  The  tithes  never  in- 
creased, whereas  the  Levites  did  increase.  4.  Thirteen 
of  the  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  the  priests,  and 
six  were  cities  of  refuge ;  and,  5.  Of  the  remaining  twen- 
ty-nine cities,  the  Levites  were  by  no  means  the  sole 
occupants  or  proprietors ;  they  were  simply  to  have  in 
them  those  houses  which  they  required  as  dwellings, 
and  the  fields  necessary  for  the  pasture  of  their  cattle. 
This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the  Levites  -were  al- 
lowed to  sell  their  houses,  and  that  a  special  clause  bear- 
ing on  this  subject  was  inserted  in  the  Jubilee  law  [see 
Jcdilee]  ;  inasmuch  as  Lev.  xxv,  32-34,  woidd  have 
no  meaning  unless  it  is  presumed  that  other  IsraeUtes 
lived  together  with  the  Levites. 

These  provisions  for  abode,  of  course,  did  not  apjily 
to  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Moses.  While  wandering 
in  the  wilderness,  they  were  supported  like  the  other 
Israelites,  with  but  slight  emoluments  or  perquisites, 
and  at  first  with  comparatively  little  honor,  amid  their 
considerable  burdens  in  caring  for  the  religious  cidtus. 
But  how  ra])idly  the  fcding  of  reverence  gained  strength 
we  may  judge  from  the  share  assigned  to  them  out  of 
the  flocks,  and  herds,  and  women  of  the  conquered  JMid- 
ianites  (Numb,  xxxi,  27,  etc.).  The  same  victory  led  to 
the  dedication  of  gold  and  silver  vessels  of  great  value, 
and  thus  increased  the  importance  of  the  tribe  as  guar- 
dians of  the  national  treasures  (Numb,  xxxi,  50-54). 

7.  Modifications  under  Joshua  and  ike  Judges. — The 
submission  of  the  Gibeonites,  after  they  had  obtained  a 
promise  that  their  lives  should  be  spared,  enabled  Joshua 
to  relieve  the  tribe-divisions  of  Gershon  and  IMerari  of 
the  most  burdensome  of  their  duties.  The  conquered 
Hivites  became  "  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water" 
for  the  house  of  Jehovah  and  for  the  congregation  (Josh. 
ix,  27).  The  Ncthinim  (^l)eo  dati)  of  1  Chron.  ix,  2; 
Ezra  ii, 43,  were  probably  sprung  from  captives  taken  by 
David  in  later  wars,  who  were  assigned  to  the  service 
of  the  tabernacle,  replacing  possibly  the  Gibeonites  who 
had  been  slain  by  Saul  (2  Sam.  xxi,  1).  See  Netiiisiji. 
The  scanty  memorials  that  are  left  us  in  the  book  of 
Judges  are  rather  unfavorable  to  the  inference  that  for 
any  length  of  time  the  reality  answered  to  the  IMosaic 
idea  of  the  Levitical  institution.  The  ravages  of  inva- 
sion, and  the  pressure  of  an  alien  rule,  marred  the  work- 
ing of  the  organization  which  seemed  so  perfect.  Le- 
vitical cities,  such  as  Aijalim  (Josh,  xxi,  24 ;  Judg.  i,35) 
and  Gezer  (Josh,  xxi,  21 ;  1  Chron.  vi,  67),  fell  into  the 
hands  of  their  enemies.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of 
Nob,  others  ajiparently  toolc  their  place.  The  wander- 
ing, unsettled  habits  of  such  Levites  as  are  mentioned 
in  the  later  chapters  of  Judges  are  probably  to  be  traced 
to  this  loss  of  a  fixed  abode,  and  the  consequent  neces- 
sity of  taking  refuge  in  other  cities,  even  though  tlieir 
trilie  as  such  had  no  portion  in  them.  The  tendency 
of  the  people  to  fall  into  the  idolatrj'  of  the  neighboring 
nations  showed  either  that  the  Levites  failed  to  bear 
their  witness  to  the  truth  or  had  no  power  to  enforce  it. 


LEVITE 


39G 


LEVITE 


Even  in  the  lifetime  of  riiinehas,  when  the  high-priest 
was  still  consulted  as  an  oracle,  the  very  reverence  which 
the  people  felt  for  the  tribe  of  Levi  becomes  the  occasion 
of  a  rival  worship  (Judg.  xvii).  The  old  household 
priesthood  revives  (see  Kaliseh,  On  Ge/iesis  xlir,  7),  and 
there  is  the  risk  of  the  national  worship  breaking  up  into 
individualism.  Micah  first  consecrates  one  of  his  own 
sons,  and  then  tempts  a  homeless  Levite  to  dwell  with 
him  as  "  a  father  and  a  priest"  for  little  more  than  his 
food  and  raiment.  The  Levite,  though  probably  the 
grandson  of  Moses  himself,  repeats  the  sin  of  Korah. 
See  Jonathan.  First  in  the  house  of  Micah,  and  then 
for  the  emigrants  of  Dan,  he  exercises  the  office  of  a 
priest  with  -'an  ephod.  and  a  teraphim,  and  a  graven 
image."  'Witli  this  exception  the  whole  tribe  appears 
to  have  fallen  into  a  condition  analogous  to  that  of  the 
clergy  in  the  darkest  period  and  in  the  most  outlyuig 
districts  of  the  medireval  Church,  going  through  a  ritual 
routine,  but  exercising  no  influence  lor  good,  at  once 
corrupted  and  corrupting.  The  shameless  license  of  the 
sons  of  Eli  maj'  be  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  a  long 
period  of  decay,  affecting  the  whole  order.  When  the 
priests  were  such  as  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  we  may  fairly 
assume  that  the  Le\ites  were  not  doing  nnich  to  sustain 
the  moral  life  of  the  people. 

The  work  of  Samuel  was  the  starting-point  of  a  bet- 
ter time.  Himself  a  Levite,  and,  though  not  a  priest, 
belonging  to  that  section  of  the  Levites  which  was  near- 
est to  the  priesthood  (1  Chron.vi, 28),  adopted,  as  it  were, 
by  a  special  dedication  into  the  priestly  line  and  tramed 
for  its  offices  (I  Sam.  ii,  18),  he  appears  as  infusing  a 
fresh  life,  the  author  of  a  new  organization.  There  is 
no  reason  to  think,  indeed,  that  the  companies  or  schools 
of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  which  appear  in  his  time  (I 
Sam.  x,o),  and  are  traditionally  said  to  have  been  found- 
ed by  hmi,  consisted  exclusively  of  Levues;  but  there 
are  many  signs  that  the  members  of  that  tribe  formed 
a  large  element  iu  the  new  order,  and  received  new 
strength  from  it.  It  exhibited,  indeed,  the  ideal  of  the 
Levitical  life  as  one  of  praise,  devotion,  teachhig;  stand- 
ing in  the  same  relation  to  the  priests  and  Levites  gener- 
ally as  the  monastic  institutions  of  the  5th  century,  or 
the  mendicant  orders  of  the  13th  did  to  the  secular  cler- 
gy of  Western  Europe.  The  fact  that  the  Levites  were 
thus  brought  under  the  influence  of  a  system  which  ad- 
dressed itself  to  the  mind  and  heart  in  a  greater  degree 
than  the  sacrificial  functions  of  the  priesthood,  may  pos- 
sibly have  led  them  on  to  apprehend  the  higher  truths 
as  to  the  nature  of  worship  -which  begin  to  be  asserted 
from  this  period,  and  Avhich  are  nowhere  proclaimed 
more  clearly  than  in  the  great  hymn  that  bears  the 
name  of  Asaph  (Psa.  1,7-15).  The  man  who  raises  the 
name  of  prophet  to  a  new  significance  is  himself  a  Levite 
(1  Sam.  ix,  9).  It  is  among  the  prophets  that  we  find 
the  first  signs  of  the  musical  skill  which  is  afterwards  so 
conspicuous  in  the  Levites  (1  Sam.  x,  5).  The  order  in 
which  the  Temple  services  were  arranged  is  ascribed  to 
two  of  the  prophets,  Nathan  and  Gad  (2  Chron.  xxix, 
25),  who  nuist  have  grown  up  mider  Samuel's  superin- 
tendence, and  in  jiart  to  Samuel  himself  (1  Chron.  ix,  22). 
Asaph  and  Hcman,  the  psalmists,  bear  the  same  title  as 
Samuel  the  Seer  (1  Chron.  xxv,  5;  2  Chron.  xxix,  30). 
The  very  word  "prophesying"  is  applied  not  only  to 
sudden  bursts  of  song,  but  to  the  organized  psalmody  of 
the  Temple  (1  Chron.  xxv,  2,  .■!).  Even  of  those  who 
bore  the  name  (if  a  projihct  in  a  higher  sense  a  large 
number  are  traceably  of  this  tribe. 

The  ca])turc  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines  did  not  en- 
tirely interrupt  the  worship  of  the  Israelites,  and  the 
ministrations  of  the  Levites  went  on,  first  at  Shiloh  (1 
Sam.  xiv,  o),  then  for  a  time  at  Nob  (1  Sam.  xxii,  11), 
afterwards  at  (Jilieon  (1  Kings  iii,  2;  1  Chron.  x-vi,  39). 
The  history  <>f  the  return  of  the  ark  to  Beth-shemesh 
after  its  capture  by  the  Philistines,  and  its  subsequent 
removal  to  Kirjath-jearim,  points  apparently  to  some 
strange  complications  rising  out  of  the  anomalies  of  this 
period,  and  affecting,  in  some  measure,  the  position  of 


the  tribe  of  Lc\-i.  Beth-shemesh  was,  bj'  the  original 
assignment  of  the  conciuered  countrj',  one  of  the  cities 
of  the  priests  (Josh,  xxi,  IG).  They,  however,  do  not 
appear  in  tlie  narrative,  unless  we  assume,  against  all 
probability,  that  the  men  of  Beth-shemesh  who  wore 
guilty  of  the  act  of  profanation  were  themselves  of  the 
priestly  order.  Levites,  indeed,  are  mentioned  as  doing 
their  appointed  work  (1  Sam.  vi,  15),  but  the  sacrifices 
and  burnt-offerings  are  offered  by  the  men  of  the  city, 
as  though  the  special  function  of  the  priesthood  had 
been  usurped  by  others,  and  on  this  supposition  it  is 
easier  to  mtderstand  how  those  who  had  set  aside  the 
law  of  Jloses  liy  one  offence  should  defy  it  also  by  an- 
other. The  singidar  reading  of  the  Sept.  in  1  Sam.  vi, 
19  {icai  oi/K  i)cii'ivi(7av  o\  v'loi  'lt\oviov  tv  roiq  dv?.paai 
BaiOaafivg  vri  fiSov  Kif3wTuv  Ki'p/of)  mdicates,  if  we 
assume  that  it  rests  upon  some  corresponding  Hebrew 
text,  a  struggle  between  two  opposed  parties,  one  guilty 
of  the  profanation,  the  other — possibly  the  Levites  who 
had  been  before  mentioned  —  zealous  in  their  remon- 
strances against  it.  Then  comes,  either  as  the  result 
of  this  collision,  or  by  direct  supernatural  infliction,  the 
great  slaughter  of  the  Beth-shemites,  and  they  shrink 
from  retaining  the  ark  any  longer  among  them.  The 
great  Eben  (stone)  becomes,  by  a  slight  paronomastic 
change  in  its  form,  the  ''great  Abel"  (lamentation),  and 
the  name  remains  as  a  memorial  of  the  sin  and  of  its 
punishment.  See  Eetii-shemesh.  We  are  left  en- 
tirely in  the  dark  as  to  the  reasons  which  led  them, 
after  this,  to  send  the  ark  of  Jehovah,  not  to  Hebron  or 
some  other  priestly  city,  but  to  Kirjath-jearim,  round 
which,  so  far  as  we  know,  there  gathered  legitimately 
no  sacred  associations.  It  has  been  commonly  assumed, 
indeed,  that  Abinadab,  under  whose  guardianship  it  rc- 
mamed  for  twenty  years,  must  iieces;arily  have  been  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  See  Abinadab.  Of  this,  however, 
there  is  not  the  slightest  direct  evidence,  and  against  it 
there  is  the  language  of  David  in  1  Chron.  xv,  2, "  None 
ought  to  carry  the  ark  of  God  but  the  Levites,  for  them 
hath  Jehovah  chosen,"  which  would  lose  half  its  force 
if  it  were  not  meant  ns  a  protest  against  a  recent  inno- 
vation, and  the  ground  of  a  return  to  the  more  ancient 
order.  So  far  as  one  can  see  one's  way  through  these 
perplexities  of  a  dark  period,  the  most  probable  explana- 
tion— already  suggested  under  Kirjath-jearui — seems 
to  be  the  following :  The  old  names  of  Baaleh  (.Josh,  xv, 
9)  and  Kirjath-baal  (Josh,  xv,  GO)  suggest  there  had  been 
of  old  some  special  sanctity  attached  to  the  place  as  the 
centre  of  a  Canaaniiish  local  worship.  The  fact  that  the 
ark  was  taken  to  the  house  of  Abinadab  in  the  hill  (1 
Sam.  vii,  1),  the  Gibeah  of  2  Sam.  vi,  3,  connects  itself 
with  that  old  Canaanitlsh  reverence  for  high  places 
which,  through  the  whole  history  of  the  Israelites,  con- 
tinued to  have  such  strong  attractions  for  them.  These 
may  have  seemed  to  the  panic-stricken  inhabitants  of 
that  district,  mingling  old  things  and  new,  the  worship 
of  Jehovah  with  the  lingering  superstitions  of  the  con- 
quered people,  sufficient  grounds  to  determine  their 
choice  of  a  locality.  The  consecration  (the  word  used 
is  the  special  sacerdotal  term)  of  Eleazar  as  the  guar- 
dian of  the  ark  is,  on  this  hypothesis,  analogous  in  its 
way  to  the  otlier  irregular  assumptions  which  charac- 
terize this  period,  though  here  the  offence  was  less  fla- 
grant, and  did  not  involve,  apparently,  the  performance 
of  any  sacrificial  acts.  While,  however,  this  aspect  of 
the  religious  conditi<in  of  the  people  brings  the  Levit- 
ical and  priestly  orders  before  us  as  having  lost  the  po- 
sition they  had  previously  occupied,  there  were  other 
influences  at  work  tending  to  ninstate  them. 

II.  Jhtriiif)  the  Mnmnrhy. — Tlie  dcplorablj'  disorgan- 
ized condition  of  the  Levitical  order  was  not  much 
improved  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Hebrew  monarch. 
The  rule  of  Samuel  and  his  sons,  and  the  prophetical 
character  now  connected  with  the  tribe,  tended  to  give 
them  the  position  of  a  ruling  caste.  In  the  strong  de- 
sire of  the  people  for  a  king  wc  may  perhaps  trace  a 
protest  against  the  assumption  by  the  Levites  of  a  higher 


LEVITE 


397 


LEVITE 


position  than  that  originally  assigned  them.  The  reign 
of  Saul,  in  its  later  period,  was  at  any  rate  the  assertion 
of  a  self-willed  power  against  the  priestly  order.  The 
assnmption  of  the  saeridcial  office,  the  massacre  of  the 
priests  at  Nob,  the  slaughter  of  the  (iibeonites  who  were 
attached  to  their  service,  were  parts  of  the  same  policy, 
and  the  narrative  of  the  cojidemnation  of  Saul  for  the 
two  former  sins,  no  less  than  of  the  expiation  required 
for  the  latter  (2  Sam.  xxi ),  shows  by  what  strong  meas- 
ures the  truth,  of  which  that  pohcy  was  a  subversion, 
had  to  be  impressed  on  the  minds  of  the  Israelites.  The 
reign  of  David,  however,  brought  the  change  from  per- 
secution to  honor.  The  Levites  ^verc  ready  to  welcome 
a  king  who,  though  not  of  their  tribe,  had  been  brought 
up  under  their  training,  was  skilled  in  their  arts,  pre- 
parctl  to  share  even  in  some  of  their  ministrations,  and 
to  array  himself  in  their  apparel  (2  Sara,  vi,  14) ;  and 
4C00  of  their  number,  with  3700  priests,  waited  upon  Da- 
vid at  Hebron — itself,  it  should  be  remembered,  one  of 
the  priestly  cities — to  tender  their  allegiance  (1  Chron. 
xii,  26).  When  his  kingdom  was  established,  there  came 
a  fuller  organization  of  the  whole  tribe.  Its  position  in 
relation  to  the  priesthood  was  once  again  definitely  rec- 
ognised. When  the.  ark  was  carried  up  to  its  new  rest- 
ing-place in  Jerusalem,  their  claim  to  be  the  bearers  of 
it  was  publicly  acknowledged  (1  Chron.  xv,  2).  When 
the  sin  of  Uzza  stopped  the  procession,  it  was  placed 
for  a  time  under  the  care  of  Obed-edom  of  Gath — prob- 
ably Gath-rimmon — as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Kohath- 
ites  (1  Chron.  xiii,  13,  .Josh,  xxi,  24;  1  Chron.  xv,  18). 
In  the  procession  which  attended  the  ultimate  convey- 
ance of  tlie  ark  to  its  new  resting-] jlace  the  Levites  were 
conspicuous,  wearing  their  linen  ephods,  and  appearing 
in  their  new  character  as  minstrels  (1  Chron.  xv,  27, 28). 
The  Levites  engaged  in  conveying  the  ark  to  Jerusalem 
were  divided  into  six  father's  houses,  headed  by  six 
chiefs,  four  belonging  to  Kohath,  one  to  Gershon,  and 
one  to  INIerari  (1  Chron.  xv,  .5,  etc.).  The  most  remark- 
able feature  in  the  Levitical  duties  of  this  period  is  their 
being  employed  for  the  first  time  in  choral  service  (1 
Chron.  xv,  16-24 ;  xvi,  4-36) ;  others,  again,  were  ap- 
pointed as  door-keepers  (xv,  23, 24).  Still  the  thorough 
reorganization  of  the  whole  tribe  was  effected  by  the 
shepherd-king  in  the  last  days  of  his  eventful  life,  that 
the  Levites  might  be  able  at  the  erection  of  the  Tem- 
ple '-to  wait  on  the  sons  of  Aaron  for  the  service  of  the 
house  of  Jehovah,  in  the  courts  and  the  chambers,  and 
the  purifj-ing  of  all  holj^  things,  and  the  work  of  the 
service  of  the  house  of  God"  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28).  This 
reorganization  may  be  described  as  follows: 

1.  Number  of  Levites  and  Aye  for  Service. — The  Le- 
vites from  thirty  years  of  age  and  upwards  were  first  of 
all  numbered,  when  it  was  Ibund  that  they  were  38,000 
(1  Chron.  xxiii,  2,3) ;  this  being  about  29,500  more  than 
at  the  first  Mosaic  census.  It  will  be  seen  that,  accord- 
ing to  this  statement,  the  Levites  were  to  commence 
service  at  thirty  years  of  age,  in  harmony  with  the  Mo- 
saic institution  (Numb,  iv,  3,  23,  30) ;  while  in  ver.  27 
of  the  same  chapter  (i.  e.  1  Chron.  xxiii,  27)  it  is  said 
that  they  were  to  take  tlieir  share  of  duty  at  twenty 
years  of  age.  Kimchi,  wlio  is  followed  by  bishop  Pat- 
rick, Michaelis,  and  others,  tries  to  reconcile  this  appar- 
ent contradiction  by  submitting  that  the  former  refers 
to  a  census  which  David  matle  at  an  earlier  period, 
which  was  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  (Numb,  iv,  3) ; 
while  the  latter  speaks  of  a  second  census  which  he 
made  at  the  close  of  his  life,  when  he  found  that  the  du- 
ties of  the  fixed  sanctuary  were  much  lighter  and  more 
numenms,  and  coidd  easily  be  performed  at  the  age  of 
twenty,  but  at  the  same  time  required  a  larger  staff  of 
men.  Against  this,  however,  Bertheau  rightly  urges 
that,  1.  The  38,000  Levites  of  thirty  years  of  age  given 
in  the  census  of  ver.  3  are  the  only  persons  appointed 
for  the  different  Levitical  offices,  and  that  it  is  nowhere 
stated  that  this  number  was  insufficient,  or  that  the  ar- 
rangements based  thereupon,  as  recorded  in  vers.  4  and 
5,  were  not  carried  out;  and,  2.  The  chronicler  plainly 


indicates,  in  ver,  25,  etc.,  that  he  is  about  to  impart  a 
different  statement  from  that  communicated  in  ver.  3 ; 
for  he  mentions  therein  the  reason  which  induced  David 
not  to  abide  by  the  Mosaic  institution,  which  prescribes , 
the  age  of  service  to  commence  at  thirty,  and  in  ver.  27 
expressly  points  out  the  source  from  which  he  derived 
this  deviating  account.  The  two  accounts  are,  there- 
fore, entirely  different;  the  one  records  that  the  Le- 
vites, in  David's  time,  were  numbered  from  their  thir- 
tieth year;  whUe  the  other, which  appears  to  the  chron- 
icler more  trustworthy,  states  that  David  introduced  the 
practice  which  afterwards  obtained  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  17 ; 
Ezra  iii,  8)  of  appointing  Levites  to  office  at  the  age  of 
twenty. 

2.  Division  of  the  Levites  according  to  the  three  great 
Families. — Having  ascertained  their  number,  David,  fol- 
lowing the  example  of  the  Mosaic  institution,  divided 
the  Levitical  fathers'  houses,  according  to  their  descent 
from  the  three  sons  of  Levi,  when  it  was  ascertained 
that  these  three  sons,  Gershon,  Kohath,  and  Merari,  were 
represented  by  twenty-four  heads  of  fathers'  houses  (1 
Chron.  xxiii,  0-23 ;  xxiv,  20-31),  as  follows: 

fJehiel. 

I  Zetliam. 

!  Joel. 

I  Shelomith  or  Shelomoth. 

I  Haziel. 

l^IIaran. 
Jahath. 
Zina  or  Ziza. 
Jeush  and  Beriah,  counted  as  one. 

|Shiil)ael. 

(Kehabirth. 


Gekshon  < 


-Laadan 


-Shimei 


Kohath 


Mekabi 


'Amram 
Izhar . . . 


"1  Hebron 


Uzziel 


Shelomith  or  Shelomoth. 
Jeriali. 
Aniariah. 
Jahazicl. 
Jekameam. 
(Michah. 
(Isshiah. 
(■Shohara. 
f  Jaaziah  <  Zaccur. 
I  (ibri. 

Jereraeel. 


"|Mahli....Kish-, 

Uiushi  {f^;«;;;,oth. 

3.  Classification  and  Duties  of  the  Leintes.  —  These 
twenty-four  fathers'  houses,  numbering  38,000  men  qual- 
ified for  active  service,  were  then  divided  into  four  class- 
es, to  each  of  which  different  duties  were  assigned. 

(1.)  The  first  class  consisted  of  24,000  Levites.  These 
were  appointed  to  assist  the  priests  in  the  work  of.the 
sanctuary  {\nTOvpyovi>Ttq).  They  had  the  custody  of 
the  official  garments  and  sacred  vessels,  had  to  deliver 
them  when  wanteil,  and  collect  and  lock  them  up  again 
after  they  had  been  used;  to  replenish  the  sacrificial 
storehouse  with  cattle,  fiour,  wine,  oil,  incense,  and  other 
articles  used  as  sacrifices,  and  mete  out  each  time  the 
required  quantity ;  to  provide  the  different  spices  from 
which  the  priests  compounded  the  incense  (1  Chron. 
ix,  30) ;  to  prepare  the  shewbread  and  the  other  baked 
things  used  at  sacrifices ;  to  assist  the  priests  in  slaugh- 
tering the  victims,  and  to  attend  to  the  cleaning  of  the 
Temple,  etc.  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28-32;  ix,  29).  They  had 
most  probably,  also,  the  charge  of  the  sacred  treasury 
(1  Chron.  xxvi,  20-28).  Like  the  priests,  they  -were 
subdivided  into  twenty-four  courses  or  companies,  ac- 
cording to  the  above-named  twenty-four  Levitical  fa- 
thers' houses,  and  were  headed  respectively  by  one  of 
the  twenty-four  representatives  of  these  houses.  Each 
of  these  courses  was  a  week  on  duty,  and  was  relieved 
on  the  Sabbath  (2  Kings  xi)  by  the  company  -vdiose 
turn  it  was  to  serve  next,  so  that  there  were  always  a 
thousand  men  of  this  class  on  duty,  and  each  man  had 
to  serve  two  weeks  during  the  year.  The  menial  work 
was  done  by  the  Nethinim,  who  were  appointed  to  assist 
the  Levites  in  these  matters.     See  Nethiniji. 

(2.)  The  second  class  consisted  of  4000,  who  were  the 
musicians  (C'ni'lC^a,  vfivtpSoi).  They  too  were  sub- 
divided into  twenty-four  courses  or  choirs,  each  lieaded 
by  a  chief  (1  Chron.  xxv),  and  are  to  be  traced  back  to 
the  three  great  families  of  Levi,  inasmuch  as  four  of  the 


LEVITE 


398 


LEVITE 


chiefs  were  sons  of  Asaph,  a  descendant  of  Gershon  (1  ] 
Chron.  vi,  24-2S)  ;  six  wore  sons  of  Jcduthun,  also  called 
Ethan  (1  Chron.  xv,  17),  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  ; 
Chnin.  vi.  '2S) ;  and  fourteen  were  sons  of  Haman,  a  de- 
scendant of  Koliath  (1  Chron.  vi,  18).  Each  of  these 
chiefs  had  eleven  assistant  masters  from  his  own  sons 
and  brothers,  thus  maliing  together  288  (1  Chron.  xxv, 
7).  Hence,  when  these  are  deducted  from  the  4000, 
there  remain  for  each  band  consisting  of  twelve  chief 
nnisicians,  154  or  155  subordinate  musicians.  As  twelve 
nnisieians  were  reqnired  to  be  present  at  the  daily  morn- 
ing and  evening  service,  thus  demanding  1G8  to  be  on 
duty  every  week,  the  twenty-four  courses  which  re- 
lieved each  other  in  hebdomadal  rotation  must  have 
consisted  of  4032,  and  4000  given  by  the  chronicler  is 
simply  to  be  regarded  as  a  round  number.  Of  this  class, 
therefore,  as  of  the  former,  each  individual  had  to  serve 
t^vo  weeks  during  the  year. 

(o.)  The  third  class  also  consisted  of  4000.  They  were 
the  gate-keepers  (D'^1"1^\  TTvXwpoi,  1  Chron.  xxvi,  1- 
10),  and,  as  such,  bore  arms  (ix,  19.  2  Chron.  xxxi,  2). 
They  had  to  open  and  shut  the  gates,  to  keep  strangers 
and  excommunicated  or  unclean  persons  from  entering 
the  courts,  and  to  guard  the  storehouse,  the  Temple,  and 
its  courts  at  night.  They,  too,  were  subdivided  into 
twenty-four  courses,  and  were  headed  by  twenty-four 
chiefs  from  the  three  great  families  of  Levi ;  seven  were 
sons  of  Meshelmiah,  a  descendant  of  Kohath ;  thirteen 
were  from  Obed-edom,  a  descendant  of  tJershon ;  and 
four  were  sons  of  Hosah,  a  descendant  of  Merari.  These 
three  families,  including  the  twenty-four  chiefs,  consist- 
ed of  ninety-three  members,  who,  together  with  the 
three  heads  "of  the  families,  viz.  Meshelmiah,  Obed-edom, 
and  Hosah,  made  ninety-six,  thus  yielding  four  chiefs 
for  each  course.  We  thus  obtain  a  watch-course  every 
week  of  1G2  or  163  persons,  under  the  command  of  four 
superior  watches,  one  of  whom  was  the  commander- 
in-chief.  As  24  sentinel  posts  are  assigned  to  these 
guards,  thus  making  1G8  a  week,  it  appears  that  each 
nerson  only  served  one  day  in  the  week  (1  Chron.  xxvi). 
(4.)  The  foiu-th  class  consisted  of  6000,  who  were  ap- 
pointed for  outward  affairs  (n:"i:jinn  (izs'b'in),  as 
scribes  and  judges  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  29-32),  m  contradis- 
tinction to  the  work  connected  with  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary.  It  appears  that  this  class  was  subdivided 
into  three  branches:  Chenaniah  and  his  sons  were  for  the 
outward  business  of  Israel  (1  Chron.  xSvi,  29)-,  Ilasha- 
liiah  of  Hebron  and  his  brethren,  numbering  1700,  Mere 
olHcers  west  of  Jordan,  "  in  all  the  Ijusiness  of  the  Lord 
and  in  tl\e  service  of  the  king"  (ver.  30)  ;  whilst  Jerijah, 
also  of  Hebron,  and  his  brethren,  numbering  2700  active 
men,  ;vere  rulers  east  of  Jordan  "  for  every  matter  per- 
taining to  (Jod  and  affairs  of  the  king"  (vers.  31, 32).  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  this  class  consisted  of  Kohathites, 
being  descendants  of  Izhar  and  Hebron. 

Tlie  Levites  lived  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  in 
their  own  cities,  and  came  up  at  fixed  periods  to  take 
their  turn  of  work  (1  Chron.  xxv,  xxvi).  The  predom- 
inance of  the  number  twelve  as  the  basis  of  classifica- 
tion might  seem  to  indicate  monthly  periods,  and  the 
festivals  of  the  new  moon  would  naturally  suggest  such 
an  arrangement.  The  analogous  order  in  the  civil 
and  nnlitary  administration  (I  Chron.  xxvii,  1)  would 
tend  to  the  same  conclusion.  It  api)ears,  indeed,  that 
there  was  a  change  of  some  kind  every  week  (1  Chron. 
ix,  25 ;  2  Chron.  xxiii,  4,  8) ;  but  this  is,  of  course,  com- 
patible with  a  system  of  rotation,  which  would  give  to 
each  a  longer  period  of  residence,  or  with  the  jierma- 
nent  residence  of  the  leader  of  each  division  within  the 
precincts  of  the  sanctuary.  M'hatever  may  have  been 
tlie  system,  we  must  liear  in  mind  that  the  duties  now 
imposed  ujion  the  Levites  were  such  as  to  require  al- 
most ciiutinuous  practice.  They  would'  need,  when 
their  turn  came,  to  be  able  to  bear  their  ]>arts  in  the 
great  choral  hymns  of  the  Temple,  and  to  take  each  his 
appomted  share  in  the  complex  structure  of  a  sacrificial 


liturgy,  and  for  this  a  special  study  would  be  required. 
The  education  which  the  Levites  received  for  their  pe- 
culiar duties,  no  less  than  their  connection,  more  or  less 
intimate,  with  the  schools  of  the  prophets  (see  above), 
would  tend  to  make  them,  so  far  as  there  was  any  edu- 
cation at  all,  the  teachers  of  the  others  (there  is,  how- 
ever, a  curious  Jewish  tradition  that  the  schoolmasters 
of  Israel  were  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  [Solom.  Jarchi  on 
Gen.  xlix,  7,  in  Godwyn's  Moses  and  A  a?-(5»]),  the  tran- 
scribers and  interiireters  of  the  law,  the  chroniclers  of 
the  times  in  which  they  lived.  We  have  some  striking 
instances  of  their  appearance  in  this  new  character. 
One  of  them,  Ethan  the  Ezrahite,  takes  his  place  .among 
the  old  Hebre\v  sages  who  were  worthy  to  be  compared 
with  Solomon,  and  (Psa.  Ixxxix,  title)  his  name  ap- 
pears as  the  writer  of  the  39th  Psalm  (1  Kings  iv,  31 ; 
1  Chron.  XV,  17).  One  of  the  first  to  bear  the  title  of 
•'  scribe"  is  a  Levite  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  G),  and  this  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  their  special  offices  under  Josiah  (2 
Chron.  xxxiv,  13).  They  are  described  as  "  officers  and 
judges"  under  David  (1  Chron.  xxvi,  29),  and,  as  such, 
are  employed  '-in  all  the  business  of  Jehovah,  and  in 
the  service  of  the  king."  They  are  the  agents  of  Je- 
hoshaphat  and  Hezekiah  in  their  work  of  reformation, 
and  are  sent  iV)rth  to  jiroclaim  and  enforce  the  law  (2 
Chron.  xvii,  8 ;  xxx,  22).  Under  Josiah  the  function 
has  passed  into  a  title,  and  they  are  "  the  Levites  that 
taught  all  Israel"  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  3).  The  two  books 
of  Chronicles  bear  unmistakable  marks  of  liaving  been 
written  by  men  whose  interests  were  all  gathered  round 
the  services  of  the  Temple,  and  who  were  familiar  with 
its  records.  The  materials  from  which  they  compiled 
their  narratives,  and  to  which  they  refer  as  the  works 
of  seers  and  prophets,  were  written  by  men  ^\•ho  were 
probably  Levites  themselves,  or,  if  not,  were  associated 
with  them. 

This  reorganization  effected  by  David,  we  are  told, 
was  adojited  by  his  son  Solomon  when  the  Temple  was 
completed  (2  Chron.  viii,  14,  etc.).  The  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  the  policy  pursued  by  Jeroboam,  led  to  a 
great  change  in  the  position  of  the  Levites.  They  were 
the  witnesses  of  an  appointed  order  and  of  a  central  wor- 
ship. Jeroboam  wished  to  make  the  priests  the  creatures 
and  instruments  of  the  king,  and  to  establish  a  provin- 
cial and  divided  worship.  The  natural  result  was  that 
they  left  the  cities  assigned  to  them  in  the  territory  of 
Israel  and  gathered  round  the  metropolis  of  Judah  (2 
Chron.  xi,  13,  14).  Their  influence  over  the  peo]ilc  at 
large  was  thus  diminished,  and  the  design  of  the  Mosaic 
polity  so  far  frustrated;  but  their  power  as  a  religious 
order  was  probably  increased  by  this  concentration  with- 
in narrower  limits.  In  the  kingdom  of  Judah  they  were 
from  this  time  forward  a  powerful  body,  politically  as 
well  as  ecclesiastically.  They  brought  with  them  the 
prophetic  element  of  influence,  in  the  wider  as  well  as 
in  the  higher  meaning  of  the  word.  We  accordingly 
lind  them  ]irominent  in  the  war  of  Abijah  against  Jero- 
boam (2  Chron.  xiii,  10-12).  They  are,  as  before  no- 
ticed, sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat  to  instruct  and  judge 
the  people  (2  Chron.  xix,  8-10).  Prophets  of  their  or- 
der encourage  the  king  in  his  war  against  IMoab  and 
Ammon,  and  go  before  his  army  with  their  loud  halle- 
lujahs (2  Chron.  xx,  21),  and  join  aftenvards  in  the  tri- 
umph of  his  return.  The  apostasy  that  inllowed  on  the 
marriage  of  Jehoram  and  Athaliah  exposed  them  for  a 
time  to  the  dominance  of  a  hostile  system  ;  but  the  serv- 
ices of  the  Temple  appear  to  have  gone  on,  and  the  Le- 
vites were  again  conspicuous  in  the  counter-revolution 
effected  by  Jehoiada  (2  Chron.  xxiii),  and  in  restoring 
the  Temple  to  its  former  stateliness  under  Jehoash  (2 
Chron.  xxiv,  5).  They  shared  in  the  disasters  of  the 
reign  of  Amaziah  (2  Chron.  xxv,  24)  and  in  the  pros- 
perity of  Uzziahj  and  were  ready,  we  may  believe,  to 
support  the  priests,  who,  as  representing  their  order,  op- 
posed the  sacrilegious  usuqjatiou  of  the  latter  king  (2 
Chron.  xxvi,  17).  The  closing  of  the  Temple  under 
Ahaz  involved  the  cessation  at  once  of  their  work  and 


LEYITE 


399 


LEVITE 


of  their  privileges  (2  Chron.  xxviii,  24),  Under  Heze- 
kiah  they  again  became  prominent,  as  consecrating 
themselves  to  the  special  work  of  cleansing  and  repair- 
ing the  Temple  (2  Chron.  xxix,  12-15) ;  and  the  hymns 
of  David  and  of  Asaph  were  again  renewed.  In  this 
instance  it  was  thought  worthy  of  special  record  that 
those  who  were  simply  Levites  were  more  "  upright  in 
heart"  and  zealous  than  the  priests  themselves  (2  Chron. 
xxix,  34) ;  and  thus,  in  that  great  Passover,  they  took 
the  place  of  the  unwilling  or  unprepared  members  of 
the  priesthood.  Their  old  privileges  were  restored,  they 
were  put  forward  as"  teachers  (2  Chron.  xxx,  22),  and 
the  payment  of  tithes,  which  had  probably  been  discon- 
tinued under  Ahaz,  was  renewed  (2  Chron.  xxxi,  4). 
The  genealogies  of  the  tribe  were  revised  (ver.  17),  and 
the  old  classification  kept  its  ground.  The  reign  of 
jManasseh  was  for  them,  during  the  greater  part  of  it,  a 
period  of  depression.  That  of  Josiah  witnessed  a  fresh 
revival  and  reorganization  (2  Chron.  xxxiv,  8-13).  In 
tli8  great  Passover  of  his  eighteenth  year  they  took 
their  place  as  teachers  of  the  people,  as  well  as  leaders 
of  their  worship  (2  Chron.  xxxv,  3,  15).  Then  came 
tlie  Egyptian  and  Chaldasan  invasions,  and  the  rule  of 
cowardly  and  apostate  kings.  The  sacred  tribe  likewise 
sliowed  itself  unfaithful.  The  repeated  protests  of  the 
priest  Ezekiel  intlicate  that  they  had  shared  in  the  idol- 
atry of  the  people.  The  prominence  into  which  they 
had  been  brought  in  the  reigns  of  the  two  reforming 
kings  had  apparently  tempted  them  to  think  that  they 
might  encroach  permanently  on  the  special  functions  of 
the  priesthood,  and  the  sin  of  Korah  was  renewed  (Ezek. 
xliv.  10-14;  xlviii,  11).  They  had,  as  the  penalty  of 
their  sin,  to  witness  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  and 
to  taste  the  bitterness  of  exile. 

Ill,  After  the  Captivity. — The  position  taken  by  the 
Levites  in  the  first  movements  of  the  return  from  liab- 
ylon  indicates  that  they  had  cherished  the  traditions 
and  maintained  the  practices  of  their  tribe.  They,  we 
may  believe,  were  those  who  were  specially  called  on  to 
sing  to  their  conquerors  one  of  the  songs  of  Zion  (De 
Wette  on  Psa.  cxxxvii).  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that 
in  the  first  body  of  returning  exiles  they  were  present 
in  a  disproportionately  small  number  (Ezra  ii,  3G-42). 
Those  who  did  come  took  their  old  parts  at  the  founda- 
tion anil  dedication  of  the  second  Temple  (Ezra  iii,  10; 
vi,  18).  In  the  next  movement  under  Ezra  their  re- 
luctance (whatever  may  have  been  its  origm)  was  even 
more  strongly  marked.  None  of  them  presented  them- 
selves at  the  first  great  gathering  (Ezra  viii,  15).  The 
special  efforts  of  Ezra  did  not  succeed  in  bringing  to- 
gether more  than  38,  and  their  place  had  to  be  filled  by 
220  of  the  Nethinim  (ib.  20).  There  is  a  Jewish  tra- 
dition (Surenhusius,  Mishna,  Sota,  ix,  lOj  to  the  effect 
that,  as  a  punishment  for  this  backwardness,  Ezra  de- 
prived them  of  their  tithes,  and  transferred  the  right  to 
the  priests.  Those  who  returned  with  him  resumed 
their  functions  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  as  teachers 
and  interpreters  (Neh.  viii,  7),  and  those  who  were  most 
active  in  tliat  work  were  foremost  also  in  chanting  the 
hymn-like  prayer  which  ajjpears  in  Neh.  ix  as  the  last 
great  effort  of  Jewish  psalmody.  They  were  recognised 
in  the  great  national  covenant,  and  the  offerings  and 
tithes  which  were  their  due  were  once  more  solemnly 
secured  to  them  (Neh.  x,  37-39).  They  took  their  old 
places  in  the  Temple  and  in  tlie  villages  near  Jerusalem 
(Neh.  xii,  20),  and  are  present  in  full  array  at  the  great 
feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Wall.  The"  two  prophets 
who  were  active  at  the  time  of  the  return,  Haggai  and 
Zecliariah,  if  they  did  not  belong  to  the  tribe,  helped 
it  forward  in  the  work  of  restoration.  Tlie  strongest 
measures  were  adopted  by  Neheraiah,  as  before  by  Ezra, 
to  guard  the  purity  of  their  blood  from  the  contamina- 
tion of  mixed  marriages  (Ezra  x,  23),  and  thev  were 
made  the  special  guardians  of  the  holiness  of  the  Sab- 
bath (Neh.  xiii,  22).  The  last  propliet  of  the  O.  T.  sees, 
as  part  of  liis  vision  of  the  latter  davs,  the  time  when 
the  Lord  "  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi"  (MaL  iii,  3). 


The  guidance  of  the  O.  T.  fails  us  at  this  point,  and 
the  history  of  the  Levites  in  relation  to  the  national 
life  becomes  consequently  a  matter  of  inference  and  con- 
jecture. The  synagogue  worship,  then  originated,  or 
receiving  a  new  development,  was  organized  irrespect- 
ively of  them  [see  Synagogue],  and  thus  throughout 
the  whole  of  Palestine  there  were  means  of  instruction 
in  the  law  with  which  they  were  not  connected.  This 
would  tend  materially  to  diminish  their  peculiar  claim 
on  the  reverence  of  the  people :  but  where  priests  or  Le- 
vites were  present  in  the  synagogue  they  were  still  en- 
titled to  some  kind  of  precedence,  and  special  sections 
in  the  lessons  for  the  day  were  assigned  to  them  (Light- 
foot,  Ilor.  Heb.  on  IMatt.  iv,  23).  During  the  period 
that  followed  the  captivity  they  contributed  to  the  for- 
mation of  the  so-called  Great  Synagogue,  The  Levites, 
witli  the  priests,  theoretically  constituted  and  jiractically 
formed  the  majority  of  the  permanent  Sanhedrim  (Mai- 
mouides  in  Lightfoot,  Uor.  Heb.  on  j\Iatt.  xxvi,  3),  and 
as  such  had  a  large  share  in  the  admuiistration  of  jus- 
tice even  in  capital  cases.  In  the  characteristic  feature 
of  this  period,  as  an  age  of  scribes  succeeding  to  an  age 
of  prophets,  they,  too,  were  likely  to  be  sharers.  The 
training  and  previous  history  of  the  tribe  would  predis- 
pose them  to  attach  themselves  to  the  new  system  as 
tliey  had  done  to  the  old.  They  accordingly  may  have 
been  among  the  scribes  and  elders  who  accumulated 
traditions.  They  may  have  attached  themselves  to  the 
sects  of  Pharisees  and  Sadducees.  But  in  proportion  as 
they  thus  acquired  fame  and  reputation  individually, 
their  functions  as  Levites  became  subordinate,  and  they 
were  known  simply  as  the  inferior  ministers  of  the  Tem- 
ple. They  take  no  prominent  part  in  the  MaccaboBan 
struggles,  though  they  must  have  been  present  at  the 
great  purification  of  the  Temple. 

How  strictly  during  this  post-exilian  period  the  Le- 
vitical  duties  were  enforced,  and  how  severely  any  neg- 
lect in  performing  them  was  punished,  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following  description  in  the  Mishna:  '"The 
Levites  had  to  guard  twenty-four  places;  five  were  sta- 
tioned at  the  five  gates  of  the  Jlountain  of  the  House 
(rr^uD  in  "^"Wa),  four  at  the  four  corners  inside,  five 
at  the  five  gates  of  the  outer  court,  four  at  its  four  cor- 
ners inside,  one  at  the  sacrificial  storehouse,  one  at  the 
curtain  depository,  and  one  behind  the  holy  of  holies. 
The  inspector  of  the  Mountain  of  the  House  went  round 
through  all  the  guards  [every  night]  with  burning 
torches  before  him.  If  the  guard  did  not  immediately 
stand  up,  the  inspector  of  the  Jlountain  of  tlie  House 
called  out  to  him, '  Peace  be  with  thee !'  and  if  he  per- 
ceived that  he  was  asleep,  he  struck  him  with  his  stick, 
and  even  had  the  liberty  of  setting  his  garments  on  fire; 
and  when  it  was  asked,  -What  is  that  noise  in  the 
court  V  they  were  told, '  It  is  the  noise  of  a  Levite  who  is 
beaten,  or  whose  clothes  have  been  burnt,  because  he 
slept  when  on  duty'  "  (Middot/i,  i,  1,  2).  It  is  thought 
that  allusion  is  made  to  the  fact  in  the  Apocalypse 
when  it  is  said  "  Blessed  is  he  that  watcheth  and  keep- 
eth  his  garments"  (Picv.  xvi,  15).  As  for  the  Levites 
who  were  the  singers,  they  were  summoned  by  the  blast 
of  the  trumpet  after  the  incense  was  kindled  upon  the 
altar,  when  they  assembled  from  all  parts  of  the  spacious 
Temple  at  the  orchestra  ;vhich  was  joined  to  the  fifteen 
steps  at  the  entrance  from  the  women's  outer  court  to 
the  men's  outer  court.  They  sung  psalms  in  antipho- 
nies,  accompanied  by  three  musical  instruments — the 
harp,  the  cithern,  and  cymbals — while  the  priests  were 
pouring  out  on  the  altar  the  libation  of  wine.  On  Sun- 
day they  sung  Psa.  xxiv,  on  jSIonday  Psa.  xlviii,  on 
Tuesday  Psa.  Ixxxii,  on  Wednesday  Psa.  xciv,  on  Tluirs- 
day  Psa.  Ixxxi,  on  Friday  Psa.  xciii,  and  on  the  Sab- 
bath Psa.  xcii.  Each  of  tliese  iisalms  was  sung  in  nine 
sections,  with  eight  pauses  (QipiS),  and  at  each  pause 
the  priests  blew  trombones,  when  the  whole  congrega- 
tion fell  dfiwn  every  time  worshipping  on  their  faces 
{Tamid,  vii,  3,  4). 


LEVITE 


400 


LEVITICUS 


The  Levites  had  no  prescribed  canonical  dress  like 
the  priosts,  as  may  be  seen  from  tlie  fact  which  Jose- 
phu.s  narrates,  tliat  the  singers  requested  Agrippa  "to 
asseniMe  the  Sanhedrim  in  order  to  obtain  leave  for 
them  to  wear  linen  garments  like  the  priests  .  .  .  con- 
trary to  the  laws"  {Aiit.  xx,  9,  G).  But,  though  they 
wore  no  official  garments  at  the  service,  yet  the  Talmud 
says  that  they  ordinarily  wore  a  linen  outer-garment 
with  sleeves,  and  a  liead-dress;  and  on  journeys  were 
pr(jvided  with  a  staff,  a  pocket,  and  a  cojiv  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch (Joma,  122,  a).  Some  modifications  were  at 
this  period  introduced  in  what  was  considered  the  nec- 
essary qualification  for  service.  The  Mosaic  law,  it  will 
be  remembered,  regarded  age  as  the  only  qualification, 
and  freed  the  Levite  from  his  duties  when  he  was  fifty 
years  old;  now  that  singing  constituted  so  essential  a 
part  of  the  Levitical  duties,  any  Levite  who  had  not  a 
good  voice  was  regarded  as  disqualified,  and  if  it  con- 
tinued good  and  melodious,  he  was  retained  in  service 
all  liis  lifetime,  irrespective  of  age,  but  if  it  failed  he 
was  removed  from  that  class  which  constituted  the 
clioristers  to  the  gate-keepers  (jNIaimonides,  Ililchoth 
Kde  Ila-Kodesh,  iii,  8).  During  the  period  of  mourn- 
ing a  Levite  was  exempt  from  his  duties  in  the  Temple, 

The  Levites  appear  but  seldom  in  tlie  history  of  the 
X.  T.  Where  we  meet  with  their  names  it  is  as  the 
type  of  a  formal,  heartless  worship,  without  sympathy 
and  without  love  (Luke  x,  32).  The  same  parable  in- 
dicates Jericho  as  having  become — what  it  bad  not  been 
originally  (see  Josh,  xxi  1  Chron.  vi) — on»,  of  the  great 
stations  at  which  they  and  the  priests  resided  (Light- 
foot,  Cent.  Chorof/raph.  c.  47).  In  John  i,  19  they  appear 
as  delegates  of  the  Jews — that  is,  of  the  Sanhedrim — 
coming  to  inquire  into  the  credentials  of  the  Baptist,  and 
giving  utterance  to  their  own  Messianic  expectations. 
The  mention  of  a  Levite  of  Cyprus  in  Acts  iv,  3G,  shows 
that  the  changes  of  the  previous  century  had  carried 
that  tribe  also  into  "  the  dispersed  among  tlie  Gentiles." 
The  conversion  of  Barnabas  and  ]Mark  was  probably  no 
solitary  instance  of  the  reception  by  them  of  the  new 
faith,  which  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  old.  If -'a  great 
company  of  the  priests  were  obedient  to  the  faith"  (Acts 
vi,  7),  it  is  not  too  bold  to  believe  that  their  influence 
may  have  led  Levites  to  follow  their  example ;  and  thus 
the  old  psalms,  and  possibly  also  the  old  chants  of  the 
Temple  service,  might  be  transmitted  through  the  agen- 
cy of  those  who  had  been  specially  trained  in  them  to 
be  the  inheritance  of  the  Christian  Church.  Later  on 
in  the  history  of  the  first  century,  when  the  Temple  had 
received  its  final  completion  under  the  younger  Agrippa, 
we  find  one  section  of  the  tribe  engaged  in  a  new  move- 
ment. AVlth  that  strange  unconsciousness  of  a  coming 
diMjm  whicli  so  often  marks  the  last  stage  of  a  decaying 
system,  tlie  singers  of  the  Temple  thought  it  a  fitting 
time  to  apply  for  the  right  of  wearing  the  same  linen 
garment  as  the  priests,  and  jiersuaded  the  king  that  the 
concession  of  this  privilege  would  be  the  glory  of  his 
reign  (.Joseph.  A  n1.  xx,  8,  G).  The  other  Levites  at  the 
same  time  aslted  for  and  obtained  the  privilege  of  join- 
ing ill  the  Teni]ilc  choruses,  from  which  hitherto  they 
had  been  excluded.  Tlie  destruction  of  the  Temple  so 
soon  after  they  had  attained  the  object  of  their  desires 
came  as  with  a  grim  irony  to  sweep  away  their  occupa- 
tion, and  so  to  deprive  them  of  every  vestige  of  that 
wliich  had  distinguished  tlieni  from  other  Israelites. 
They  were  merged  in  the  crowd  of  captives  that  were 
scattered  over  the  Roman  world,  and  disappear  from  the 
stage  of  liistorv.  The  rabbinic  scliools,  tliat  rose  out  of 
tlie  ruins  of  tlie  Jewish  polity,  fostered  a  studied  and 
habitual  depreciation  of  the  lA'vitical  order  as  compared 
with  llieir  own  teachers  (S\-(^a\\\.  (lid  I'tiths.  \>.  A'iih). 
liulividiial  families,  it  may  be,  elierishcd  the  tradition 
that  their  fathers,  as  priests  or  Levites,  had  taken  part 
ill  the  services  of  the  Temple,  'If  their  claims  were  rec- 
ognised, they  received  the  old  marks  of  reverence  in  the 
worship  of  the  synagogue  (comp,  the  Kegidations  of  the 
Great  Synagogue  of  London,  in  JlargoLiouth's  Hist,  of 


the  Jews  in  Great  Britain,  iii,  270),  took  precedence  in 
reading  the  lessons  of  the  day  (Lightfoot,  Ilor.  Ileb.  on 
Matt,  iv,  23),  and  pronounced  the  blessing  at  the  close 
(Basnage,  Jlist.  des  Juifs,  vi,790).  Their  existence  was 
acknowledged  in  some  of  the  laws  of  the  Christian  em- 
perors (Basnage,  /.  c).  The  tenacity  with  which  the 
exiled  race  climg  to  these  recollections  is  shown  in  the 
prevalence  of  the  names  (Cohen,  and  Levita  or  Levy) 
which  imply  that  those  who  bear  them  are  of  the  sons 
of  Aaron  or  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  in  the  custom  which 
exempts  the  first-born  of  priestly  or  Levitical  families 
from  the  payments  which  are  still  offered,  in  the  case  of 
others,  as  the  redemption  of  the  first-born  (Leo  of  ^NIo- 
dena,  in  Picart's  Ceremonies  Religieuses,  i,  26;  Allen's 
Modern  Judaism,  p.  297).  In  the  mean  time,  the  old 
name  had  acquired  a  new  signification.  The  early  writ- 
ers of  the  Christian  Church  applied  to  the  later  hierar- 
chy the  language  of  the  earlier,  and  gave  to  the  bishops 
and  presbyters  the  title  (ifpstf)  that  had  belonged  to 
the  sons  of  Aaron,  while  the  deacons  were  habitually 
spoken  of  as  Levites  (Suicer,  Thes.  s.  v.  Atviri-ic). 

Though  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  and  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews  have  necessarily  done  away  with, 
the  Levitical  duties  which  were  strictly  local,  yet  the 
Levites,  like  the  priests,  still  exist,  have  to  this  day  cer- 
tain functions  to  perform,  and  continue  to  enjoy  certain 
privileges  and  immunities.  On  those  festivals  whereon 
the  priests  pronounce  the  benediction  on  the  congrega- 
tion of  Israel  during  the  morning  service,  as  prescribed 
in  Numb,  vi,  22-27,  the  Levites  have  "  to  wait  on  the 
priests,"  and  wash  their  hands  prior  to  the  giving  of  the 
said  blessing.  At  the  reading  of  the  law  in  the  syna- 
gogue, the  Levite  is  called  to  the  second  section,  the 
first  being  assigned  to  the  priest.  See  Haphtakaii. 
Moreover,  like  the  priests,  the  Levites  are  exempt  from 
redeeming  their  first-born,  and  this  exemption  even  ex- 
tends to  women  of  the  tribe  of  Levi  who  marrj'  Israel- 
ites, i.  e.  Jews  of  any  other  tribe. 

IV.  Literature. — ^Slishna,  Eracliin,  ii,  3-G ;  Tamid,  vii, 
3,4;  Siicca,\,A:;  Biklurim,  iu,i;  Maimonidcs, ./of///a- 
Chezaka,  Uilchoth  Kele  Ila-Mikdash,  iii,  1-11 ;  INIichael- 
is.  Commentaries  on  the  Laivs  of  Moses,  sec.  52  (English 
translation,  i,  252  sq.) ;  Biihr,  Si/mbolik  des  Mosaischen 
Cultus,  ii,  3,  39,  1G5,  342,  428  ;  Herzfeld,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  von  der  Ztrstdrung  des  ersten  Tempels,  p. 
12G,  204,  387-424  (Bruns.  1847) ;  the  same,  Geschichte  des 
Volkes  Israel  von  der  Vollendung  des  ziceiten  Tempels,  i, 
55-58,  G3-GG,  141  (Nordhausen,  1855) ;  Saalschlitz,  Das 
Mosaische  liecht,  i,  89-lOG  (Beri.  1853) ;  the  same,  Arch- 
aologie  der  llebrder,  vol.  ii,  ch.  Ixxviii,  p.  342  (Konigsb. 
1856) ;  Kcil,  Ilandhuch  der  hihlischen  A  rchaoloyie,  i,  IGO 
(Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1858) ;  Kalisch,  Historical  and 
Critical  Commentary  on  Genesis,  p.  735-744  (Lond.  1848); 
Brown,  Antiquities,  i,  301-347 ;  Godwyn,  Moses  amlAa- 
7-on,  i,  5;  AVitsius,  Dissert.  II.  de  Theocrat.  Israelitar.; 
Jennings,  Antiquities,  p.  184-206;  Carpzov,  Apparut. 
Crit.  (see  Index) ;  Saubert,  Comm.  de  Sacerdot.  et  sacris 
Hahr.  personis,  in  0pp.  p.  283  sq. ;  Grambcrg,  Krit.  Ge- 
schichte d.  lieligionsideen  des  Alten  Test,  vol.  i,  c.  iii ;  Re- 
land,  A  ntiq.  Sacr.  ii,  G ;  Ugolino,  Sacerdot.  Ilebr.  ch.  xii, 
in  his  Thesaur.  vol.  xiii;  }ich&c\\t,  Animadvers.  ad  1  ken. 
p.  525  sq. ;  Bauer,  Gottesd.Verfassung.  ii,  377  sq. ;  Otho, 
Lex.  Bab.  p.  3G8  sq. ;  Willisch,  Be  f  liis  Levitaruni  (Lips. 
1708). 

Levites,  Military,  a  name  given  to  such  ministers 
in  the  time  of  the  Commonwealth  as  filled  the  oflice  of 
chaplain  in  the  regiments  of  the  ParUamentary  army. — 
Muck,  Theol.  I )ict.\..x. 

Levit'icus,  so  called  in  the  Vulgate  from  treating 
chiefly  of  the  Levitical  service ;  in  tlie  Ileb.  S"ip^1,  and 
he  called, being  the  Avord  with  which  it  begins;  in  the 
Sept.  Afi^iViKoj';  the  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  call- 
ed also  by  the  later  Jews  Ci:ri3  S^'niFl,  '"law  of  the 
priests,"  and  m33"ip  rnin,  '•  law  of  offerings."  In  our 
treatment  of  it  we  largely  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles 
on  the  subject  in  Smith's  and  Kitto's  Bictionaries. 


LEVITICUS 


401 


LEVITICUS 


I.  Contents. — Leviticus  contains  the  further  statement 
and  development  of  the  Sinaitic  legislation,  the  begin- 
nings of  which  arc  described  in  Exodus.  It  exhibits 
the  historical  progress  of  this  legislation;  consequently, 
we  must  not  expect  to  tind  the  laws  detailed  in  it  in  a 
systematic  form.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a  certain  order 
obsened,  which  arose  from  the  nature  of  the  subject, 
and  of  which  the  plan  may  easily  be  perceived.  The 
whole  is  intimately  connected  with  the  contents  of  Ex- 
odus, at  the  conclusion  of  which  book  that  sanctuary  is 
described  with  which  all  external  worship  was  comiect- 
ed  (Exod.  xxxv-xl). 

LeviticuG  begins  by  describing  the  worship  itself  (ch. 
i-xvii),  and  concludes  with  personal  distinctions  and  ex- 
hortations as  to  the  worshippers  (ch.  xviii-xxvii).  More 
specifically  the  book  may  be  divided  into  seven  leading 
sections. 

(I.)  The  Laws  directly  relatinrj  to  Sacrifices  (ch.  i-vii). 
• — At  first  God  spoke  to  the  people  out  of  the  thunder 
and  lightning  of  Sinai,  and  gave  them  his  holy  com- 
mandments by  the  hand  of  a  mediator;  but  henceforth 
his  presence  is  to  dwell  not  on  the  secret  top  of  Sinai, 
but  in  the  midst  of  his  people,  both  in  their  wanderings 
through  the  wilderness  and  afterwards  in  the  Land  of 
Tromise.  Hence  the  first  directions  which  Moses  re- 
ceives after  the  work  is  finished  have  reference  to  the 
offerings  which  were  to  be  brought  to  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle.  As  .Jehovah  draws  near  to  the  people  in 
the  tabernacle,  so  the  people  draw  near  to  Jehovah  in 
the  offering.  Without  offerings  none  may  approach 
him.  The  regulations  respecting  the  sacrifices  fall  into 
three  groups,  and  each  of  these  groups  again  consists  of 
a  decalogue  of  instructions.  Bertheau  has  observed  that 
this  principle  runs  through  all  the  la;vs  of  Moses.  They 
are  all  modelled  after  the  pattern  of  the  ten  command- 
ments, so  that  each  distinct  subject  of  legislation  is  al- 
ways treated  of  under  ten  several  enactments  or  provi- 
sions. 

1.  The  first  group  of  regulations  (ch.  i-iii)  deals  with 
three  kinds  of  offerings:  the  burnt-offering  (nbl").  the 
meat-offering  (Hni'C),  and  the  thank-offering  (n2'r 

a.  The  burnt-offering  (chap,  i)  in  three  sections.  It 
might  be  either  (1)  a  male  without  blemish  from  the 
herds  ("i)^3n  TP)  (ver.  3-9),  or  (2)  a  male  without  blem- 
ish from  Xha  flocks,  or  lesser  cattle  ("XStl)  (ver.  10-13), 
or  (3)  it  might  be  fowls,  an  offering  of  turtle-doves  or 
young  pigeons  (ver.  14-17).  The  subdivisions  are  here 
marked  clearly  enough,  not  only  by  the  three  Idnds  of 
sacrifice,  but  also  by  \h&  form  in  which  the  enactment 
is  put.  Each  begins  with,  "If  his  offering,"  etc.,  and 
each  ends  -vvith,  "An  offering  made  by  fire,  of  a  sweet 
savor  unto  Jehovah." 

h.  The  next  group  (ch.  ii)  presents  many  more  diffi- 
culties. Its  parts  are  not  so  clearly  marked,  either  by 
prominent  features  in  the  subject-matter,  or  by  the  more 
technical  boundaries  of  certain  initial  and  final  phrases. 
"We  have  here  the  meat-offering,  or  bloodless  offering,  in 
four  sections :  (1)  in  its  uncooked  form,  consisting  of  fine 
flour  with  oil  and  frankincense  (ver.  1-3) ;  (2)  in  its 
cooked  form,  of  which  three  different  kinds  are  speci- 
fied—baked in  the  oven,  fried,  or  boiled  (verses  4-10) ; 
(3)  tlio  prohibition  of  leaven,  and  the  direction  to  use 
salt  in  aU  the  meat-offerings  (ver.  1 1-13) ;  (4)  the  obla- 
tion of  first-fruits  (ver.  14-1 G).  ^ 

c.  The  Shelamim,  "peace-offering"  (A.  V.),  or  "thank- 
offering"  (Ewald)  (chap,  iii),  in  three  sections.  Strictly 
speaking,  this  falls  under  two  heads:  first,  when  it  is  of 
the  herd;  and,  secondly,  when  it  is  of  the  flock.  But 
this  last  has  again  its  subdivision ;  for  the  offering,  when 
of  the  tlock,  may  be  either  a  lamb  or  a  goat.  Accord- 
mgly,  the  three  sections  are,  verses  1-5;  7-11;  12-16. 
Ver.  (J  is  merely  introductory  to  the  second  class  of  sac- 
rifices, and  ver.  17  a  general  conclusion,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  laws.  This  concludes  the  first  decalogue  of  the 
book. 

v.— Cc 


2.  The  laws  concerning  the  sin-offering  and  the  tres- 
pass- (or  guilt-)  offering  (chap,  iv,  v).  The  sin-offering 
(chap,  iv)  is  treated  of  under  four  specified  cases,  after  a 
short  introduction  to  the  whole  in  ver.  1,  2 :  (1)  the  sin- 
offering  for  the  priest,  3-12 ;  (2)  for  the  whole  congre- 
gation, 13-21 ;  (3)  for  a  ruler.  22-26 ;  (4)  for  one  of  the 
common  people,  27-35. 

Alter  these  four  cases,  in  which  the  offering  is  to  be 
made  for  four  different  classes,  there  follow  provisions 
respecting  three  several  kinds  of  transgression  for  which 
atonement  must  be  made.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether 
these  should  be  ranked  under  the  head  of  the  sin-offering 
or  of  the  trespass-offering.  See  Offering.  We  may, 
however,  follow  Bertheau,  Baumgarten,  and  Knobel  in 
regarding  them  as  special  instances  in  which  a  «z'n-offer- 
ing  was  to  be  brought.  The  three  cases  are :  first,  when 
any  one  hears  a  curse,  and  conceals  what  he  hears  (ver. 
1) ;  secondly,  when  any  one  touches,  without  knowing 
or  intending  it,  any  unclean  thing  (ver.  2,  3) ;  lastly, 
when  any  one  takes  an  oath  inconsiderately  (verse  4). 
For  each  of  these  cases  the  same  trespass-offering,  "  a 
female  from  the  flock,  a  lamb  or  kid  of  the  goats,"  is  ap- 
pointed ;  but,  with  that  mercifulness  which  character- 
izes the  Jlosaic  law,  express  provision  is  made  for  a  less 
costly  offering  where  the  offerer  is  poor. 

This  decalogue  is  then  completed  by  the  three  regu- 
lations respecting  the  guilt-offering  (or  trespass-offer- 
ing) :  first,  when  any  one  sins  "  through  ignorance  in 
the  holy  things  of  Jehovah"  (ver.  14, 16) ;  next,  when  a 
person,  without  knowing  it,  "commits  any  of  these  thuigs 
which  are  forbidden  to  be  done  by  the  commandments 
of  Jehovah"  (17-19) ;  lastly,  when  a  man  lies  and  swears 
falsely  concernmg  that  which  was  intrusted  to  him,  etc. 
(verses  20-26).  This  decalogue,  like  the  preceding  one, 
has  its  characteristic  words  and  expressions.  The  prom- 
inent word  which  introduces  so  many  of  the  enactments 
is  dS.3,  "  soul"  (see  iv,  2,  27 ;  v,  1,  2,  4, 15, 17 ;  vi,  2),  and 
the  phrase,  "  If  a  soul  shall  sin"  (iv,  2),  is,  with  occasional 
variations  having  an  equivalent  meaning,  the  distinctive 
phrase  of  the  section.  As  in  the  former  decalogue  the 
nature  of  the  offerings,  so  in  this  the  person  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  offence  are  the  chief  features  in  the  several 
statutes. 

3.  Naturally  upon  the  law  of  sacrifices  foUows  the 
law  of  the  priests'  duties  when  they  offer  the  sacrifices, 
(ch.  vi,  vii).  Hence  we  find  Moses  chrected  to  address 
himself  immediately  to  Aaron  and  his  sons  (vi,  2, 18  = 
vi,  9,  25,  A.V.).  In  this  group  the  different  kmds  of 
offerings  are  named  in  nearly  the  same  order  as  in  the 
two  preceding  decalogues,  except  that  the  offering  at 
the  consecration  of  a  priest  follows,  instead  of  the  thank- 
offering,  immediately  after  the  meat-offering,  which  it 
resembles,  and  the  thank-offering  now  appears  after  the 
trespass-offering.  There  are,  therefore,  in  all,  six  kinds 
of  offering,  and  in  the  case  of  each  of  these  the  priest  has 
his  distinct  duties.  Bertheau  has  very  ingeniously  so 
distributed  the  enactments  in  which  these  duties  are 
prescribed  as  to  arrange  them  all  in  five  decalogues. 
We  wiU  briefly  indicate  his  arrangement. 

(1.)  The  first  decalogue.  ((/.)  "  This  is  the  law  of  the 
burnt -offering"  (vi,  9,  A.Y.),  in  five  enactments,  each 
verse  (ver.  9-13)  containing  a  separate  enactment,  (b.) 
'•'And  this  is  the  law  of  the  meat-offering"  (verse  14), 
again  in  five  enactments,  each  of  which  is,  as  before, 
contained  in  a  single  verse  (ver.  14-18). 

(2.)  The  next  decalogue  is  contained  in  verses  19-30. 
(fl.)  Ver.  19  is  merely  introductory;  then  foOow,  in  five 
verses,  five  distinct  directions  with  regard  to  the  offer- 
ing at  the  time  of  the  consecration  of  the  priests,  the  first 
in  ver.  20,  the  next  two  in  ver.  21,  the  fourth  in  the  for- 
mer part  of  ver.  22,  and  the  last  in  the  latter  part  of  ver. 
22  and  ver.  23.  (6.)  "  This  is  the  law  of  the  sin-offer- 
ing" (ver.  25).  Then  the  five  enactments,  each  in  one 
verse,  except  that  two  verses  (27,  28)  are  given  to  the 
third. 

(3.)  The  third  decalogue  is  contained  in  ch.  vii,  1-10, 
the  laws  of  the  trespass-offering.     But  it  is  impossible 


LEVITICUS 


402 


LEVITICUS 


to  avoid  a  misgiving  as  to  the  soundness  of  Bertheau's 
system  when  we  tind  him  making  the  words  '•  It  is  most 
hOlv  "  in  verse  1,  the  tirst  of  the  ten  enactments.  This 
lie  is'  obliged  to  do,  as  verses  3  and  4  evidently  form  but 
one. 

(•1.)  The  fourth  decalogue,  after  an  introductory  verse 
(verse  11),  is  contained  in  ten  verses  (verses  12-21). 

(.J.)  The  last  decalogue  consists  of  certain  general 
laws  about  the  fat,  the  blooil,  the  wave-breast,  etc.,  and 
is  comprised  agam  in  ten  verses  (ver.  23-33),  the  verses, 
as  before,  marking  the  divisions. 

The  chapter  closes  with  a  brief  historical  notice  of 
the  fact  that  these  several  commands  were  given  to  Mo- 
ses on  Mount  Sinai  (verse  35-38). 

(II.)  A  n  entirely  historical  section  (chap,  viii-x),  in 
three  parts.— 1.  In  ch.  viii  we  have  the  account  of  the 
consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  by  Moses  before  the 
whole  congregation.  They  are  washed ;  lie  is  arrayed 
in  the  priestly  vestments  and  anointed  with  the  holy 
oil ;  his  sons  also  are  arrayed  in  their  garments,  and  the 
various  offerings  appointed  are  offered.  2.  In  chap,  ix 
Aaron  offers,  eight  days  after  his  consecration,  his  first  of- 
fering for  himself  and  the  people :  this  comprises  for  him- 
self a  sin-  and  burnt-  offering,  and  a  peace-  (or  thank-) 
offering.  He  blesses  the  people,  and  fire  comes  down 
from  heaven  and  consumes  the  burnt-offering.  3.  Ch. 
X  tells  how  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron,  eager 
to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  their  new  office,  and  perhaps 
too  much  elated  by  its  dignity,  forgot  or  despised  the 
restrictions  by  which  it  was  fenced  round  (Exod.  xxx, 
7,  etc.),  and,  daring  to  "  offer  strange  fire  before  Jeho- 
vah," perished  because  of  their  presumption. 

With  the  house  of  Aaron  began  this  wickedness  in 
the  sanctuary ;  with  them,  therefore,  began  also  the  di- 
vine punishment.  Very  touching  is  the  story  which 
follows.  Aaron,  though  forbidden  to  mourn  his  loss 
(ver.  G,  7),  will  not  eat  the  sin-offering  in  the  holy  place ; 
and  when  rebuked  by  jNIoses,  jileads  in  his  defence, 
"  Such  things  have  befallen  me :  and  if  I  had  eaten  the 
sin-offering  to-day,  should  it  have  been  accepted  in  the 
sight  of  Jehovah  ?"  Moses,  the  lawgiver  and  the  judge, 
admits  the  plea,  and  honors  the  natural  feelings  of  the 
father's  heart,  even  when  it  leads  to  a  violation  of  the 
letter  of  the  divine  commandment. 

(III.)  The  laws  concerning  j)^'ritii  and  imjmriti/,  and 
the  appropriate  sacrifices  and  ordinances  for  putting 
away  impurity  (chap,  xi-xvi).  The  first  seven  deca- 
logues had  reference  to  the  putting  away  oC guilt.  By 
the  appointed  sacrifices  the  separation  between  man  and 
God  was  healed.  The  next  seven  concern  themselves 
with  the  putting  away  of  impurity.  That  chap,  xi-xv 
hang  together  so  as  to  form  one  series  of  laws  there 
can  be  no  doubt.  Besides  that  they  treat  of  kindred 
subjects,  they  have  their  characteristic  words,  K -li, 
nS":"J,  "  unclean,"  "  nncleanness,"  "lini!,  "iHi:, "  clean," 
whicli  occur  iu  almost  every  verse.  The  only  question 
is  about  ch.  xvi,  which  by  its  opening  is  connected  im- 
mediately with  the  occurrence  related  in  ch.  x.  His- 
torically it  would  seem,  therefore,  that  ch.  xvi  ought  to 
have  followed  ch.  x.  As  this  order  is  neglected,  it  would 
lead  us  to  suspect  that  some  other  principle  of  arrange- 
ment than  that  of  historical  sequence  has  been  adopted. 
This  we  find  in  the  solemn  significance  of  the  great  day 
of  atonement.  The  high-priest  on  that  day  made  atone- 
ment "because  of  the  uitckanness  of  the  children  of  Is- 
rael, and  because  of  their  transgressions  in  all  their  sins" 
(xvi,  1(J),  and  he  "reconciled  the  holy  place  and  the 
tabernacle  of  the  congregation,  and  the  altar"  (ver.  20). 
Delivered  from  their  guilt  and  cleansed  from  their  pol- 
lutions, from  that  day  forward  the  children  of  Israel  en- 
tered upon  a  new  and  holy  life.  This  was  typified  both 
by  the  ordinance  that  tlie  bullock  and  the  goat  for  the 
sin-offering  were  burnt  without  the  camp  "(ver.  27),  and 
also  bv  the  sending  away  of  the  goat  laden  with  the 
ini(iuities  of  the  people  into  the  wilderness.  Hence  ch. 
xvi  eeems  to  stand  most  fitly  at  the  end  of  this  second 


group  of  seven  decalogues.  It  has  reference,  we  be- 
lieve, not  only  (as  Bertheau  supposes)  to  the  putting 
away,  as  by  one  solemn  act,  of  all  those  uncleannesses 
mentioned  in-  ch.  xi-xv,  and  for  which  the  various  ex- 
piations and  cleansings  there  appointed  were  temporary 
and  insufficient,  but  also  to  the  making  of  atonement,  in 
the  sense  of  hiding  sin  or  putting  away  its  guilt.  For 
not  only  do  we  find  the  idea  of  cleansing  as  from  defile- 
ment, but  far  more  prominently  the  idea  of  reconcilia- 
tion. The  often-repeated  word  "iS-,  "to  cover,  to 
atone,"  is  the  great  word  of  the  section. 

1.  The  first  decalogue  in  this  group  refers  to  clean 
and  unclean  flesh  (ch.  xi).  Five  classes  of  animals  are 
pronounced  unclean.  The  first  four  enactments  declare 
what  animals  may  or  may  not  be  eaten,  whether  (1) 
beasts  of  the  earth  (ver.  2-8),  or  (2)  fishes  (ver.  9-12), 
or  (3)  birds  (verse  13-20),  or  (4)  creeping  things  with 
wings.  The  next  four  are  intended  to  guard  against 
pollution  by  contact  with  the  carcase  of  any  of  these 
animals :  (5)  ver.  24-2G ;  (6)  ver.  27,  28 ;  (7)  ver.  29-38 ; 
(8)  verse  39-40.  The  ninth  and  tenth  specify  the  last 
class  of  animals  which  are  unclean  for  food,  (9)  ver.  41, 
42,  and  forbid  any  other  kind  of  pollution  by  means  of 
them,  (10)  verse  43-45.  Terse  46  and  47  are  merely  a 
concluding  summarj'. 

2.  (rt.)  Women's  purification  in  childbed  (cliap.  xii). 
The  whole  of  this  chapter,  according  to  Bertheau,  con- 
stitutes (1)  the  first  law  of  this  decalogue.  {]>.)  The  re- 
maining nine  are  to  be  found  in  the  next  chapter  (xiii), 
which  treats  of  the  signs  of  leprosy  in  man  and  in  gar- 
ments: (2)  ver.  1-8;  (3)  ver.  9-17;  (4)  ver.  18-23;  (5) 
ver.  24-28 ;  (G)  ver.  29-37 ;  (7)  ver.  38,  39 ;  (8)  ver.  40, 
41;  (9)  ver.  42-46;  (10)  ver.  47-59.  This  arrangement 
of  the  several  sections  is  not  altogether  free  from  objec- 
tion, but  it  is  certainly  supported  by  the  characteristic 
mode  in  which  each  section  opens.  Thus,  for  instance, 
ch.  xii,  2  begins  with  S'^"iTn  "^3  iTi'X;  ch.  xiii,  2  with 

n'^ri'^  -^s  nnx,  ver.  9  with  ni^rin  "is  t^jj-^-i  r«,  and 

so  on,  the  same  order  being  always  observed,  the  sub- 
stantive being  placed  first,  then  "^S,  and  then  the  verb, 
except  only  in  ver.  42,  where  the  substantive  is  placed 
after  the  verb. 

3.  "  The  law  of  the  leper  in  the  day  of  his  cleansing," 
i.  c.  the  law  which  the  j^riest  is  to  observe  in  purifying 
the  leper  (xiv,  1-32).  The  priest  is  mentioned  in  ten 
verses,  each  of  which  begins  one  of  the  ten  sections  of 
this  law  :  ver.  3,  4,  5,  11, 12, 14, 15,  IC,  19,  20.  In  each 
instance  the  word  "rtSil  is  preceded  by  1  consecut.  with 
the  perf.  It  is  true  that  in  verse  3,  and  also  in  verse  14, 
the  word  'nsn  occurs  twice ;  but  in  both  verses  there 
is  MS.  authority,  as  well  as  that  of  the  A'ulg.  and  Arab, 
versions,  for  the  absence  of  the  second.  Verses  21-32 
may  be  regarded  as  a  supplemental  yirovision  in  cases 
where  the  leper  is  too  poor  to  bring  the  required  offering, 

4.  The  leprosy  in  a  house  (xiv,  33-57).  It  is  not  so 
easy  here  to  trace  the  arrangement  noticed  in  so  many 
other  laws.  There  are  no  characteristic  Avords  or  phrases 
to  guide  us.  Bertheau's  division  is  as  follows:  (1)  ver. 
34,35;  (2)  ver.  3G,  37 ;  (3)  ver.  38;  (4)  ver.  39;  (5)  ver. 
40 ;  (G)  ver.  41,  42 ;  (7)  ver.  43-45.  Then,  as  usual,  fol- 
lows a  short  summary  which  closes  the  statute  concern- 
ing leprosy,  ver.  54-57. 

5.  G.  The  law  of  nncleanness  by  issue,  etc.,  in  two 
decalogues  (xv,  1-15;  xv,  lG-31).  The  division  is 
clearly  marked,  as  Bertheau  observes,  by  the  form  of 
cleansing,  wliich  is  so  exactly  similar  in  the  two  princi- 
pal cases,  and  which  closes  each  series:  (1)  ver.  13-15; 
(2)  ver.  28-30.  We  again  give  his  arrangement,  though 
we  do  not  profess  to  regard  it  as  in  all  respects  satisfac- 
torv. 

(«.)  (1)  Ver.  2,  3;  (2)  ver.  4;  (3)  ver.  5;  (4)  ver.  6; 
(5)  ver.  7;  (6)  ver.  8;  (7)  ver.  9;  (8)  ver.  10;  (9)  ver. 
11, 12  [these  Bertheau  considers  as  one  enactment,  be- 
cause it  is  another  way  of  saying  that  cither  the  man 
or  tliiny  which  the  unclean  person  touches  is  luiclean; 


LEVITICUS 


403  LEVITICUS 


but,  on  the  same  principle,  verses  4  and  5  might  just  as 
well  form  one  enactment]  ;  (10)  ver.  l.'5-15. 

(6.)  (1)  Ver.  IG  ;  (2)  ver.  17  ;  (3)  ver.  18 ;  (4)  ver.  19  ; 
(5)  ver.  20;  (6)  ver.  21;  (7)  ver.  22;  (8)  ver.  23;  (9) 
ver.  2-1;  (10)  ver.  28-30.  In  order  to  complete  this  ar- 
rangement, he  considers  ver.  25-27  as  a  kind  of  supple- 
mentary enactment  provided  for  an  irregular  unclean- 
ness,  leaving  it  as  quite  uncertain,  however,  whether 
this  was  a  later  addition  or  not.  Verses  32  and  33  form 
merely  the  same  general  conclusion  which  we  have  had 
before  in  xiv,  5rl:-o7. 

7.  The  last  decalogue  of  the  second  group  of  seven  dec- 
alogues is  to  be  found  in  chap,  xvi,  which  treats  of  the 
great  day  of  atonement.  The  law  itself  is  contained  in 
verses  1-28.  The  remaining  verses,  29-34,  consist  of  an 
exhortation  to  its  careful  observance.  In  the  act  of 
atonement  three  persous  are  concerned :  the  high-priest, 
in  this  instance  Aaron ;  the  man  who  leads  away  the  goat 
for  Azazel  into  the  wilderness ;  and  he  who  bums  the 
skin,  flesh,  and  dung  of  the  bullock  and  goat  of  the  sin- 
offering  without  the  camp.  The  last  two  have  special 
purilications  assigned  them — the  second  because  he  has 
touched  the  goat  laden  with  the  guilt  of  Israel,  the  third 
because  he  has  come  in  contact  with  the  sin-oftering. 
The  ninth  and  tenth  enactments  prescribe  what  these 
puriticatious  are,  each  of  them  concluding  with  the  same 

formula,  n:n52n  PX  Sli:;  "i?  "^"inxi,  and  hence  distin-  |  ^g^^"  ^^p^,^  j,^g  ^^j^^^g  3,,^,  meaning  of  the  sacrifice  to  Je- 
guished  from  each  other.  The  duties  of  Aaron,  conse-  ^  hovah  as  compared  with  the  sacrifices  offered  to  false 
quently,  ought,  if  tlie  division  into  decades  is  correct,  to  ,  go^ig,  it  would  seem,  too,  that  it  was  necessary  to  guard 
be  comprised  in  eight  enactments.  Now  the  name  of  1  against  any  license  to  idolatrous  practices  which  might 
Aaron  is  repeated  eight  times,  and  in  six  of  these  it  is    possibly  l)e  drawn  from  the  sending  of  the  goat  for  Aza- 


Here  again  we  may  trace,  as  before,  a  group  o*"  seven 
decalogues ;  but  the  several  decalogues  are  not  so  clearly 
marked,  nor  are  the  characteristic  phrases  and  the  intro- 
ductions and  conclusions  so  common.  In  ch.  xviii  there 
are  twenty  enactments,  and  in  ch.  xix  thirty.  In  eh. 
xvii,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  only  six,  and  in  ch.  xx 
there  are  fourteen.  As  it  is  quite  manifest  that  the  en- 
actments in  ch.  xviii  are  entirely  separated  by  a  fresh 
introduction  from  those  in  ch.  xvii,  Bertheau,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  usual  arrangement  of  the  laws  in  deca- 
logues, would  transpose  this  cliapter,  and  place  it  after 
ch.  xix.  He  observes  that  the  laws  in  ch.  xvii,  and  those 
in  chap,  xx,  1-9,  are  akin  to  one  another,  and  may  very 
well  constitute  a  single  decalogue,  and,  what  is  of  more 
importance,  that  the  words  in  xviii,  1-5  form  the  natu- 
ral introduction  to  this  whole  group  of  laws:  ''And  Je- 
hovah spake  unto  Moses,  saying,  Speak  unto  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  and  say  unto  them,  I  am  Jehovah  j'our 
God.  After  the  doings  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  wherein 
ye  dwelt,  shall  ye  not  do;  and  after  the  doings  of  the 
land  of  Canaan,  whither  I  bring  you,  shall  ye  not  do ; 
neither  shall  ye  walk  in  their  ordinances,"  etc.  There 
is,  however,  a  jjoint  of  connection  between  chapters  xvii 
and  xviii  wliich  must  not  be  overlooked,  and  which 
seems  to  indicate  that  their  position  in  our  present  text 
is  the  right  one.  All  the  six  enactments  in  chap,  xvii 
(ver.  3-5,  ver.  G,  7,  ver.  8,  9,  ver.  10-12,  ver.  13, 14,  ver.  15) 


preceded  by  tlie  perf.  with  1  consecut.,  as  we  observed 
was  the  case  before  when  "the  priest"  was  the  prominent 
figure.  According  to  this,  then,  the  decalogue  will  stand 
thus :  (1)  Verse  2,  Aaron  not  to  enter  the  holy  place  at  all 
times ;  (2)  verses  3-5,  with  what  sacrifices  and  in  what 
dress  Aaron  is  to  enter  the  holy  place;  (3)  verses  G,  7, 
Aaron  to  offer  the  bullock  for  himself,  and  to  set  the  two 
goats  before  Jehovah ;  (4)  Aaron  to  cast  lots  on  the  two 


zel  into  the  wilderness  [see  Atonement,  Day  of],  es- 
pecially, perhaps,  against  the  Egyptian  custom  of  ap- 
peasing the  evil  spirit  of  the  wilderness  and  averting 
his  malice  (Hengstenberg,  Mose  u.  ^Egypten,  p.  179 ;  Mo- 
vers, Phonicier,  i,  369).  To  this  there  may  be  an  allu- 
sion in  ver.  7.  Perhaps,  however,  it  is  better  and  more 
simple  to  regard  the  enactments  in  these  two  chapters 
(with  Bunsen,  Bihelwerk,  II,  i,  245)  as  directed  against 


goats ;  (5)  verses  9, 10,  Aaron  to  offer  the  goat  on  which  |  two  prevalent  heathen  practices,  the  eating  of  blood  and 
the  lot  falls  for  Jehovah,  and  to  send  away  the  goat  for  j  fornication.  It  is  remarkable,  as  showing  how  inti- 
Azazel  into  the  wilderness;  (G)  verses  11-19,  Aaron  to  I  mately  moral  and  ritual  observances  were  blended  to 
sprinkle  the  blood  both  of  the  bullock  and  of  the  goat  j  gether  in  the  Jewish  mind,  that  abstinence  "from  blood 
to  make  atonement  for  himself,  for  his  house,  and  for  the  and  things  strangled,  and  fornication,"  was  laid  down  by 
whole  congregation,  as  also  to  purify  the  altar  of  incense  [  the  apostles  as  the  only  condition  of  communion  to  be 
with  the  blood ;  (7)  verses  20-22,  Aaron  to  lay  his  hands  j  required  of  Gentile  converts  to  Christianity.  Before  we 
on  the  living  goat,  and  confess  over  it  all  the  sins  of  the  |  quit  this  chapter  one  observation  may  be  made.  The 
children  of  Israel ;  (8)  verses  23-25,  Aaron  after  this  to  |  rendering  of  the  A.V.  in  ver.  11,"  for  it  is  the  blood  that 
take  off  his  linen  garments,  bathe  himself,  and  put  on  '  maketh  an  atonement  for  the  soul,"  should  be,  "  for  it  is 
his  priestly  garments,  and  then  offer  his  burnt-offering    the  blood  that  maketh  an  atonement  6y  means  of  the 


and  that  of  the  congregation ;  (9)  verse  2G,  the  man  by 
whom  the  goat  is  sent  into  the  wilderness  to  purify  him- 
self; (10)  verses  27-28,  what  is  to  be  done  by  him  who 
burns  the  sin-offering  without  the  camp, 

(IV.)  Laws  cJdefii)  intended  to  mark  the  Separation  be- 
tween Israel  and  the  Heathen  Nations  (cliap.  xvii-xx). —  i  ,  ,-,,/-,  j  i  ■  i 
We  here  reach  the  great  central  point  of  the  book.  All  I  ^li-eady  alluded,  ver.  1-5-and  in  which  God  claims  obe- 
going  before  was  but  a  preparation  for  this.  Two  great  I  'lience  on  the  double  ground  that  he  is  Israel  s  God,  and 
truths  have  been  established:  first,  that  God  can  only  !  t^iat  to  keep  his  commandments  is  life  (ver.  D)--there 
be  approached  bv  means  of  appointe.l  sacrifices;  next,  1  *"oll«^^'  twenty  enactments  concerning  unlawful  mar- 
that  man  in  nature  and  life  is  full  of  pollution,  which  I  ^ages  and  unnatural  lusts.      I  he  hrst  ten  are  contained 


lifer  This  is  important.  It  is  not  blood  merely  as 
such,  but  blood  as  having  in  it  the  principle  of  life  that 
God  accepts  in  sacrifice  ;  for,  by  thus  giving  vicariously 
the  life  of  the  dumb  animal,  the  sinner  confesses  that  his 
own  life  is  forfeit. 

In  ch.  xviii.  after  the  introduction  to  which  we  have 


full  of  pollution, 
must  be  cleansed.  Now  a  third  is  taught,  viz.,  that  not 
by  several  cleansings  for  several  sins  and  pollutions  can 
giult  be  put  away.  The  several  acts  of  sin  are  but  so 
many  manifestations  of  the  sinful  nature.  For  this, 
therefore,  also  must  atonement  be  made  by  one  solemn 
act,  which  shall  cover  all  transgressions,  and  turn  away 
God's  righteous  displeasure  from  Israel.  Israel  is  now 
reminded  that  it  is  the  holy  nation.  The  great  atone- 
ment offered,  it  is  to  enter  upon  a  new  life.  It  is  a  sep- 
arate nation,  sanctified  and  set  ajiart  for  the  service  of 
God.  It  may  not,  therefore,  do  after  the  abominations 
of  the  heathen  by  whom  it  is  surrounded.  Here,  conse- 
quentl}',  we  find  those  laws  and  ordinances  ^vhich  espe- 
cially distinguish  the  nation  of  Israel  from  all  other  na- 
tions of  the  earth. 


one  in  each  verse  (verses  G-15).  The  next  ten  range 
themselves  in  like  manner  with  the  verses,  except  that 
verses  17  and  23  contain  each  two.  Of  the  twenty  the 
first  fourteen  are  alike  in  form,  as  well  as  in  the  repeated 

In  chap,  xix  are  three  decalogues,  introduced  by  the 
words,  "  Ye  shall  be  holy,  for  I  Jehovah  your  God  am 
holy,"  and  ending  with,  "  Ye  shall  observe  all  my  stat- 
utes, and  all  my  judgments,  and  do  them.  I  am  Jeho- 
vah." The  laws  here  are  of  a  very  mixed  character, 
and  many  of  them  a  repetition  merely  of  previous  laws. 
Of  the  three  decalogues,  the  first  is  comprised  in  verses 
3-13,  and  may  be  thus  distributed:  (1)  verse  3,  to  honor 
father  and  mother;  (2)  ver.  3.  to  keep  the  Sabbath;  (3) 
ver.  4,  not  to  turn  to  idols ;  (4)  ver.  4,  not  to  make  mol- 


LEVITICUS 


404 


LEVITICUS 


ten  gods  (tliese  two  enactments  being  separated  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  first  and  second  commandments 
in  tlie  (Jrcat  Decalogue  or  Two  Tables) ;  (5)  verses  5-S, 
of  thank-offerings;  (U)  ver.  9, 10,  of  gleaning;  (7)  verse 
11.  not  to  steal  or  lie;  (8)  verse  12,  not  to  swear  falsely; 
(9)  verse  13,  not  to  defraud  one's  neighbor;  (10)  verse 
13.  the  wages  of  him  that  is  hired,  etc. 

The  next  decalogue,  verses  14-'25,  Bertheau  arranges 
thus:  ver.  14,  ver.  15,  ver.  16a,  ver.  1Gb,  ver.  17,  ver.  18, 
ver.  19((,  ver.  1%,  ver.  '20-22j  ver.  23-25.  "We  object, 
however,  to  making  the  Avords  in  19a,  "  Ye  shall  keep 
niv  statutes,"  a  separate  enactment.  There  is  no  reason 
lor  this.  A  much  better  plan  would  be  to  consider  ver. 
17  as  consisting  of  two  enactments,  which  is  manifestly 
the  case. 

The  third  decalogue  may  be  thus  distributed :  verse 
2Ga,  ver.  2Gb,  ver.  27,  ver.  28,  ver.  29,  ver.  30,  ver.  31,  ver. 
32.  ver.  33,  34,  ver.  35,  36. 

We  have  thus  found  five  decalogues  in  this  group. 
Bertheau  completes  the  number  seven  by  transposing, 
as  we  have  seen,  chap,  xvii,  and  placing  it  immediately 
before  ch.  xx.  He  also  transfers  ver.  27  of  ch.  xx  to 
what  he  considers  its  proper  place,  viz.,  after  ver.  6.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  enactment  in  ver.  27  stands 
very  awkwardly  at  the  end  of  the  chapter,  completely 
isolated  as  it  is  from  all  other  enactments ;  for  ver.  22- 
20  are  the  natural  conclusion  to  this  whole  section.  But, 
admitting  this,  another  dilWculty  remains,  that,  accord- 
ing to  him,  the  seventh  decalogue  begins  at  ver.  10,  and 
another  transjiosition  is  necessan,-,  so  that  ver.  7,  8  may 
stand  after  verse  9,  and  so  conclude  the  preceding  series 
of  ten  enactments.  It  is  better,  perhaps,  to  abandon 
the  search  for  complete  symmetry  than  to  adopt  a  meth- 
od so  violent  in  order  to  obtain  it. 

It  should  be  observed  that  ch.  xviii,  6-23,  and  ch.  xx, 
10-21,  stand  in  such  a  relation  to  one  another  that  the 
latter  declares  the  penalties  attached  to  the  transgres- 
sion of  many  of  the  commandments  given  in  the  former. 
But,  though  we  may  not  be  able  to  trace  in  chap,  xvii 
-XX  seven  decalogues,  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of 
which  we  have  been  speaking,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  form  a  distinct  section  of  themselves,  of  which 
XX,  22-26  is  the  proper  conclusion. 

Like  the  other  sections,  it  has  some  characteristic 
expressions:  («)  •'  Ye  shall  keep  my  judgments  and  my 
statutes"  (■'^pn,  ■'MSp^)  occurs  xviii,  4,  5,  26;  xix, 
37 ;  XX,  8,  22,  but  is  not  met  with  either  in  the  preced- 
ing or  the  following  chapters,  (i)  The  constantly  re- 
curring phrases,  "  I  am  .Jehovah,"  "  I  am  .Jehovah  your 
God,'  '•  Be  ye  holy,  for  I  am  holy,"  " I  am  Jehovah 
which  hallow  you,"'  In  the  earlier  sections  this  phrase- 
ology is  only  found  in  Lev,  xi,  44,  45.  and  Exod.  xxxi, 
13.  In  the  section  which  follows  (chap,  xxi-xxv)  it  is 
mucVi  more  common,  this  section  being  in  a  great  meas-  ! 
are  a  continuation  of  the  preceding. 

(Y.)  We  come  now  to  the  last  group  of  decalogues — 
that  contained  in  ch.  xxi-xxvi,  2.  The  subjects  com- 
prised in  these  enactments  are — 1.  The  personal  purity 
of  the  priests.  They  may  not  defile  themselves  for  the 
dead;  their  wives  and  daughters  must  be  pure,  and 
they  themselves  must  be  free  from  all  personal  blemish 
(ch.  xxi).  2.  The  eating  of  the  holy  things  is  permit- 
ted only  to  priests  who  are  free  from  all  uncleamiess: 
they  and  their  household  only  may  eat  them  (ch.  xxii,  1- 
16).  3.  The  offerings  of  Israel  are  to  he  pure  and  with- 
out iilemish  (ch.  xxii.  17-33  ).  4.  The  last  series  provides 
for  the  due  celebration  of  the  great  festivals  when  priests 
and  peo|)le  were  to  be  gathered  together  before  Jehovah 
in  holy  convocation  (ch.  xxiii,  xxv),  with  an  episode 
(ch.  xxiv). 

L'p  to  this  point  we  trace  system  and  purpose  in  the 
order  of  the  legislation.  Thus,  for  instance,  ch.  xi~xvi  i 
treats  of  external  juirity:  ch.  xvii-xx  of  moral  iiurity; 
chap,  xxi-xxiii  of  the  holiness  of  the  priestsj  and  their 
duties  with  regard  to  holy  things ;  the  whole  concluding 
•with  provisions  for  the  solemn  feasts  on  which  all  Israel  | 
appeared  before  Jehovah.     We  will  again  brietiy  indi-  | 


cate  Bertheau's  groups,  and  then  append  some  general 
observations  on  this  whole  section. 

u.  Chapter  xxi,  ten  laws,  as  follows:  (1)  ver.  1-3;  (2) 
ver.  4  ;  (3)  ver.  5,  6  ;  (4)  ver.  7,  8  ;  (5)  ver.  9 ;  (6)  ver.  10, 
11 ;  (7)  ver.  12 ;  (8)  ver.  13, 14 ;  (9)  ver.  17-21 :  (10)  ver. 
22,  23.  The  first  five  laws  concern  all  the  priests  ;  the 
sixth  to  the  eighth,  the  high-priest ;  the  ninth  and  tenth, 
the  effects  of  bodily  blemish  in  particular  cases. 

b.  Chap,  xxii,  1-16.  (1)  ver.  2 ;  (2)  ver.  3 ;  (3)  ver.  4 ; 
(4)  ver.  4-7  ;  (5)  ver.  8,  9;  (0)  ver.  10  ;  (7)  ver.  11 ;  (8) 
ver.  12;  (9)  ver.  13;  (10)  ver.  14-16. 

c.  Chap,  xxii,  17-33.  (1)  ver.  18-20 ;  (2)  ver.  21 ;  (3) 
ver.  22 ;  (4)  ver.  23 ;  (5)  ver.  24 ;  (6)  ver.  25 ;  (7)  ver. 
27;  (8)  ver.  28;  (9)  ver.  29;  (10)  ver.  30;  and  a  general 
conclusion  in  verse  31-33. 

(/.  Chap,  xxiii.  (1)  ver.  3 ;  (2)  ver.  5-7 ;  (3)  ver.  8 ; 
(4)  ver.  9-14;  (5)  ver.  15-21;  (6)  ver.  22;  (7)  ver.  24, 
25 ;  (8)  ver.  27-32 ;  (9)  ver.  34,  35 ;  (10)  ver.  36  ;  verses 
37,  38  contain  the  conclusion,  or  general  summing  up  of 
the  Decalogue.  On  the  remainder  of  the  chapter,  as 
well  as  chapter  xxiv,  see  below. 

e.  Chap,  xxv,  1-22.  (1)  ver.  2 ;  (2)  ver.  3, 4 ;  (3)  ver. 
5 ;  (4)  ver.  6 ;  (5)  ver.  8-10 ;  (6)  ver.  11, 12 ;  (7)  ver.  13  ; 
(8)  ver.  14  ;  (9)  ver.  15 ;  (10)  ver.  16  ;  with  a  concluding 
formula  in  verse  18-22. 

j:  Chap,  xxv,  23-38.  (1)  ver.  23,  24 ;  (2)  ver.  25 ;  (3) 
ver.  26,  27 ;  (4)  ver.  28 ;  (5)  ver.  29 ;  (6)  ver.  30 ;  (7)  ver. 
31 ;  (8)  ver.  32,  33 ;  (9)  ver.  34 ;  (10)  ver.  35-37  ;  the 
conclusion  to  the  whole  in  verse  38. 

g.  Chap,  xxv,  39-xxvi, 2.  (1)  ver.  39 ;  (2)  ver.  40-42; 
(3)  ver.  43 ;  (4)  ver.  44, 45 ;  (5)  ver.  46 :  (6)  ver.  47-49 ; 
(7)  ver.  50;  (8)  ver.  51,  52;  (9)  ver.  53;   (10)  ver.  54. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  above  arrangement  is  only 
completed  by  omitting  the  latter  part  of  ch.  xxiii  and  the 
whole  of  ch.  xxiv.  But  it  is  clear  that  ch.  xxiii,  39-44 
is  an  addition,  containing  further  instructions  respect- 
ing the  Feast  of  Tabernacles.  Verse  39,  as  conijiared 
with  verse  34,  shows  that  the  same  feast  is  referred  to; 
while  ver.  37, 38  are  no  less  manifestly  the  original  con- 
clusion of  the  laws  respecting  the  feasts  which  are  enu- 
merated in  the  previous  part  of  the  chapter.  Ch.  xxiv, 
again,  has  a  peculiar  character  of  its  own.  First,  we 
have  a  command  concerning  the  oil  to  be  used  in  the 
lamps  belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  but  tliis  is  only  a 
repetition  of  an  enactment  already  given  in  Exod.  xxvii, 
20,  21,  which  seems  to  be  its  natural  place.  Then  fol- 
low directions  about  the  shewbread.  These  do  not  oc- 
cur previously.  In  Exoc'.us  the  shewbread  is  spoken 
of  always  as  a  matter  of  course,  concerning  which  no 
regulations  arc  necessary  (comp.  Exod.  xxv,  30 ;  xxxv, 
13;  xxxix,  30).  Easily  come  certain  enactments  aris- 
ing out  of  a  historical  occurrence.  The  son  of  an  Eg^-p- 
tian  father  by  an  Israelitish  woman  blasphemes  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  and  Moses  is  commanded  to  stone 
him  in  conseciuence;  and  this  circumstance  is  the  occa-  • 
sion  of  the  f(>llowing  laws  being  given :  (1)  That  a  blas- 
phemer, whether  Israelite  or  stranger,  is  to  be  stoned 
(comp.  l*;xod.  xxii,  28) ;  (2)  That  he  that  kills  any  man 
shall  surely  i)e  put  to  death  (comp.  Exod.  xxi,  12-27) ; 
(3)  That  he  that  kills  a  beast  shall  make  it  good  (not 
found  where  we  might  have  expected  it,  in  the  series 
of  laws  Exod.  xxi.  28-xxii.  16) ;  (4)  That  if  a  man  cause 
a  blemish  in  his  neighbor  he  shall  be  requited  in  like 
manner  (comp.  Exod.  xxi.  22-25).  (5)  We  have  then 
a  repetition  in  an  inverse  order  of  verses  17,  18;  and  (6) 
the  injunction  that  there  shall  be  one  law  for  the  stran- 
ger and  the  Israelite;  (7)  finally,  a  brief  notice  of  the 
infliction  of  the  punishment  in  the  case  of  the  son  of 
Shelomith.  who  blasphemed.  Not  another  instance  is 
to  be  found  in  the  whole  collection  in  which  any  histor- 
ical circumstance  is  made  the  occasion  of  enacting  a  law. 
Then,  again,  the  laws  (2),  (3),  (4),  (5),  are  mostly  rep- 
etitions of  existing  laws,  and  seem  here  to  have  no  con- 
nection with  the  event  to  which  they  are  referred. 
Either,  therefore,  some  other  circumstances  took  place 
at  the  same  time  with  which  we  are  not  acquainted,  or 
these  isolated  laws,  detached  from  their  proper  connec- 


LEVITICUS 


405 


LEVITICUS 


tion,  were  grouped  together  here,  in  obedience  perhaps 
to  some  traditional  association. 

(VI.)  These  decalogues  are  now  fitly  closed  by  words 
iii promise  and  threat — promise  of  largest,  richest  bless- 
ing to  those  that  hearken  unto  and  do  these  command- 
ments; threats  of  utter  destruction  to  those  that  break 
the  covenant  of  their  God.  Thus  the  second  great  di- 
vision of  the  law  closes  like  the  first,  except  that  the 
first  part,  or  Book  of  the  Covenant,  ends  (Exod.  xxiii, 
20-33)  with  promises  of  blessing  only.  There  nothing 
is  said  of  the  judgments  which  are  to  foUow  transgres- 
sion, because  as  yet  the  covenant  had  not  been  made. 
But  when  once  the  nation  had  freely  entered  into  that 
covenant,  they  bound  themselves  to  accept  its  sanctions, 
p  its  penalties,  as  well  as  its  rewards.  Nor  can  we  won- 
der if  in  these  sanctions  the  punishment  of  transgression 
holds  a  larger  place  than  the  rewards  of  obedience ;  for 
already  was  it  but  too  plain  that  "Israel  would  not 
obey."  From  the  first  they  were  a  stiff-necked  and  re- 
Ijellious  race,  and  from  the  first  the  doom  of  disobedience 
hung  like  a  fiery  sword  above  their  heads. 

(VII.)  Oh  Vows. — The  legislation  is  evidently  com- 
l^lcted  in  the  last  words  of  the  preceding  chapter: 
'•  These  are  the  statutes,  and  judgments,  and  laws  which 
.lehovah  made  between  him  and  the  children  of  Israel 
in  Mount  Sinai  by  the  hand  of  jMoses."  Chap,  xxvii  is 
an  appendix,  again  closed,  however,  by  a  similar  formu- 
la, which  at  least  shows  that  the  transcriber  considered 
it  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  original  Mosaic  legisla- 
tion, though  he  might  be  at  a  loss  to  assign  it  its  place. 
Bertheau  classes  it  with  the  other  less  regularly  grouped 
laws  at  the  beginning  of  the  book  of  Numbers.  He 
treats  the  section  Lev.  xxvii-Numb.  x,  10  as  a  series  of 
supplements  to  the  Sinaitic  legislation. 

II.  Integrity,  —  This  is  very  generally  admitted. 
Those  critics  even  who  are  in  favor  of  different  docu- 
ments in  the  Pentateuch  assign  nearly  the  whole  of  this 
book  to  one  -wTiter,  the-Elohist,  or  author  of  the  original 
document.  According  to  Knobel,  the  only  portions 
which  are  not  to  be  referred  to  the  Elohist  are — jMoses's 
rebuke  of  Aaron  because  the  goat  of  the  sin-offering 
had  been  biu-nt  (x,  16-20) ;  the  group  of  laws  in  chap, 
xvii-xx;  certain  additional  enactments  respecting  the 
Sabbath  and  the  feasts  of  Weeks  and  of  Tabernacles 
(xxiii,  part  of  ver.  2,  from  T\MV^  i'n"1"2,  and  ver.  3,  ver, 
18, 19,  22,  39^4);  the  punishments  ordained  for  blas- 
phemy, murder,  etc,  (xxiv,  10-23) ;  the  directions  re- 
specting the  sabbatical  year  (xxv,  18-22),  and  the  prom- 
ises and  warnings  contained  in  ch.  xxvi. 

With  regard  to  the  section  ch.  xvii-xx,  Knobel  does 
not  consider  the  whole  of  it  to  have  been  borrowed  from 
the  same  sources.  Ch.  xvii  he  believes  was  mtroduced 
here  by  the  Jehovist  from  some  ancient  document,  whUe 
he  admits,  nevertheless,  that  it  contains  certain  Elohis- 
tic  forms  of  expression,  as  "lb3  bis,  "aU  flesh,"  ver.  14; 
\bS3,  "soul"  (in  the  sense  of  "person"),  ver.  10-12, 15 
il^n,  "beast,"  ver.  13,  'i^'^ii^,  "offering,"  ver.  4;  n^'H 
rnni3,  "a  sweet  savor,"  verse  6,  "a  statute  forever," 
and  "  after  your  generations,"  ver,  7.  But  it  cannot  be 
from  the  Elohist,  he  argues,  because  (a)  he  would  have 
placed  it  after  ch.  vii,  or  at  least  after  ch.  xv,  {b)  he 
would  not  have  repeated  the  prohibition  of  blood,  etc., 
which  he  had  already  given;  (c)  he  would  have  taken 
a  more  favorable  view  of  his  nation  than  that  implied 
in  ver.  7 ;  and,  lastly,  (d)  the  phraseology  has  something 
of  the  coloring  of  ch.  xviii-xx  and  xxvi,  which  are  cer- 
tainly not  Elohistic.  Such  reasons  are  too  transparent- 
ly unsatisfactory  to  need  serious  discussion.  He  ob- 
serves further  that  the  chapter  is  not  altogetlier  Mosaic. 
The  first  enactment  (ver.  1-7)  docs  indeed  apply  only  to 
Israelites,  and  holds  good,  therefore,  for  the  time  of  Mo- 
ses. But  the  remaining  three  contemplate  the  case  of 
strangers  living  among  the  people,  and  have  a  reference 
to  all  time. 

Ch.  xviii-xx,  though  they  have  a  Jehovistic  colormg, 


cannot  have  been  originally  from  the  Jehovist.  The 
following  peculiarities  of  language,  which  are  worthy 
of  notice,  according  to  Knobel  {Exod.  und  Leviticus  er- 
llart,  in  the  "Kitrzrj.  Exeg.  JIdbuch."  1857),  forbid  such 
a  supposition,  the  more  so  as  they  occur  nowhere  else  in 
the  O.  T. :  "n"i,  "  lie  down  to"  and  "  gender,"  xviii,  23 ; 
xix,  10,  XX,  IG,  PSt^i,  "confusion,"  xviii,  23;  xx,  12; 
Z^ph,  "gather,"  xix,  9  ;  xxiii,  22;  U'lB,  "grape,"  xix, 
10 ;  il"i5<"u3,  "  near  kinswomen,"  xviii,  17 ;  r^lpS, 
"scourged,"  xix,  20;  tlirJEn,  "free,"  ibid.;  "pJ'i? 
r3ri3,  "  print  marks,"  xix,  28 ;  X'lpil,  "  vomit,"  in  the 
metaphorical  sense,  xviii,  25,  28;  xx,  22;  ilh'}V,  "un- 
circumcised,"  as  applied  to  fruit-trees,  xix,  23;  and 
rTlbilS,  "born,"  xviii,  9, 11 ;  as  well  as  the  Egyptian 
word  (for  such  it  probably  is)  TSipi'O,  "garment  of  di- 
vers sorts,"  which,  however,  does  occur  once  beside  in 
Dent,  xxii,  11. 

According  to  Bunsen,  chap,  xix  is  a  genuine  part  of 
the  Mosaic  legislation,  given,  however,  in  its  original 
form,  not  on  Sinai,  but  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan ; 
while  the  general  arrangement  of  the  Blosaic  laws  may 
perhaps  be  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  judges.  He  re- 
gards it  as  a  very  ancient  document,  based  on  the  Two 
Tables,  of  which,  and  especially  of  the  first,  it  is,  in  fact, 
an  extension,  consisting  of  two  decalogues  and  one  pen- 
tad of  laws.  Certain  expressions  in  it  he  considers  as  im- 
plying that  the  people  were  already  settled  in  the  land 
(ver,  9, 10, 13, 15),  while,  on  the  other  hand,  ver.  23  suj>- 
poses  aj'utui-e  occupation  of  the  land.  Hence  he  con- 
cludes that  the  revision  of  this  document  by  the  tran- 
scribers was  incomplete;  whereas  all  the  passages  may 
fairly  be  interpreted  as  looking  forward  to  a  future  set- 
tlement in  Canaan.  The  great  simplicity  and  lofty 
moral  character  of  this  section  compel  us,  says  Bunsen, 
to  refer  it  at  least  to  the  earlier  time  of  the  judges,  if 
not  to  that  of  Joshua  himself, 

III.  A  uthenticitg,  etc. — Some  critics,  however,  such  as 
De  Wette,  Gramberg,  Vatke,  and  others,  have  strenu- 
ously endeavored  to  prove  that  the  laws  contained  in 
Leviticus  originated  in  a  period  much  later  than  is  usu- 
ally supposed;  but  the  following  observations  sufficient- 
ly support  their  Mosaical  origin,  and  show  that  the 
whole  of  Leviticus  is  historically  genuine.  The  la^vs  in 
chap,  i-vii  contain  manifest  vestiges  of  the  Mosaical  pe- 
riod. Here,  as  well  as  in  Exodus,  when  the  priests  are 
mentioned,  Aaron  and  his  sons  are  named;  as,  for  in- 
stance, in  chap,  i,  4,  7,  8, 11,  etc.  The  tabernacle  is  the 
sanctuary,  and  no  other  place  of  worship  is  mentioned 
anywhere  (i,  3  ;  iii,  8, 13,  etc.).  The  Israelites  are  al- 
ways described  as  a  congregation  (iv,  13  sq.),  under  the 
command  of  the  elders  of  the  congregation  (iv,  16),  or  of 
a  rider  (iv,  22).  Everything  has  reference  to  life  in 
a  camp,  and  that  camp  commanded  by  Moses  (iv,  12, 
21;  vi,  11;  xiv,  8  ;  xvi,  26,  28).  A  later  writer  could 
scarcely  have  placed  himself  so  entirely  in  the  times, 
and  so  completely  adopted  the  modes  of  thinking  of  the 
age  of  Moses;  especially  if,  as  has  been  asserted,  these 
laws  gradually  sprung  from  the  usages  of  the  people, 
and  were  written  down  at  a  later  period  with  the  object 
of  sanctioning  them  by  the  authority  of  Moses.  They 
so  entirely  befit  the  JMosaical  age  that,  in  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  requirements  of  any  later  period,  they  must 
have  undergone  some  modification,  accommodation,  and 
a  peculiar  mode  of  interpretation.  This  inconvenience 
would  have  been  avoided  by  a  person  -who  intended  to 
forge  laws  in  favor  of  the  later  modes  of  Levitical  wor- 
ship. A  forger  vrould  have  endeavored  to  identify  the 
past  as  much  as  possible  with  the  present. 

The  section  in  cha[i.  viii-x  is  said  to  have  a  mj-thical 
coloring.  This  assertion  is  groimded  on  the  miracle 
narrated  in  ch.  ix,  24.  But  what  could  have  been  the 
inducement  to  forge  this  section?  It  is  said  that  the 
priests  invented  it  in  order  to  support  the  authority  of 
the  sacerdotal  caste  by  the  solemn  ceremony  of  Aaron's 
consecration.     But  to  such  an  intention  the  narration 


LEVITICUS 


406 


LEVY 


of  the  crime  committed  by  Nadab  and  Abihu  is  striking- 
1\-  opposetl.  Even  Aaron  liimself  here  ajjpears  to  be 
ratlier  remiss  in  tlie  observance  of  the  law  (comp.  x,  IG 
SI}.,  with  iv,  22  sci-).  Hence  it  v/ould  seem  that  the  for- 
•■erv  arose  from  an  opposite  or  anti-hierarchical  tenden- 
cy." The  liction  would  thus  appear  to  have  been  con- 
trived without  any  motive  whicli  could  account  for  its 
oriicin. 

in  ch.  xvii  occurs  the  law  which  forbids  the  slaugh- 
ter of  any  beast  except  at  the  sanctuary.  This  law 
could  not  be  strictly  kept  in  Palestine,  and  had  there- 
fore to  undergo  some  niodificatiou  (Ueut.  xii).  Our 
ojiponents  cannot  show  any  rational  inducement  for  con- 
triving such  a  liction.  The  law  (xvii,  (5,  7)  is  adapted 
to  the  nation  onh-  while  emigrating  from  Egypt,  It 
was  the  object  of  this  law  to  guard  the  Israelites  from 
falling  into  the  temptation  to  imitate  the  Egyptian  rites 
and  sacrifices  offered  to  he-goats  (C^'^'^yb,  se'irim, 
"  devils,"  Sept.  iMToia,  Yulg.  dumoncs),  which  word 
signifies  also  daemons  represented  under  the  form  of  he- 
goats,  and  which  were  supposed  to  inhabit  the  desert 
(comp.  Jablonsky,  Pantheon  ^Hgyptiacum,  i,  272  sq.). 

The  laws  concerning  food  and  purifications  appear 
especially  important  if  we  remember  that  the  people 
emigrated  from  Egypt.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
these  laws  is  undoubtedly  Mosaical,  but  in  the  individ- 
ual application  of  them  there  is  much  that  strongly  re- 
minds us  of  Egypt.  This  is  also  the  case  in  Lev.  xviil 
sq.,  where  the  lawgiver  has  manifestly  in  view  the  two 
opposites,  Canaan  and  Egypt.  That  the  lawgiver  was 
intimately  acquainted  with  Egypt  is  proved  by  such 
remarks  as  hint  at  the  Egyptian  marriages  with  sisters 
(xviii,3) ;  a  custom  which  stands  as  an  exception  among 
the  prevailing  habits  of  antiquity  (Diod.  Siculus,  i,  27  ; 
Pausanias,  A  Idea,  i,  7). 

The  book  of  Leviticus  has  a  prophetical  character. 
This  is  especially  manifest  in  ch.  xxv,  xxvi.  where  the 
law  appears  in  a  truly  sublime  and  divine  attitude,  and 
when  its  predictions  refer  to  the  whole  futurity  of  the 
nation.  It  is  impossible  to  say  that  these  were  vaticinia 
ex  eventu,  unless  we  would  assert  that  this  book  was 
written  at  the  close  of  IsraeUtish  history.  We  must 
rather  grant  that  passages  like  this  are  the  real  basis 
on  which  the  authority  of  later  prophets  is  chiefly  built. 
Such  passages  prove  also  in  a  striking  manner  that  the 
lawgiver  had  not  merely  an  external  aim,  but  that  his 
law  had  a  deeper  purpose,  Avhich  was  clearly  understood 
by  JMoses  himself.  That  purpose  was  to  regulate  the 
national  life  in  all  its  bearings,  and  to  consecrate  the 
whole  nation  to  God.  See,  especially,  chap,  xxv,  18  sq. 
Although  this  section  has  a  general  bearing,  it  is  never- 
theless manifest  that  it  originated  in  the  times  of  Moses. 
At  a  later  period,  for  instance,  it  would  have  been  im- 
practicable to  promulgate  the  law  concerning  the  Sab- 
liath  and  the  year  of  jubilee;  for  it  was  soon  sufficiently 
jiroved  how  far  the  nation  in  reality  remained  behind 
the  ideal  Israel  of  the  law.  The  sabbatical  law  bears 
the  impress  of  a  time  when  the  whole  legislation,  in  its 
fulness  and  glory,  was  directly  communicated  to  the 
]ieopl(^  in  such  a  mamier  as  to  attract,  penetrate,  and 
command. 

IV.  We  must  not  quit  tliis  book  without  a  word  on 
AThat  may  be  called  its  .ipiritiiril  mcanwg.  That  so  elal)- 
orate  a  ritual  looked  beyond  itself  we  cannot  doubt.  It 
was  a  prophecy  of  tilings  to  come;  a  shadow  whereof 
the  sul)stance  was  Christ  and  his  kingdom.  We  may 
not  always  be  able  to  say  what  the  exact  relation  is  be- 
tween the  type  and  the  antilype.  Of  many  things  we 
may  l)e  sure  that  they  belonged  only  to  the  nation  to 
whom  they  were  given,  containing  no  ]irophetic  signifi- 
cance, but  serving  as  witnesses  and  signs  to  them  of 
(Jod's  covenant  of  grace.  We  may  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce with  .Jerome  that  "e\-cry  sacrifice,  nay,  almost 
every  syllable — the  garments  of  Aaron  and  the  whole 
Levitical  system — breathe  of  heavenly  mysteries;"'  but 
•we  cannot  read  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  not  ac- 
knowledge that  the  Levitical  priests  "  served  the  pat- 


tern and  type  of  heavenly  things" — that  the  sacrifices 
of  the  law  pointed  to  and  found  their  interpretation  in 
the  Lamb  of  God — that  the  ordinances  of  outward  puri- 
fication signified  the  truer  inward  cleansing  of  the  heart 
and  conscience  from  dead  works  to  serve  the  living  God. 
One  idea,  moreover,  penetrates  the  whole  of  this  vast 
and  burdensome  ceremonial,  and  gives  it  a  real  glorj-, 
even  apart  from  any  prophetic  signilicancc.  Holiness 
is  its  end.  Holiness  is  its  character.  The  tabemacle  is 
holy — the  vessels  are  holy — the  offerings  are  most  holy 
unto  Jehovah — the  garments  of  the  priests  are  holy. 
All  who  approach  him  whose  name  is  "  Holy,"  whether 
priests  who  minister  to  him  or  people  who  worship  be- 
fore him,  nuist  themselves  be  holy.  It  would  seem  as 
if,  amid  the  camp  and  dwellings  of  Israel,  was  ever  to 
be  heard  an  echo  of  that  solemn  strain  which  fills  the 
courts  above,  where  the  seraphim  cry  one  to  another, 
Holy,  Holy,  Holy. 

V.  Commentaries. — The  following  are  the  special  ex- 
egetical  helps  on  the  whole  or  major  part  of  this  book, 
to  the  most  important  of  which  we  prefix  an  asterisk : 
Origen,  Sekcta.  (in  0pp.  ii,  179) ;  also  Iloniilice  (ibid,  iv, 
184);  Ephrem  ^yTu»,  £x2)laJiaiio  (in  Syriac,  in  0pp.  ii, 
236) :  Theodoret,  Qucestiones  (in  Greek,  in  0pp.  i) ;  Isi- 
dorus  Hispalensis,  Commeniaria  (in  0pp.  i)  ;  Bede,  QiKes- 
iiones  (in  0pp.  viii) ;  also  In  Levit:  {ibid,  iv) ;  Hesychi- 
us,  In  Levit.  (in  Greek,  Paris,  1581,  4to ;  also  in  the  Eih- 
lia  Max.  Pair,  xii) ;  Claudius  Taurinensis,  Prcpfaiio  (in 
Mabillon,  Veter.  Anedect.  p.  90) ;  Hugo  a  St.  Victor,  ^72- 
notationes  (in  Opj}.  i) ;  Eupertus  Tuitiensis,  In  Levit.  (iu 
Opp.  i,  220) ;  Eadulphus  Flaviacensis,  Commeniaria  (Col. 
1536,  folio  ;  also  in  the  Biblia  Max.  Pair,  xvii,  47) ;  Pe- 
siktha-^Iinus,  Commentarius  (includ.  Nimib.  and  Deut,] 
(from  the  Heb.  in  LTgolino,  Thesaur.  xv,  997 ;  x-\i  sq.) ; 
Phrvgio,  Erplanatio  [together  with  1  Tim.]  (Basil. 
1543,  4to;  1,596,  8vo);  Brentius,  Commeniarii  (in  Opp. 
i);  Chytrteus,  Enarraiiones  (Vitemb.  1569,  1575,  8vo) ; 
Serranus,  Commentarius  (Antwp.  1572,  1609,  fol.) ;  Bro- 
cardus,  Interpi-eiaiio  (L.  B.  1580,  8vo) ;  Babington,  Notes 
(in  TrorA\«,  p.  349) ;  Pelargus,  Commentarius  (Lips.  1604, 
4to);  Lorinus,  Commeniarii  (Ludgun.  1619, 1622;  Duac. 
1620;  Antwerp,  1620,  fol.);  \\"\\M,  Sixfold  Commcutarie 
(Lond.  1631,  fol.);  Franzius,  Commentarius  (Lips.  1696, 
4to) ;  Spanheim,  Observationes  (in  Opp.  iii,  617) ;  Coc- 
ceius,  Observationes  (in  Opp.  i,  158):  *Patrick,  Commen- 
tary (Lond.  1.698, 4to ;  also  in  Patrick,  Lowth,  and  Whit- 
by's Commentary^;  Dassovius,  Scholia  (Kilom.  1707, 
4to) ;  Hagemann,  Betrachiunf/en  (Brunswick,  1741,  4to)  ; 
*Rosenmidler.  »Sc/(o/m  (Lips.  1824,  8 vo)  ;  Horsley,  A'o/fs 
(in  Bibl.Crit.  i) ;  *Berfheau,  Die  Sieben  Grvj>pen  Mos.  Ge- 
seize  (Lpz.  1840, 8vo) ;  James,  Sei-mons  (Lond.  1847, 8vo) ; 
*Bonar,  Commentary  (Lond.  1851  [3d  ed.],  1861;  N.Y. 
1851,  8vo);  *Bush,  A'o/f«(N.Y.1852, 12mo);  Cumming, 
Readinfis  (Lond.  1854,  12mo) ;  *Knobel,  ErlUirnn;/  [in- 
clud. Exod.]  (vol.  ii  of  the  Kxirizfief.  Exeg.  lldbch.  Lpz. 
1857,  8vo)  ;  Newton.  Thoughts  (Lond.  1857, 12mo);  *Ka~ 
Usch,  Commentary  (London.  1857  sq.,  2  vols.  8 vo);  Seiss, 
Gospel  in  Levii.  (Phila.  1860, 12mo);  *Keil,  Commentar 
(in  vol.  ii  of  his  Pentateuch,  Leipsic,  1862,  Edinb.  1866, 
8vo)  ;  Siphra,  Commentar  (in  Heb.  Vienna,  1862,  folio) ; 
Wogue,  Leviiique  (vol.  iii  of  his  Pentatevque,  Par.  1864, 
8vo) ;  *Murphy,  Commentary  (Lond.  and  Andover,  1872, 
8vo).     See  Pentateuch. 

Levity  is  a  term  used  to  designate  a  certain  lights 
ness  of  spirit  in  opposition  to  gravity.  Nothing  can  be 
more  proper  than  for  a  Christian  to  wear  an  air  of  cheer- 
fulness, and  to  watch  against  a  morose  and  gloomy  dis- 
position. But,  though  it  be  his  privilege  to  rejoice,  yet 
he  must  be  cautious  of  that  volatility  of  spirit  which 
characterizes  the  unthinking,  and  marks  the  vain  pro- 
fessor. To  be  cheerful  without  levity,  and  grave  with- 
out austerity,  forois  both  a  happy  and  dignified  charac- 
ter.—Buck,  7'/(w/.  Diet.  s.  V.     See  Idle  Woisds. 

Levy  (C^,  mas,  tribute,  as  usually  rendered),  a  tax 
or  requirement  of  service  imposed  by  Eastern  kings  for 
public  works,  hence  ngcng  or  company  of  men  impressed 
into  such  service  (1  Kings  v,  13,  14;  ix,  15).     In  two 


LEW  CHEW 


407 


LEYDECKER 


passages  other  terms  (n5i\  1  Kings  ix,  21 ;  12*1"!,  Numb. 
xxxi,  28)  are  employed  in  connection  with  this,  to  de- 
note the  exaction  of  tribute.     See  Tribute. 

Lew  Cliew.     See  Loo  Choo. 

Levrd  (;roj'j;,ooc,  bud,  Acts  xvii,  5),  Lewdness 
(paoiovpyij^in,  mischief,  Acts  xviii,  14),  are  used  else- 
where in  tlieir  proper  sense  of  licentiousness  (nST,  etc., 
Jadg.xx,G;  Ezek.  often;  Jer.xi,15;  xiii,27;  Hos.vi,9; 
once  for  nib33,  the^>a)-^*"  of  shame,  Hos.  ii,  10). 

LeTwin,  IIirschki.,  a  Jewish  rabbi  who  was  born  in 
1721  ill  Poland,  and  died  at  Berlin  in  1800,  is  noted  for 
his  attitude  towards  :Moscs  Mendelssohn.  Lewiu  was 
chief  rabbi  of  Prussia  in  the  days  of  the  great  Jewish  phi- 
losopher, and  severely  censured  INIendelssohn  for  ration- 
alistic views  expressed  in  his  correspondence  with  La- 
vater  [see  Mendelssohn],  and  hi  his  translation  of  the 
Pentateuch  into  German.  To  the  credit  of  Lewin,  how- 
ever, it  must  be  stated  that  he  by  no  means  condemned, 
or  permitted  the  condemnation  of  ^Mendelssohn  as  a  her- 
etic, as  Landau  and  other  Polisli  rabbis  were  inclined  to 
do.     See  Griitz.  Gesch.  cler  Juden,  xi,  45  sq. 

Lewis,  Isaac,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  Jan.  21. 174(j  (O.  S.),  in  Stratford  (now  Huntington), 
Conn. ;  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  17G5 ;  entered  the 
ministry  in  March,  1768;  and  was  ordained  pastor  at 
Wilton,  Conn.,  Oct.  26, 1768.  He  resigned  his  charge  in 
June,  178G,  and  was  installed  October  18, 17S6,  pastor  in 
Greenwich,  and  there  he  labored  until  Dec.  1, 1818,  when 
he  gave  up  the  work  on  account  of  the  infirmities  of  age. 
He  died  Aug.  27, 1840.  Li  1816  he  was  made  a  member 
of  Yale  College  Corporation,  but  resigned  in  1818.  He 
published  a  few  occasional  sermons. — Sprague,  .4  nnals 
of  the  American  Pulpit,  i,  662. 

Lewis,  John  Nitchie,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Westchester  Co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1808.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  College  in  1828,  and  studied  theology  both 
at  Andover  and  Princeton,  and  was  licensed  at  Goshen, 
N.  Y.,  in  1832.  He  preached  for  a  number  of  years, 
principally  in  the  State  of  New  York,  and  was  then 
chosen  secretary  of  the  Central  American  Education  So- 
ciety in  New  York.  He  was  for  some  time  editor  of  the 
Seaman's  Muf/azine,  and  wrote  a  Jlanual  for  the  Pres- 
byterian Church.  He  died  in  1861. — Wilson,  rreshj- 
terian  Historical  Almanac,  1863. 

LeTwis,  Moses,  a  Jlethodist  minister,  was  born  in 
Koxbury,  Vt.,  jNIaj'  1',),  1707,  and  early  decided  upon  the 
ministry  as  his  work  of  life.  He  entered  the  travelling 
connection  in  1831  in  the  New  Hampshire  Conference. 
After  five  years  of  faitliful  and  successful  labors  as  an 
itinerant,  failing  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
the  effective  ranks,  with  the  hope  of  resuming  his  place 
as  a  pastor  at  no  distant  day  with  recuperated  i)hysical 
strength,  which,  however,  he  never  realized.  During 
thirty-four  years  he  sustained  either  a  supernumerary  or 
superannuated  relation  to  his  Conference.  In  1844  tlie 
New  Hampshire  Conference  was  divided,  and  the  Ver- 
mont Conference  constituted,  and  of  it  Lewis,  living 
within  the  limits  of  the  new  Conference,  became  a  mem- 
ber. He  died  Sept.  26, 1869.  "  In  the  domestic  circle 
brother  Lewis  was  beloved  and  honored ;  in  the  com- 
munity, active  and  reliable ;  and  in  the  Church,  a  pillar 
of  strength,  a  safe  counsellor,  and  a  liberal  contributor  to 
all  the  interests  of  the  Church  of  his  choice." — Minutes 
ofConf.  1870  (see  Index). 

Le'wis,  Thomas,  an  Independent  minister,  was  born 
in  1 1 77.  He  was  pastor  of  an  Independent  congregation 
at  Islington,  England,  from  1804  till  1852,  the  year  of  his 
deatli.  His  published  works  are,  1.  Christian  Duties  in 
the  various  Relations  of  Life  (1839) :— 2.  Religious  State 
of  Islimjton  for  the  last  Forty  Years  (1842)  :— 3.  Chris- 
tian Privileges  (1847).— Allibone,  Dictionary  of  British 
and  American  Authors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lewis,  Zechariah,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  stud- 
ied theology  at  Philadelphia,  anil  was  licensed  by  the 


Fairfield  West  Association  in  1796.  In  the  autumn  of 
that  year  he  became  tutor  in  Yale  College,  and  held  that 
office  until  1799.  He  was  elected  a  trustee  of  Princeton 
Seminary  in  1812.  For  six  years  he  acted  as  correspond- 
ing secretary  of  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  afterwards 
the  American  Tract  Society.  Having  resigned  that  po- 
sition in  1820,  he  was  elected  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the 
United  Foreign  INIissionary  Societj-.  He  died  in  1862. — 
Wilson,  Presh.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1863,  s.  v. 

Leyczon  Nobla  is  the  name  of  a  poem  which  was 
extensively  circulated  among  the  ^Valdcnses  in  the  15th 
century.  It  exhorts  to  repentance  and  to  Christian  life, 
and  treats  of  the  temptations  to  which  the  wicked  sub- 
ject the  pious  and  the  good,  and  of  the  punishments  for 
sin.  Some,  among  them  Dickhoff,  contend  that  the 
poem  originated  with  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  but 
Ebrard  and  Herzog  incline  to  the  general  opinion  that  the 
"Leyczon"  belongs  to  the  Waldensian  literature.  Tlie 
name  it  bears  is  derived  from  the  lirst  words  of  the  poem, 
which  are  ^^ Leyczon  nobla"  (lectio,  sermon).  See  Zeit- 
schriftf.  hist,  theol.  1864, 1865 ;  Herzog, i^ie  romanischen 
Waldenser,  etc.  (Halle,  1853). 

Leydeclier,  Melciiiok,  a  Calvinistic  theologian, 
was  burn  at  Middelburg  in  1642.  He  became  pastor  in 
the  province  of  Zealand  in  1662,  was  appointed  professor 
at  Utrecht  in  1678,  and  died  in  1721.  He  was  an  ardent 
exponent  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church,  and 
violently  opposed  the  systems  of  Cocceius  and  Descartes, 
the  works  of  Drusius,  S[iencer's  book  De  Legibus  Ilebrce- 
orum,  and  the  Lutheran  tendencies  of  Witsius.  Verj' 
learned  in  theological,  rabbinical,  and  ecclesiastical  lit- 
erature, he  distinguished  himself  by  wielding  a  strong 
pen  in  favor  of  the  Reformed  theological  system.  Among 
his  apologetical  works  are  De  reritatejidei  Refurmatm 
ejusdemque  sanctitate,  s.  Commentarius  ad  Catech.  Pala- 
tin.  (Ultrajecti,  1694,  4to)  : — De  aconomia  trium  perso- 
narum  in  negotio  salutis  hum.  libri  iv,  quibus  miiversa 
Reformata  fdes  certis  principiis  congruo  nexu  explicatur 
(Traj.  ad  Rhen.  1682, 12mo)  : — Veritas  evangelic  irium- 
plians  de  erroribus  quorumris  seculoi'um  —  opus,  quo 
j)rincipia  fidei  Reformatm  demonstrantur  (Traj.  1688, 
4to)  :  —  also,  Ilistoria  ecclesice  Africanm  iUustrata  pro 
ecclesice  Reformatee  vei'itate  et  libertate  (Ultraj.  1690, 4to). 
His  controversial  works  against  Cocceius  met  with  great 
success,  because  they  discussed  the  question  with  great 
clearness.  Among  them  we  notice  liis  Synopsis  contro- 
versiai-um  de  fccdere  et  testamento  Dei,  quce  hodie  in  Bel- 
gio  nioventur  (Traj.  1690,  8vo) : — Vis  veritatis  s.  disqui- 
siiionum  ad  nonnullas  controversias,  quce  hodie  in  Bel- 
gio  moventur  de  aconomia  fcederum  Dei,  libri  v  (Traj. 
1679,  4to)  :  —  Fax  veritatis  (Leida?,  1677,  4to).  When 
yet  a  youthful  student  at  tlie  university  Leydecker  had 
paid  special  attention  to  Biblical  studies,  and,  guided 
by  a  learned  rabbi,  made  rapid  strides  in  the  explora- 
tion of  Biblical  lore.  In  after  life,  when,  tired  of  polemi- 
cal and  clerical  pursuits,  he  looked  about  for  a  field  on 
which  he  might  profitably  venture,  this  department  of 
theological  study  allured  him  anew.  Attempting  to  fit 
the  works  of  Godwin  {Moses  and  Aaron)  and  Cunteus 
(De  Repiiblica  Hebrceor.)  to  his  academical  purposes,  he 
soon  discovered  their  insufficiency,  and  set  about  to  pre- 
pare himself  a  more  copious  treatise,  ^vhich  is  every- 
where marked  by  a  vigorous  and  independent  judgment. 
Wliile  he  conceals  not  his  aversion  to  the  "futilities"  of 
the  Talmutl,  he  quotes  the  great  rabbins  with  respect. 
He,  moreover,  keeps  a  sharp  eye  on  the  extravagancies 
of  Christian  writers,  and  his  ^vork  censures  with  eveu- 
handed  justice  the  well-known  rabbinism  of  the  Bux- 
torfs  and  the  Fgyptism  of  Spencer  (De  Legibus  Jlebr.). 
It  is  only  characteristic  of  this  unsparing  criticism  of  the 
orthodox  author  that  lie  adds  an  appendix  of  severe  an- 
imadversion against  the  cosmogony  of  Thomas  Burnet, 
to  whose  Theoria  telluris  he  prefixes  the  predicate  pro- 
fana.  Tlie  six  dissertations  of  this  appendix,  what- 
ever may  be  thought  of  the  author's  views,  are  valuable 
for  their  learning,  and  interesting  as  closely  bearing  on 
the  questions  now  raised  on  the  Mosaic  cosmogony. 


LEYDEN 


408 


LEYDEN,  SCHOOL  OF 


Especial  mention  among  his  IJiblical  works  is  due  to  his 
archffiological  treatise  entitled  Dt  Repuhlka  Htbneoi-um 
(Amst.  17U4,  thick  foh  voh ),  which  is  one  of  the  largest 
repertories  ever  written  on  the  wide  snbject  of  Hebrew 
anticiuitics,  and  exhibits  in  an  eminent  degree  vast 
stores  of  scriptural,  rabbinical,  and  historical  learning. 
Atlded  to  the  interest  of  the  subject  are  dissertations  on 
the  Hebrew  laws  and  customs,  both  political  and  relig- 
ious, interwoven  in  a  historical  narrative,  in  which  the 
sacred  history  is  developed,  by  epochs,  from  the  earliest 
period  to  the  latest.  The  author,  in  his  progress,  learn- 
edly investigates  the  history,  2}ari passu,  of  the  leading 
Gentile  nations,  very  much  after  the  manner  of  Shuck- 
ford  and  Russell  in  their  Connections.  This  valuable 
work,  on  which  Leydecker's  fame  deserves  mainly  to 
de]iend,  is  singularly  enough  ignored  in  Schweizer's 
sketch  of  the  author  in  Herzog  (see  below-).  A  com- 
plete list  of  his  works  is  to  be  found  in  the  Unparthei- 
ische  Kirchen-Ilist.  A.  u.  iV.  Test.,  etc.,  ii,  625. — Herzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  360  ;  Gass,  Dor/mengesckkhte,  vol.  i- 
iii;  Kitto,  Cyclop).  Bill.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Leyden,  John  of.     See  Bockiiold. 

Leydeu,  Lucas  van,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
painters  of  the  early  Dutch  school,  noted  for  his  success 
in  sacred  art,  was  born  in  Leyden  in  1494.  His  talents 
were  early  developed  in  the  school  of  Cornelius  Engel- 
brechsten,  an  artist  of  repute  in  his  day.  He  commenced 
engraving  when  scarcely  nine  years  of  age.  His  pic- 
ture of  St.  Hubert,  painted  when  ho  was  only  twelve, 
brought  him  very  high  commendation;  and  the  cele- 
brated print,  so  well  known  to  collectors  by  the  name 
of ''  ^lohammed  and  the  Monk  Sergius,"  was  published 
in  1508,  when  he  was  only  fourteen.  He  practiced  suc- 
cessfully almost  every  branch  of  painting,  w-as  one  of 
the  ablest  of  those  early  painters  who  engraved  their 
own  works,  and  he  succeeded,  like  Albert  Durer,  in  im- 
parting certam  qualities  of  delicacy  and  finish  to  his 
engravings  that  no  mere  engraver  ever  attained.  His 
pictures  are  noted  for  clearness  and  delicacy  in  color, 
variety  of  character,  and  expression ;  but  his  drawing  is 
hard  and  Gothic  in  form.  His  range  of  subjects  was 
very  wide,  and  embraced  events  in  sacred  history,  inci- 
dents illustrative  of  the  manners  of  his  own  period,  and 
portraits.     He  died  in  1533.— Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Leyden,  School  of,  Theologians  of  the,  is  the 
name  given  to  that  class  of  Dutch  theologians  who  fol- 
low in  the  wake  of  the  rationalistic  professors  of  the 
University  of  Leyden  (founded  in  1575).  and  of  whom 
J.  H.  Scholten  (in  1840  professor  in  Franeker,  since  1843 
in  Leyden)  and  his  pupils  are  at  present  the  main  inter- 
preters. The  Leyden  school  is  in  reality  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  a  Dutch  Tiibingen  school.  In  his  younger 
days  Scholten  belonged  to  the  orthodox  school,  and  at 
one  time  (1856)  even  went  forth  to  battle  against  the 
negative  criticism  of  Baur  and  his  Tubingen  confreres; 
but  in  1864  he  came  out  boldly  in  defence  of  the  very 
man  and  (irinciples  he  had  previously  warred  against, 
and  in  a  sliort  time  became  the  principal  leader  in  the 
movement  of  modern  Dutch  theologians  "  to  establish  a 
connection  between  the  faith  of  the  Reformers  and  our 
own  .  .  .  to  unite  the  old  traditions  with  the  new  opin- 
ions" (the  Rationalism  of  the  Tiibingen  theologians). 
"IVIan,"  the  Leyden  school  feaches,  "arrives  at  a  knowl- 
eilge  of  the  truth  by  the  holy  Scriptures,  but  they  must 
not  be  understood  as  containing  the  oidy  revelation  from 
God;  he  also  reveals  himself  to  the  worhl  through  the 
hearts  of  all  believers.  The  Rible  is  the  source  of  the 
original  religion.  There  is  a  dirt'erencc  between  the 
Scriptures  and  tlie  word  of  (iod.  The  latter  is  what 
God  reveals  in  the  human  sjiirit  concerning  his  will  and 
himself.  The  writing  down  of  the  communication  is 
purely  human;  therefore  the  Bible  cannot  be  called  a 
revelation.  .  .  .  To  prove  the  certainty  of  tjie  facts  of 
revelation  historical  criticism  must  be  called  in."  Un- 
fortunately, however,  with  them  "  historical  criticism" 
means  nothing  else  than  the  application  of  that  nega- 


tive criticism  of  the  German  Rationalists  De  Wettc, 
Ewald,  and  Ilitzig,  and  they  dispose  of  the  "  historical" 
by  asserting  (e.  g.  Kuenen)  that  we  cannot  go  further 
back  than  the  middle  of  the  8th  century  before  Christ, 
or  the  time  of  liosea  and  Amos;  that  "all  the  preced- 
ing times  are  enveloped  in  hopeless  myth.  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob,  the  founders  of  Israel,  are  not  persons, 
but  personifications.  They  are  purely  ideal  figures,  for 
modern  '  historical'  inquiry  teaches  us  that  races  are 
not  derived  from  one  progenitor,  but  many.  The  devel- 
opment and  preservation  of  Israel — its  whole  history — 
were  the  result  of  purely  national  causes."  Christianity 
itself,  they  came  naturally  enough,  from  such  grounds, 
to  regard  as  "  neither  superhuman  nor  supernatural.  It 
is  the  highest  point  of  the  development  of  human  nature 
itself,  and  in  vhis  sense  it  is  natural  and  human  in  the 
highest  acceptation  of  those  terms.  It  is  the  mission 
of  science  to  put  man  in  a  condition  to  comprehend  the 
divine  volume  presented  by  Christianity."  But  what 
the  idea  of  the  modern  theologians  of  Holland  is  on  the 
relation  of  science  to  faith  we  may  well  learn  from  Prof. 
Opzoomer,  of  Utrecht  University  {The  Truth  and  its 
Sources  of  Knowledge,  p.  43) :  "  Science  is  not  to  appear 
before  the  bar  of  faith,  but  faith  before  that  of  science; 
for  It  is  not  the  credibility  of  knowledge,  but  of  faith, 
that  is  to  be  proved.  .  .  .  Science  needs  no  justification. 
.  .  .  The  believer,  on  the  contrary,  must  justify  his  faith, 
and  that  before  the  bar  of  science.  Thus,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  the  final  decision  and  the  supreme  power  rest 
with  science."  Great  indeed  is  the  science  of  Opzoo- 
mer, and  in  like  ratio  is  the  insignificance  of  the  thing 
he  calls  faith.  His  manner  of  rejecting  miracles  is 
the  old  threadbare  argument  of  Hume.  "  Modern  sci- 
ence is  established  on  the  experience  acquired  by  the 
observance  of  nature.  What  experience  teaches  is  the 
touchstone  for  testing  the  historical  value  of  the  ac- 
counts that  reach  us  from  past  ages."  Again,  and  more 
positively :  "  It  is  the  duty  of  the  historian  to  reject 
every  narrative  which  is  in  manifest  contradiction  with 
everything  known  to  him  concerning  the  time  of  its  al- 
leged occurrence.  .  .  .  Nothing  in  all  nature  gives  prob- 
ability to  the  supposition  that  moral  and  religious 
greatness  can  be  estabUshed  by  dominion  over  natural 
phenomena"  {The Nature  o/Kno2cled(/e,p.Sl,iio).  "We 
know  nothing  of  the  supernatural ;  to  us  there  is  not  a 
single  miracle"  {The  Spirit  of  the  new  Tendency,  p.  28). 
"  Experience — it,  and  it  alone !  What  is  beyond  it  is 
from  an  evil  source.  For  our  knowledge  there  is  but 
one  way — the  way  of  observation"  {Free  Science,  p.  26). 
Perhaps  we  can  do  no  better  than  insert  here  a  resume 
by  Dr.  Hurst  of  the  object  of  the  Dutch  modern  theo- 
logians, as  follows :  "  1.  History  must  be  reconstructed ; 
for  every  miracle  must  disappear  from  the  Biblical  nar- 
rative, since  philosophy  teaches  that  there  can  be  no 
miracles.  2.  Philosophy  must  be  liberated  from  the  so- 
called  divine  revelation,  because  the  history  of  the  pres- 
ent time,  or  experience,  teaches  that  there  can  be  noth- 
ing supernatural;  hence  there  never  was.  Thus  the 
argument  whirls  in  a  hopeless  circle;  historj'  demon- 
strates from  (untrue)  philosophy,  and  philosophy  from 
(untrue)  history,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  miracle, 
nor  even  anytliing  supernatural!  Can  we  wonder  at 
the  sorry  j)light  of  the  modern  theologians  which  Pier- 
son  (formerly  pastor  of  the  Walloon  Church  in  Rotter- 
dam, now  professor  at  Heidelberg  University)  divulges 
on  the  very  first  page  of  his  Mirror  of  the  Times:  We 
do  not  conceal  the  fact  that  our  theology^  is  involved  in 
ceaseless  vacillation  V"  Besides  Scholten  we  have  Kue- 
nen, the  great  exegetical  scholar,  and  RavenhofF,  the 
ecclesiastical  historian,  both  professors  at  Lej-den,  ac- 
tively engaged  in  promoting  the  interests  of  these  Ra- 
tionalistic opinions,  and,  unfortunately  enough  for  Chris- 
tianity in  Holland, -it  must  be  confessed  that  at  present 
no  Dutch  theologians  exert  more  influence  over  the 
young  theologians  of  that  countiy  than  professor  Schol- 
ten and  his  associates  just  mentioned.  See  Dr.  Hurst 
in  the  Meth.  Quart,  liec.  1871  (AprU),  p.  250  sq. ;  and 


LEYDT 


409 


LIBATION 


his  Hist  of  Rationalism,  p.  3GS  sq. ;  Scholten,  De  Leer 
der  llervormde  Kerk  in  hare  f/romlbeffinselen  nit  de  hron- 
neii  voorgesteld  en  be.ordeeld.  (1848;  "^d  ed.  1850;  4th  ed. 
18G1) ;  and  his  article  on  "Modern  Jlaterialism  and  its 
Causes"  in  Progress  of  Religious  Thought  in  the  Protest, 
Ch.  of  France  (Lend.  1861),  p.  10  sq.  See  Eeformed 
(Dutch)  Church.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Leydt,  Johannes,  a  prominent  minister  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church,  was  born  in  Holland  in  1718,  and 
came  early  to  America.  He  studied  thcoloi^y  under  tlie 
Ilev.  John  Frelinghuysen  and  J.  II.  Goetschius,  was  li- 
censed in  1748,  and  became  pastor  of  the  united  church- 
es of  New  Brunswick  and  Six-mile  Kun,  New  Jersey. 
In  the  great  Coetus  and  Conferentic  conflict  he  was  ac- 
tively identified  with  the  former,  which  insisted  upon 
the  education  of  ministers  in  this  country,  and  upon  an 
independent  Church  organization  separate  from  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  the  mother  country.  In  this  "liberal 
and  progressive"  movement  Jlr.  Leydt  was  a  powerfid 
leader.  He  published  several  pamphlets  in  its  favor, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  Queen's  College  (now  Rutgers)  in  1770.  He 
was  one  of  its  first  trustees.  He  was  president  of  the 
General  Synod  in  1778.  An  ardent  patriot  of  the  Rev- 
olutionary War,  he  preached  boldly  on  the  great  ques- 
tions of  the  time,  arousing  much  enthusiasm  among  the 
people,  "and  counselling  the  young  men  to  join  the 
army  of  freedom."  His  active  and  useful  ministry  closed 
only  with  his  life  in  1783.  He  is  represented  to  have 
been  an  instructive,  laborious,  and  faithful  minister,  an 
impressive  preacher,  a  favorite  at  installations  of  pastors, 
organization  of  churches,  and  other  public  services.  He 
was  a  healer  of  the  breaches  of  Zion,  as  well  as  an  in- 
trepid leader  in  an  important  crisis  of  the  Church  and  of 
the  country. — Historical  Sermon  by  R.  H.  Steele,  D.D. ; 
d^xv;m,  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Church,  s.  v,  (W.  J. 
R.T.) 

Leyser.     See  Lyskr. 

L'Hopital.     See  HorixAL. 

Liar.     See  Lie. 

Libanius,  a  celebrated  sophist  of  the  4th  centurj-, 
noted  as  a  friend  of  the  emperor  Julian,  was  bom  about 
A.D.  314  at  Antioch,  where  he  studied  in  early  youth, 
devoting  his  attention  to  the  purest  classic  models.  Af- 
ter a  stay  of  four  years  at  Athens,  where  he  attracted 
nuich  attention,  he  pursued  his  studies  at  Constantino- 
])le,  and  here  entered  upon  a  brilliant  career  as  teacher, 
which  excited  the  envy  of  others,  especially  of  the  soph- 
ist Bemarchius,  liis  former  instructor.  The  latter  falsely 
charged  him  with  the  practice  of  sorcery  and  many 
vices,  so  that  the  prefect  was  persuaded  to  expel  him 
from  the  city,  A.D.  346.  He  went  to  Nice,  and  shortly 
after  to  Nicomedia,  and  there  pleasantly  passed  five 
years  with  great  success  as  an  instructor,  and  returned, 
by  invitation  of  emperor  Julian,  who  had  frequentlv  at- 
tended his  lectures,  to  Constantiuojjle,  only  to  leave  it, 
however,  shortly  after,  on  account  of  the  opposititm  still 
existing.  He  retired,  by  permission  of  Cajsar  Gallus,  to 
his  native  city.  Here  he  continued  to  reside  till  hisdeath, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  after  the  accession  of 
Arcadius,  A.D.  395.  In  the  death  of  Julian,  Libanius  lost 
much  of  his  hope  for  the  restoration  of  paganism.  He 
complains  to  the  gods  that  they  liad  granted  so  long  a 
life  to  Constantius,  and  only  so  brief  a  career  to  Julian. 
He  interchanged  many  letters  with  Julian.  Under  Va- 
lens  he  defended  himself  successfully  against  a  charge 
of  treason,  and  seems  to  have  obtained  the  emperor's 
fa\or.  He  besought  from  him  a  law,  in  wliich  Libanius 
himself,  on  account  of  his  own  natural  offspring  by  a 
mistress,  was  personally  interested,  granting  to  natural 
chikh-en  a  share  in  their  father's  property  at  his  death. 
Liljanius  was  the  preceptor  of  Basil  and  Chrysostom ; 
and,  although  himself  a  pagan  to  the  end,iilways  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  these  Christian  fathers. 
He  was  a  warm  advocate  for  tolerance,  and  sought  to 
defend  the  Manichajans  of  the  East  from  the  violent 


measures  directed  against  them.  He  addressed  Theo- 
dosius  in  one  oiXm,  Discourses  in  defence  of  the  heathen 
temjiles,  which  the  monks  were  eager  to  despoil.  He 
lived  long  enough  to  see  Christianity  everywhere  tri- 
umphant, and  his  personal  efforts  no  longer  applauded. 
Separate  works  of  Libanius  have  from  time  to  time  been 
discovered  and  edited,  but  many  yet  lie  in  MS.  only  in 
difierent  libraries.  His  style  is  rhetorically  correct,  but, 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  his  times,  highly  artiti- 
cial.  Gibbon's  criticism  may  be  considered  too  severe 
{Decline  and  Full,  ch.  xxiv).  Among  the  writings  of 
Libanius  are  his  Progipnnasmata,  or  Examples  of  Rhe- 
torical Exercises,  divided  into  thirteen  sections;  and 
Discourses,  many  of  which  were  never  pronounced,  nor 
designed  for  that  purpose.  Some  of  the  latter  are  moral 
dissertations,  after  the  fashion  of  the  times,  on  such  sub- 
jects as  Friendship,  Riches,  Poverty.  One  is  entitled 
MovifjOLa,  a  lament  on  the  death  of  Julian.  Another, 
the  most  interesting  of  aU  his  writings,  is  his  autobiog- 
raphy, which  he  first  wrote  at  the  age  of  sixty  years, 
entitled  Biof,-  »"/  Xoyoc  TTipi  rj/c  hivtov  rvxrjg.  A  frag- 
ment of  his  Discourses,  addressed  to  Theodosius  in  de- 
fense of  the  heathen  temples,  was  discovered  by  Mai  in 
1823  in  the  Vatican.  The  Declamations,  exceeding 
fjrtj-  in  number,  are  exercises  on  imaginary  suljjects. 
There  are  not  less  than  2000  Letters  addressed  to  over 
500  persons,  among  whom  are  Athanasius,  Basil,  Greg- 
ory of  Nyssa,  and  Chrysostom.  He  wrote  also  a  Life 
of  Demosthenes,  and  A  rguments  to  the  Orations  of  De- 
mosthenes. There  is  no  comjjlete  edition  of  Libanius. 
His  Discourses  and  Declamations  were  edited  by  Reiske 
(Lips.  1791-97, 4  vols.  8vo).  The  most  copious  edition 
of  his  Letters  (1G05  in  the  Greek,  and  522  translated  into 
Latin)  is  that  by  J.  C.Wolf  (Amsterd.  1738,  fol.).  See 
Herzog,  Real-FncyJdop.  vol.  viii,  s.  v.;  Wetzer  n.  Welte, 
Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  vi,  s.  v. ;  Smith,  Diet,  of  Gr.  and 
Rom.  Biog.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  ch.  xxiii,  xxiv;  Sievers,  Leben  des  Li- 
banius (Berl.  1868).     (E.  B.  O.) 

Lib'anus  (Ai/Saroc),  the  Graecized  form  of  the 
name  of  Mount  Lebanon  (q.  v.),  used  in  the  Apocrypha 
(1  Esdr.  i\-,  48 ;  v,  55 ;  2  Esdr.  xv,  20 ;  Judith  i,  7  ;"  Ec- 
clus.  xxiv,  13 ;  1, 12)  and  by  classical  writers.  See  also 
Antilibanus. 

Libation  (Lat.  libatio,  from  libare, "  to  pour  out ;"  lit- 
erally any  thing  poured  out)  is  used,  in  the  sacrificial  lan- 
guage of  the  ancients,  to  express  an  affusion  of  liquors 
poured  upon  victims  to  be  sacrificed  to  a  deity.  The 
quantity  of  wine  for  a  libation  among  the  Hebrews  was 
the  fourth  part  of  a  hin,  rather  more  than  two  pints.  Li- 
bations were  poured  on  the  victim  after  it  was  killed,  and 
the  several  pieces  of  it  were  laid  on  the  altar,  ready  to  be 
consumed  by  the  flames  (Lev.  vi,  20 ;  viii,  25,  26 ;  ix,  4 ; 
xvi,  12,  20).  These  libations  usually  consisted  of  un- 
mixed wine  {iv(7TTOvCoc,  mer-um),  but  sometimes  also  of 
milk,  honey,  and  other  fluids,  either  pure  or  diluted  with 
water.  The  libations  offered  to  the  Furies  were  always 
without  wine.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  offered  libations 
with  the  sacrifices,  but  they  were  poured  on  the  victim's 
head  while  it  was  living.  So  Sinon,  relating  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  was  to  be  sacrificed,  says,  he  was  in  the 
priest's  hands  ready  to  be  slain,  was  loaded  with  bands 
and  garlands;  that  they  were  preparing  to  pour  u]3on 
him  the  libations  of  grain  and  salted  meal  {^Fn.  ii,  130, 
131).  Likewise  Dido,  beginning  to  sacrifice,  pours  wine 
between  the  horns  of  the  victim  (^En.  iv).  The  wine 
was  usually  poured  out  in  three  separate  streams.  Li- 
bations alwaj-s  accompanied  a  sacrifice  which  was  of- 
fered in  concluding  a  treaty  with  a  foreign  nation,  and 
that  here  they  formed  a  prominent  part  of  the  solemni- 
ty is  clear  from  the  fact  that  the  treaty  itself  was  called 
anovooi.  But  libations  were  also  made  independent 
of  any  other  sacrifice,  as  in  solemn  prayers,  and  on  many 
other  occasions  of  public  and  private  life,  as  before  drink- 
ing at  meals,  and  the  like.  St.  Paul  describes  himself, 
as  it  were,  a  victim  about  to  be  sacrificed,  and  that  the 
accustomed  libations  of  meal  and  wine  were  already,  in 


LIBEL 


410 


LIBERALITY 


a  measure,  poured  upon  him  :  '•  For  I  am  ready  to  be  of- 
feriMi,  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  liand"  (2  Tim. 
iv,  G ).  Tlie  same  expressive  sacrificial  term  occurs  in 
I'hil.  ii,  17,  wliere  the  apostle  represents  the  faith  of  the 
rhilippians  as  a  sacrifice,  and  his  own  blood  as  a  liba- 
tion jKiurcd  forth  to  hallow  and  consecrate  it :  "  Yea,  and 
if  1  be  offered,  (7wevCoi.iat,  upon  the  sacrifice  and  service 
of  your  faith,  tTvi  ry  Gvaicf  Kcti  Xttrovpyia,  I  joy  and 
rejoice  with  you  all."  Tlie  word  libation  was  frequent- 
ly extended  in  its  signification,  however,  to  the  whole 
offering  of  unbloody  sacrifices  of  which  this  formed  a 
part,  and  which  consisted  not  only  in  the  pouring  of  a 
liltle  wine  upon  the  altar,  but  were  accompanied  by  the 
presentation  of  fruit  and  cakes.  Cakes  in  particular 
were  peculiar  to  the  worship  of  certain  deities,  as  to  that 
of  Apollo.  They  were  either  simple  cakes  of  Hour,  some- 
times also  of  wax,  or  they  were  made  in  the  shape  of 
some  animal,  and  were  then  offered  as  symbolical  sac- 
rifices in  the  place  of  real  animals,  either  because  they 
oould  not  easily  be  procured,  or  were  too  expensive  for 
the  sacrificer.  This  custom  prevailed  even  in  the  houses 
of  the  Romans,  who  at  their  meals  made  an  offering  to 
the  Lares  in  the  fire  which  burned  upon  the  hearth. 
The  libation  was  thus  a  sort  of  heathen  "grace  before 
meat."  See  Watson,  Bibl.  and  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. ;  Cham- 
bers, Cyclop,  s.  V. 

Libel  is  the  technical  name  of  the  document  which 
contains  the  accusation  framed  against  a  minister  be- 
fore ecclesiastical  courts.  See  Fama  Clamosa.  In 
England,  libel,  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  formal  written  statement  of  the  complain- 
ant's ground  of  complaint  against  the  defendant.  It  is 
the  first  stage  in  the  pleadmgs  after  the  defendant  has 
been  cited  to  appear.  The  defendant  is  entitled  to  a 
cojiy  of  it,  and  must  answer  the  allegations  contained 
in  it  upon  oath.  In  Scotland,  the  libel  is  a  document 
drawn  up,  as  usual,  in  the  form  of  a  syllogism,  the  major 
proposition  stating  the  name  and  nature  of  the  crime, 
as  condemned  by  the  Word  of  God  and  the  laws  of  the 
Church ;  the  minor  proposition  averring  that  the  party 
accused  is  guilty,  specifying  facts,  dates,  and  places;  and 
then  follows  the  conclusion  deducing  the  justice  of  the 
sentence,  if  the  accusation  should  be  proven.  B}'  the 
term  relevancy  is  meant  whether  the  charge  is  one  real- 
ly deserving  censure,  or  whether  the  facts  alleged,  if 
proved,  would  afford  sufficient  evidence  of  the  charge. 
A  list  of  witnesses  is  appended  to  the  copy  of  the  libel 
served  in  due  time  and  form  on  the  person  accused. 
One  of  the  forms  is  as  follows :  "  Unto  the  Rev.  the 
Moderator  and  Remanent  Members  of  the  • •  Pres- 
bytery of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church,  The  Com- 
plaint of  A  and  B,  a  committee  appointed  to  prosecute 
the  matter  after-mentioned  (or  of  Mr.  A.  B.,  merchant 

in  ,  a  member  of  said  Church) ;  Sheweth,  That 

tiie  Rev.  C.  D.,  minister  of  the  ■ Congregation  of 

,  has  been  guilty  of  the  sin  of  [hei-e  state  the  de- 
nomination of  the  offence,  such  as  "drunkenness,'"  "Joj'ni- 

cation,"  or  such  like').    In  so  far  as,  upon  the day 

of ,  1800,  or  about  that  time,  and  within  the  house 

of ,  situated  in street, ,  he,  the  said 

C.  D.  {here  the  circumstances  attending  the  offence  charged 
are  described,  as,  for  example, "  did  di'inh  vhishey  or  some 
other  spirituous  liquor  to  excess,  whereby  he  became  in- 
toxicated"), to  the  great  scandal  of  religion  and  disgrace 
of  his  sacred  i)rofession ;  may  it  therefore  please  your 
reverend  court  to  ajipoint  service  of  this  libel  to  be 
made  on  the  said  Rev.  C.  D.,  and  him  to  ajipear  before 
j'ou  to  answer  to  the  same;  and  on  his  admitting  the 
charge,  or  on  the  same  being  proved  against  him,  to 
visit  liitn  with  sucli  censure  as  the  Word  of  God  and 
the  rules  and  disci])line  of  tlie  Church  in  such  cases  pre- 
scribe, in  order  tliat  he  and  all  others  may  be. deterred 
from  connnittiug  the  like  offences  in  all  time  coming, 
or  to  do  otlierwise  in  the  premises  as  toyoU  may  appear 
expedient  and  proper.  According  to  justice,  etc.  List 
of  ^vitnesses." — Eaiiie,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

liibellatici  is  the  name  of  that  class  of  the  lapsed 


who  received  from  the  heathen  magistrate  a  written 
certificate  {libellum)  as  a  warrant  for  their  security ; 
either  testifying  that  they  were  not  Christians,  or  con- 
taining a  dispensation  from  tlie  necessity  of  sacrificing 
to  the  gods  in  confirmation  of  their  adherence  to  hea- 
thenism. Another  class  of  the  lapsed  were  the  sacri- 
ficati— that  is,  those  who  had  offered  sacrifice  to  the 
heathen  gods  in  testimony  of  their  renunciation  of  tlie 
faith ;  another  the  traditoi-es,  because  they  had  deliv- 
ered up  into  the  hands  of  the  heathen  either  copies  of 
the  sacred  writings,  baptismal  registers,  or  any  other 
jjroperty  of  the  Church.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ; 
Schaflf,  Ch.  Hist,  i  (see  Index) ;  Mosheim,  Commentary 
(see  Index).     See  Lapsed. 

Libelli  Pacis,  or  Letters  of  Peace.  In  Egypt 
and  Africa  many  of  those  who  had  fallen  away  in  time 
of  persecution,  in  order  the  more  readily  to  obtain  par- 
don for  their  offences,  resorted  to  the  intercession  of 
persons  destined  to  suffer  martyrdom  by  securing  from 
them  libelli  pacis,  letters  of  peace ;  papers  in  which  these 
returning  apostates  were  commended  as  worthy  of  com- 
munion and  Church  membersliip.  In  this  way  they 
were  again  taken  into  communion  sooner  than  the  rules 
of  the  Church  otherwise  allowed.  From  this  practice 
the  pope  claims  a  precedent  for  the  exercise  of  his  pre- 
tended power  to  grant  spiritual  indulgences,  which  seem 
to  have  been  used  first  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  See  Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Mosheim,  Com- 
mentary  (see  Index).     See  Indulgences  ;  Lapsei*^ 

Liberalism.     See  Rationalism. 

Liberality  is  a  term  denoting  a  generous  disposi- 
tion of  mind,  exerting  itself  in  giving  largely.  It  is 
thus  distinguished  from  its  synonymcs  generosity  and 
boiuity.  Liberality  implies  acts  of  mere  giving  or 
spending ;  generosit  j',  acts  of  greatness ;  bounty,  acts  of 
kindness.  Liberality  is  a  natural  disposition ;  generos- 
ity proceeds  from  elevation  of  sentiment;  bounty  from 
religious  motives.  Liberality  denotes  freedom  of  spirit ; 
generosity,  greatness  of  soul;  bounty,  openness  of  heart. 
— Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

LIBERALITY  OF  SENTIMENT,  a  generous  dis- 
position a  man  feels  towards  another  who  is  of  a  differ- 
ent opinion  from  himself;  or,  as  one  defines  it,  '-that 
generous  expansion  of  mind  which  enables  it  to  look 
beyond  all  petty  distinctions  of  party  and  system,  and, 
in  the  estimate  of  men  and  things,  to  rise  superior  to 
narrow^  prejudices."  Unfortunately,  liberality  of  senti- 
ment is  often  a  cover  for  error  and  scepticism  on  the 
one  hand,  and  is  most  generally  too  little  attended  to 
by  the  ignorant  and  bigoted  on  the  other.  "A  man 
of  liberal  sentiments,"  says  an  eminent  English  writer, 
"must  be  distinguished  from  him  who  has  no  relig- 
ious sentiments  at  all.  He  is  one  who  has  serioush-  and 
effectually  investigated,  both  in  his  Bible  and  on  his 
knees,  in  public  asscmbUes  and  in  private  conversations, 
the  important  articles  of  religion.  lie  has  laid  down 
principles,  he  has  inferred  consequences;  in  a  word,  he 
has  adopted  sentiments  of  his  own.  He  must  be  dis- 
tinguished also  from  that  tame,  undiscerning  domestic 
among  good  people,  who,  though  he  has  sentiments  of 
his  own,  yet  has  not  judgment  to  estimate  the  worth 
and  value  of  one  sentiment  beyond  another.  Now  a 
generous  believer  of  the  Christian  religion  is  one  who 
will  not  allow  himself  to  try  to  jiropagate  his  sentiments 
by  the  commission  of  sin.  No  collusion,  no  bitterness, 
no  wrath,  no  undue  influence  of  any  kind,  will  he  ajiply 
to  make  his  sentiments  receivable;  and  no  living  thing 
will  be  less  happy  for  his  being  a  Christian.  He  will  ex- 
ercise his  liberality  by  allowing  to  those  who  differ  from 
him  as  much  virtue  and  integrity  as  he  possibly  can." 

There  are.  among' a  nndtitude  of  arguments  to  en- 
force such  a  dis|)(isition.  the  folldwing  worthy  of  our  at- 
tention :  '■  I.^^'e  should  exercise  lil)crality  in  union  with 
sentiment  because  of  the  different  capacities,  advanta- 
ges, and  tasks  of  mankind.  Religion  employs  the  ca- 
pacities of  mankind  just  as  the  air  employs  their  lungs 


LIBERALITY 


411 


LIBER  DIURNUS 


and  their  organs  of  speech.     The  fancy  of  one  is  livel}-, 
of  another  dull.     The  judgment  of  one  is  elastic,  of  an- 
other feeble,  a  damaged  si)ring.     The  memory  of  one  is 
retentive,  that,  of  another  is  treacherous  as  the  wind. 
The  passions  of  this  man  are  lofty,  vigorous,  rapid ; 
those  of  that  man  crawl,  and  hum,  and  buzz,  and,  when 
on  wing,  sail  only  round  the  circumference  of  a  tulip. 
Is  it  conceivable  that  capability,  so  different  in  every- 
thing else,  should  be  all  alike  in  religion  ?    The  advan- 
tages of  mankind  differ.     How  should  he  who  lias  no 
parents,  no  bouliS,  no  tutor,  no  companions,  equal  him 
whom   Providence  lias  gratitied  with  them  all;  who, 
when  he  looks  over  tlie  treasures  of  his  own  knowledge, 
can  say,  this  I  had  of  a  Greek,  that  I  learned  of  a  Ko- 
man ;  this  information  I  acquired  of  my  tutor,  that  was 
a  present  of  my  father ;  a  friend  gave  me  this  branch 
of  knowledge,  an  acquaintance  betpieathed  me  that? 
The  tasks  of  mankind  differ ;  .so  I  call  the  employments 
and  exercises   of  life.     In   my  opinion,  circumstances 
make  great  men;  and  if  we  have  not  Cffisars  in  the 
State,  and  Pauls  in  the  Church,  it  is  because  neither 
Ciiurch  nor  State  are  in  the  circumstances  in  which 
they  were  in  the  days  of  those  great  men.    I'usli  a  dull 
man  into  a  river,  and  endanger  his  life,  and  suddenly  he 
wiU  discover  invention,  and  make  efforts  beyond  him- 
self.    The  world  is  a  fine  school  of  instruction.     Pov- 
erty, sickness,  pain,  loss  of  children,  treachery  of  friends, 
malice  of  enemies,  and  a  thousand  other  things,  drive 
the  man  of  sentiment  to  his  Bible,  and,  so  to  speak, 
bring  him  home  to  a  repast  with  his  benefactor,  God. 
Is  it  conceivable  that  he  whose  young  and  tender  heart 
is  yet  unpracticed  in  trials  of  tliis  kind  can  have  ascer- 
tained and  tasted  so  many  religious  truths  as  the  suf- 
ferer has '?     2.  We  should  believe  the  Christian  religion 
with  liberality,  because  every  part  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion inculcates  generosity.     Christianity  gives  us  a 
character  of  God;  but  what  a  character  does  it  give! 
God  is  Love.    Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of 
Providence ;   but   what   a  providence !      Upon  whom 
doth  not  its  light  arise?     Is  there  an  animalcule  so  lit- 
tle, or  a  wretch  so  forlorn,  as  to  be  forsaken  and  forgot- 
ten of  his  God?     Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine  of 
redemption;   but  the  redemption  of  whom?  —  of  all 
tongues,  kindred,  nations,  and  people ;  of  the  infant  of  a 
span,  and  the  sinner  of  a  hundred  years  old :  a  redemp- 
tion generous  in  its  principle,  generous  in  its  price,  gen- 
erous in  its  effects ;  fixed  sentiments  of  divine  muniti- 
cence,  and  revealed  with  a  liberality  for  whicli  we  have 
no  name.    In  a  word,  the  illiberal  Christian  always  acts 
contrary  to  the  spirit  of  his  religion :  the  liberal  man 
alone  tlioroughly  understands  it.     3.  We  should  be  lib- 
eral, because  no  other  spirit  is  exemplified  in  the  infalli- 
ble guides  whom  we  profess  to  follow.     I  set  one  Paul 
against  a  whole  array  of  uninspired  men  :  '  Some  preach 
Christ  of  good-will,  and  some  of 'envy  and  strife.    What 
then?     Christ  is  preached  ;  and  I  therein  do  rejoice,  yea, 
and  will  rejoice.     One  eateth  all  things,  another  eateth 
herbs;  but  why  dost  thou  judge  thy  brother?     We 
shall  all  stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of  Christ.'    We 
often  incpiire.  What  was  the  doctrine  of  Christ,  and  what 
was  the  practice  of  Christ?     Suppose  we  Avere  to  insti- 
tute a  third  question.  Of  what  TiiMPER  was  Christ?    4. 
We  should  be  liberal  as  well  as  orthodox,  because  truths, 
especially  the  truths  of  Christianity,  do  not  want  any 
support  fnini  our  illiberality.     Let  the  little  bee  guard 
its  little  honey  with  its  little  sting ;  perhaps  its  little  life 
may  depend  a  little  while  on  that  little  nourishment. 
Let  the  tierce  bull  shake  his  head,  and  nod  liis  horn, 
and  tlireaten  his  enemy,  who  seeks  to  eat  his  flesh,  and 
wear  his  coat,  and  live  by  his  dcatli :  poor  fellow  !  his 
life  is  in  danger;  I  forgive  his  bellowing  and  his  rage. 
But  the  Christian  religion — is  tliat  in  danger?     And 
what  human  efforts  can  render  that  false  which  is  true, 
that  odious   which  is  lovely?     Christianity  is  in  no 
danger,  and  therefore  it  gives  its  professors  life  and 
breath,  and  all  things  except  a  power  of  injuring  others. 
5.  Liberality  in  the  profession  of  religion  is  a  wise  and 


innocent  policy.  The  bigot  lives  at  home ;  a  reptile  he 
crawled  into  existence,  and  there  in  his  hole  he  lurks  a 
reptile  still.  A  generous  Christian  goes  out  of  his  own 
party,  associates  with  others,  and  gains  improvement 
by  all.  It  is  a  Persian  proverb,  'A  liberal  hand  is  bet- 
ter than  a  strong  arm.'  The  dignity  of  Christianity  is 
better  supported  by  acts  of  liberality  than  by  accuracy 
of  reasoning;  but  when  both  go  together,  when  a  man 
of  sentiment  can  clearly  state  and  ably  defend  his  relig- 
ious principles,  and  when  his  heart  is  as  generous  as  his 
principles  are  inflexible,  he  possesses  strength  and  beau- 
ty in  an  eminent  degree."  See  Theol.  Miscellany ,  i,  39; 
Draper,  On  Bigotry ;  Newton,  Cecil,  and  FuUer's  YVorks  ; 
Wayland,  Discou7-ses ;  Buck,  Theol.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Liberatus,  a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Carthage, 
flourished  in  the  Gth  centuiy.  He  was  in  Rome  A.D. 
533,  when  pope  John  II  received  the  bishops  sent  by 
the  emi)eror  Justinian  I  to  consult  him  on  the  heresies 
broached  by  the  monks,  designated  Acoemet;e  (or,  as 
Liberatus  terms  them,  Acumici),  who  had  imbibed  Nes- 
torian  opinions.  He  was  again  at  Kome  in  535,  having 
been  sent  the  previous  year,  together  with  the  bishops 
Caius  and  Petrus,  by  the  synod  held  at  Carthage  under 
Keparatus,  bishop  of  that  see,  to  consult  pope  John  II 
on  the  reception  into  the  Church  of  those  Arians  who 
recanted  their  heresies.  John  was  dead  before  the  ar- 
rival of  the  African  delegates ;  but  they  were  received 
by  pope  Agapetus,  his  successor.  When,  in  552,  Repara- 
tus  was  banished  by  Justinian  to  Enchaida,  or  Eucayda, 
Liberatus  accompanied  him,  and  probably  remained  with 
him  till  the  bishop's  death  in  563.  Nothing  further  is 
known  of  him.  Liberatus  is  the  author  of  a  valuable 
contribution  to  ecclesiastical  history,  entitled  Breviu- 
rium  Caussm  Nestorianorum  et  Eutychianorum  (from 
the  ordination  of  Nestorius,  A.D.  428,  to  the  time  of  the 
fifth  oecumenical  [or  second  Constantinopolitan]  coun- 
cil, A.D.  553).  In  this  work  he  is  charged  with  par- 
tiality to  the  Nestorians,  or  with  following  the  Nesto- 
rians  too  implicitly.  It  is  contained  in  most  editions 
of  the  Concilia  (vol.  v,  edit.  Labbe ;  vol.  vi,  edit.  Co- 
leti ;  vol.  ix,  edit.  INIansi).  In  those  of  Crabbe  (vol. 
ii,  fol.,  Cologn.,  1538  and  1551)  are  some  subjoined  pas- 
sages derived  from  various  extant  sources  illustrative 
of  the  historj',  which  are  omitted  by  subsequent  editors. 
Hardouin  omitted  the  Breviarium.  It  was  separately 
published,  with  a  revised  text,  and  a  learned  preface 
and  notes,  and  a  dissertation,  in  the  Bibliatheca  Palnim 
of  Galland,  vol.  xii  (Venice,  1778,  fol.).— Smith,  Did.  of 
Greek  and  Roman  Biof/rapfty,  ii,  777. 

Liber  Diurnus  Komanorum  Pontifictm  is  the 
name  given  by  the  see  of  Rome  to  a  collection  of  formu- 
las used  in  its  correspondence  and  other  business  trans- 
actions. These  formulas  are  very  like  those  written  for 
secular  affairs  by  the  monk  Marcnlph  (about  600)  and 
others,  and  received  fr(Kn  the  compiler  the  name  of  Li- 
ber Diurmis  because  they  relate  to  negotia  diurna  (see 
Marino  Marini,  Diplomaticapontijicia,  ed.  nov.  Rom.  1852 
sq.,  p.  64).  They  are  interesting  as  scientific  and  his- 
torical monuments  as  well  as  for  their  practical  use; 
and  this  is  specially  the  case  with  the  Liber  Diurnus 
Pontificalis,  which  contains  copies  of  the  letters  ad- 
dressed by  the  Roman  bishops  to  the  emperor,  the  em- 
press, consuls,  kings,  patriarchs,  bishops,  and  other  mem- 
bers of  the  clergy,  and  in  general  to  all  who  were  in  any 
way  concerned  in  the  nomination  of  the  Roman  bish- 
ops; the  pi-o/essio  ponfificia,  the  exemptions  granted  on 
the  occasion  of  nominating  neighboring  bishops,  on  be- 
stowing the  pallium  (q.  v.),  conferring  privileges  and 
immunities,  etc.  On  all  these  points,  and  the  manner 
in  which  these  things  were  practiced  from  the  6th  to 
the  8th  ccntnry,thc  Liber  Diurmis  contams  more  or  less 
compleic  information,  particidarly  on  the  relations  ex- 
isting between  the  see  of  Rome  and  the  emperor,  the 
mode  of  election  of  the  Roman  bishops,  the  ritual,  etc. 
To  judge  from  its  contents,  this  collection  was  probably 
written  before  the  year  752,  for  it  speaks  of  the  relation 
between  the  see  of  Rome  and  the  eparchs,  who  were 


LIBER  DIURNUS 


412 


LIBERIA 


abolished  in  that  year;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must 
be  ]iosterior  to  G85,  for  in  caput  ii,  tit.  ix,  the  emperor 
(Jonstantine  (Pogonatus)  is  spoken  of  as  being  akeady 
(lead.  It  must  also  have  been  written  under  some  suc- 
cessor of  Agatho  (f  G82),  as  this  Koman  bishop  is  also 
mentioned  as  dead.  Garnerius  supposed  it  to  have  been 
composed  in  the  time  of  Gregory  II,  somewhat  after 
714,  on  the  ground  that  in  the  second  pi-q/'essio  Jidei 
jMiitip'ris,  given  in  the  Liher  Diiirnus,  there  are  expres- 
sions and  views  which  correspond  exactly  to  those  we 
find  in  the  letters  of  that  pope  to  the  emperor  Leo.  It 
is  likely,  though,  that  the  Liber  iJiurnus  existed  orig- 
inally in  a  more  elementary  fonn  before  it  assumed  that 
muler  which  it  is  known  at  present,  for  the  different 
MS.  copies  of  it  differ  somewhat  from  each  other.  The 
Liher  Diiirnus  was  frequently  consulted  by  all  writers 
on  canon  law,  such  as  Ino  of  Chartres,  Anselm  of  Lucca, 
Deusdedit,  Gratian  (c.  8,  dist.  xvi).  As  the  ritual  and 
various  points  of  law  underwent  modifications  in  the 
course  of  time,  it  was  less  used,  and  its  existence  even 
came  to  be  concealed  by  the  popes  for  fear  lest  it  might 
recall  their  former  dependence  upon  the  emperors  and 
eparehs.  Still  there  were  copies  of  it  in  existence,  and 
a  codex  contained  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican  was 
published  in  IGGO  by  the  care  of  Lucas  Holstenius;  it 
was.  however,  at  once  suppressed  by  the  Roman  see. 
Hoffmann  (Xovu  coUectio  scriptorum  ac  nionumentorum, 
Lipsi:e,  1733.  4to,  i,  389)  attributes  to  Baluze  (in  the  re- 
marks on  Petrus  de  Marca,  Be  concordia  sacerdotii  ac 
imperii,  lib.  i,  cap.  ix,  No.  viii)  the  statement  that  at 
the  time  of  Holstenius  the  Vatican  library  possessed  no 
codex  of  the  Liher  Diurnus,  and  that  his  publication  was 
based  upon  a  j\IS.  intrusted  to  him  by  the  Cistercian 
monk  Hilarius  Kancatus.  But  as  both  editions  of  the 
works  of  P.  de  ]\Iarca,  published  at  Paris  by  Baluze, 
state  only  (lib.  ii,  cap.  xvi.  No.  viii)  that  Holstenius's 
l)ublication  of  the  Liher  Diurnus  was  suppressed,  and 
Baluze  again,  in  his  notes  appended  to  Anton.  Augus- 
tinus,  De  emendatione  Grutiani,  lib.  i,  dialogus  xx,  §  13 
(ed.  Par.  1760,  p.  433),  saj-s  that  there  were  various  cop- 
ies of  the  Liber  Diurnus  in  existence,  from  one  of  which, 
that  in  the  Vatican  Ubrary,  Holstenius  published  his 
edition,  it  seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  Hoffmann's 
statement  lacks  support.  As  for  Rancatus,  MabiUon 
names  Leo  Allatius,  and  not  Holstenius,  as  the  party  to 
whom  he  imparted  the  IMS.  (see  also  Cave,  Scriptonnn 
eccl.  hut.  literaria,  Basle,  1741,  i,  621).  The  MS.  of  the 
Vatican  has  actually  been  described  by  Pertz  {Italien- 
ische  Rtise,\\\  Archiv.f.dltere  deutsche  Geschic/itshinde, 
v,  27).  He  says  that  it  is  an  8vo  vol.  of  parchment, 
and  that,  according  to  the  statement  found  on  its  first 
pages,  it  dates  from  the  8th  century.  The  Jesuit  Jo- 
annes Garnerius,  with  the  aid  of  a  similar  codex  and  a 
MS.  found  in  Paris,  published  in  1680  another  edition 
of  the  Liher  Diurnus,'' cum  privilegio  regis  Christianis- 
simi."  ^Maliillon,  in  the  Museum  Ifalicum  (folio  II,  ii, 
32  sq.).  ]iu1ilished  additions  to  it  by  means  of  the  MS. 
which  ha<l  been  used  by  Leo  Allatius.  With  the  aid 
of  all  these  works,  Hoffmann  published  a  new  edition 
of  it  in  the  Xora  colkrfio  cit.  (vol.  ii),  which  was  sub- 
sequently done  also  by  Riegger  (V^ienna,  17G2, 8vo).  All 
this  gave  rise  afterwards  to  collections  of  formulas  to 
replace  the  obsolete  TAher  Diurnus.  There  are  several 
such  collections  still  extant  in  MS.  Among  them  the 
luirmuhirium  et  stylus  scriptorum  curice.  Rnman<v,  from 
John  XXII  to  Gregory  XII  and  John  XXIII,  in  Sum- 
nid  rmiri/ftiriii  Joannh  XXI I.  W'c  may  also  consider 
as  belonging  to  this  class  of  works  the  Rituum  ecclesi- 
ostirorum  sire  cei'emoniminn  lihri  tres  of  bishop  Augus- 
tinus  Patricius  Piccolomini,  printed  by  Hoffmann  (ii, 
26i>  s(|.),  and  containing  a  description  of  the  rites  accom- 
panying the  election  of  the  ])opcs  in  the  14th  cx-ntury. 
Cnllectious  of  formulas  similar  to  the  Liher  Diurnus 
were  also  made  for  the  use  of  l)isho|)S,  ablwfs,  etc.  See 
Rockinger,  Xarlnreisuuf/en  iiher  Formelbiiche.r  v.  xiii^xvi 
.Tahrhuud.  (]\Iunich,  1855,  \\  64,  126,  173, 18.3,  etc.)  ;  Pa- 
\Mk\,Ueber  Formelbiicher  (yraguc,  1842)  ;  llerzog,  7?ea/- 


EncyUop.  viii,  366;  Wetzer  u.Welte,  Kirchen-Lex.  voL 

V,  s.  V. 

Liberia,  or  the  United  States  of-  Liberia,  a  negro 
re]nil)lic  in  Western  Africa,  on  the  upper  coast  of  LTpper 
Guinea.  The  boundaries  are  not  definitely  fixed,  but 
provisionally  the  River  Thebar  has  been  adopted  as  the 
north-western,  and  the  San  Pedro  as  the  eastern  frontier. 
The  rejiublic  has  a  coast-line  of  600  miles,  and  extends 
back  100  miles,  on  an  average,  but  with  the  probability 
of  a  vast  extension  into  the  interior  as  the  tribes  near 
the  frontier  desire  to  conclude  treaties  providing  for  the 
incorporation  of  their  territories  with  Liberia.  The 
present  area  is  estimated  at  9700  square  miles.  The 
republic  owes  its  origin  to  the  "American  Colonization 
Society,"  which  was  established  in  December,  1816,  for 
the  purpose  of  removing  the  negroes  of  the  United 
States  froin  the  cramping  influences  of  American  slav- 
ery, and  placing  them  in  their  own  fatherland.  There, 
it  was  hoped,  they  would  be  able  to  refute,  by  practical 
demonstration,  the  views  of  those  American  politicians 
who  contended  that  the  institution  of  American  slavery 
was  essentially  righteous  and  signally  beneficent.  The 
society,  in  November,  1817,  sent  two  agents  to  Western 
Africa,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ebenezer  Burgess  and  Samuel  J. 
Mills,  to  select  a  favorable  location  for  a  colony  of 
American  negroes.  After  visiting  Gambia,  Sierra  Le- 
one, and  Sherbro,  they  fixed  upon  the  last-named  place. 
The  first  expedition  of  emigrants,  86  in  nnmlier,  was 
sent  out  in  Februarj^,  1820,  After  various  disappoint- 
ments, the  emigrants  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  foothold 
on  Cape  INIesurado,  in  lat,  6°  19'  N.,  long.  10°  49'  W., 
where  now  stands  Monrovia,  the  capital  of  the  republic 
of  Liberia.  The  purchase  of  the  Mesurado  territory, 
including  Cape  ISIesurado  and  the  lands,  forming  near- 
ly a  peninsula,  between  the  Mesurado  and  the  Junk 
rivers,  about  36  mUes  along  the  coast,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  about  two  miles,  was  effected  in  December, 
1821.  For  a  hundred  years  the  principal  powers  of  Eu- 
rope, in  particular  France  and  England,  had  repeatedly 
tried  to  gain  possession  of  this  territorj',  but  the  native 
chiefs  had  invariably  refused  to  part  with  even  one  acre, 
and  were  known  to  be  extremely  hostile  to  the  whites. 
On  January  7, 1822,  the  smaller  of  the  two  islands  lying 
near  the  mouth  of  the  IMesurado  River  was  occupied  by 
the  colonists,  who  called  it  Perseverance  Island.  They 
remained  here  until  April  25,  when  they  removed  to 
jMesurado  Heights,  and  raised  the  American  flag.  The 
colony  henceforth  grew,  and  expanded  in  territory  and 
influence,  taking  under  its  jurisdiction-  from  time  to 
time  the  large  tribes  contiguous.  In  1846  the  boar<l  of 
directors  of  the  American  Colonization  Societj'  invited 
the  colony  to  proclaim  their  independent  sovereignty, 
as  a  means  of  protection  against  the  oppressive  inter- 
ference of  foreigners,  and  a  special  fund  of  815,000  was 
raised  to  buy  up  the  national  title  to  all  the  coast  from 
Sherbro  to  Cape  Palmas,  in  order  to  secure  to  the  new 
nationality  contimuty  of  coast.  In  July,  1847,  the  dec- 
laration of  independence,  prepared  by  Hilary  Teoge, 
was  published.  Representatives  of  the  people  met  in 
convention,  and  promulgated  a  constitution  similar  to 
that  of  the  United  States.  Soon  after  the  new  re]iublic 
tvas  recognised  by  England  and  France ;  in  1852  it  Avas 
in  treaty  stijiulations  with  England,  France,  Belgium, 
Prussia,  Italy,  the  United  States,  Denmark,  Holland, 
Hayti,  Portugal,  and  Austria. 

'ihe  constitution  of  Liberia,  like  that  of  the  United 
States,  establishes  an  entire  separation  of  the  Church 
from  the  State,  and  places  all  religious  denominations  on 
an  equal  footing,  but  all  citizens  of  the  republic  must  be- 
long to  the  negro  race.  In  1872  the  total  pojiulation  of 
Liberia  was  estimated  to  number  720,000,  of  which  num- 
ber about  19,000  were  Americo-Liberians.  and  the  re- 
maining 701,000  aboriginal  inhabitants.  The  most  im- 
portant tribes  within  and  near  the  limits  of  the  republic 
are  the  following:  1.  The  Veys,  extending  from  Gallinas, 
their  northern  boundarA',  southward  to  Little  Cape  jMount  : 
they  stretch  inland  about  two  days'  journey.     They  in- 


LIBERIA 


413 


LIBERIA 


vented,  some  20  j'ears  ago,  an  alphabet  for  writing  their 
own  language,  and,  next  to  the  Mandingoes,  they  are  re- 
garded as  the  most  intelligent  of  the  aboriginal  tribes. 
As  they  hold  constant  intercourse  with  the  Mandingoes 
and  other  jNIoharamedan  tribes  in  the  far  interior,  ]Mo- 
hammedanism  is  making  rapid  progress  among  them. 
The  Anglican  missionary,  bishop  Payne,  has  recently 
suggested  a  plan  of  occupying  the  country  of  the  Veys 
with  an  extensive  and  vigorous  mission,  and  the  mission- 
school  opened  by  the  Episcopalians  at  Totocorch,  which 
is  nearer  to  Cape  Jlount  than  to  Monrovia,  is  regarded 
as  the  first  outpost  towards  the  vast  interior.  2.  The 
Pessehs,  who  are  located  about  seventy  miles  from  the 
coast,  and  extend  about  one  hundred  miles  from  north 
to  south,  are  entirely  pagan.  They  may  be  called  the 
peasants  of  West  Africa,  and  supply  most  of  the  domes- 
tic slaves  fur  the  Veys,  Bassas,  Mandingoes,  and  Kroos. 
A  missionary  effort  was  attempted  among  them  about 
fifteen  years  ago  by  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions,  but  it  was  abandoned  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  the  first  missionary,  George  L.  Seymour.  3. 
The  Barline  tribe,  living  about  eight  days'  journey 
north-east  from  jMonrovia,  and  next  interior  to  the  Pes- 
sehs, lias  recently  been  brought  into  treaty  relations 
with  Liberia.  According  to  a  report  of  1858,  half  the 
population  of  their  capital,  Palaka,  consisted  of  Moham- 
medans who  had  come  from  the  Manni  country,  but  the 
latest  explorer,  W.  Spencer  Anderson,  states  that  there 
are  at  present  no  IMohammedans  in  the  Barline  countrj% 
4.  The  Bassas  occupy  a  coast-line  of  over  sixty  miles, 
and  extend  about  the  same  distance  inland.  They  are 
the  great  producers  of  palm-oil  and  canewood,  which 
are  sold  to  foreigners  by  thousands  of  tons  annually.  In 
1835  a  mission  was  begun  among  these  people  by  the 
American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  whose  missionaries 
studied  the  language,  organized  three  schools,  embra- 
cing in  all  nearly  a  himdred  pupils,  maintained  preach- 
ing statedly  at  three  places,  and  occasionally  at  a  great 
many  more,  and  translated  large  portions  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Bassa  language.  Notwithstanding 
this  promising  commencement,  the  mission  has  been 
now  (1872)  for  several  years  suspended.  But  the  South- 
ern Baptist  Convention  has  lately  resumed  missionary 
operations  among  the  Bassas.  Great  results  for  the 
spreading  of  Christianity  are  expected  from  the  mis- 
sionary labors  of  j\Ir.  Jacob  W.  Yonbrunn,  a  son  of  a 
subordinate  king  of  the  Grand  Bassa  people.  5.  The 
Kroo,  who  occupy  the  region  south  of  the  Bassa,  extend 
about  seventy  miles  along  the  coast,  and  only  a  few 
miles  inland.  They  are  the  sailors  of  West  Africa,  and 
never  enslave  or  sell  each  other.  About  thirty  years 
ago  a  mission  was  established  among  them  by  the  Pres- 
byterian Board  of  Foreign  Missions  at  Settra  Kroo,  but 
it  lias  long  since  ceased  operations.  6.  The  Greboes, 
^vho  border  upon  the  south-eastern  boundaries  of  the 
Kroos,  extend  from  Grand  Sesters  to  the  Cavalla  River, 
a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles.  In  ISii-I  a  mission 
was  established  among  them  by  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  Avhich  continued 
in  operation  for  seven  years.  A  Church  was  organized, 
the  language  reduced  to  writing,  and  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  and  other  religious  books  translated  into  it ; 
but  in  1842  the  mission  was  transferred  to  Gabun.  A 
mission  established  by  the  Protestant  I^piscopal  Church 
of  the  United  States  among  the  same  tribe  a  few  years 
previously  still  continues  in  operation,  and  has  recently 
established  at  Bohlen  a  missionary  station,  about  sev- 
enty miles  from  the  coast,  7.  The  Mandingoes,  who  are 
found  on  the  whole  eastern  frontier  of  the  republic,  and 
extend  back  to  the  heart  of  Soudan,  are  the  most  intel- 
ligent tribe  within  the  limits  of  Liberia.  They  have 
schools  and  mosques  in  every  large  town,  and,  by  their 
great  influence  upon  the  neighboring  tribes,  they  have 
contributed  in  no  little  degree  to  abate  the  ignorance 
and  soften  the  manners  of  the  native  population  of  Li- 
beria. One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  jirogress  of 
Christian  missions  among  the  aboriginal  tribes  is  the 


climate,  and  the  difficulty  of  acclimatization.  Thus  the 
Basle  Missionary  Society,  which  in  1827  established  a 
promising  mission,  was  in  1831  compelled  to  abandon  it 
when  four  of  the  eight  missionaries  had  succumbed  to 
the  climate. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1871  the  churches  among  the 
Americo-Liberians  and  the  missions  among  the  natives 
were  all  more  or  less  connected  with  the  Protestant 
churches  of  the  United  States.  The  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Churcli,  which  sent  her  first  missionary  to  Liberia 
in  1832,  has  subsequently  organized  the  Liberia  INlission 
into  an  Annual  Conference,  with  a  missionary  bishop 
(in  1872  John  Wright  Koberts)  at  its  head.  In  1872 
the  mission  had  24  missionaries  (embracing  8  supplies 
— supernumeraries  and  assistant  preachers  on  native 
stations),  15  assistant  missionaries  (including  5  school- 
teachers among  the  natives),  87  local  preachers,  2065 
members,  174  probationers,  15  day-schools,  with  over 
400  scholars,  1425  Sunday-school  scholars,  26  churches, 
of  an  aggregate  value  of  $22,907,  and  7  parsonages, 
valued  at  $3991.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  United  States  likewise  supports  at  the  head 
of  its  mission  a  missionary  bishop.  The  mission,  in 
1871,  contained  10  Liberian  and  14  native  stations, 
13  clergymen  (2  foreign,  including  the  bishop,  8  Libe- 
rian, and  3  native),  6  camlidates  for  holy  orders  (3  Li- 
berian and  3  native),  9  churches  and  1  chapel,  64  other 
preaching-places,  231  Christian  families  and  595  persons 
attending  church,  93  infant  and  22  adult  baptisms,  453 
communicants,  102  Simday-school  teachers  and  1104 
scholars,  and  22  teachers  and  301  pupils  of  vernacular 
schools.  The  number  of  marriages  was  31,  and  of  bur- 
ials 38.  The  missionary  bishop,  John  Payne,  after 
having  labored  upon  the  coast  of  Africa  for  thirty-three 
years,  resigned  his  jurisdiction  at  the  meeting  of  the 
Board  of  Missions  held  in  October,  1871.  At  the  same 
meeting  a  special  committee  of  the  Board  on  the  Organ- 
ization of  the  Church  in  Africa,  which  had  been  ap- 
pointed in  1870,  recommended  as  a  suitable  plan,  which 
the  Church  should  put  into  operation  at  the  earliest 
practical  moment,  the  appointment  of  three  missionary 
episcopates,  one  whose  centre  shall  be  Cape  Palmas,  to 
carrj'  on  important  operations  already  begun  in  that 
neighborhood  and  near  the  Cavalla  Eiver;  one  whfise 
centre  shall  be  Cape  JNIount,  to  enter  into  the  remarkable 
openings  for  Christian  missions  among  the  interesting 
tribes  to  the  north  and  north-east ;  and  one  whose  centre 
shall  be  Monrovia,  and  whose  jurisdiction  shall  com- 
prise the  countries  of  ^Mcsurado,  Bassa,  and  Sinoe.  The 
Baptist  churches  in  Liberia  have  mostly  been  organized 
by  the  Southern  Board  of  American  Baptists.  Tlieir 
work  was  suspended  during  the  war,  and  the  American 
Baptist  Missionary  Union  commenced  their  work  in 
Liberia  with  the  understanding  that  the  Southern  Board 
would  not  resume  the  work ;  but  in  1870  the  Southern 
Baptists  sent  an  agent  to  Africa  with  a  view  of  renew- 
ing their  labors  there.  The  Missionary  Union  contin- 
ued, however,  to  give  a  partial  support  to  several  pas- 
tors. In  March,  1868,  the  Baptist  churches  of  Liberia 
organized  the  "  Liberian  Baptist  Missionary  Union"  for 
'•  the  evangelization  of  the  heathen"  within  the  borders 
of  the  Republic  of  Liberia,  "and  contiguous  thereto." 
At  this  first  meeting  of  the  union  ten  Baptist  churches 
were  represented,  and  twelve  fields  of  missionary  labor 
were  designated  and  commended  to  the  care  of  the 
nearest  churches.  The  Baptist  churches  have  a  train- 
ing-school for  preachers  and  teachers  at  Virginia.  The 
Presbyterian  Cliurch  of  the  United  States  has  congre- 
gations at  JMonrovia,  Kentucky,  Harrisburg,  Greenville 
or  Sinou,  Marshall,  Robertsport,  and  a  few  other  places, 
with  an  aggregate  membership  of  about  250.  The  Li- 
berian churclics  in  union  with  those  of  Gaboon  and  Co- 
risco  form  the  presbytery  of  Western  Africa.  The 
Alexander  High-school  is  intended  to  be  an  academy 
of  high  grade,  conducted  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Presbytery,  and  designed  especially  to  aid  young  men 
preparing  for  the  ministry.    It  is  situated  on  a  farm  of 


LIBERIUS 


414 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


about  twenty  acres,  eighteen  miles  from  ]Monrovia,  near 
the  St.  Taurs  liiver.  The  American  Lutherans  have 
one  station  in  Liberia.  See  Newcomb,  Cyclopmdia  of 
Missions ;  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  Presbi/terian  Church ;  Baptist  Missionary 
Magazine,  July,  1872;  Proceedings  of  the  Board  ofjifis- 
sions  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  October,  1871 ; 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Meth- 
odist EpiscojKil  Church;  Grundemanii,  Missionsatlas ; 
Stockwell,  The  Republic  of  Liheiia  (New  York,  1868) ; 
I'lyilen  (professor  in  Fourali  Bay  College,  Sierra  Leone, 
^^'.  A.),  The  Republic  of  Liberia,  its  Status  and  its  Field 
{Jfeth.  Quart.  Rev.  July,  1872,  art.  vi).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Liberius,  St.,  pope  of  Kome,  M-as  a  native  of  the 
Eternal  City.  He  succeeded  Julius  I  May  22,  353.  The 
Serai- Arians,  countenanced  by  the  emperor  Constantius, 
had  then  the  ascendency ;  and  both  the  Council  of  Aries 
(353)  and  that  of  IMilan  (355)  condemned  Athanasius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  As  Liberius,  together  with  some 
other  Western  bishops,  refused  to  subscribe  to  this  con- 
demnation, he  was  aiTested  by  order  of  the  emperor,  and 
taken  to  IMilan,  where  he  held  a  conference  with  Con- 
stantius, which  terminated  in  a  sentence  from  the  em- 
peror deposing  Liberius  from  his  office,  and  banishing 
liira  to  Beroea,  in  Thrace.  Felix,  a  deacon  at  Rome,  was 
consecrated  bishop.  A  petition  was  presented  to  the  em- 
peror by  the  principal  ladies  of  Rome  in  favor  of  Liberius, 
but  it  was  not  till  358  that  Liberius  was  restored  to  his 
see.  The  assertion  that  Liberius,  during  his  continement 
at  Bercea,  a])proved  in  several  letters  of  the  deposition 
of  Athanasius,  and  subscribed  to  the  confession  of  faith 
drawn  up  by  the  coiu-t  party  at  the  Council  of  Sirmium, 
is  a  matter  of  great  improbability,  and  depends  chiefly 
upon  the  genuineness  of  his  correspondence  with  Atha- 
nasius. The  dependence  of  Liberius  on  the  emperor 
had  a  mischievous  influence  upon  many  of  the  Italian 
bishops,  and  we  need  not  wonder  that  at  the  Council  of 
Kimini  Arianism  was  openly  countenanced.  It  is  not 
true,  as  asserted  by  some,  that  Liberius  subscribed  the 
Rimini  confession  of  faith.  He  ended  his  career  in  or- 
thodoxy, and  died  in  3(i(J.  He  was  succeeded  by  Da- 
masus  I.  Liberius  is  said  to  have  built  the  Basilica  on 
the  ]]s((uiline  IMount,  which  has  been  called  Liberiana, 
from  his  name,  and  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Santa 
iMaria  Maggiore.  He  is  commemorated  in  the  Romish 
Church  Aug.  27,  and  in  the  Creek  Church  Sept.  23.  See 
( ifrijrer,  Kirchengesch.  II,  i,  254—285 ;  Hefelo,  P.  Liberius, 
in  the  Tilb.  theol.  Quarfalschr.  (1853),  ii,  2tJl  sq. ;  and 
<  'onciliengesch.  i,  626-714 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklop.  viii, 
372. 

Liber  Pontificalis  de  vitis  Romanorum  Pontif- 
cum,  Gksta  Rojianorum  Pontificum,  Liber  gesto- 
i:uM  roxTiFicALirM,  are  the  names  of  a  history  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome  from  the  apostle  Peter  down  to  Nicolas 
I  (f  867),  to  which  those  of  Adrian  II  and  of  Ste])hen 
VI  (t  891)  were  subsequently  added.  On  the  author- 
ity of  Onuphrio  Pavini,  the  first  editors  of  this  Liber 
Pontifc(dis  considered  as  its  author  Anastasius,  abbot  of 
a  convent  at  Rome,  and  librarian  of  the  church  under 
Nicolas  I ;  Init  more  thorough  researches  have  proved 
tliis  liber  to  vary  greatly  in  style,  and  even  in  views 
manifested  in  the  different  biographies,  and  therefore 
led  to  the  supposition  that  the  work  is  not  all  by  the 
same  author.  This  belief  is  further  strengthened  by 
the  fact  that  already  Anastasius,  on  some  occasions, 
m.-ide  use  of  passages  from  the  Libir  Pou/if calls,  and 
that  there  arc  MSS.  extant  which  can  with  certainty  be 
ascrilied  to  the  close  of  the  7th  or  the  beginning  of  the 
8th  centurj-,  and  which  contain  extracts  from  the  Liber 
Pontif  calls.  In  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century, 
several  writers  put  forth  arguments  in  favor  of  the  last- 
mentioned  views.  Among  them  are  EmanueJ  of  Schel- 
strate.  lilirarian  of  the  Valiijan  {IHssertalio  de  antiquis 
Romanorum  Poutifcum  catalogis,  ex  guibu's  fAber  Pontifi- 
calis concinnatus  sit,  et  de  Libri  L'outif  calls  aiictore  ac 
pi-cEstantia  [Rom;e,  1692,  fob;  reprinted  in  Muratori, 
Rerum  Italicarum  scriptores,  iii,  1  sq.]),  Joannes  Ciam- 


pini  (magister  brevium  gratiae :  Examen  Libri  Pontifica- 
lis sire  vitarum  Romanormn  Pontificum,  quce  sub  nomine 
Anastasii  bibliothecarii  circumferuntur  [Rom.  1688,  4to; 
reprinted  in  Muratori,  p.  33  sq.]),  and  others.  The  sup- 
position that  the  codex  was  compiled  by  pope  Damasus, 
the  successor  of  Liberius,  as  maintained  by  the  authors 
of  the  Origines,  is  untenable.  The  correspondence  be- 
tween Damasus  and  Jerome  which  is  adduced  in  support 
of  this  view  is  evidently  spurious  (see  Schelstrate,  Dis- 
sertatio,  etc.).  The  author  or  authors  are  unknown,  but 
the  information  it  contains  is  valuable.  It  is  now  gen- 
erally thought  to  have  been  written  about  the  4th  cen- 
tury. 

The  oldest  source  known  at  present  of  the  liber  is 
generally  considered  to  have  been  a  list  of  the  popes 
down  to  Liberius,  and  probably  written  during  his  life 
(352-366),  as  it  makes  no  mention  of  his  death  (see 
Schelstrate,  LHssertatio,  etc.,  cli.  ii,  iii ;  Hefele,  Tiibinger 
theolog.  Quartalschrift,  1845,  p.  312  sq.).  The  original 
MS.  of  this  so-called  Codex  Liberii  is  now  lost.  In  1634 
a  co]>y  was  made  of  it  from  an  Antwerp  MS.  by  Bucher, 
the  Bollandists  give  one  in  the  Acta  Sanctorum,  April, 
vol.  i,  1675,  and  Schelstrate  another  I'rom  a  Vienna  co- 
dex. These  three  texts  are  given  side  by  side  in  the 
Origines  de  Veglise  Romaine,  par  les  membres  de  la  com- 
munaute  de  Solermes  (Paris,  1826),  vol.  i. 

Another  list  of  the  popes  extends  down  to  Felix  IV 
(f  530).  It  was  first  published  in  a  codex  of  the  Vati- 
can Library  by  Christine  of  Sweden,  afterwards  by  Syl- 
vester of  Henschen  and  Papebroch,  and  is  also  found  in 
the  introduction  of  the  first  volume  of  the  Acta  Sancto- 
rum for  April,  in  Schelstrate,  and  in  the  above-mention- 
cil  Origines,  p.  212.  There  are  transcripts  of  French 
origin,  and  the  original  MS.  of  this  so-called  Catalogus 
Feliris  /ris  lost,  but  the  two  at  jiresent  in  existence 
are  evidently  copies  of  the  same  original,  as  results  from 
a  careful  comparison  of  them  by  Schelstrate.  That  the 
author  of  it  must  have  consulted  the  Cafalogifs  Libeiil 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  its  errors  are  repeated  in 
it.  Thej'  both  omit  the  names  of  the  consuls  and  em- 
perors between  Liberius  and  John  I  (523),  and  com- 
mence again  at  the  reign  of  the  latter,  and  of  his  suc- 
cessor, Felix  IV  (al.  III).  Schelstrate  already  correctly 
surmised  from  this  fact  that  the  author  lived  in  the 
time  of  these  two  popes,  which  view  is  also  supported 
by  the  completeness  and  thoroughness  with  ^vhich  their 
history,  in  particular,  is  treated.  Still,  as  to  the  author, 
there  is  no  definite  information.  The  numerous  refer- 
ences to  the  archives  of  the  Roman  Church,  in  which, 
moreover,  the  first  MS.  was  discovered,  would  make  it 
probable  that  the  author  was  himself  a  librarian  of  the 
archives,  if  the  confusion  and  even  incorrectness  of 
some  parts  did  not  militate  against  this  view.  Aside 
from  the  similarity  of  this  collection  with  the  Catalogus 
Liberii,  which  extends  so  far  that  whole  jiassagcs  are 
copied  literall}',  or  nearly  so,  from  the  one  into  the  other, 
the  Catalogus  Felicis  7  L  differs  from  the  Liberii  prin- 
cipally by  its  full  particulars  on  the  ordination,  by  its 
mention  of  the  birthplace  of  the  popes,  and  their  fune- 
rals, which  the  author  may  have  derived  from  tradition 
and  other  similar  sources,  pseudo-decretals  and  canons, 
martyrologies,  etc.  The  only  parts  which  have  licrcto- 
fore  been  considered  worthy  ol'  full  confidence  are  those 
which  coincide  with  the  Catalogus  Liberii,  and  those 
which  refer  to  the  times  of  John  and  Felix,  wlicn  the 
author  would  be  better  acquainted  with  the  lacts  than 
with  those  of  precedhig  periods. 

I?oth  lists  were  subsequently  continued,  and  tliis  is 
what  produced  the  Liber  Pontificalia.  This  filiation, 
however,  can  only  be  traced  by  the  aid  of  MSS.  The 
oldest  copy  known  belongs  to  the  close  of  the  7th  or  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century.  It  ends  at  the  death  of 
Conon  ((■)8(i-6.s7).  A  rather  incomi)lete  Codex  rescrip- 
tus,  discovered  by  Pertz  (Archir.  \\  50  sq.)  at  Naples, 
gives  the  list  of  the  popes  down  to  Conon  ;  it  must  have 
been  written,  at  the  latest,  in  the  early  part  of  the  8th 
century.     Another  is  found  in  a  codex  of  the  cathedral 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


415 


LIBER  PONTIFICALIS 


chapter  of  Verona,  endinf;  also  with  Conon,  but  to  it  was 
adilc<l  afterwards  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  popes  down 
to  Paul  I  (t  7G7).  Tliis  3IS.  was  published  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  Bianchini's  collection,  but,  unfortunately,  we 
have  no  description  of  this  codex;  it  was  to  have  been 
given  in  the  tifth  volume,  which  never  appeared  (see 
Kostell,  Beschreibung  iler  Stadt  Rum.  i,  209,  210),  so  that 
it  is  impossible  clearly  to  establish  its  relation  to  the 
Neapolitan  MS.  A  continuation  of  this  tirst  work  goes 
down  to  Gregory  II  (from  714),  and  is  to  be  found  in 
the  Codex  of  the  Vatican,  No.  52G9,  which  must  be  a 
copy  of  an  older  MS.  (Schelstrate,  ch.  v,  §  3).  Then 
there  is  another  continuation  from  the  second  part  of 
the  8th  century,  contained  in  a  codex  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library  of  Milan  (^I.  no.  77,  4to),  which  is  of  the  same 
date.  The  biographies  close  with  Stephen  III  (f  757), 
and  at  the  end  is  simply  remarked,  "xcv  Paulus  sedit 
annis  x,  mensibus  ii,  diebus  v"  (Muratori,  Rerum  Itul. 
Svriptores,  iii,  7).  The  variations  on  this  MS.  are  given 
by  ]\Iuratori  under  the  letter  A.  It  belonged  originally 
to  the  convent  of  Bobbio.  According  to  a  very  plausi- 
ble supposition  of  Niebuhr,  the  above-mentioned  Nea- 
liolitan  Codex  came  also  from  that  convent.  It  will 
])rol)ably  be  possible,  when  the  subject  shall  have  been 
more  thoroughly  studied,  to  trace  a  connection  between 
the  two,  and  the  Liber  Fontificalis  also.  After  the  mid- 
dle of  the  8th  century  there  appeared  several  continua- 
tions, as  is  shown  by  the  numerous  MSS.  of  them  in 
existence  (see,  in  jNIuratori,  B,  C,  D;  and  Pertz,  who 
gives  notices  of  several  MSS.  of  the  kind).  Some  of 
these  codices  extend  down  to  Nicolas  I  (f  807),  others 
to  Stcplien  VI  (t  891),  which  is  as  far  as  the  so-called 
LihiT  Pimtificulis  extends. 

If  from  what  we  have  stated  it  is  concluded  that  the 
work  dates  back  as  far  as  tlie  7th  century,  it  is  clearly  im- 
possible that  the  librarian  Anastasius  should  have  been 
its  author.  He  could  at  best  only  have  continued  it. 
Schelstrate  thinks  that  the  biography  of  Nicolas  I  can 
alone  be  ascribed  to  him  (c.  viii,  §  10) ;  while  Ciampini 
is  induced  by  some  peculiarities  of  the  style  to  consider 
him  also  as  the  author  of  the  four  preceding  ones  (/.  c. 
sect.  V,  vi).  In  the  present  state  of  the  question  it  is 
impossible  to  decide  between  the  two  opinions.  But 
it  is  clearly  a  mistake  to  attribute  the  biographies  of 
Adrian  II  and  Stephen  IV  to  a  certain  Bibliothecarius 
GiiUditms,  as  is  generally  done  (Ciampini  names  the 
lil)rariau  Zachary,  sect,  iv,  vii,  viii).  This  error  orig- 
inated in  an  inscription  in  the  Vatican  Codex  (3702,  fol. 
90  b-9(j),  which,  however,  states  only  that  a  certain  Pe- 
ter Guillermus  of  Genoa,  librarian  of  the  convent  of 
S.  .Egidius,  wrote  this  Vatican  Codex  in  the  year  1142 
(see  (iiesebrecht,  in  X\\e  Kieler  A  llr/em.  Moriatsschriff, 
etc.,  April,  1852,  p.  2G6.  267 ;  Monumenta  Germaniic,  xi, 
.318). 

The  sources  of  the  Liber  PonHficalis,  besides  those 
above  mentioned,  consist  partly  in  traditions,  partly  in 
MS.  documents,  and  remaining  monuments,  euch  as 
buildings,  inscriptions,  etc.  The  collection  of  canon 
law  of  the  7th  or  8th  centur\%  published  by  Zachary 
from  a  codex  of  Modena,  stands  in  close  connection  with 
the  Liber  PouHjicalis  (see  Zaccaria,  Dissertazioni  varie 
Italiane  a  storia  ecclesiasticn  nppnrtenenti,  Rom.  1780, 
vol.  ii,  diss,  iv ;  reproduced  by  Galland,  De  velitstis  ca- 
nonum  coUectionibus  dissert ationiim  si/Uoffe,'Moi<;unt.  1770, 
4to,  ii,  679  sq.) ;  yet  it  is  not  to  be  considered  as  one  of 
its  sources,  but  rather  appears  to  have  been  based  on 
the  Liber  Pontijicalis.  The  Liber  Pon/ijicalis  has  be- 
come particidarly  valuable  for  the  correctness  of  the  in- 
formation since  the  latter  part  of  the  7th  centurj',  when 
tlie  Roman  archives  were  regidarly  organized,  and  the 
contiiuiation  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis  could  only  be  in- 
trusted to  the  librarians  or  other  members  of  the  clergy 
having  free  access  to  the  archives.  The  Liber  Pontiji- 
calis is  especially  useful  for  the  history  of  particular 
churches,  ecclesiastical  institutions,  the  "discipline,  etc. 
Schelstrate  names  as  its  first  edition  Peter  Crabbe's 
Concilien  (Cologne,  1538) ;  but  this  is  neither  complete 


nor  well  connected.  It  only  contains  extracts  on  each 
pope,  like  Baronius's  Annales  and  subsecjuent  collec- 
tions of  canons,  and  as  the  "  editio  jirinceps,"  the  edi- 
tion of  J.  Busiius  (Mayence,  1602,  4to)  is  generally  ac- 
cepted, which  is  based  on  a  MS.  of  Marcus  Welser,  of 
Augsburg.  It  was  followed  by  the  edition  of  Hannibal 
Fabrotti  (Par.  1649),  for  which  several  codices  were  con- 
sulted. Lucas  Holstenius  prepared  another  by  collating 
BusLius's  with  a  number  of  MSS.,  and,  although  never 
published,  it  was  greatly  used  by  Schelstrate  and  others 
(see  Schelstrate,  cap.  v,  No.  3  sq.).  From  the  hands 
of  Schelstrate  the  MS.  of  Holstenius  passed  into  the  li- 
brary of  the  Vatican  in  1734  (see  Dudik,  Iter  Romanuin, 
pt.  i  [Vienna,  1855,  p.  169]).  The  next  edition  was 
published  by  Francis  Bianchini  (Rom.  1718,  folio),  and 
this  served  as  a  basis  for  Muratori's,  contained  in  the 
3d  volume  of  his  Sci-iptores  rerum  Jtalicarum  (1723); 
Bianchini's  work  was  continued  by  his  nei)hew,  Joseph 
Bianchini  (vols,  ii-iv,  Rom.  1735 ;  there  was  to  have 
been  a  5th  volume,  but  it  never  appeared).  There  also 
appeared  at  Rome  an  edition  by  John  and  Peter  Joseph 
Vignoli  (1724, 1752, 1755, 3  vols.  4to).  RiJstell  recently 
undertook  another  for  the  Monumenta  Germanue,  while 
Giesebrecht  announced  for  the  same  work  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Liber  Puntijicalis  (see  Giesebrecht,  Ueber  die 
Quellen  d./riiheren  Papstc/escli.,  art.  ii  in  the  Kiekr  All- 
gem.  Monatsschrift  f.  WissenschaJ't  u.  Literutur,  April, 
1852,  p.  257-274). 

The  investigations  made  on  this  subject  permit  us  to 
distuiguish  three  continuations  of  the  Liber  Pontijica- 
lis. 1.  From  an  unknown  source  have  been  composed 
three  histories  of  the  popes:  («)  one  is  contained  in  the 
Vatican  Codex,  3764,  extending  from  Laudo  (912)  to 
Gregory  VII,  and  belonging  to  the  end  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury. It  is  reproduced  in  the  tirst  volume  of  Vignoli's 
edition  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis.  (b)  The  second,  in 
the  codex  of  the  library  of  Este,  vi,  5,  and  extending 
as  far  down,  was  written  during  Gregory's  lifetime. 
(c)  The  third,  dating  from  the  time  of  Paschal  II,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  12th  century  (in  the  library  of  Ma- 
ria sopra  Minerva  at  Rome).  2.  Another  continuation 
of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis,  composed  in  the  Pith  century, 
extends  from  Gregory  VII  to  Honorius  II  (1124-1129). 
Onuphrius  Paiivini  and  Baronius  name  as  its  author 
either  the  subdeacon  Pandulph  of  Pisa  or  a  Roman  li- 
brarian named  Peter  Constant.  Gaetani  published  in 
1638  a  biography  of  Gelasius  II  alone,  and  asserted  that 
the  continuation  of  the  Liber  Pontijicalis  tlown  to  Inno- 
cent III  was  due  to  cardinal  Pandulph  Masca  of  Pisa, 
and  was  written  in  the  time  of  Innocent  III.  But 
Papebroch  brings  forth  very  plausible  arguments  to 
prove  that  the  subdeacon  Peter  of  Pisa  wrote  only  the 
biography  of  Paschal  II,  and  that  the  subsequent  ones 
are  due  to  the  subdeacon  Peter  of  Alatri,  still  Muratori, 
in  the  3d  vol.  of  the  Scripfo7-es,  gives  this  collection  of 
biographies  under  the  name  of  Pandulph  of  Pisa,  and 
the  question  of  authorship  has  not  been  further  inquired 
into  since.  Giesebrecht  (p.  262  sq.)  maintains  that  the 
Codex  Vaticanus  3762,  of  the  Pith  century,  is  the  orig- 
inal from  which  all  the  other  MSS.  were  copied  (also 
the  codex  No.  2017,  of  the  14th  century,  in  the  Barbe- 
rini  Library  at  Rome ;  comp.  Vignoli,  IJber  Pontif.  vol. 
iii;  Pertz,  Archie,  p.  54),  and  also  that  the  author  of 
the  life  of  Paschal  I  Avas  tlie  cardinal-deacon  Peter. 
The  life  of  Gelasius  II  and  that  of  Calixtus  II  were  writ- 
ten by  Pandulph  after  1130,  as  is  shov.-n  by  his  own 
statement  (^Muratori,  iii,  389,  419).  The  similarity  of 
style  shows  that  he  wrote  also  the  life  of  Honorius  II. 
But  it  is  highly  probable  that  Pandulph  is  the  same 
person  afterwards  designated  as  the  cardinal-deacon  of 
the  church  of  St.  Cosmas  and  Damianus,  a  nephew  of 
Hugo  of  Alatri,  cardinal-iiriest  and  for  a  long  time  gov- 
ernor of  Benevento.  Peter  and  Pandul]ih  were  jiartisans 
of  Anaclctus  II,  and  were  afterwards  declared  schismatics 
by  the  adherents  of  Innocent  II;  this  jiut  an  end  to 
their  work.  3.  xYnother  continuation  originated  at  the 
close  of  the  r2th  century.     Baronius  designates  it  as 


LIBER  SEXTUS 


416 


LIBERTINE 


the  Acta  Vaticana , hut  iMiiratori  published  it  under  the 
name  of  the  cardinal  of  Arai^on.  Nicolas  Koselli  (a 
Dominican,  made  cardinal  in  lool,  f  in  13G2)  caused  a 
collection  of  old  historical  documents  to  be  prepared, 
which  contained  the  lives  of  the  jiopes  from  Leo  IX  to 
Alexander  III  (omitting  Victor  III  and  Urban  II),  and 
also  the  bioj^raphy  of  Gregory  IX.  Pertz  (Archiv.  p. 
97)  says  that  these  biographies  are  borrowed  from  the 
Liher  censuum  camerce  cipostoliccB  of  Cencius  Camera- 
rius,  who  in  1216  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Hono- 
rius  III.  But  these  also  are  not  the  work  of  Cencius 
himself,  but  of  some  anterior  writer.  The  life  of  Adrian 
IV  was  written  by  his  relative,  cardinal  Boso,  from  ma- 
terials furnished  by  himself,  during  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander III.  The  life  of  Alexander  III  was  written  at 
the  same  time,  and  most  likely  also  by  Boso,  who  prob- 
ably wrote  most  of  the  whole  collection.  The  introduc- 
tion is  taken  from  Bonizo's  collection  of  canons,  the  bi- 
ographies of  John  XII,  and  from  Leo  IX  down  to  Greg- 
ory A'll  are  adapted  from  the  ad  Amiciim  of  the  same 
writer;  subsequent  ones  down  to  Eugenius  III  are  based 
on  the  records,  but  after  that  they  become  more  com- 
jilete,  resting  on  Boso's  own  experience,  as  he  then  lived 
at  Home.  For  subsequent  biographies  the  sources  are 
much  more  numerous.  We  might  also  mention,  as  a 
compendium  of  the  whole,  the  .1  ctiis  Poniijicum  Ro- 
manorum  of  the  Augustinian  monk  Amalricus  Angerii, 
written  in  1365,  and  extending  from  St.  Peter  to  John 
XII  (1321),  which  is  to  be  found  in  Eccard,  Coi-pus 
hist,  viedii  mvi,  ii,  1641  sq.,  and  in  iMuratori,  vol.  iii,  pt.  ii. 
— Herzog,  Real-Enq/Jdop.  viii,  367  sq.  See  Baxmann, 
Polifik  der  Piipste  (Elberfeld,  1868),  vol.  i  (see  Index) ; 
Watterich,  Vitm  Romuiwrum  Poniijicum  (Lpz.  1862) ;  Pi- 
per, Einleit.  in  die  mouuineiitide  Theoloyie  (Gotha,  1867)  ; 
De  Rossi,  Roma  Sotterunea  (1857). 

Liber  Sextus  and  Septimus.  See  Canons 
AND  Decretals,  Collections  ok. 

Lib'ertine  (At/SEprlvoe,  for  the  Latin  liheiiinus,  a 
fncd-maii)  occurs  but  once  in  the  N.  T.,  ''Certain  of  the 
synagogue,  which  is  called  (the  s^-nagogue)  of  the  Lib- 
ertines, and  Cyrenians,  and  Alexandrians,"  etc.  (Acts  vi, 
9).  There  has  been  much  diversity  in  the  inteqireta- 
tion  of  this  ^\•ord.  The  structure  of  the  passage  leaves 
it  doubtful  how  many  synagogues  are  implied  in  it. 
Some  (Calvin,  Beza,  Bengel)  have  taken  it  as  if  there 
were  but  one  synagogue,  including  men  from  all  the  dif- 
ferent cities  that  are  named.  Winer  {N.  T.  Gramm.  p< 
179),  on  grammatical  grounds,  takes  the  repetition  of 
the  article  as  indicating  a  fresh  group,  and  finds  accord- 
ingly two  synagogues,  one  inchuling  Libertines,  Cyre- 
nians, Alexandrians;  the  other  those  ofCUicia  and  Asia. 
Meyer  (^Comment,  ad  loc.)  thinks  it  unlilsely  that  out  of 
480  synagogues  at  Jerusalem  (the  number  given  by 
rabbinic  writers,  Meriill.  Ixxiii,  4;  Ketub.  cv,  1)  there 
should  have  been  one,  or  even  two  only,  for  natives  of 
cities  and  districts  in  which  the  Jewish  population  was 
so  numerous  (in  Cyrene  one  fourth,  in  Alexandria  two 
fifths  of  the  whole  [  Josephus,  Ant.  xiv,  7,  2 ;  xiv,  10,  1 ; 
xix,  5,  2 ;  War,  ii,  13,  7 ;  Ap.  2,  4J),  and  on  that  ground 
assigns  a  separate  synagogue  to  each  of  the  proper 
names.  Of  the  name  itself  there  have  been  several  ex- 
planations. 

1.  The  other  names  being  local,  this  also  has  been  re- 
ferred to  a  town  called  Libertum,  in  the  proconsular 
province  of  Africa.  This,  it  is  said,  would  explain  the 
close  juxtaposition  with  CjTene.  Suidas  recognises 
AifiipTivoi  as  wo(.ia  i^vovc,  and  in  the  CouncU  of  Car- 
thage in  411  (Mansi,  iv,  265-274,  quoted  in  Wiltsch, 
Haiidbuch  der  Kirchlich.  Geogr.  §  96)  we  find  an  Epis- 
copus  Libertinensis  (Simon.  Ononiaslicon  N.  Test.  p.  99). 
Against  this  hypothesis  it  has  been  urged  (1)  that  the 
existence  of  a  tovn  Libertum,  in  the  1st  century,  is  not 
estabhshed;  and  (2)  that  if  it  existed,  it  can  hardly 
have  been  important  enough  either  to  have  ti  synagogue 
at  Jerusalem  for  the  Jews  belonging  to  it,  or  to  take 
precedence  of  Cyrene  and  Alexandria  in  a  sjiiagogue 
common  to  the  three. 


2.  Conjectural  readings  have  been  proposed,  especially 
Libyans,  either  in  the  form  AijiodTivtiiv  (Gicumen., 
Beza,  Clericus,  Valckenaer),  or  AiftvMv  (Schultness.  J)e 
Char.  Sp.  S.  p.  162,  in  jMeyer,  ad  loc.) ;  inasmuch  as  Lib- 
ertini  here  occurs  among  the  names  of  nations,  and  Jo- 
sephus (^Ant.  xii,  1,  and  Apion,  ii,  4)  has  tuld  us  that 
many  Jews  were  removed  by  Ptolemy,  and  placed  in 
the  cities  of  Libya.  The  difticidty  is  thus  removed,  but 
every  rule  of  textual  criticism  is  against  the  reception 
of  a  reading  unsupported  by  a  single  MS.  or  version. 

3.  Taking  the  word  in  its  received  meaning  as  = 
freedmen,  Lightfoot  finds  in  it  a  description  of  natives 
of  Palestine,  who,  having  faUen  into  slavery,  had  been 
manumitted  bj'  Jewish  masters  {Exc.  on  A  els  vi,  9).  In 
this  case,  however,  it  is  hardly  likely  that  a  body  of 
men  so  circumstanced  woidd  have  received  a  Boman 
name. 

4.  Grotius  and  Vitringa  explain  the  word  as  describ- 
ing Italian  freedmen  v/ho  had  become  converts  to  Ju- ' 
daism.  In  this  case,  however,  the  word  "  proseh'tes" 
would  most  probablj'  have  been  used ;  and  it  is  at  least 
milikely  that  a  body  of  converts  would  have  had  a  syn- 
agogue to  themselves,  or  that  proselytes  from  Italy 
would  have  been  united  with  Jews  from  Cyrene  and 
Alexandria. 

5.  The  earliest  explanation  of  the  word  (Chrs-sostom) 
is  also  that  which  has  been  adopted  by  the  most  recent 
authorities.  The  Libertini  are  Jews  who,  having  been 
taken  prisoners  by  Pompey  and  other  Eoman  generals 
in  the  Syrian  wars,  had  been  reduced  to  slavcrA%  and 
had  afterwards  been  emancipated,  and  returned,  perma- 
nently or  for  a  time,  to  the  country  of  their  fathers.  Of 
the  existence  of  a  large  body  of  Jews  in  this  position  at 
Kome  we  have  abundant  evidence.  Under  Tiberius, 
the  Senatus-Consultum  for  the  suppression  of  Egyptian 
and  Jewish  mysteries  led  to  the  banishment  of  4000 
"Ubertini  generis"  to  Sardinia,  under  the  pretence  of 
militarj'  or  police  duty,  but  really  in  the  hope  that  the 
malaria  of  the  island  might  be  fatal  to  them.  Others 
were  to  leave  Italy  unless  they  abandoned  their  religion 
(Tacitus,  Anal,  ii,  85;  comp.  Sueton.  Tiber,  c.  36).  Jo- 
sephus (A  nt.  xviii,  3, 5),  narrating  the  same  fact,  speaks 
of  the  4000  who  were  sent  to  Sardinia  as  Jews,  and  thus 
identifies  them  with  the  '•  libertinum  genus"  of  Tacitus. 
Philo  (Ler/af.  ad  Cuium,  p.  1014,  C)  in  Uke  manner  says 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  Jews  of  Rome  were  in  the 
position  of  freedmen  {c'nrtkev'SieowSrivTtc),  and  had  been 
allowed  by  Augustus  to  settle  in  the  Trans-Tiberine 
part  of  the  city,  and  to  follow  their  own  religious  cus- 
toms unmolested  (comp.  Horace,  Sat.  i,  4, 143 ;  i,  9,  70). 
The  expulsion  from  Rome  took  place  A.D.  19 ;  and  it  is 
an  ingenious  conjecture  of  Mr.  Hurhphreys  (Comm.  on 
Acts,  ad  loc.)  that  those  who  were  thus  banished  from 
Italy  may  have  found  their  way  to  Jerusalem,  and  that, 
as  having  suffered  for  the  sake  of  their  religion,  they 
were  likely  to  be  foremost  in  the  opposition  to  a  teacher 
like  Stephen,  whom  they  looked  on  as  impugning  the 
sacredness  of  all  that  they  most  revered.  The  syna- 
gogue in  question  had  doubtless  been  built  at  the  ex- 
pense of  these  manumitted  Jews,  and  was  occupied  by 
them.  Libertini  is  thus  to  be  regarded  as  a  word  of 
Roman  origin,  and  to  be  explained  with  reference  to 
Roman  customs.  Among  the  Romans  this  term  was 
employed  to  denote  those  who  had  once  been  slaves, 
but  had  been  set  at  liberty,  or  the  children  of  such  ])er- 
sons  (see  Adarm's  Rom.  A  tit.  p.  34,  41  sq. ;  Smith's  JJict. 
of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Ingenui,  Libertus).  This  view  is 
further  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  the  word  avvaydoyiiQ 
does  not  occur  in  the  middle  of  the  national  names,  but 
stands  first,  and  is  followed  by  r»)c  ^tyopii  rjc,  whence 
it  clearly  appears  that  hijiep-Xvoi  is  at  least  not  the 
name  of  a  country  or  region. — Smith;  Kitto.  On  this 
subject,  see  further  in  Bloomfield,  Kuin61,Wetstein,  etc., 
on  Acts  vi,  9 ;  and  comp.  D.  Gerdes,  De  St/naff.  Liberti- 
norum  (Gron.  1736) ;  J.  F.  Scherer,  De  Si/naff.  Libertin, 
(x\rgent.  1754) ;  Briim,  De  IJbertinis  (Hafn.  1698) ;  Ca- 
demann,  De  schola  Libertinorum  (Lips.  1704) ;  Loesncr, 


LIBERTINES 


41' 


LIBERTINES 


Ohs.  in  N.  Test.  p.  180;  Deyllng,  Ohserv.  ii,  437  sq. ;  K. 
Diiring,  Ep,  qua  symigogam  Libert,  scholam  Latinam 
fuisse  conjicit  (Laubae,  1755).  See  Dispersed;  Sla- 
very. 

Libertines,  The,  or,  as  they  called  themselves, 
Sinritualists,vicre:  a  Pantheistic  and  Antinomian  sect  of 
the  Reformation  days.  They  appeared  first  in  the  Neth- 
erlands as  an  ultra  division  of  the  "  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit."  They  spread  into  B'ranco,  and,  by  the  interest 
they  manifested  in  political  affairs,  gained  considerable 
influence  also  in  Switzerland,  especially  in  Geneva.  The 
impulse  given  to  thought  by  the  Reformation  gave  rise 
also  to  many  errors,  which  flourished  by  the  side  of  evan- 
gelical truth.  "  Lofty  as  our  ideas  of  the  Reformation 
should  be,  we  must  not  be  blind  to  the  fact  that  .... 
Protestantism  [referring  especially  to  the  Continent] 
bears  sad  evidence  of  early  mismanagement"  (Hurst, 
Hist,  of  Rationalism,  p.  37).  Foremost  among  the  her- 
etics of  this  period  were  the  Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit, 
who,  although  hotly  persecuted,  had  never  been  entirely 
exterminated,  and  who  were  yet  numerous  in  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands.  They  now  suddenly  emerged 
from  the  secrecy  in  which  they  had  lately  hidden  them- 
selves, as  soon  as  the  power  of  the  Church  began  to 
wane.  Luther  clearly  saw,  however,  that  not  to  Roman- 
ism, but  to  Protestantism  as  well,  the  influence  of  the 
Libertines  must  be  baneful,  and  he  took  an  early  oppor- 
tunity to  warn  the  Christians  of  those  countries  against 
them  {Gieseler,  Kirckenr/esch.  iii  [1],  557).  Calvin  also 
had  to  contend  against  the  influence  of  these  Rational- 
ists, and,  in  speaking  of  them,  mentions  a  certain  Coppin, 
of  Lille,  as  the  first  who  attempted  to  introduce,  as  early 
as  1529,  the  doctrines  of  the  Free  Spirit  in  his  native  city. 
This  Coppin  was  soon  eclipsed  by  his  disciple  Quintin, 
of  Hennegau,  who,  with  his  companion  Bertrand,  be- 
came the  leader  of  the  sect  in  France  in  153-1,  and  with 
whom  a  priest  called  Pecquet  (Pocques)  connected  him- 
self. These  two,  for  Bertrand  soon  died,  are  represent- 
ed as  uneducated  but  shrewd  men,  who  made  religion  a 
means  of  securing  earthly  goods,  and  who  were  very 
successful  in  the  attempt.  They  openly  professed  to 
have  found  the  principle  of  "  moral  falsehood"  (or  men- 
tal reservation)  inculcated  in  the  Scriptures,  and,  in  con- 
sequence, thought  it  but  right  to  profess  Roman  Cathol- 
icism when  among  Roman  Catholics,  and  Protestantism 
when  with  Protestants.  They  are  said  to  h.ave  made 
4000  proselytes  in  France  alone.  Tiiey  did  not,  more- 
over, confine  their  attempts  at  deceit  to  the  lower  class- 
es, but,  on  the  contrary,  endeavored  to  gain  proselytes 
among  the  learned  and  in  the  higher  walks  of  society; 
they  succeeded  even  in  gaining  the  ear  of  the  queen 
Margaret  of  Navarre,  sister  of  Francis  I,  who  received 
them,  as  also  a  certain  Lef'evre  d'Etaples  and  others,  at 
her  court,  and  daily  consulted  with  them.  They  made 
great  use  of  aUegorj-,  figures  of  speech,  etc.,  taking  their 
authority  from  the  precept, "  The  letter  killeth,  but  the 
spirit  giveth  life." 

We  have  said  above  that  the  system  of  the  Libertines 
was  pantheistic ;  it  was,  in  fact,  pure  pantheism.  They 
held  that  there  is  one  universal  spirit,  which  is  found  in 
every  creature,  and  is  the  Spirit  of  God.  This  one  spirit 
and  God  is  distinguished  from  itself  according  as  it  is 
considered  in  heaven  or  on  earth.  ''  Deum  a  se  ipso  di- 
versum  esse,  quod  alius  omnino  in  hoc  mundo  sit  quam 
in  coelo"  (Calvin,  Instr.  adv.  Libert,  c.  1 1).  All  creatures, 
angels,  etc.,  are  nothing  in  themselves,  and  have  no  real 
existence  aside  from  God.  Man  is  preserved  only  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,  which  is  in  him,  and  exists  only  until 
that  spirit  again  departs  from  him;  instead  of  a  soul,  it 
is  (iod  himself  who  dwells  in  man,  and  all  his  actions, 
all  that  takes  place  in  the  world,  is  direct  from  him,  is 
the  immediate  work  of  God  ("  (iuid([uid  in  mundo  fit, 
opus  ipsius  [Dei]  directo  censendum  esse,"  c.  13).  Ev- 
erything else,  the  world,  the  flesh,  the  devil,  souls,  etc., 
are  by  this  system  considered  as  illusions,  mere  supposi- 
tions (opinatio).  Even  sin  is  not  a  mere  negation  of 
right,  but,  since  God  is  the  active  agent  of  all  actions,  it 
v.— Dd 


can  be  but  an  illusion  also,  and  will  disappear  as  soon  as 
this  princiiile  is  recognised  ("  Peccatum — non  solum 
aiunt  boni  privationem  esse,  sed  est  illis  opinatio,  qua3 
evanescit  et  aboletur,  cum  nulla  habetur  ejus  ratio,"  c. 
12.  Pecquet  says,  in  regard  to  that,  "  Et  quia  omnia 
qure  liunt  extra  Deum,  nihil  sunt  quam  vanitas,"  c.  23). 
There  is,  therefore,  but  one  evil,  and  that  evil  is  this 
very  illusion,  this  imagination  of  evil,  of  a  distinction 
between  it  and  the  right.  Thus  the  original  fall  or  sin 
was  nothing  else  than  a  separation  of  man  from  God,  or 
rather  the  result  of  man's  desire  to  be  something  by  him- 
self, separating  himself  from  union  and  identity  with 
God.  Thus  unintentionally  man  subjected  himself  to 
the  world  and  to  Satan,  and  became  himself  an  illusion, 
a  smoke  which  passes  away  and  leaves  nothing  behind. 
So  Pocquet  says.  "  Ideo  scriptum  est  ('?),  '  Qui  videt 
peccatum,  peccatum  ei  manet  et  Veritas  in  ipso  non  est' " 
(in  Calvin,  c.  23).  From  the  Libertine  point  of  view 
the  nature  of  Christ  did  not  materially  differ  from  ours; 
he  consisted,  like  other  human  beings,  in  divine  spirit, 
such  as  dwells  in  us  all,  and  in  the  sacrifice  only  the  illu- 
sionary,  or  worldly  part,  was  lost.  However  considered, 
the  whole  history  of  Christ,  and  especially  his  crucifix- 
ion, death,  and  resurrection,  had  for  them  but  a  symbol- 
ical significance ;  his  passion,  etc.,  was,  according  to  Cal- 
vin's strong  expression,  only  "  une  farce  ou  moralite 
jouee  pour  nous  figurer  le  mystere  de  notre  salut" — only 
a  type  of  the  idea  that  sin  was  effaced  and  atoned  for, 
while  in  reality,  and  in  God's  view,  it  was  of  no  account 
in  itself  ("  Chr.  solum  velut  typus  fuit,  in  quo  contera- 
plamur  ea,  quaj  ad  salutem  nostram  requirit  scriptura ; 
e.  g.  cum  aiunt,  Christum  abolevisse  peccatum,  sensus 
eorum  est,  Christum  abolitionem  illam  in  persona  sua 
repn-esentasse,"  c.  17).  But  in  so  far  as  we  are  one  in 
spirit  with  Christ,  all  that  he  underwent  is  as  if  we  had 
undergone  it;  his  exclamation, " It  is  finished,"  is  true 
as  well  for  us  as  for  himself;  sin  has  lost  all  significance 
so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  and  the  fight  against  sin,  re- 
pentance, mortification  of  the  flesh,  etc.,  are  no  longer 
necessary.  Neither  can  nor  should  the  spiritualist  be 
any  longer  subject  to  suffering,  since  Christ  has  suffered 
all.  Here  the  idea  and  the  reality,  however,  are  in  con- 
flict ("Nam  scriptum  est:  Factus  sum  totus  homo.  Cum 
factus  sit  totus  homo  [tout  homme,  in  a  twofold  sense], 
accipiens  naturam  humanam,  ac  mortuus  sit,  potestne 
adluic  in  his  inferioribus  locis  mori?  Magni  esset  er- 
roris  hoc  credere,"  etc.,  ibidem,  c.  23).  Of  course  man 
should  be  born  anew,  but  this  new  birth  is  seciu'ed  when 
he  regains  the  state  of  innocence  of  Adam  before  the 
fall;  when  in  absolute  filial  unity  with  God,  he  neither 
sees  nor  knows  sin,  or,  in  other  words,  when  he  is  no 
longer  able  to  distinguish  it  from  righteousness  (riiodo 
ne  amplius  opinemur),  and  when  able  to  follow  the  dic- 
tates of  God's  Spirit  by  virtue  of  natural  impulse  ('•  Sed 
si  adhuc  commitfamus  delictum  et  ingrediamur  hortum 
voluptatis,  qui  adhuc  nobis  prohibitus  est,  ne  quid  veli- 
mus  facere,  sed  sinamus  nos  duci  a  voluntate  Dei.  Ali- 
oqui  non  essemus  exuti  veteri  serpente,  qui  est  primus 
parens  noster  Adam,  et  videremus  peccatum,  sicut  ipse 
et  uxor  ejus,  etc.  Nunc  vivificati  suraus  cum  secundo' 
Adamo;  qui  est  Christus,  non  cernenilo  amplius  pecca- 
tum, quia  est  mortuum,"  etc.:  ibidem;  compare  c.  18). 
Such  a  twice-born  one  is  Christ,  is  God  himself,  to  whom 
the  Libertine  returns  after  death,  to  be  absorbed  in  him- 
("Hoc  enim  imaginantur,  animam  hominis,  quae  est 
Deus,  ad  seipsam  redire,  cum  ad  mortem  ventum  est,  non 
ut  tanquam  anima  humana,  sed  tanquam  Deus  ipse  vi- 
vat,  sicuti  ab  initio,"  c.  3  and  22). 

The  consequences  of  such  principles  are  obvious :  they 
lead  naturally  to  sensuality,  to  the  emancipation  of  the 
flesh  and  the  laying  aside  of  all  restrictions;  make  men 
look  upon  propriety  or  ownership  as  a  wrong,  as  opposed 
to  the  principles  of  love,  and,  in  fact,  a  theft,  though  this 
principle  was  not  carried  into  practice.  Calvin  called 
its  principal  advocates  "  doctores  passivce  caritatis."  Or- 
dinary or  legal  marriage  comes  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
mere  carnal  bond,  and  therefore  dissoluble ;  true  mar- 


LIBERTY 


418 


LIBERTY 


riage,  such  as  satisfie^both  body  and  mind,  being  a 
union  of  each  to  each  ;  communion  of  saints  extended 
not  merely  to  the  worldly  possessions,  but  also  to  the 
very  bodies  of  the  saints.  In  short,  spiritualism  soon 
degenerated  into  open  and  avowed  sensualism  and  ma- 
terialism. But  this  is  the  very  feature  which  gave  it  its 
influence  with  some  classes  in  Geneva.  The  example  of 
tlieir  bishops  and  of  the  cathedral  canons  had  excited 
their  imagination  bj'  inclining  them  to  self-indulgence 
and  licentiousness,  and  political  circumstances  operated 
in  favor  of  the  same  result.  Soon,  however,  the  real 
principles  of  the  Libertines  appeared  in  their  full  light, 
and  created  a  reaction,  some  women  having  gone  so  far 
as  to  quote  Scripture  to  authorize  their  excesses,  in- 
sisting especially  on  the  fact  of  God's  first  command  to 
our  first  parents  having  been  "  to  increase  and  multiply" 
("Crescite  et  multiplicamini  super  terrara.  En  prima 
lex,  quam  ordinavit  Dens,  quaj  vocabatur  lex  naturte," 
c.  "23).  See  Communism  ;  "  Free  Love"  in  the  article 
Marriage.  As  Calvin  had  favored  political  libertin- 
ism, those  who  considered  themselves  aggrieved  by  the 
practice  of  the  spiritualists  turned  also  against  him,  and 
this  politico-reUgious  reaction  went  as  far  as  irrehgion 
and  atheism,  as  in  the  case  of  Jacob  Gruet,  whose  ultra- 
radical principles  in  politics  and  rationalism  in  religion 
led  to  his  trial  before  the  courts  of  Geneva  July  27, 1547. 
Yet  no  one  really  did  more  to  counteract  the  principles 
of  the  Libertines  than  did  Calvin  himself.  First,  in  1544, 
he  brought  all  their  secret  principles  to  light  in  one  of 
his  works  (see  Instit.  iii,  3,  §  14).  Afterwards,  in  1547, 
he  warned  the  faithful  of  Rouen  against  an  ex-Francis- 
can monk  who  was  inculcating  libertine  doctrines,  and 
who  met  with  some  success,  especially  among  women  of 
the  higher  classes.  Under  Calvin's  influence  Farel  also 
took  up  the  pen  against  the  Libertines  {Le  (jlaive  de  la 
parole  veritable,  tire  contre  le  houclier  de  defense,  ditquel 
un  'cordelier  s'est  voulti  servir  pour  approuver  sesfaiisses 
et  dumiiubles  opinions  [Geneva,  1550 ;  see  Kirchhofer, 
Theol.  Studien  tuulKrif.  1831]).  The  queen  of  Navarre 
was  highly  offended  at  Calvin  for  denouncing  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Libertines  who  were  then  at  her  court;  he 
therefore  wrote  to  her  a  letter  which  is  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  respectful  remonstrance  (Aug.  28, 1545  ;  in 
French,  see  J.  Bonnet,  Lettres  de  J.  Calvin,  i.  Ill  sq. ; 
Latin,  Epist.  et  Resp.  ed.  Amst.  p.  33).  It  is,  in  fact, 
due  to  his  efforts  that  this  sect,  this  banefid  curse,  left 
France  to  take  refuge  in.  its  native  country,  Belgium, 
and  tliat  it  finally  (Usappeared  altogether.  Against  the 
Libertines  of  Geneva  the  attacks  were  for  a  long  time 
unavailing;  they  cannot  be  considered  to  have  been 
successfully  ended  until  after  the  insurrection  of  May  15, 
1555,  when  the  principal  leaders  were  either  exiled  or 
imprisoned.  See  Calvin,  Aux  ministi-es  de  Veglise  de 
Neujchastel  contre  In  saic  fiiimtique  etfurievse  des  Lih- 
ertins  qui  se  nomment  Sjiiiilii<ls  (Gen.  1544,  8 vo;  1545, 
and  other  editions) ;  Contre  iiii  Franciscain,  sectateitr  des 
eiTeurs  des  Liberiins,  adresse  a  l\ylke  de  Rouen  (20 
Aoilt,  1547  [both  these  have  been  published  together  in 
1547,  in  the  Opuscides,  p.  817  sq.,  and  by  P.  Jacob,  p.  293 
sq. ;  Lat.  by  Des  Gallars,  in  Opusc.  omn.  Gen.  1552 ;  0pp. 
ed.  Amst. viii, 374  sq.J);  Vicot,// isi.de  Geneve;  Gieseler, 
Kirclaii<i<sch.  iii,  1,  p.  385 ;  Ilundeshagen,  in  the  Theol. 
Stud,  uud  Ki-it.  (1845) ;  Herzog,  Real-£iicyklop,\iu,  874- 
380.     (J.  II.  W.) 

Liberty.  "The  idea  of  liberty,"  says  Locke,  "is 
the  idea  of  a  power  in  any  agent  to  do  or  forbear  any 
particular  action,  according  to  the  determination  or 
thought  of  the  mind,  whereby  either  of  tlicm  is  preferred 
to  the  other.  AVlien  either  of  them  is  not  in  the  power 
of  the  agent,  to  be  produced  by  him  according  to  his 
volition,  then  he  is  not  at  liberty,  but  under  necessity." 
From  this,  and  the  extract  whicli  follows,  it  will  be  seen 
that  Locke's  ideas  of  libcrl;/  and  eti power  are  veiy  nearly 
the  same.  "Every  one,"  he  observes,  "finds  in  himself 
a  power  to  begin  or  forbear,  continue  or  put  an  end  to, 
several  actions  in  himself.  From  the  consideration  of 
the  extent  of  this  power  of  the  mmd  over  the  actions 


of  the  man,  which  every  one  finds  in  himself,  arise  tha 
ideas  of  liberty  and  necessity."  These  definitions,  how- 
ever, merely  extend  to  the  ability  of  the  individual  to 
execute  his  own  purposes  without  obstruction  ;  where- 
as Locke,  in  order  to  do  justice  to  his  own  decided 
opinion  on  the  subject,  ought  to  have  included  also  in 
his  idea  of  liberty  a  power  over  the  determinations  of 
the  wiU.  "  By  the  liberty  of  a  moral  agent,"  says  Dr. 
Keid,  "  I  understand  a  power  over  the  determinations 
of  his  own  will.  If,  in  any  action,  he  had  power  to  will 
what  he  did,  or  not  to  will  it,  in  that  action  he  is  free. 
But  if,  in  every  voluntary  action,  the  determination  of 
his  will  be  the  necessary  consequence  of  something  in- 
volimtary  in  the  state  of  his  mind,  or  of  something  in 
his  external  circumstances,  he  is  not  free ;  he  has  not 
what  I  call  the  liberty  of  a  moral  agent,  but  is  subject  to 
necessity."  On  the  other  hand,  some  affirm  that  neces- 
sity is  perfectly  consistent  with  human  hberty ;  that  is, 
that  the  most  strict  and  inviolable  connection  of  cause 
and  effect  does  not  prevent  the  full,  free,  and  unrestrain- 
ed development  of  certaui  powers  in  the  agent,  or  take 
away  the  cUstinction  between  the  nature  of  virtue  and 
vice,  praise  and  blame,  reward  and  punishment,  but  is 
the  foundation  of  all  moral  reasoning.  "  I  conceive," 
says  Hobbes,  "  that  nothing  taketh  beginnuig  from  it- 
self, but  from  the  action  of  some  other  immediate  agent 
without  itself;  and  that  therefore,  when  first  a  man 
hath  an  appetite  or  will  to  do  something  to  which  im- 
mediately before  he  had  no  appetite  nor  will,  the  cause 
of  his  wiO  is  not  the  wLU  itself,  but  something  else  not 
in  his  own  disposing;  so  that  whereas  it  is  out  of  con- 
troversy that  of  voluntary  action  the  will  is  the  neces- 
sary cause,  and  by  this  which  is  said  the  will  is  also 
caused  by  other  things  whereof  it  disposeth  not,  it  fol- 
loweth  that  voluntary  actions  have  all  of  them  neces- 
sary causes,  and  therefore  are  necessitated.  I  hold  that 
to  be  a  sufficient  cause  to  which  nothing  is  wanting  that 
is  needful  to  the  producing  of  the  effect.  The  same  is 
also  a  necessary  cause.  For  if  it  be  possible  that  a  suf- 
ficient cause  shall  not  bring  forth  the  effect,  then  there 
wanteth  somewhat  which  was  needful  to  the  jiroducing 
of  it,  and  so  the  cause  was  not  sufficient ;  but  if  it  be 
impossible  that  a  sufficient  cause  should  not  produce  the 
effect,  then  is  a  sufficient  cause  a  necessary  cause  (for 
that  is  said  to  produce  an  effect  necessarily  that  cannot 
but  produce  it).  Hence  it  is  manifest  that  whatsoever 
is  produced  hath  had  a  sufficient  cause  to  produce  it,  or 
else  it  had  not  been,  and  therefore  also  voluntar}-  actions 
are  necessitated."  "I  conceive  liberty,"  he  observes, 
"  to  be  rightly  defined  in  this  manner :  Liberty  is  the 
absence  of  all  impediments  to  action  that  are  not  con- 
tained in  the  nature  and  uitrinsical  quality  of  the  agent : 
as,  for  example,  the  water  is  said  to  descend  freely,  or 
to  have  liberty  to  descend  by  the  channel  of  the  river, 
because  there  is  no  impediment  that  way,  but  not  across, 
because  the  banks  are  impediments;  and,  though  the 
water  cannot  ascend,  yet  men  never  say  it  wants  the 
liberty  to  ascend,  but  the  faculty  or  po;ver,  because  the 
impediment  is  in  the  nature  of  the  water,  and  intrinsi- 
cal.  So  also  we  say,  he  that  is  tied  wants  the  liberty 
to  go,  because  the  impediment  is  not  in  him.  but  in  his 
bands;  whereas  Ave  say  not  so  of  him  that  is  sick  or 
lame,  because  the  impediment  is  in  himself.  I  hold 
that  the  ordinary  definition  of  a  free  agent — namely, 
that  a  free  agent  is  that  which,  when  all  things  are 
present  that  are  needfid  to  produce  the  effect,  can  nev- 
ertheless not  produce  it — implies  a  contradiction,  and  is 
nonsense;  being  as  much  as  to  saj'  the  cause  may  be 
sufficient,  that  is  to  say,  necessarj^,  and  yet  the  effect 
shall  nut  follow."  He  afterwards  defines  a  moral  agent 
to  be  one  that  acts  from  deliberation,  choice,  or  will,  not 
from  indifference ;  and,  speaking  of  the  supposed  incon- 
sistency between  choice  and  necessity,  he  adds :  "  Com- 
monh',  when  we  see  and  know  the  strength  that  moves 
us,  we  acknowledge  necessity ;  but  when  we  do  not,  or 
mark  not  the  force  that  moves  us,  we  then  think  there 
is  none,  and  thus  conclude  that  it  is  not  cause,  but  lib- 


LIBERTY 


419 


LIBERTY 


erty,  that  produceth  the  action.  Hence  it  is  that  we 
are  apt  to  tliink  tliat  one  doth  not  choose  this  or  that 
who  of  necessity  chooses  it;  but  we  might  as  well  say 
fire  doth  not  burn  because  it  burns  of  necessity."  The 
general  question  is  thus  stated  by  Hobbes  in  the  begin- 
ning of  his  treatise :  the  point  is  not,  he  says,  "  whether 
a  man  can  be  a  free  agent ;  that  is  to  say,  whether  he 
can  write  or  forbear,  speak  or  be  silent,  according  to  his 
will,  l)ut  whether  the  will  to  write  or  the  will  to  for- 
bear come  upon  him  according  to  his  will,  or  according 
to  anything  else  in  his  power.  I  acknowledge  this  lib- 
erty, that  i  can  do  if  I  will;  but  to  say  I  can  will  if  1 
will,  I  take  to  be  an  absurd  speech.  In  fine,  that  free- 
dom which  men  commonly  find  in  books,  that  which 
the  poets  chant  in  the  theatres  and  the  shepherds  on 
the  mountains,  that  which  the  pastors  teach  in  the  pul- 
pits and  the  doctors  in  the  universities,  and  that  which 
the  common  people  in  the  markets,  and  all  mankind  in 
.  the  whole  world,  do  assent  unto,  is  the  same  that  I  as- 
sent unto,  namely,  that  a  man  hath  freedom  to  do  if  he 
will;  but  whether  he  hath  freedom  to  will  is  a  question 
neither  the  bishop  nor  they  ever  thought  on."  Thus  it 
will  readily  be  perceived  that  Hobbes  entirely  denies 
the  main  point  at  issue,  namely,  the  freedom  of  the 
will  itself,  and  confines  the  subject — as  his  definition — 
purely  to  liberty  of  action.  This  latter  is  simply  a  phijs- 
ical  question,  and  applies  to  all  agents,  whether  human, 
animal,  or  even  material;  that  liberty  which  concerns, 
and  indeed  constitutes,  a  being  as  a  moral  agent,  is  quite 
a  different  thing.  Hobbes  as  a  materialist,  and  there- 
fore a  necessitarian,  of  course  finds  no  room  for  this 
kind  of  moral  or  self-determining  power. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  the  source  of  most  of  the 
confusion  on  the  subject  is  in  the  ambiguity  lurking  un- 
der the  term  necessit;/,  which  includes  both  kinds  of  ne- 
cessity, moral  and  physical.  The  double  meaning  of 
the  word  has  been  the  chief  reason  why  persons  who 
were  guided  more  by  their  own  feelings  and  the  custom- 
ary associations  of  language  than  by  formal  definitions 
have  altogether  rejected  the  doctrine,  while  persons  of  a 
more  logical  turn,  who  could  not  deny  the  truth  of  the 
abstract  principle,  have  yet,  in  their  explanation  of  it 
and  inference  from  it,  fallen  into  the  same  error  as  their 
opponents.  The  partisans  of  necessity  have  given  up 
their  common  sense,  as  they  supposed,  to  their  reason, 
while  the  advocates  of  liberty  rejected  a  demonstrable 
truth  from  a  dread  of  its  consequences,  and  both  have 
been  the  dupes  of  a  word.  The  obnoxiousness  of  the 
name  unquestionably  has  been  the  cause  of  nearly  all 
the  difficulty  and  repugnance  which  many  who  really 
hold  the  doctrine  find  in  admitting  it.  It  was  to  remove 
this  i)rejudice  that  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards  was  induced 
to  write  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the  Will.  In  a  letter 
written  expressly  to  vindicate  himself  from  the  charge 
of  having,  in  his  great  work,  confounded  moral  with 
physical  necessity,  he  says:  "On  the  contrarj',  I  have 
largely  declared  that  the  connection  between  antecedent 
things  and  consequent  ones,  which  take  place  with  re- 
gard to  the  acts  of  men's  wills,  which  is  called  moral  ne- 
cessity, is  called  by  the  name  of  necessity  improperly, 
and  that  all  such  terms  as  iiuisf,  cannot,  impossible,  Jin- 
able,  irresistible,  nnavoidiible,  invincible,  etc.,  when  applied 
here,  are  not  employed  in  their  pro])er  signification,  and 
are  either  used  nonsensically  and  with  perfect  insignifi- 
cance, or  in  a  sense  quite  diverse  from  their  original  and 
proper  meaning  and  their  use  in  common  speech,  and 
that  such  a  necessity  as  attends  the  acts  of  men's  wills 
is  more  properly  called  certainty  than  necessiti/."  The 
well-known  definition  of  Edwards  on  this  subject  is  in 
the  following  words ;  "  The  plain  and  obvious  meaning 
of  the  words  freedom  and  liberty,  in  common  speech,  is 
pou-er,  opportunity,  or  advantaye  that  any  one  has  to  do 
as  he  pleases,  or,  in  other  words,  his  being  free  from  hin- 
derance  or  impediment  in  the  way  of  doing  or  conduct- 
ing in  any  respect  as  he  wills.  I  say  not  only  doing,  but 
conducting,  because  a  voluntary  forbearing  to  do,  sitting 
still,  keeping  silence,  etc.,  are  instances  of  persons'  con- 


duct about  which  liberty  is  exercised,  though  they  are 
not  so  properly  called  doing.  And  the  contrary  to  lib- 
erty, whatever  name  we  call  that  by,  is  a  person's  being 
hindered  or  unable  to  conduct  as  he  will,  or  being  neces- 
sitated to  do  otherwise."  The  radical  defect  in  this  defi- 
nition as  to  the  question  in  hand  is  that  liberty,  as  thus 
defined,  relates  solely  to  action  (or  non-action,  as  the 
case  may  be),  and  not  to  the  will  at  all.  Thus,  by  a 
singular  method  of  pet itio  principii,  the  very  possibility 
of  all  freedom  of  wUl  is  excluded.  The  real  point  at  is- 
sue is  but  casually  named,  and  arbitrarily  dismissed  as 
a  contradiction.  That  point  is  not  whether  a  man  may 
act  as  he  wills  (this,  again,  is  mere  physical  liberty),  but 
whether  the  will  has  a  self-determining  power ;  wheth- 
er, in  other  words,  a  man  may  ivill  in  opposition  to  ex- 
ternal influences,  usually  called  motives.  This  question 
the  universal  experience  of  mankind  has  determined  in 
the  affirmative.  On  these  two  grounds,  1,  the  essential 
fallacj^  as  to  the  point  in  dispute,  and,  2,  the  unanimous 
testimon}^  of  consciousness  as  to  the  spontaneity  of  voli- 
tion, the  fundamental  position  of  Edwards  has  been  so 
successfully  attacked,  as,  for  instance  (to  name  only  Cal- 
vinistic  writers),  by  Tappan  and  Bledsoe,  that  it  may 
now  be  regarded  as  failing  to  meet  the  present  theolog- 
ical status  of  the  question.     See  Will. 

True  liberty  evidentlj'  consists  simply  in  freedom 
from  external  constraint.  That  God  is  free  in  this 
sense,  at  least  in  his  acts,  all  must  admit,  inasmuch  as 
there  is  no  conceivable  power  that  could  coerce  him.  It 
is  likewise  obvious  that  he  is  equally  free  in  his  voli- 
tions, unless  we  suppose  a  system  of  arbitrary  latrs  or 
absolute  line  of  j^oHcy  which  shuts  him  up  to  a  certain 
line  of  conduct.  So  far  as  these  may  be  the  resultant 
or  expression  of  his  own  nature,  they  might  perhaps  be 
admitted  without  essentially  impairing  our  notions  of 
his  freedom.  So,  again,  of  man;  if  the  motives,  by 
which  alone,  if  at  all,  it  is  claimed  that  his  volitions  are 
governed,  are  self-originated,  or  derive  their  governing 
weight  from  the  influence  which  his  o\vn  mind  imparts 
to  them,  he  may  still  be  said  to  be  free  in  at  least  the 
strict  sense  of  the  definition.  If,  however,  these  prepon- 
derating elements  consist  in  his  own  desires,  and  if,  fur- 
ther, these  desires  are  beyond  his  own  control  (whether 
by  reason  of  natural  predisposition,  inveterate  habit,  or 
the  divine  or  satanic  interposition),  then  it  must  still  re- 
main dubious  if  his  liberty  amounts  to  the  measure  of  a 
rational,  moral,  and  accountable  agent.  In  the  human 
sphere  this  is  precisely  the  point  of  difliculty,  but  its  de- 
termination as  a  matter  of  fact,  if  indeed  possible,  be- 
longs properh'  under  another  head.  See  JIotive.  In 
the  divine  sphere,  on  the  other  hand,  the  difficulty  arises 
from  the  so-called  system  of  fore-ordination,  which  is 
tenaciously  held  by  Calvinistic  divines,  being  either  as- 
sumed as  a  metaphysical  dogma,  or  inferred  from  certain 
scriptural  statements,  and  as  strenuously  denied  by  oth- 
ers.    See  Prkdestixation. 

The  ground  assumed  on  this  vexed  question  by  Sir 
William  Hamilton  and  Mansell  is  that  liberty  and  ne- 
cessity are  both  incomprehensible,  both  being  beyond 
the  limits  of  legitimate  thought ;  that  they  are  among 
those  questions  which  admit  of  no  certain  answer,  the 
very  inabiUty  to  answer  them  proving  that  dogmatic 
decisions  on  either  side  are  the  decisions  of  ignorance, 
not  of  knowledge.  '■' Iloin  the  wiU  can  possibly  be 
free,"  says  Hamilton,  "  must  remain  to  us,  under  the 
present  limitation  of  our  faculties,  wholly  incomprehen- 
sible. We  are  unable  to  conceive  an  absolute  com- 
mencement ;  we  cannot,  therefore,  conceive  a  free  voli- 
tion. A  determination  by  motives  cannot,  to  our  under- 
standing, escape  from  necessitation — nay,  were  we  even 
to  admit  as  true  what  we  cannot  think  as  possible,  still 
the  doctrine  of  a  motiveless  volition  would  be  only  cas- 
ualistic,  and  the  free  acts  of  an  indift'ercnt  are  morally 
and  rationally  as  worthless  as  the  fore-ordained  passions 
of  a  determined  will.  How,  therefore,  I  repeat,  moral 
liberty  is  possible  in  man  or  God  we  are  utterly  unable 
speculatively  to  understand.     But  practically  the  fact 


LIBERTY 


420 


LIBNAH 


that  vrc  are  free  is  given  to  us  in  the  consciousness  of 
our  moral  accountability ;  and  this  fact  of  liberty  cannot 
l)e  riarnucd  on  the  ground  that  it  is  incomprehensible, 
for  I  lie  philosophy  of  the  conditions  proves,  against  the 
necessitarian,  that  things  there  are  which  mat/,  nay, 
must  be  true,  of  which  the  understanding  is  wholly  un- 
able to  construe  to  itself  the  possibility.  But  this  phi- 
losophy is  not  only  competent  to  defend  the  fact  of  our 
moral  liberty,  possible,  though  inconceivable,  against 
the  assault  of  the  fatalist;  it  retorts  against  himself  the 
very  objection  of  inconceivability  by  which  the  fatalist 
had  thought  to  triumph  over  the  libertarian.  It  shows 
tliat  the  scheme  of  freedom  is  not  more  inconceivable 
than  the  scheme  of  necessity;  for,  whilst  fatalism  is  a 
recoil  from  the  more  obtrusive  inconceivability  of  an 
absolute  commencement,  on  the  fact  of  which  commence- 
ment the  doctrine  of  liberty  proceeds,  the  fatalist  is 
shown  to  overlook  the  equal  but  less  obtrusive  incon- 
ceivability of  an  infinite  non-commencement,  on  the  as- 
sertion of  which  non-commencement  his  own  doctrine 
of  necessity  must  ultimately  rest.  As  equally  unthink- 
able, the  two  counter,  the  two  one-sided  schemes,  are 
thus  theoretically  balanced."  Sir  William,  however, 
as  it  seems  to  us,  in  this  extract  does  not  closely 
adhere  to  the  conditions  of  the  problem.  According 
to  his  own  admission,  it  is  not  the  fact  of  a  self-de- 
termining power  in  the  will  that  is  "inconceivable," 
but  only  the  mode  (the  how)  of  its  exercise.  This,  like 
many  other  well-known  processes,  is  a  mystery.  Again, 
it  is  not  claimed  that  the  wiU  acts  icithout  motive,  but 
only  that  it  is  not  conti-olled  by  external  motive;  that  it 
has  the  power  of  itself  choosing  what  motive  shall  be 
strongest  with  it,  irrespective  of  the  intrinsic  force  of 
that  motive.  It  is  this  distinction  that  preserves — as 
no  other  can — the  truly  moral  character  of  the  agent. 

'•The  endless  controversy  concerning  predestination 
and  free-willj"  says  Mansell,  "  whether  viewed  in  its 
speculative  or  in  its  moral  aspect,  is  but  another  exam- 
ple of  the  hardihood  of  human  ignorance.  The  ques- 
tion has  its  philosophical  as  well  as  its  theological  as- 
pect :  it  has  no  difficulties  peculiar  to  itself;  it  is  but  a 
special  form  of  the  fundamental  mystery  of  the  co-ex- 
istence of  the  infinite  and  the  finite."  "  The  vexed 
question  of  liberty  and  necessity,  whose  counter  argu- 
ments become  a  by-word  for  endless  and  improfitable 
wrangling,  is  but  one  of  a  large  class  of  problems,  some 
of  wliich  meet  us  at  every  turn  of  our  daily  life  and 
conduct,  whenever  we  attempt  to  justify  in  theory  that 
which  we  are  compelled  to  carry  out  in  (iractice.  Such 
problems  arise  inevitably  whenever  we  attempt  to  pass 
from  the  sensible  to  the  intelligible  world,  from  the 
sphere  of  action  to  that  of  thought,  from  that  which 
appears  to  us  to  that  which  is  in  itself.  In  religion,  in 
morids,  in  our  daily  business,  in  the  care  of  our  lives,  in 
the  exercise  of  our  senses,  the  rules  which  guide  our 
practice  cannot  be  reduced  to  principles  which  satisfy 
our  reason."  Those  theologians,  on  the  other  hand, 
who  deny  that  the  divine  predestination  extends  to  the 
individual  acts  of  men  in  general,  think  that  they  thits 
more  effectually  obviate  tlie  whole  difficulty.  In  the 
divine  furekuowledge  of  all  human  actions  they  admit 
the  nrtdinty  of  their  occurrence,  but  find  no  causative 
power,  such  as  seems  to  enter  essentially  into  the  prede- 
terminations of  an  Almighty  will.  As  to  the  argument 
that  such  foreknowledge  rests  upon,  and  therefore  im- 
plies fore-ordination,  they  coiUend  that  this  is  a  reversal 
of  the  true  order  (comj).  l!om.  viii,  29),  and  that  God's 
jirescience  is  a  simple  knowing  belbrehand  by  his  pe- 
culiar power  of  intuition,  not  any  conclusion  or  infer- 
ence from  what  he  may  or  may  not  determine.  Sec 
Prescience. 

See  Hobbes's  treatise  Of  Liberty  and  Necessity ;  also 
his  Opinion  about  Liberty  and  Necessity ;  also  Questions 
concernimf  Liberty,  Necessity,  (Did  Chance  clearly  stated 
and  <)(bated  between  Dr.  Jiramhall  and  Thomas  Jlobbes ; 
Leibnitz's  Lssai-s  de  Theodicee,  a  collection  of  jiapers 
which  passed  between  Mr.  Leibnitz  and  Dr.  Clarke; 


Collins's  Philosophical  Inquiry  conceminy  Human  Lib- 
erty ;  Clarke's  Remarks  upon  a  Book  entitled  ".1  Philo- 
sophicul  Liquiry  concerning  Human  Liberty  ;'  Edwards's 
Inquiry  into  tlie  Freedom  of  the  Will;  Essay  on  the  Ge- 
nius and  Writings  of  Edwards,  prefixed  to  the  London  ' 
edition  of  his  works,  1834,  by  H.  Kogers ;  J.  Taylor's 
introduction  to  his  edition  of  Edwards  On  the  Will; 
Hartley's  Observatiotis  on  Man ;  Bchham's  Elements  of 
the  Philosophy  of  the  Mind ;  Cousin's  Elements  of  Psy- 
chology (Prof.  Henr}''s  translation) ;  Sir  William  Ham- 
ilton's Philosophy,  and  Lectures  on  Metaphysics ;  ]\Ian- 
sell's  Limits  of  Religious  Thought ;  Herbert  Spencer's 
First  Principles  ;  Stewart's  Philosophy  of  the  A  ctive  and 
Moral  Poicers  of  Man;  Tappan's  Pevieiv  of  Edwards's 
Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will;  MilX.s  System  of 
Logic;  Jouffroy's  Introduction  to  Ethics;  Elakey's  His- 
tory of  the  Philosophy  of  Miiul;  Hazard,  On  the  Will; 
Bledsoe,  On  the  Will;  Whedon,  On  the  Will.  See  Ne- 
CESSITAIUANS.     (E.  de  P.) 

Lib'iiah  (Heb.  Libnah',  n32?,  transparency,  as  in 
Exod.  xxiv,  10),  the  name  of  two  places.     See  also 

SlIIIIOR-LIBXATlI. 

1.  (Sept.  Aifiiuva  v.  r.  Atjibjva.')  The  twenty-first 
station  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  between  Ilimmon- 
parez  and  Eissah  (Numb,  xxxiii,  20,  21) ;  probably 
identical  with  Laban  (Deut.  i,  1),  and  perhaps  situated 
near  wady  el-Ain,  west  of  Kadesh-Barnea.    See  Exode, 

2.  (Sept.  Af/Svo,  sometimes  Ao(3vd,  occasionally 
Ao/3f«v,  and  even  Af/3ova.)  One  of  the  royal  cities 
of  the  Canaanites  (Josh,  xii,  15),  taken  and  destroyed 
by  Joshua  immediately  after  Makkedah  and  before  La- 
chish  (Josh,  x,  29-32,  39).  It  lay  in  the  plain  within 
the  territory  assigned  to  Judah  (Josh,  xv,  42\  and  be- 
came one  of  the  Levitical  towns  in  that  tribe,  as  well  as 
an  asylum  (Josh.  xxi,'13  ;  1  Chron.  vi,  57).  In  the  reign 
of  king  .Jehoram,  Libnah  is  said  to  have  revolted  from 
him  (2  Kings  viii,  22 ;  2  Chron.  xxi,  10).  From  the  cir- 
cumstance of  this  revolt  having  happened  at  the  same 
time  with  that  of  the  Edomites,  it  has  been  supposed  by 
some  to  have  reference  to  another  town  of  the  same 
name  situated  in  that  country.  But  such  a  conjecture 
is  mmecessary  and  improbable,  for  it  ajjpears  that  the 
Philistines  and  Arabians  revolted  at  the  same  time  (2 
Chron.  xxi,  IG).  Libnah  of  Judah  rebelled  because  it 
refused  to  admit  the  idolatries  of  Jehoram  ;  and  it  is  not 
said  in  either  of  the  passages  in  which  this  act  is  record- 
ed, as  of  Edom,  that  it  continued  in  revolt  '•  unto  this 
day."  It  may  be  inferred  either  that  it  was  speedily 
reduced  to  obedience,  or  that,  on  tlie  re-establishment 
of  the  true  worship,  it  spontaneously  returned  to  its  al- 
legiance, for  we  find  it  was  the  native  place  of  the  grand- 
father of  two  of  the  last  kings  of  Judah  (2  Kings  xxiii, 
31 ;  xxiv,  18;  Jer.  lii,  1).  It  appears  to  have  been  a 
stronglj'  fortified  place,  for  the  Assyrian  king  Sennach- 
erib was  detained  some  time  before  it  when  he  invaded 
Judsea  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah.  See  Hezekiaii.  On 
completing  or  relincpiishing  the  siege  of  Lachish — which 
of  the  two  is  not  quite  certain — Sennacherib  laid  siege 
to  Libnah  (2  Kingsxix,8;  Isa.  xxxvii,8).  While  there 
he  was  joined  by  Kabshakeh  and  the  part  of  the  army 
which  had  visited  Jerusalem  (2  Kings  xix,  S ;  Isa. 
xxxvii,  8),  and  received  the  intelligence  of  Tirhakah's 
apjiroach ;  and  it  would  apiicar  that  at  Libnah  the  de- 
struction of  the  Assyrian  army  took  place,  though  the 
statements  of  Herodotus  (ii,  141)  and  of  Josephus  (A7}f. 
X,  1,  4)  place  it  at  Pelusium  (see  Rawlinson,  Herod,  i, 
480).  Libnah  was  the  native  place  of  Hamutal  or  Ha- 
mital,  the  queen  of  Josiali,  and  mother  of  Jchoahaz  (2 
Kings  xxiii, 31)  and  Zedckiah  (xxiv,  18;  Jer.lii,!).  It 
is  in  tliis  connection  that  its  name  ajipears  for  the  last 
time  in  the  Bible.  It  existed  as  a  village  in  the  time 
of  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  and  is  placed  by  them  in  the 
district  of  Elcutheropolis  (Onomast.  s.  v.  AofSavd ;  com- 
pare Josephus,  Ant.  x,  5,  2).  Dr.  Robinson  M-as  unable 
to  discover  the  least  trace  of  its  site  (Bib.  Pes.  ii,  389). 
Stanley  inclines  to  find  the  site  at  Tell  es-Safieh  (Sinai 


LIBNATII 


421 


LICE 


and  Pal.  p.  207,  258) ;  but  this  is  probably  Gath.  Van 
(le  Vekle  suggests  Arak  el-Mciis/ni/ch,  a  hill  about  four 
miles  west  of  Beit-jebriu  {Moiiuir,  \).  8oO),  which  seems 
to  answer  to  the  requirements  of  location.  It  stood 
near  Lachisb,  west  of  jNIakkcdah,  and  probably  also  west 
of  Eleutheropolis  (Keil,  Comment,  on  Josh,  x,  29),  and 
M-as  situated  in  the  district  immediately  west  of  the  hill 
region,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ether,  Ashan,  etc.  (Josh,  xv, 
42). 

Libnath.     See  Shiiior-lidnatii. 

Libneh.     See  Poplak. 

Lib'ni  (Heb.  Libiii',  "^33^,  n-hite;  Sept.  Ko^svu, 
AofSipi),  the  first-named  of  the  two  sons  of  Gershon, 
the  son  of  Levi  (Exod.vi,  17;  Numb.iii,  18, 21 ;  1  Chron. 
vi,  17 ;  comp.  Numb,  xxvi,  58) ;  elsewhere  called  Laa- 
DAN  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  7  ;  xxvi,  21).  B.C.  post.  1856.  His 
son  is  called  Jahath  (1  Chron.  vi,  20,  43),  and  his  de- 
scendants were  named  Libxites  (Numb,  iii,  21 ;  xxvi, 
58).  In  1  Chron.  vi,  29,  by  some  error  he  is  called  the 
son  of  Mahli  and  the  father  of  Shimei. 

Lib'nite  (Heb.  Libni',  "^SSb,  being  a  patronymic  of 
the  same  form  from  Libni;  Sept.  Ao(isi'i).  a  descendant 
of  Libni  the  Levite  (Numb,  iii,  21 ;  xxvi,  58). 

Liborius,  St.,  fourth  bishop  of  Mans,  a  disciple  of 
Si.Pavacius,  flourished  from  the  middle  to  the  close  of 
the  4th  century.  The  existing  documents  on  his  life  arc 
((uite  untrustworth}',  and  relate  only  that  he  was  a  pious 
man,  performed  sundry  miracles,  and  that  he  was  a  fast 
friend  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours.  See  the  Bollandists  for 
July  23 ;  Tillemont,  Memoires,  x,  307 ;  Mabillon,  De  Pon- 
tif.  Cenomannensibus.  His  body  was  transferred  in  the 
9th  century  from  Mans  to  I'aderborn  by  order  of  Biso, 
bishop  of  the  latter  place.  See  Pertz,  Script,  iv  (vi), 
149  sq. ;  Herzog,  Real-EncyMopmRe,  viii,  380. 

Libr^  (pound),  the  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
seventy  suffragans  of  the  bishop  of  Rome,  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  there  were  seventy  solidi  or  parts  in  the 
Roman  libra. 

Libraries.  In  the  early  Church,  as  soon  as  church- 
es began  to  be  erected,  it  was  customary  to  attach  libra- 
ries to  them.  In  these  were  included  not  only  the  litur- 
gical and  other  Church  books,  and  MS.  copies  of  the 
lioly  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages,  but  also  hom- 
ilies and  other  theological  works.  That  they  Avere  of 
some  importance  is  evident  from  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  referred  to  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  who  men- 
tion having  made  use  of  the  libraries  at  Jerusalem  and 
Cassarea.  Eusebius  says  he  found  the  principal  part  of 
the  materials  for  his  Ecclesiastical  History  in  the  library 
at  Jerusalem.  One  of  the  most  famous  was  that  at- 
tached to  the  church  of  St.  Sophia,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  commenced  by  Constantine,  but  was  after- 
wards greatly  augmented  by  Theodosius  the  Younger, 
in  whose  time  there  were  not  fewer  than  one  hundred 
thousand  books  in  it,  and  a  hundred  and  twenty  thou- 
sand in  the  time  of  Basilicus  and  Zeno.  No  doubt  a 
particidar  reason  for  thus  collecting  books  was  their 
great  expense  and  rarity  before  the  art  of  printing  en- 
abled men  to  possess  themselves  the  works  they  needed 
for  thorough  research.  In  churches  where  the  itinerant 
system  prevailed  libraries  possessed  by  churches  woiUd 
even  in  our  very  day  prove  a  soiu'ce  of  pleasure,  and 
timesaving  as  well.  Indeed,  in  some  of  the  larger  cities 
here  and  there,  congregations  are  already  advocating 
this  plan. — Farrar,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionai-ij. 

Libri  Carolini.     See  Caroline  Books. 

Lib'ya  (At/3i'a  or  AijSin]),  a  name  which,  in  its 
largest  acceptation,  was  used  by  the  (ireeks  to  denote 
the  whole  of  Africa  (Strabo,  ii,  131);  but  Lihi/a  Proper, 
whicli  is  the  Libya  of  the  New  Testament  (Acts  ii,  10), 
and  the  country  of  the  Liibiia  in  the  Old,  was  a  large 
tract  lying  along  the  Mediterranean,  to  the  west  of 
Egypt  (Strabo,  xvii,  824).  It  is  called  PentapoUtana 
Reyio  by  Pliny  (Uist.Nat.x,  5),  from  itd  five  cities,  Ber- 


enice, Arsinoe,  Ptolemais,  Apollonia,  and  Cyrene;  and 
Libijd  Cyrenuica  by  Ptolemy  {Geog.  iv,  5),  from  Cy- 
rene, its  capital.  See  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  Georjr.  s.  v. 
The  name  of  Libya  occurs  in  Acts  ii,  10,  where  "  the 
dwellers  in  the  parts  of  Libya  about  Cyrene"  are  men- 
tioned among  the  stranger  Jews  who  came  up  to  Jeru- 
salem at  the  feast  of  Pentecost.  This  obviously  means 
the  Cyrenaica.  Similar  expressions  are  used  by  Dion 
Cassius  (A(/3i'/r/  r)  TTfpi  Ki'p)jv>;i',  liii,  12)  and  Josephus 
(j/  Trpoc  Ki'p/;vr/v  Atfivt],  Ant.  xvi,  6, 1).  See  Cvrenk. 
In  the  Old  Test,  it  is  the  rendering  sometimes  adopted 
of  13^3  (Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Ezek.  xxx,  5;  xxxviii,  5),  else- 
where rendered  Phut  (Gen.  x,  6  -,  Ezek.  xxvii,  10). 

Libya  is  supposed  to  have  been  first  peopled  by.  and 
to  have  derived  its  name  from,  the  Lehabim  or  Lubini 
(Gen.  X,  13 ;  Nah.  iii,  9 ;  see  Gesenius,  Moniim.  P/ian.  p. 
211 ;  comp.  Michaelis,  Spieil.  i,  262  sq. ;  Yater,  Comment. 
i,  132),  These,  its  earliest  inhabitants,  appear,  in  the 
time  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  have  consisted  of  wan- 
dering tribes,  who  were  sometimes  in  alliance  with 
Egypt  (compare  Herod,  iv,  159),  and  at  others  with  the 
Ethiopians,  as  they  are  said  to  have  assisted  both  Shi- 
shak,  king  of  Egypt,  and  Zerah  the  Ethiopian  in  their 
expeditions  against  Juda-a  (2  Chron.  xii,  4;  xiv,  8;  xvi, 
9).  In  the  time  of  Cambj'ses  they  appear  to  have 
formed  part  of  the  Persian  empire  (Herod,  iii,  13),  and 
Libyans  formed  part  of  the  immense  army  of  Xerxes 
(Herod,  vii,  71,  86).  They  are  mentioned  by  Daniel 
(xi,  43)  in  connection  with  the  Ethiopians  and  Cushites. 
"  They  were  eventually  subdued  by  the  Carthaginians : 
and  it  was  the  policy  of  that  people  to  bring  the  nomade 
tribes  of  Northern  Africa  which  they  mastered  into  the 
condition  of  cidtivators,  that  by  the  produce  of  their  in- 
dustry they  might  be  able  to  raise  and  maintain  the 
numerous  armies  with  which  they  made  their  foreign 
conquests.  But  Herodotus  assures  us  that  none  of  the 
Libyans  bej'ond  the  Carthaginian  territory  were  tillers 
of  the  ground  (Herod,  iv,  186, 187  ;  compare  Polybius,  i, 
161, 1G7, 168, 177,  ed.  Schweighaeuser).  Since  the  tmie 
of  the  Carthaginian  supremacy,  the  country,  with  the 
rest  of  the  East,  has  successively  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens,  and  Turks"  (Kitto). 
See  Africa. 

Lib 'y an  (only  in  the  plur.),  the  rendering  adopted 
in  the  A.V.  of  two  Heb.  names,  C^Sp  (Liibbim',  Sept. 
Aijiveg),  Dan.  xi,  43  (elsewhere  M-ritten  C^l?,  "Lnbim,'" 
2  Chron.  xii,  3;  xvi,  8;  Nah.  iii,  9;  prob.  i.  q.  t"i2il3, 
"LebaMjnr  Gen.  x,  13;  1  Chron.  i,  11)  and  "JilQ  (Put, 
Jer.  xlvi,  9;  Sept.  AijSvsc;  elsewhere  rendered  "Lib- 
ya," Ezek.  xxx,  5 ;  xxxviii,  5;  "Phut,"  or  "Put").  See 
Libya. 

Lice  ("jS,  ken,  perh.  from  '33,  to  nip ;  onh'  once  in  the 
sing,  used  collectively,  Isa.  Ii,  6,  and  there  doubtful,  where 
the  Sept.,Yulg.,  and  Engl.  Vers,  confound  with  "3,  so, 
and  render  raura,  liwc,  "  m  like  manner ;"  elsewhere 
plural,  n-ip,  Exod.  viii,  16,  17,  18 ;  Psa.  cv,  31 ;  Sept. 
<jKvl<pic,\&r.  17  OKvlxp,  v.  r.  (TKvTiveg  ;  YiUg.  sciniphes,  in 
Psa.  cinifes;  also  the  cognate  sing,  collective  Ci3,  hin- 
nam,  Exod.  viii,  17,  18,  Sept.  and  Yulg.  cr/crT^fc,  scini- 
2)hes),  the  name  of  the  creature  employed  in  the  third 
plague  upon  Egypt,  miraculously  produced  from  the  dust 
of  the  land.  Its  exact  nature  has  been  much  disputed. 
Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  inferred,  from  the  words  "  in  man  and 
in  beast,"  that  it  was  the  acai-us  sanfftiisuqus,  or  "  tick" 
{Comment,  on  Exod.  viii,  IG).  jMichaelis  remarks  (Suppl. 
ad  Lex.  1174)  that  if  it  be  a  Hebrew  word  for  lice  it  is 
strange  that  it  should  have  disappeared  from  the  cog- 
nate tongues,  the  Aramaic,  Samaritan,  and  Ethiopic. 
The  rendering  of  the  Sept.  seems  highly  valuable  when 
it  is  considered  that  it  was  given  by  learned  Jews  resi- 
dent in  Egypt,  that  it  occurs  in  the  most  ancient  and 
best  executed  portion  of  that  version,  and  that  it  can  be 
elucidated  by  the  writings  of  ancient  Greek  naturalists, 
etc.    Thus  Aristotle,  who  was  nearly  contemporary  with 


LICE 


422 


LICE 


the  Sept.  translators  of  Exodus,  mentions  the  ki'itteq 
(the  (T/cj'T0s(."  of  the  Sept.)  among  insects  able  to  distin- 
guish the  smell  of  honey  (  //^V.  A  nimal.  iv,  8),  and  refers 
to  species  of  birds  which  he  calls  (jKimropuya,  that  live 
by  hunting  (jKin-mg  (viii,  G).     His  pupil  Theophrastus 
savs,  '•  The  Kvling  are  born  in  certain  trees,  as  the  oak, 
the  fig-tree,  and  they  seem  to  subsist  upon  the  sweet 
moisture  which  is  collected  under  the  bark.     They  are 
also  produced  on  some  vegetables"  {Hist.  Plant,  iv,  17, 
and  ii,  ult.).    This  description  applies  to  aphides,  or  rath- 
er to  tlie  various  species  of  "  gall-flies"  {Ci/nips,  Linn.). 
Hesvchius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  ex- 
plains (TKvrijj  as  "a  green  four -winged  creature,"  and 
quotes  Phrynichus  as  applying  the  name  to  a  sordid 
wretch,  and  adds,  "From  the  little  creature  among  trees, 
which  sjteedily  devoiu-s  them."     Philo  (A.D.  40)  and 
Origen,  in  the  second  century,  who  both  lived  in  Egypt, 
describe  it  in  terms  suitable  to  the  gnat  or  mosquito 
(Philo,  I'iVa  lUosis,  i,  97,  2,  ed.  Mangey ;  Origen,  IlomUia 
tertia  in  Exod.'),  as  does  also  Augustine  in  the  third  or 
fourth  century  (Z'e  Convenientia,  etc.).     But  Theodore t, 
in  the  same  age,  distinguishes  between  ckvIttiq  and  kw- 
VMTvtQ  (Vita  Jacohi).     Suidas  (A.D.  1100)  says  (jKfiip. 
'•resembling  gnats,"  and  adds,  "a  little  creature  that 
cats  wood."    These  Christian  fathers,  however,  give  no 
authority  for  their  explanations,  and  Bochart  remarks 
that  they  seem  to  be  speaking  of  gnats  under  the  name 
aKi'liTEc,  which  word,  he  conjectures,  biased  them  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  Hebrew.    Schleusner  adds  {Glos- 
seina  in  Octateucli)  CKvlcjiiQ,  "  less  than  gnats,"  and  {Lex. 
Q/r(7?«,  MS.  Brem.),  "  very  small  creatures  like  gnats." 
From  this  concurrence  of  testimonj-  it  would  appear  that 
not  lice,  but  some  species  of  gnats,  is  the  projier  render- 
ing, though  the  ancients,  no  doubt,  included  other  spe- 
cies of  insects  under  the  name.     Mr.  Bryant,  however, 
gives  a  curious  turn  to  the  evidence  derived  from  ancient 
naturalists.     He  quotes  Theophrastus,  and  admits  that 
a  Greek  must  be  the  best  judge  of  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word,  but  urges  that  the  Sept.  translators  con- 
cealed the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word,  which  he  la- 
bors to  prove  is  lice,  for  fear  of  offending  the  Ptolemies, 
imder  w  hose  inspection  they  translated,  and  the  Egyp- 
tians in  general,  w-hose  detestation  of  lice  was  as  ancient 
as  the  time  of  Herodotus  (ii,  37)  (but  who  includes  "any 
other  foul  creature"),  and  whose  disgust,  he  thinks,  would 
have  been  too  much  excited  by  reading  that  their  na- 
tion once  swarmed  with  those  creatures  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  servants  of  the  God  of  the  Jews 
{riacpies  of  Ecjijpt,  Lond.  179-1,  p.  50,  etc.).     This  sus)ii- 
cion,  if  admitted,  upsets  all  the  previous  reasoning.    But 
a  jilague  of  lice,  upon  Brj'ant's  own  principles,  could  not 
have  been  more  oifensive  to  the  Egyptians  than  the 
plague  on  the  liiver  Nile,  the  frogs,  etc.,  which  the  Sept. 
translators  have  not  mitigated.     Might  it  not  be  sug- 
gested ^vith  equal  probability  that  the  Jews  in  later 
ages  had  been  led  to  interpret  the  word  lice  as  being 
peculiarly  humiliating  to  the  Egyptians  (see  Josephus, 
ii,  14,  .S,  who,  liowever,  makes  the  Egyptians  to  be  afflict- 
ed with  phthiriasis).    The  rendering  of  the  Yulg.  affords 
us  no  assistance,  being  evidently  formed  from  that  of  the 
Sept.,  and  not  being  illustrated  by  any  Koman  natural- 
ist, but  found  only  in  Christian  Latin  writers  (see  Fac- 
ciolati,  s.  v.").    The  other  ancient  versions,  etc.,  are  of  no 
value  in  this  incpiiry.     They  adopt  the  jiopular  notion 
of  the  times,  and  Bochart's  reasonings  upon  them  in- 
volve, as  Kosenmiiller  (apud  Bochart)  justly  complains, 
many  imsafe  permutations  of  letters.    If,  then,  the  Sept. 
be  discarded,  we  are  deprived  of  the  highest  source  of 
infomialion.     Bochart's  reasoning  upon  the  form  of  the 
•word  (liieroz.  iii,  .518)  is  unsound,  ns,  indeed,  tliat  of  aU 
others  who  have  relied  upon  etymolngy  to  finuish  a  clew 
to  the  insect  intended.     It  is  strange  that  it  did  not  oc- 
cur to  Bochart  that  if  the  plague  had  been  lice  it  would 
have  been  easily  imitated  b_\'the  magicians,  which  was 
attempted  by  them,  but  in  vain  (Exod.  viii,  18).     Nor 
is  the  objection  valid  that  if  this  plague  were  gnats,  etc., 
the  plague  of  flies  would  be  anticipated,  since  the  latter 


most  likely  consisted  of  one  particular  species  having  a 
different  destination  [see  Fly],  whereas  this  may  have 
consisted  not  only  of  mosquitoes  or  gnats,  but  of  some 
other  species  which  also  attack  domestic  cattle,  as  the 
cestrus,  or  tahunus,  or  zimh  (Bruce,  Travels,  ii,  815.  8vo), 
on  which  supposition  these  two  plagues  would  be  suf- 
ficiently distinct.  See  Plaguks  of  Egypt,  But, 
since  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc.,  have  ever  beeii  one  of 
the  evils  of  Egypt,  there  must  have  been  some  pecidiar- 
ity  attending  them  on  this  occasion  which  proved  the 
plague  to  be  "  the  finger  of  God."  From  the  next  chap- 
ter, ver.  31,  it  appears  that  the  flax  and  the  barley  were 
smitten  by  the  hail ;  that  the  former  was  beginning  to 
grow,  and  that  the  latter  was  in  the  ear,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Shaw,  takes  place  in  Egypt  in  IMarch.  Hence 
the  hinnim  would  be  sent  about  February,  i.  c.  before  the 
increase  of  the  Nile,  w^hich  takes  place  at  the  end  of 
May  or  beginning  of  Jime.  Since,  then,  the  innumer- 
able swarms  of  mosquitoes,  gnats,  etc.,  which  every  year 
affect  the  Egyptians,  come,  according  to  Hassehiuist,  at 
the  increase  of  the  Nile,  the  appearance  of  them  in  Feb- 
ruary would  be  as  much  a  variation  of  the  course  of  na- 
ture as  the  appearance  of  the  astnis  in  January  would 
be  in  England.  They  were  also  probably  numerous  and 
fierce  beyond  example  on  this  occasion,  and,  as  the  Egyp- 
tians would  be  utterly  unprepared  for  them  (for  it  seems 
that  this  plague  w^as  not  announced),  the  effects  would 
be  signally  distressing.  Bochart  adduces  instances  in 
which  both  mankind  and  cattle,  and  even  wild  beasts, 
have  been  driven  by  gnats  from  their  localities.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  proper  Greek  name  for  the  gnat  is 
iinric,  and  that  probabl}'  the  word  icwvuiip,  which  much 
resembles  Ki'itp,  is  appropriate  to  the  mosquito.  Har- 
douin  observes  that  the  KilTrie;  of  Aristotle  are  not  the 
tUTTtSec,  which  latter  is  by  Pliny  always  rendered  cidices, 
a  word  which  he  employs  with  great  latitude.  See 
Gnat.  For  a  description  of  the  evils  inflicte^l  bj'  these 
insects  upon  man,  see  Kirby  and  Spence,  Introduction  to 
Entomolof/i/,  Lond.  1828,  i,  115,  etc. ;  and  for  the  annoy- 
ance they  cause  in  I'.gypt,  Maillet,  Descript.  de  VEgypte 
par  I'Abbe  jMascrier  (Paris,  1755),  xc,  37 ;  Forskal,  Descr. 
A  nimal.  p.  85.  Michaelis  proposed  an  inquiiy  into  the 
meaning  of  the  word  aKvT^ic  to  the  Societe  des  Savants, 
with  a  full  description  of  the  qualities  ascribed  to  them 
by  Philo,Origen,  and  August  ine  {Reciieil,  etc.  Amst.  1744). 
Niebuhr  inquired  after  it  of  the  Greek  patriarch,  and 
also  of  the  metropolitan  at  Cairo,  who  thought  it  to  be 
a  species  of  gnat  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  gar- 
dens there,  and  whose  bite  was  extremely  painful.  A 
merchant  who  was  present  at  the  incjuiry  called  it  dubub- 
el-keb,  or  the  dofj-fnj  {Description  de  VA  ruhie,  Pref.  p.  39, 
40).  Besides  the  references  already  made,  see  Itosen- 
miiUer,  Scholia  in  Exod. ;  jNIichaelis,  Siippl.  ad  Lex.  He- 
braic. 1203  sq. ;  Oedmann,  Verm.  Samml.  aiis  der  Na- 
turhunde,  i,  6, 74-91 ;  Bakerus,  A  nnotat,  in  Ef.  M.  ii,  1090 ; 


Egyptian  Gnat  mngnitied. 


LICENSE 


423 


LIE 


Harenbcrg,  Ohserr.  Crit.  de  Insectis  JErjypt.  infest ariHbus, 
ill  MisccU.  Lips.  Nov.  ii,  4, 617-20 ;  Geddes,  Crit.  Rem.  on 
Exod.  viii,  17  ;  Montanus,  Critic.  Sac.  on  Exod.  viii,  12 ; 
Kitto,  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc. ;  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  ii,  572. 
— Kitto.     See  Gnat. 

"  The  advocates  of  the  other  theory,  that  lice  are  the 
animals  meant  by  Idnnim,  and  not  (/nuts,  base  their  ar- 
guments upon  these  facts :  (1)  because  the  liiinim  sprang 
from  the  dust,  whereas  gnats  come  from  the  waters ;  (2) 
because  gnats,  though  they  may  greatly  irritate  men 
and- beasts,  cannot  properly  be  said  to  be  'in'  them;  (3) 
because  their  name  is  derived  from  a  root  ('|*13)  which 
signifies  to  '  establish,'  or  to  '  fix,'  which  cannot  be  said 
of  c/nats ;  (4)  because,  if  c/nats  are  intended,  tlien  the 
fourth  plague  of  flies  would  be  unduly  anticipated ;  (5) 
because  the  Talmudists  use  the  word  kinnah  in  the  sin- 
gular number  to  mean  a  louse ;  as  it  is  said  (S/iab.  xiv, 
107,  b),  'As  is  the  man  who  slays  a  camel  on  the  Sab- 
bath, so  is  he  who  slays  a  louse  on  the  Sabbath' " 
(Smith).  "  The  entomologists,  Kirby  and  Spence,  place 
these  minute  but  disgusting  insects  in  the  very  front 
rank  of  those  which  inflict  direct  injury  upon  man.  A 
terrible  list  of  examples  they  have  collected  of  the  rav- 
ages of  this  and  closely  allied  parasitic  pests.  They 
remark  that,  'for  the  quelling  of  human  pride,  and  to 
pull  down  the  high  conceits  of  mortal  man,  this  most 
loathsome  of  all  maladies,  or  one  equally  disgusting,  has 
been  the  inheritance  of  the  rich,  the  wise,  the  noble,  and 
the  mighty ;  and  in  the  list  of  those  that  have  fallen 
victims  to  it,  you  wiU  find  poets,  philosophers,  prelates, 
princes,  kings,  and  emperors.  It  seems  more  particu- 
larly to  have  been  a  judgment  of  God  upon  oppression 
and  tyranny,  whether  civil  or  religious.  Thus  the  in- 
human I'heretima  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  the  dictator  Sylla,  the  two  Herods,  the  em- 
peror Maximin,  and,  not  to  mention  more,  the  persecu- 
tor of  the  Protestants,  Philip  the  Second,  were  carried 
ofT  by  it'  {Iiitrod.  to  Entomol.  vol.  iv).  The  Egyptian 
plague  may  have  been  somewliat  like  that  dreadful  dis- 
ease common  in  Poland,  and  known  as  jjUcbi  Poloiiica, 
in  which  the  hair  becomes  matted  together  in  the  most 
disgusting  manner,  and  is  infested  with  sv/arms  of  ver- 
min. Each  hair  is  highly  sensitive,  bleeds  at  the  root 
on  the  least  violence,  and  if  but  sliglitly  pulled  feels  ex- 
quisite pain.  Lafontaine,  whom  Hermann  calls  a  very 
exact  describer,  affirms  that  millions  of  lice  appear  on 
the  wretched  patient  on  the  third  day  of  this  disease 
{Mem.  Apterol.  p.  78).  These  insects  form  the  order 
Anoplura  of  Leach,  and  Parasita  of  LatreiUe.  jMost 
mammalia,  if  not  all,  and  probably  all  birds,  are  infested 
by  them ;  each  beast  and  bird,  as  is  stated,  having  its 
own  proper  species  of  louse,  and  sometimes  two  or  more. 
Three  distinct  species  make  the  human  body  their 
abode"  (Fairbairn).     See  Inskct. 

License,  the  name  given  to  the  liberty  and  icar- 
raiit  to  preach. 

(I.)  In  the  Presbyterian  Church  it  is  regularly  con- 
ferred by  the  Presbj'tery  on  tliose  who  have  passed  sat- 
isfactorily through  the  prescribed  curriculum  of  study. 
When  a  student  has  fully  comfileted  his  course  of  study 
at  the  theological  hall,  he  is  taken  on  trials  for  license  by 
the  Presbytery  to  which  he  belongs.  These  trials  consist 
of  an  examination  on  the  different  subjects  taught  in  the 
theological  hall,  his  personal  religion,  and  his  motives 
for  seeking  to  enter  the  ministerial  office.  He  also  de- 
livers a  lecture  on  a  passage  of  Scriptiu-e,  a  homily,  an 
exercise  and  additions,  a  popular  sermon,  and  an  exe- 
gesis ;  and,  lastly,  he  is  examined  on  Church  History, 
Hebrew  and  Greek,  and  on  divinity  generally.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  presbytery  to  criticise  each  of  these  by 
itself,  and  sustain  or  reject  it  separately,  as  a  part  of 
the  series  of  trials,  and  then,  when  the  trials  are  com- 
pleted, to  pass  a  judgment  on  the  whole  by  a  regular 
vote.  If  the  trials  are  sustained,  the  candidate  is  re- 
quired to  answer  the  questions  in  the  formula,  and, 
after  prayer,  is  hcensed  and  authorized  to  preach  the 
Gospel  of  Clirist,  and  exercise  bis  gifts  as  a  probationer 


for  the  holy  ministry,  of  which  license  a  regular  certifi- 
cate is  given  if  required.  He  is  simply  a  layman  or  lay 
candidate  for  the  clerical  office,  preaching,  but  not  dis- 
pensing the  sacraments.     See  Ordination. 

(2.)  In  the  Methodist  churches  it  is  conferred  on  lay- 
men who  are  believed  to  be  competent  for  this  office, 
and  it  is  from  persons  thus  brought  into  the  ministry 
[see  Lay  Preaching]  that  the  Church  is  supplied  with 
ministers.     See  Local  Preachers  ;  Licentiate. 

(3.)  In  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States  the  word  license 
is  used  to  designate  the  grant  given  by  the  bishop  to  a 
candidate  for  orders,  authorizing  him  to  read  services 
and  sermons  in  a  church  in  the  absence  of  a  minister ; 
also  the  liberty  to  preach,  which  the  bishop  may  give 
to  those  who  have  been  ordained  deacons  if  he  judge 
them  to  be  qualified.  See  the  Ordering  of  Deacons  in 
the  Prayer-book,  where  the  bishop  says  to  those  he  is 
ordaining,  "  Take  thou  the  authority  to  read  the  Gospel 
in  the  Church  of  God,  and  to  preach  the  same,  if  thou 
be  thereto  licensed  by  the  bishop  himself." 

See  Staunton's  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v. ;  Eadie, 
Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.     See  Preachinc;. 

Licentiate  (from  Lat.  licet,  it  is  lawful),  one  of  the 
four  ancient  university  degrees.  It  is  no  longer  in  use 
in  England,  except  at  Cambridge  as  a  degree  of  medi- 
cine. In  France  and  Germany,  however,  where  it  is 
more  general,  a  licentiate  is  a  person  who,  having  un- 
dergone the  prescribed  examination,  has  received  per- 
mission to  deliver  lectures  in  the  universitj-.  When  the 
degree  is  given  as  an  lionor,  it  is  intermediate  between 
Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Doctor. 

LICENTIATE  is  a  person  authorized  by  the  Church 
authorities  to  preach,  and  ^vho  thus  becomes  eligible  to 
a  pastoral  charge.     See  License. 

Licinius.     See  Constantine  the  Great. 

Lichtenberg,  Johann  Conrad,  a  German  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Darmstadt  Dec.  9, 1689.  In  1707  he 
entered  the  University  of  Giessen,  and  tlien  aircnded 
successively  those  of  Jena,  Leipsic,  and  Halle ;  in  the 
latter  he  finished  his  academical  course  in  1711.  Soon 
after  he  accepted  a  call  as  vicar  to  Neun-Kirchen,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse  ;  in  1716  he  became  pastor 
of  the  same  place;  in  1719,  pastor  of  Upper  Kamstadt; 
in  1733,  metropolitan  of  the  diocese  of  the  bailiwick 
Lichtenberg;  in  1745,  town  pastor  at  Darmstadt,  and 
examiner  of  teachers ;  and  in  1749,  superintendent.  He 
died  July  17, 1751.  His  knowledge  was  extensive,  em- 
bracing not  ovlIj  theology,  but  also  mathematics  and 
physics.  Astronomical  studies,  especially,  had  a  lasting 
interest  for  him ;  the  latter  he  knew  skilfully  how  to 
weave  into  his  sermons  in  a  simple  and  popular  manner, 
thus  captivating  the  attention  of  the  audience.  He 
contributed  largely  to  Church  music.  The  various 
books  which  he  composed  are  all  of  an  ascetical  charac- 
ter; we  only  mention  Texte  zur  Kirchenmusik  (Darmst. 
1719,  1720,  8vo) ;  Ermuntertule  Stimmen  atis  Zion  (ibid. 
1722,  8vo) ;  Geistliche  Betrachtunyen  iiber  gewisse  in  den 
Erangeliis  enthaltene  Mati-rieu  (ibid.  1721,  8vo).  —  Dor- 
ing,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlunds,  ii,  296  sq. 

Lidbir.     See  Lo-debar. 

Lie  (prop.  213,  \pci'Coc),  an  intentional  violation  of 
truth.  In  Scripture  we  find  the  word  used  to  designate 
all  the  ways  in  which  mankind  denies  or  alters  truth  in 
word  or  deed,  as  also  evil  in  general.  In  general  the 
good  is  in  it  designated  as  the  truth,  evil  as  its  opposite, 
or  lie,  and  consequently  the  devil  (being  the  contrary 
to  God)  as  the  father  of  lies,  and  liars  or  impious  per- 
sons as  children  of  the  devil.  Hence  the  Scriptures 
most  expressly  condenm  lies  (John  viii,  44 ;  1  Tim.  i,  9, 
10 ;  Rev.  xxi,  27  ;  xxii,  15).  When,  in  Kom.  iii,  4,  it  is 
said  tliat  all  men  are  liars,  it  is  synonymous  with  say- 
ing tliat  all  are  bad.  The  Bible  nowhere  admits  of  per- 
mitted, praiseworthy,  or  pious  lies,  yet  it  recommends 
not  to  proclaim  the  truth  wlien  its  proclamation  might 
prove  injurious.    Hence  Christ  commands  (Matt,  vii,  6) 


LIE 


424 


LIFE 


not  to  present  the  tnith  of  the  Gospel  to  those  who  arc 
unworthy  wlien  lie  recommends,  "  liive  not  that  which 
is  holy  unto  the  dogs,  neither  cast  ye  your  pearls  before 
swine."  In  John  xvi,  12  we  see  that  he  could  not  tell 
his  disciples  all  that  he  would  have  wished  to  tell  them 
on  accoinit  of  their  weakness.  He  did  not  answer  the 
in(iuiries  of  Pilate  (John  xix,  9),  nor  of  Caiaphas  (Matt, 
xxvi,  (il!).  But  we  nowhere  lind  that  either  in  levity, 
or  to  do  others  good,  or  to  glorify  God,  Christ  ever  spoke 
iui  untruth.  Peter,  on  the  contrary,  denied  both  Christ 
by  wnrd  in  the  moment  of  danger  (]Matt.  xxvi,  G9  sq. ; 
Alark  xiv,  GG  sq. ;  Luke  xxii,  5G  sq. ;  John  xviii,  17  sq.) 
and  the  evangelical  truth  by  his  actions  (Gal.  ii,  1"2, 1-4). 
But  Paul,  in  Acts  xxiii,  5,  made  use  of  an  implication 
to  clear  himself,  or,  at  any  rate,  concealed  part  of  the 
trutli  in  order  to  create  dissension  between  the  Phari- 
sees and  the  Sadducecs,  and  thus  save  himself.  Strict 
tnithfulncss  requires  that  we  should  never  alter  the 
truth,  either  in  words  or  actions,  so  as  to  deceive  others, 
whether  it  be  for  pleasure,  or  to  benefit  others  or  our- 
selves, or  even  for  the  best  cause.  Yet,  although  there 
can,  absolutely  considered,  be  no  injurious  truth,  it  is 
not  cxiie(Uent  to  tell  all  truth  to  those  wlio  are  not  able 
to  receive  or  comprehend  it.  Thus  evil  might  result 
from  telling  everything  to  children,  fools,  mischief- 
makers,  spies,  etc.  But  this  does  not  imply  tliat  we 
may  tell  them  that  wliich  is  not  true,  only  that  we  are 
to  remain  silent  when  we  perceive  that  the  truth  would 
be  useless,  or  might  result  in  inflicting  injury  on  our- 
selves or  others.  This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  per- 
jury, as  this  is  positive  lying,  and  indeed,  by  its  calling 
on  God,  becomes  diabolical  lying,  the  Father  of  truth 
being  invoked  to  confirm  a  lie,  and  the  highest  attribute 
of  man,  his  consciousness  of  God,  is  made  use  of  to  de- 
ceive others,  and  to  gain  an  advantage.  See  Oath. 
But  there  are  varieties  of  untruthfulness  which  do  not 
belong  to  the  domain  of  ethics,  but  to  aesthetics.  Such 
are  ]iarables,  jests  in  word  or  deed,  tales  and  fables,  the 
usual  formulas  of  politeness,  mimicry  (v-n-uxpicng},  etc., 
which  are  not  calculated  to  deceive.  But  the  esthetic 
untrutlifulness  or  sup|iression  of  the  truth  can  also  be 
abused.  In  morals,  however,  all  depends  on  the  im- 
provement of  conscience,  and  a  correct,  firm  conscious- 
ness of  God's  presence  and  knowledge.  These  cannot 
be  obtained  by  mere  commandments  or  moral  formulas, 
but  by  strengthening  the  moral  sense,  fortifying  the 
will  —  in  fact,  by  awakening  and  strengthening  the 
moral  power.  jMorality  is  an  inner  life ;  those  only  can 
be  called  liars  who  ^vilfully  oppose  the  truth  by  word 
or  deed,  or  by  conscious  untruthfulness  seek  to  lead 
others  into  error  or  sin ;  in  short,  to  injure  them  pliysi- 
cally  or  spiritually.  As  regards  so-called  "necessary" 
lies,  they  also  are  condemned  by  the  God  of  all  truth ; 
nor  even  in  this  world  of  imperfection,  where  there  are 
so  many  ingenious  illusions,  is  there  any  just  occasion 
for  their  use.  That  truthfulness  is  a  limited  duty  must 
necessarily  be  conceded,  since  the  non-expression  of  the 
truth  is  in  itself  a  limitation  of  it.  The  Bible  men- 
tions instances  of  lies  in  good  men,  but  without  approv- 
ing them,  as  that  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xii,  12;  xx,  2), 
Isaac  ((Jen.  xxvi),  Jacob  (Gen.  xxvii),  the  Hebrew  mid- 
wives  (Exod.  i,  15-19),  ;Michal  (1  Sam.  xix,  14  sq.),  Da- 
vid (1  Sam.  xx),  etc. — Krchl,  Xeiitesi.  Wurterhuch. 

Tliere  are  various  kinds  of  lies.  1.  The  pernicious 
lie.  uttered  for  the  hurt  or  disadvantage  of  our  neighbor. 
2.  Tlie  olUcious  lie,  uttered  for  our  own  or  our  neigh- 
bor's advantage.  3.  Tlie  ludicrous  and  jocose  lie,  utter- 
ed by  way  of  jest,  and  only  for  mirth's  sake  in  common 
converse.  4.  Pious  frauds,  as  they  are  impro]MTly  call- 
ed, pretended  inspirations,  forged  books,  comiterfeit  mir- 
iicles,  are  species  of  lies.  5.  Lies  of  the  conduct,  for  a 
lie  may  be  told  in  gestures  as  well  as  in  words;  as 
when  a  tradesman  shuts  uji  his  windows  to  induce  his 
creditors  to  believe  that  he  is  abroad.  G.  Lies  of  omis- 
sion, .as  when  an  autlior  wilfully  omits  what  ought  to  be 
related ;  and  may  we  not  a<lil,  7.  Tliat  all  eciuivoeation 
and  mental  reservation  come  under  the  guilt  of  lying'? 


The  evil  and  injustice  of  lying  appear,  1.  From  its 
being  a  breach  of  the  natural  and  universal  right  of 
mankind  to  trutli  in  the  intercourse  of  speech.  2.  From 
its  being  a  violation  of  God's  sacred  law  (Phil,  iv,  8 ; 
Lev.  xix,  11 ;  Col.  iii,  9).  3.  The  faculty  of  speech  was 
bestowed  as  an  instrument  of  knowledge,  not  of  deceit ; 
to  communicate  our  thoughts,  not  to  hide  them.  4.  It 
is  esteemed  a  reproach  of  so  heinous  and  hateful  a  na- 
ture for  a  man  to  be  called  a  liar  that  sometimes  the  life 
and  blood  of  the  slanderer  have  paid  for  it.  5.  It  has  a 
tendency  to  dissolve  all  societ}',  and  to  indispose  the 
mind  to  religious  impressions.  (>.  The  punishment  of  it 
is  very  severe ;  the  loss  of  credit,  the  hatred  of  those 
whom  we  have  deceived,  and  an  eternal  separation  from 
God  iu  the  world  to  come  (Rev.  xxi,  8;  xxii,  15;  Psa. 
ci,  7).  See  Grove's  Moi-al  Philos.  vol.  i,  ch.  xi ;  Paley's 
Moral  Pliilvs.  vol.  i,  ch.  xv ;  Doddridge's  Led.  lect.  G8 ; 
Watts's  Sermons,  vol.  i,  serm.  22 ;  Evans's  Serm.  vol.  ii, 
serm.  13;  South's  Serm.  voL  i,  serm.  12;  Dr.  Lamoiit's 
Serm.  vol.  i,  serm.  11  and  12. — Buck,  Theolog.  Diet.  s.  v. 
See  Tkutii. 

Liebknecht,  Johann  Georg,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Wasungen  April  23,  1679.  In  1G99 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena.  Besides  pursuing 
the  common  coiu-se,  he  was  led  by  Dr.  Danz  into  a  thor- 
ough study  of  the  Talmud  and  Kabbinical  literature. 
He  also  gave  especial  attention  to  the  science  of  mathe- 
matics. On  the  latter  he  gave  lectures  after  he  was 
graduated  A.M.  iu  1703.  These  were  highly  approved 
by  many  scholars,  e.  g.  by  the  philosopher  Leiljnitz, 
with  whom  he  corresponded.  His  devotion  to  mathe- 
matics, however,  did  not  cause  him  to  neglect  his  theo- 
logical studies,  for  lie  afterwards  lectured  -with  success 
on  exegesis  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  In  1706 
he  was  called  as  professor  of  mathematics  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Halle,  but  was  obliged  to  decline  this,  as  well 
as  the  call  of  tutor  to  two  princes,  in  1707,  because  his 
health  failed  him.  In  the  same  year,  however,  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  as  professor  of  mathematics  to  the  Univer- 
sity of  Giessen.  In  1715  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Imperial  Leopold  Society,  and  in  171G  of  tlie  Loyal 
Prussian  Society  of  Sciences.  In  1719  he  became  doc- 
tor of  divinity,  in  1721  professor  extraordinary  of  theol- 
ogy, and  in  1725  was  advanced  to  the  ordinarj'  or  full 
professorship ;  and  was  also  made  assessor  of  the  consis- 
tory and  superintendent  at  (iiessen.  He  died  Sept.  17, 
1749.  Although  many  of  his  numerous  productions  are 
in  the  department  of  mathematics,  yet  his  dissertations 
on  exegesis.  Church  history,  and  dogmatical  theology 
prove  him  to  have  been  a  profound,  acute,  and  investi- 
gating theologian.  Besides  his  contributions  to  the  A  c- 
ta  Eruditorum,  we  mention  Proejr.  penttcostede,  effusoR 
Spiritus  S.  cariiaiis  immemoi'em  hceretificem,  etc.  (Gissae, 
1717,  4to) : — Diss.  hist,  theol.  de  ei-anr/tlicm  veritcitis  ante 
reformationem  in  Ilassia  confessionibits  (ibid.  1727, 4to): 
—  Von  dem  Tode  ti.  (lessen  eingehildete  Bitterkeit  (ibid. 
1733,  8vo)  : — Diss,  theol.  de  Deo  et  attrihutis  dirinis,  in 
qua  Art.  I  Av(j.  Conf.  etc.  (ibid.  173G, 4to)  : — Adscensio 
Christi  ante  adscemionem  in  valos  nulla,  Diss.  theoL  qua 
Socinianorum  commenta,  etc.  (ibid.  1737, 4to). — Dciring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  ] )eutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lieutenant  (only  in  the  plur.  D'^JQ'n^'u.'nN,  ach- 
ashdarpenini',iu>m  the  Sanscrit  A«//?-o/)ff,  whence  the 
Greek  ilarpdirtiQ,  and  finally  aaTpcnrijc,  a  satrap,  see 
Guttinr).  Gel.  Anz.  1839,  p.  805  ;  Lassen,  Zeitsclir.  J'ur  d. 
Morgenl.  iii,  161 ;  Bockh,  Corpus  Inscr.  No.  2G9],  c)  oc- 
curs in  Esth.  iii,  12;  viii,  9;  ix,  3;  Ezra  viii,  38;  so  in 
the  Cliald.  form  (rendered  "princes,"  Dan.  iii,  2,  3,  27; 
vi,  1-7)  a  satrap,  i.  e.  governor  or  viceroy  of  the  large 
l)rovinces  among  tlie  ancient  Persians,  possessing  both 
civil  and  military  power,  and  being  iu  the  provinces  the 
representatives  of  the  sovereign,  whose  state  and  splen- 
dor they  also  rivalled  (see  Brisson,  De  reijio  Pers.prin- 
cijiatu,  i,  §  1C8  ;  Hceren,  Ideen,  i,  489  scj.).     See  Satkap. 

Life  (properly  "^H,  usually  in  the  plur.  with  a  suig. 
meaning,  D"''|'n ;  Gr.  ^w//),  generally  of  physical  life  and 


LIFT 


425 


LIGHT 


existence,  as  opposed  to  death  and  non-existence  (Gen. 
ii,  7  ;  XXV,  7 ;  Luke  xvi,  "25 ;  Acts  xvii,  25;  1  Cur.  iii, 
22;  XV,  19;  Heb.  vii,  3;  James  iv,  14;  l{ev\xi,  11;  xvi, 
3).  See  Longevity,  The  ancients  generally  enter- 
tained the  idea  that  the  vital  principle  (which  they  ap- 
pear to  have  denoted  by  the  term  qnrit,  in  distinction 
from  the  soul  itself,  comp.  1  Thess,  v,  23)  resided  par- 
ticularly in  the  blood,  which,  on  that  account,  the  Jews 
were  forbidden  to  use  as  food  (Lev.  xvii,  11).  See 
15looi).  Other  terms  occasionally  rendered  ''life"  in 
the  Scriptures  are  ^S3  (iie'phesh,  a  living  creainxo),  DT^ 
{yom,  a  day,  i.  e.  a  lifetime), /ii'oc  (lifetime),  Trvevfia 
{brcdt/i,  i.  e.  spirit),  ip^X'!  (soul,  or  animating  principle). 
The  term  life  is  ailso  used  more  or  less  figuratively  in 
the  following  acceptations  in  Scripture :  (i.)  For  exist- 
ence, life,  absolutely  and  without  end,  immortality  (Heb. 
vii,  IG).  So  also  "  tree  of  life,"  or  of  immortality,  which 
preserves  from  death  (Rev.  ii,  7;  xxii,  2.  14;  Gen.  ii,  0; 
iii,  22) ;  "  bread  of  life''  (John  vi,  35,  51 ) ;  ''  way  of  life" 
(Psa.  xvi,  11;  Acts  ii,  28);  "water  of  life,"  i.  e.  living 
fountains  of  water,  perennial  (Rev.  vii,  17) ;  crown  of 
life,  the  reward  of  eternal  life  (James  i,  12;  Rev.  ii,  10). 
See  Book  ;  Bread  ;  Ckown  ;  Fountain  ;  Tree,  etc. 
(2.)  Tlie  manner  of  life,  conduct,  in  a  moral  respect ; 
'•newness  of  life"  (Rom.  vi,  4) ;  "  the  life  of  God,"  i.  e. 
the  life  which  God  requires,  a  godly  life  (Eph.  iv,  18 :  2 
Pet.  i,  3).  (3.)  The  term  '"/{/t"  is  also  used  for  spiritual 
life,  or  the  holiness  and  happiness  of  salvation  procured 
by  the  Sa\iour's  death.  In  this  sense,  life  or  eternal  life 
is  the  antithesis  of  death  or  condemnation.  Life  is  the 
image  of  aU  good,  and  is  therefore  employed  to  express 
it  (Ueut.  XXX,  15 ;  John  iii,  IC,  17, 18,  36;  v,  24,  39, 40 ; 
vi,  47  ;  viii,  51 ;  xi,  26  ;  Rom.  v,  12,  18  ;  1  John  v,  11)  ; 
death  is  the  consummation  of  evil,  and  so  it  is  frequent- 
ly used  as  a  strong  expression  in  order  to  designate  ev- 
ery kind  of  evil,  whether  temporal  or  spiritual  (Jer.  xxi, 
8;  Ezck.  xviii,  28;  xxxiii,  11;  Rom.  i,  32;  vi,  21;  vii, 
5,  10,  13,  24;  John  vi,  50,  viii,  21).  (4.)  Life  is  also 
used  for  eternal  life,  i.  e.  the  life  of  bliss  and  glory  in 
the  kingdom  of  (iod  which  awaits  the  true  disciples  of 
Christ  (Matt,  xix,  10,  17;  .John  iii,  15;  1  Tim.  iv,  8; 
Acts  V,  20  ;  Rom.  v,  17 ;  1  Pet.  iii,  7  ;  2  Tim.  i,  1).  (5.) 
The  term  life  is  also  used  of  God  and  Christ  or  the 
Word,  as  the  absolute  source  and  cause  of  all  life  (John 
i,  4 ;  V,  26,  39 ;  xi,  25  ;  xii,  50 ;  xiv,  6 ;  xvii,  3  ;  Col.  iii, 
4 ;  1  John  i,  1, 2 ;  v,  20).     See  Death. 

LIFE  EVERLASTING.  See  Eternal  Life;  Fu- 
ture Life. 

Lift  (prop.  X'^5,  a'ipio),  besides  having  the  general 
sense  of  raising,  is  used  in  several  peculiar  phrases  iu 
Scripture.  To  lift  up  the  Hands  is,  among  the  Ori- 
entals, a  common  part  of  the  ceremony  of  taking  an 
oath:  "I  have  lift  up  mine  hand  unto  the  Lord,"  says 
Abraham  (Gen.  xiv,  22);  '-I  will  bring  you  into  the 
land  concerning  which  I  lift  up  my  hand"  (Exod.  vi,  8), 
which  I  promised  with  an  oath.  To  lift  up  one's  hand 
against  any  one  is  to  attack  him,  to  fight  him  (2  Sam. 
xviii,  28;  1  Kings  xi,  2G).  To  lift  up  one's  face  in  the 
presence  of  any  one  is  to  appear  boklly  in  his  presence 
(2  Sam.  ii,  22;  Ezra  ix,  6.  (See  also  Job  x,  15  ;  xi,  15.) 
To  lift  up  one's  hands,  eyes,  soul,  or  heart  unto  the  Lord 
are  expressions  describing  the  sentiments  and  emotion 
of  one  who  prays  earnestly  or  desires  a  thing  Avith  ar- 
dor— Calmet,  s.  v. 

Lifters  and  ANTILIFTERS,  a  name  given  about 
the  opening  of  the  18th  century  to  the  congregations  at 
Killraaruock,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  who,  according  to 
Sir  John  Sinclair,  differed  on  the  paltry  question  wheth- 
er it  was  necessary  for  the  minister  to  lift  iu  his  hand 
the  plate  of  bread  before  its  distriljutioii  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  Lifters  holding  tliis  to  be  essential,  the 
others  regarding  it  as  a  matter  of  no  moment,  Thev 
were  also  called  New  Lights,  and  the  others  Old  Lights, 
terms  that  have  been  applied  in  other  cases  somewhat 
similar.  — Gregoire, //wf.  i,  61 ;  quoted  from  Sinclair, 
Wor/cs,  ix,  375-6 ;  Williams,  Religious  Lncyclop.  s.  v. 


Light  (properly  "nN,  or,  (fiuuc,  from  its  shining)  is 
represented  in  the  Scriptures  as  the  immediate  result 
and  otfspring  of  a  divine  command  (Gen,  i,  3),  where 
doubtless  we  are  to  understand  a  reappearance  of  the 
celestial  luminaries,  still  partially  obscured  by  the  haze 
that  settled  as  a  pall  over  the  grave  of  nature  at  some 
tremendous  cataclysm  which  well-nigh  reduced  the 
globe  to  its  pristine  chaos,  rather  than  their  actual  for- 
mation, although  they  are  subsequently  introduced  (Gen, 
i,  14  sq,).  In  consequence  of  the  intense  brilliancy  and 
beneficial  influence  of  light  in  an  Eastern  climate,  it 
easily  and  naturally  became,  with  Orientals,  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  highest  human  good.  From  this  idea 
the  transition  was  an  easy  one,  in  corrupt  and  supersti- 
tious minds,  to  deify  the  great  sources  of  light.  See 
Sun;  Moon,  When  "Eastern  nations  beheld  the  sun 
shining  in  his  strength,  or  the  moon  walking  in  her 
brightness,  their  hearts  were  secretly  enticed,  and  their 
mouth  kissed  their  hand  in  token  of  adoration  (Job 
xxxi,  26,  27),  See  Adoration,  This  'iniquity'  the 
Hebrews  not  only  avoided,  but  when  they  considered 
the  heavens  they  recognised  the  work  of  God's  fingers, 
and  learnt  a  lesson  of  humility  as  well  as  of  reverence 
(Psa,  viii,  3  sq.).  On  the  contrary,  the  entire  residue 
of  the  East,  with  scarcely  any  exception,  worshijiped 
the  sun  and  the  light,  primarily,  perhaps,  as  symbols  of 
divine  power  and  goodness,  but,  in  a  more  degenerate 
state,  as  themselves  divine ;  whence,  in  conjunction  with 
darkness,  the  negation  of  light,  arose  the  doctrine  of 
dualism,  two  principles,  the  one  of  light,  the  good  power, 
the  other  of  darkness,  the  evU  power,  a  corruption  which 
rose  and  spread  the  more  easily  because  the  whole  of 
human  life,  being  a  checkered  scene,  seems  divided  as 
between  two  conflicting  agencies,  the  bright  and  the 
dark,  the  joyous  and  the  sorrowful,  what  is  caUetl  pros- 
perous and  what  is  called  adverse"  (Kitto).  But  in  the 
Scriptures  the  purer  symbolism  is  everywhere  main- 
tained (see  Wemyss,  Symbol.  Diet.  s.  v.).  "  AU  the  more 
joyous  emotions  of  the  mind,  all  the  pleasing  sensations 
of  the  frame,  all  the  happy  hours  of  domestic  intercourse, 
were  habitually  described  among  the  Hebrews  under 
imagery  derived  from  light  (1  Kings  xi,  36 ;  Isa.  Iviii, 
8,  Esth.  viii,  16;  Psa.  xcvii,  11).  The  transition  was 
natural  from  earthly  to  heavenly,  from  corporeal  to  spir- 
itual things,  and  so  light  came  to  typify  true  religion 
and  the  felicity  which  it  imparts.  But  as  light  not  only 
came  from  God,  but  also  makes  man's  way  clear  before 
him,  so  it  was  employed  to  signify  moral  truth,  and  pre- 
eminently that  divine  system  of  truth  which  is  set  forth 
in  the  Bible,  from  its  earliest  gleamings  onward  to  the 
perfect  day  of  the  great  sun  of  righteousness.  The  ap- 
plication of  the  term  to  religious  topics  had  the  greater 
propriety  because  the  light  in  the  world,  being  accom- 
panied by  heat,  purifies,  quickens,  enriches,  which  efforts 
it  is  the  peculiar  province  of  true  religion  to  produce  in 
the  human  soul  (Isa.  viii,  20,  Matt,  iv,  16;  Psa.  cxix, 
105;  2  Pet.  i,  19;  Eph.  v,  8;  2  Tim.  i,  10;  1  Pet.  ii,  9)" 
(Kitto). 

Besides  its  phj-sical  sense  (Matt,  xvii,  2 ;  Acts  ix,  3 ; 
xii,  7 ;  2  Cor.  iv,  6),  the  term  light  is  used  by  metonj'my 
for  a  fire  giving  light  (iNIark  xiv,  54;  Luke  xxii,  56); 
for  a  torch,  candle,  or  lamp  (Acts  xvi,  29) ;  for  the  ma- 
terial light  of  heaven,  as  the  sun,  moon,  or  stars  (Psa, 
cxxxvi,  7 ;  James  i,  17),  In  figurative  language  it  sig- 
nifies a  manifest  or  open  state  of  things  (Matt,  x,  27; 
Luke  xii,  3),  and  in  a  higher  sense  the  eternal  source  of 
truth,  purity,  and  joy  (1  John  i,  5).  God  is  said  to 
dwell  in  light  inaccessible  (1  Tim.  vi,  16),  which  seems 
to  contain  a  reference  to  the  glory  and  splendor  that 
shone  in  the  holy  of  holies,  where  Jehovah  appeared  in 
the  luminous  cloud  above  the  mercy  seat,  and  which 
none  but  the  high-priest,  and  he  only  once  a  year,  was 
permitted  to  approach  (Lev.  xvi,  2 ;  Ezek.  i,  22,  26,  28). 
This  light  was  typical  of  the  glory  of  the  celestial  world. 
See  Shekinah.  Light  itself  is  employed  to  signify  the 
edicts,  laws,  rules,  or  directions  that  proceed  from  ruling 
powers  for  the  good  of  their  subjects.    Thus  of  the  great 


LIGPIT 


426 


LIGHTFOOT 


kins  of  all  the  earth  the  Psalmist  says,  "  Thy  word  is  a 
lij^ht  unto  ray  path"  (Pisa,  cxix,  105),  and  "Thy  judg- 
ments are  as  the  light"  (Hos.  vi,  5).  Agreeably  to  the 
notion  of  lights  being  the  symbols  of  good  government, 
liglit  also  signifies  protection,  deliverance,  and  joy. 
Light  also  frequently  signifies  instruction  both  by  doc- 
trine and  example  (Matt,  v,  IG ;  John  v,  35),  or  persons 
considered  as  giving  such  light  (Matt,  v,  14 ;  Kom.  ii,  19). 
It  is  applied  in  the  highest  sense  to  Christ,  the  true 
liglit,  the  sun  of  righteousness,  who  is  that  in  the  spirit- 
ual which  the  material  light  is  in  the  natural  world,  the 
great  author  not  only  of  illumination  and  knowledge, 
but  of  spiritual  life,  healtli,  and  joy  to  the  soids  of  men 
(Isa.  Ix,  1).  "Among  the  pcrsonitications  on  this  point 
wliich  Scripture  presents  we  may  specify,  (1.)  God.  The 
ajiostle  James  (i,  17)  declares  that  •  every  good  and  per- 
fect gift  cometh  down  from  the  Father  of  lights,  with 
whom  is  no  variableness,  neither  shadow  of  turning,' 
obviously  referring  to  the  faithfidness  of  God  and  the 
constancy  of  his  goodness,  which  shine  on  imdimmed 
and  unshadowed.  So  Paul  (I  Tim.  vi,  16),  'God  who 
dwelleth  in  the  light  which  no  man  can  approach  unto.' 
Here  the  idea  intended  by  the  imagery  is  the  incom- 
prehensibleness  of  the  self- existent  and  eternal  God. 
(2.)  Light  is  also  applied  to  Christ:  'The  people  who 
sat  in  darkness  have  seen  a  great  light'  (Matt,  iv,  16 ; 
Luke  ii,  32;  John  i,  4  scj.).  'He  was  the  true  light;' 
'I  am  the  light  of  the  world'  (John  viii,  12  ;  xii,  35,  36). 
(3.)  It  is  further  used  of  angels,  as  in  2  Cor.  xi,  14: 
'  Satan  himself  is  transformed  into  an  angel  of  light.' 
(4.)  Light  is  moreover  employed  of  men :  John  the  Bap- 
tist '  was  a  burning  and  a  shining  light'  (John  v,  35) ; 
'Ye  are  the  light  of  the  world'  (Matt,  v,  14;  see  also 
Acts  xiii,  47;  Eph.  v,  8)"  (Kitto).     See  Lights. 

LIGHT,  Div'iNE.     See  Knowledge;  Religion. 

LIGHT,  Inward.     See  Quakers. 

LIGHT  OF  Nature.     See  Nature. 

Light,  Friends  of.     See  Free  Congregations. 

Light,  George  C,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  County,  Va.,  Feb.  28,  1785. 
In  1792  liLs  father  removed  to  Kentucky,  and  in  1799 
to  Ohio,  where  in  1803  he  joined  the  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church.  In  1804  the  son  was  converted  at  a  camp- 
meeting;  in  1806  he  entered  the  itinerant  ministry  in 
the  Western  Conference,  and  in  1807  he  was  ordained 
deacon.  Locating  after  his  marriage  in  1808,  he  was 
employed  as  a  surveyor  till  1822,  when  he  entered  the 
Kentucky  Conference,  Yrom  this  time  until  1859  he 
labored  actively  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  tilling  the 
most  important  stations  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and 
Mississippi.  He  died  Feb.  27,  1859.  Mr.  Light  was 
held  to  lie  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  useful  ministers 
in  the  \\'cst  during  many  years.  No  man  of  his  day,  it 
is  thought,  liad  greater  control  over  the  popular  mind. — 
Camp,  ,Sk(fr/i  of  the  Rev.  G.  C.  L'njht  (Nashville,  1860). 

Light,  Old  and  New.  See  United  Presby- 
terians. 

Lightfoot,  John  (1),  D.D.,  a  noted  English  divine 
and  Hebraist,  was  born  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  in  1G02. 
He  was  educated  first  at  a  grammar-school  at  Morton 
Green,  in  Cheshire,  and  afterwards  at  Cambridge.  He 
was  remarkable,  at  Cambridge  and  afterwards,  for  his 
eloquence  and  his  proficiency  in  Latin  and  (Jreek.  Quit- 
ting tlie  university,  he  became  assistant  at  the  well- 
known  school  of  Hepton,  in  Derbyshire.  A  yc(ir  or  two 
after  he  entered  into  orders,  and  Settled  at  Norton-un- 
der-Hales,  in  Shropshire,  where  he  began  the  study  of 
the  Hebrew,  which  ripeneil  into  the  most  familiar  and 
consummate  knowledge  of  the  whole  range  of  Biblical 
and  I{abt)inical  literature.  In  1G27  he  accei)ted  the 
cure  of  Stone,  in  Staffordshire.  Two  years  later  he 
removed  to  Ilornsey,  in  order  to  be  near  tlie  librarj-  of 
Sion  College,  and  later  accepted  the  rectory  of  Ashford, 
in  Stattbrdshire.  Here  he  remained  during  the  tur- 
bulent vears  which  led  to  the  death  of  Charles  I,  the 


establishment  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  tempa- 
rary  subversion  of  the  Church  of  England.  During 
the  civil  war  he  was  identified  with  the  Presbyterians, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at 
Westminster,  where  he  dis]jlayed  great  courage  and 
learning  in  opposing  many  of  those  tenets  which  the 
divines  were  endeavoring  to  establish.  While  in  Lon- 
don he  was  minister  of  St.  Barthokimew's.  In  1G53 
he  was  presented  by  Parliament  with  the  living  of 
Great  Munden,  in  Hertfordshire.  In  1G55  he  entered 
upon  the  ofHce  of  vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge,  to  which 
he  was  chosen  that  year,  having  takeil  tlie  degree  of 
doctor  in  divinity  in  1652.  The  living  of  Great  Mun- 
den was  given  to  Dr.  Lightfoot  by  Parliament,  and  upon 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II  it  was  bestowed  upon  an- 
other person.  Through  the  influence  of  Sheldon,  then 
bishop  of  London,  Lightfoot  was,  however,  reinstated  in 
his  living,  as  well  as  confirmed  in  the  mastership  of 
Catharine  Hall,  which  he  had  offered  to  resign,  he  hav- 
ing previously  complied  with  the  terms  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity.  Tlirough  the  influence  of  Sir  Orlando 
Bridgeman  he  was  appointed  to  a  prebendal  stall  in  the 
cathedral  of  Ely,  where  he  died  peaceablj^,  Dec.  6, 1675. 
"  Lightfoot  was  a  very  learned  Hebraist  for  his  time, 
but  he  was  not  free  from  the  unscientific  crotchets  of 
the  period,  holding,  for  example,  the  inspiration  of  the 
vowel-points,  etc.  He  has  done  good  service  to  theol- 
ogy by  pointing  out  and  insisting  upon  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  Talmudical  and  IMidrashic  writings 
and  the  New  Testament,  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  is 
only  to  be  understood  by  illustrations  from  the  anterior 
and  contemporaneous  religious  literature"  (Chambers). 
His  object  at  first  was  "to  jiroduce  one  great  and  per- 
fect work — a  harmony  of  the  four  evangelists,  with  a 
commentary  and  prolegomena.  But  the  little  probabil- 
ity of  his  being  able  to  publish  at  once  so  vast  a  work 
as  he  saw  it  would  become  were  he  to  carry  out  the  idea 
in  its  completeness — in  an  age  when  brevity  was  essen- 
tial to  everything  which  issued  from  the  press — deter- 
mined him  to  give  to  the  world  from  time  to  time  the 
result  of  his  labors  in  separate  treatises.  The  subject- 
matter  of  these  treatises  may  be  classed  under  the  gen- 
eral heads  of  chronology,  chorography,  investigation  of 
original  texts  and  versions,  examination  of  Kabbinical 
comments  and  paraphrases"  (Kitto).  Lightfoot's  works 
are :  Eruhhin,  or  Miscellanies,  Christian  and  Judaical 
(1G29)  : — A  J'eio  and  new  Observations  vpon  the  Book  of 
Genesis  (1642);  —  A  Ilandfid  of  Gleaninr/s  out  of  the 
Book  of  Exodus  (1643): — The  Harmony  of  the  four 
Evangelists  amourj  themselves  andvith  the  0.  T.  (1644): 
— A  Commentarij  upon  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  1st  part 
(1645) : — The  Harmony,  2d  part  (no  date): — The  Tem- 
ple Service  in  the  Days  of  our  Saviour  (1649) : — The 
Harmony,  3d  part  (1649)  : — The  Temple  (1650)  : — Harm 
HehixnccB  et  Talmudicce  (1658);  —  Horae,  etc.,  vpo?i  the 
Gospel  of  St.Mai-k  (16G1;  new  ed.  bj-  Eev.  R.  GandeU, 
Oxf.  1859,  4  vols.  8vo)  : — Jewish  and  Talmudical  Exer- 
citations  vpon  St. Luke: — Jetrish,  etc.,  upon  St.  John: — 
Horce  Hebraico',  etc.,  Acts  of  the  Apostles: — Horw,  etc., 
upon  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  During  the 
latter  j'ears  of  his  life  he  contributed  the  most  valuable 
assistance  to  the  authors  of  A^'alton's  Polyijlot  Bible,  Cas- 
tell's  Heptaylot  Lexicon,  and  I'ool's  Synojms  Criticorum. 
His  works  were  published  entire,  (1)  with  a  preface  by 
Dr.  Bright  and  a  life  by  tlie  editor,  John  Stryjie,  at  Lon- 
don in  1684  (2  vols,  fob);  (2)  at  Amsterdaiii  in  16^6  (2 
vols,  fol.) ;  (3)  at  Utrecht,  by  John  Leusden,  in  1699  (3 
vols,  fol.)  ;  and  (4)  by  Pitman,  at  London,  in  from  1822- 
25  (13  vols.  8vo),  which  is  the  best  edition,  and  contains 
a  very  elaborate  liiography  of  Lightfoot.  Dr.  Adam 
Clarke  says;  "In  Biblical  criticism  I  consider  Liglitfoot 
the  first  of  aU  English  writers;  and  in  this  I  include 
his  learning,  his  judgment,  and  his  usefulness."  See,  be- 
sides the  biographies  connected  with  the  various  collec- 
tions of  his  works, />'?-efi.s'  Desaiptio  Vitce  J.  Liahlfooti 
(1699);  Kitto,  Cyclop,  Bib.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v.;  Ilcrzog, 
Real-Encyklopddie,  vol.  viii,  s.  v.     (C.  R.  B.) 


LIGHTFOOT 


427 


LIGN-ALOE 


Lightfoot,  John  (2),  an  English  divine  and  bota- 
nist, was  born  in  Gloucestershire  in  1735.  He  was  ed- 
ucated I'or  the  Church,  became  chaplain  to  the  duchess 
of  Portland,  and  obtained  the  livings  of  Sheldon  and 
Gotham.  He  also  devoted  himself  specially  to  the  study 
of  botany,  and,  in  company  with  Pennant,  explored  the 
Hebrides  about  1772,  and  published  in  1777  a  valuable 
"  Flora  of  Scotland"  (Fiord  &'cotica,  2  vols.),  with  excel- 
lent figures.  He  died  in  1788. — Thomas,  Biorjrcqjhical 
Dicfidiutri/,  p.  1425. 

Lightning  ([iroperly  p'^3,  barak',  Dan.  x,  6 ;  collec- 
tively H'/Zi/uiiif/s,  Psa.  cxliv,  G;  2  Sam.  xxii,  15;  Ezra  i,  13; 
plur.Jo!)  xxxviii,  35;  Psa.  xviii,  15;  Ixxvii,  19,  etc.;  trop. 
the  brvjhtness  of  a  glittering  sword,  Ezek.  xxi,  15,  33; 
Deut.  xxxii,  41,  etc. ;  aoTpcnrl],  Matt,  xxiv,  27 ;  xxviii, 
3;  Luke  x,  18;  xi,  36;  xvii,  24;  Eev.  iv,  5;  viii,  5;  xi, 
19;  xvi,  18 ;  once  pT3,  huzak',  ajhtsh  of  lightning,  Ezek. 
i,  14;  less  properly  "lix,  6?;  light,  Job  xxxvii,  3,  11,  25; 
T^sb,  lappid',  a  burning  iorc/i,  Exod.  xx,  18 ;  lig.  PTn, 
chaziz',  an  arrow,  i.  e.  tlwrndcr-Jlash,  Zech.  x,  1 ;  comp. 
Job  xxviii,  26;  xxxviii,  25).  Travellers  state  that  in 
Syria  lightnings  are  frequent  in  the  autumnal  months. 
Seldom  a  night  passes  without  a  great  deal  of  lightning, 
which  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  thunder  and  some- 
times not.  A  squall  of  wind  and  clouds  of  dust  are  the 
usual  fiircrunners  of  the  iirst  rains.  See  Palestine. 
To  these  natural  phenomena  the  sacred  writers  fre- 
quently allude.  In  directing  their  energies,  "  the  Lord 
hath  his  way  in  the  whirlwind  and  in  the  storm,  and 
the  clouds  are  the  dust  of  his  feet;  the  mountains  quake 
at  him,  and  the  hills  melt,  and  the  earth  is  burned  at 
his  presence ;  his  fury  is  poured  out  like  fire,  and  the 
rocks  are  thrown  down  by  him"  (Nah.  i,  3-C).  The 
terrors  of  tlie  divine  wrath  are  often  represented  by 
thunder  and  lightning;  and  thunder,  on  account  of  its 
awful  impression  on  the  minds  of  mortals,  is  also  spoken 
of  in  Scripture  as  the  "  voice  of  the  Lord"  (Psa.  cxxxv, 
7;  cxliv,  6;  2  Sam.  xxii,  15;  Job  xxviii,  26;  xxxvii,  4, 
6;  xxxviii,  25;  xl,  9;  Zech.  ix,  14;  Rev.  i\%  5  ;  xvi,  18 
-21).  On  account  of  ihcjire  attending  their  light,  they 
are  the  symbols  of  edicts  enforced  with  destructi'ia  to 
those  who  oppose  them,  or  who  hinder  others  from  giving 
obedience  to  them  (Psa.  cxliv,  6 ;  Zech.  ix,  14 ;  Psa. 
xviii,  14;  liev.  iv,  5;  xvi,  18).  Thunders  and  light- 
nings, when  they  proceed  from  the  throne  of  God  (as  in 
Pev.  iv,  5),  are  fit  representations  of  God's  glorious  and 
awfid  majesty;  but  vfhcnjire  comes  down  from  heaven 
upon  the  earth,  it  expresses  some  judgment  of  God  on 
the  world  (as  in  Rev.  xx,  9).  The  voices,  thunders, 
lightnings,  and  great  hail,  in  Rev.  xvi,  18-21,  are  inter- 
preted expressly  of  an  exceeding  great  plague,  so  that 
men  blasphemed  on  account  of  it  (see  Wemyss,  Sgrnb. 
Diet.  s.  v.).     See  Thundkr. 

Lights.  L  The  use  of  artificial  light  in  baptism  was 
practiced  in  the  Church  at  an  early  day,  although  it 
was  opposed  in  this  instance  as  in  its  use  for  communion 
service,  etc.  But  where  it  was  used  it  was  the  practice, 
in  addition  to  the  ceremony  of  putting  on  white  gar- 
ments at  baptism,  to  place  lighted  tapers  in  the  hands 
of  the  baptized.  Gregory  Nazianzen  says :  "  The  station 
where,  immediately  after  baptism,  thou  shalt  be  placed 
before  the  altar,  is  an  emblem  of  the  glory  of  the  life  to 
come;  the  psalmody  witli  which  thou  shalt  be  received 
is  a  foretaste  of  those  hymns  and  songs  of  a  better  life ; 
and  the  lamps  which  thou  shalt  light  are  a  figure  of 
those  lamps  of  faith  wherewith  bright  and  virgin  souls 
shall  go  forth  to  meet  the  Bridegroom."  Others  say 
that  the  lamp  was  designed  to  be  a  symbol  of  their  own 
illumination,  and  to  remind  the  candidates  of  the  words 
of  Christ,  "  Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men  that  they 
may  see  your  good  works,  and  glorify  your  Father  which 
is  in  heaven."  In  some  baptisms  the  attendi\nts  were 
clothed  in  white,  and  carried  tapers.  At  the  baptism 
of  the  younger  Theodosius,  the  leaders  of  the  people 
were  all  clothed  in  white,  and  all  the  senators  and  men 
of  quality  carried  lamps. 


Lighted  candles  were,  according  to  St.  Jerome  (Epist, 
cord.  Vigilant,  cap.  3.;  comp.  also  Cave,  Prim.  Cltrist.  lib. 
i,  c.  7,  p.  203),  sometimes  used  in  the  Eastern  chiurches 
when  the  Gospel  was  read,  and  were  designed  to  show 
the  joy  of  those  who  received  the  glad  tidings,  and  also 
to  be  a  symbol  of  the  light  of  truth.  The  lighting  of 
candles  on  the  communion  table  is  observed  only  in  the 
Romish  Church.  See  Farrar,  Eccks.  Dictionary,  s.  v. ; 
Bingham,  Antiquities  of  the  Christ.  Church,  bk.  xii.  ch, 
i\^,  sect.  4;  A\t,  Christlich.  Cultits  (1851),  p.  95;  Ilerzog, 
Real-Encyklop.  viii,  517  sq. ;  Aschbach,  A!'t/-c/ie/i-Lea-jX'on, 
iii,  769  (Kerzen).     See  Candi.es. 

II.  Lights  were  emjjloyed  by  the  Apostolic  Church, 
but  for  no  other  purpose  tlian  to  obviate  the  inconven- 
ience of  assembling  for  worship  in  the  dark.  Their  use 
as  a  matter  of  religion,  or,  rather,  of  superstition,  is  of 
far  less  ancient  date,  although  it  has  been  defended  as  a 
primitive  custom,  and  might,  of  course,  be  traced  even 
to  Jewish  anticjuity,  if  such  a  precedent  were  esteemed 
of  any  value.  In  all  probability,  artificial  light  was  used 
during  the  daj^time,  and  for  a  sj'mbolical  purpose,  about 
the  4th  century,  if  we  accept  the  statement  of  St.Pauli- 
nus,  bishop  of  Sola  (A.D.  353-431),  who,  speaking  of  the 
great  numbers  of  wax-lights  which  burned  about  the 
altars,  making  the  night  more  splendid  than  the  day, 
adds  that  the  light  of  the  day  itself  was  made  more  glo- 
rious by  the  same  means : 

"Nocte  dieque  niicnnt.     Sic  nox  splendore  did 
Fulget:  et  ipsa  dies  ccelesti  ilkistris  houore 
Plus  micat  innunieris  lucem  geminata  lucernis." 

(Pauliu.  Nat.  iii,  .S'.  Felicis.) 
(Compare  also  Isidore,  Origin,  vii,  12.)     But  this  custom 
\vas  severely  condemned  by  many.     Comp.  Lamps. 

HI.  The  practice  of  lighting  candles  on  the  altar, 
which  prevailed,  and  stiU  prevails,  in  the  Romish  Church, 
was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Reformation. 

Those  candles  which  (according  to  one  of  the  Injunc- 
tions of  Edward  VI,  set  forth  in  1547)  have  been  suf- 
fered to  remain  upon  the  Lord's  table  are  sometimes 
designated  as  "lights  on  the  communion  table.''  But 
it  is  to  be  noticed  that  no  lights  are  ever  used  in  the 
English  churches,  onl}-  candles,  which  are  never  light- 
ed, the  lighting  of  any  such  candles  at  an  evening  serv- 
ice being  merely  for  a  necessary  purpose.  See  Eden, 
Theol.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Altar. 

Light.s,  Feast  of.     See  Epiphany. 

Lign-aloe (only  in  the  plur. D''?nx,  ahalim', Numb, 
xxiv,  6,  Sept.  (Tici/i'oi,  Yulg.  tabernacula ;  Prov.  vii,  17. 
Sept.  o7ko)',  Vidg.  aloe,  A.  V.  "  aloes ;"  or  fem.  J^iPi^X, 
ahaloth',  Psa.  xlv,  8,  Sept.  araK-n),  Vulg.  gutia,  A.  V. 
"  aloes ;"  Cant,  iv,  14,  aXioB,  aloe,  "  aloes"),  a  kind  of 
perfume  which  interpreters  have  by  common  consent 
regarded  as  derived  from  some  Oriental  tree,  and  com- 
pared w^ith  the  agallochiim  (dydXXoxov')  or  aloe-trood 
{t,v\a\m]),  described  by  Dioscorides  (i,  21)  in  the  fol- 
lowing terms :  "  It  is  a  wood  brought  from  India  and 
Arabia,  resembling  thyine-wood,  compact,  fragrant,  as- 
tringent to  the  taste,  with  great  bittemess ;  having  a 

skin-like   bark It  is   burned  for  frankincense." 

Pliny  likewise  speaks  of  it  as  being  derived  from  the 
same  region  (Nat.  Hist,  xxvli,  5).  Later  writer.?,  as 
Orobasius,  ^tius,  and  P.  yEgineta,  mention  it,  but  give 
no  further  description.  Arabic  authors,  however,  as 
Phases,  Serapion,  and  others,  were  well  acquainted  with 
the  substance,  of  which  they  describe  several  varieties; 
and  the  Latin  translator  c)f  Avicenna  (Iii,  132)  gives 
"agallochum,"  "xylaloe,"  and  "lignum  aloes"  as  equiv- 
alent to  the  aghlajun,  aghalukhi,  and  I'ld  of  the  text. 
Royle  (Illustr.  ofliimal.  Hot.  p.  171)  has  traced  the  same 
substance  in  the  aggur,  a  famous  aromatic  wood  obtain- 
ed in  the  bazaars  of  Northern  India  under  three  names: 
1,  aod-i-hindi ;  2,  a  variety  procured  from  Surat,  but 
not  differing  essentially  from  3,  aod-i-kimari,  said  to 
come  from  China,  doubtless  the  alcanierium  of  Avicen- 
na. Garcias  ab  Hosto  (Clusius,  Exot.  I/ist.), v.ntmix  on 
this  subject  near  Surat,  says  that  "  it  is  called  in  Ma- 
lacca garo,  but  the  choicest  sort  calambac."     Paul  a 


LIGN-ALOE 


428 


LIGN-ALOE 


Bartholin  (in  Vyacarana,  p.  205)  likewise  distinsyuishes 
three  sorts. '"one  common,  very  odorous,  and  of  j^reat 
priee,  called  ayhil;  the  black,  which  is  termed  kdr-aghhil 
or  kal-uf/am ;  the  third,  producing  a  Hower,  named  nw- 
f/ariiii,  properly  marKjahjam  or  maU'KjandMijaL" 

There  i.s  considerable  confusion  among  naturalists  in 
their  attempts  to  identify  the  exact  tree  which  yields 
the  far-famed  wood.  "  Dr.  Roxburgh  states  that  uguru 
is  the  Sanscrit  name  of  the  incense  or  aloe-wood,  which 
in  Ilindostanee  is  called  lu/iir,  and  in  Persian  aod-hindi, 
and  that  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  real  calamhac,  or 
afiallochum  of  the  ancients,  is  yielded  by  an  immense 
tree,  a  native  of  the  mountainous  tracts  east  of  and 
southeast  from  Silhet,  in  about  24°  of  N.  latitude.  This 
plant,  he  says,  cannot  be  distinguished  from  thriving 
plants,  exactly  of  the  same  age,  of  the  Garo  de  Malacca, 
received  from  that  place,  and  growing  in  the  garden  of 
Calcutta.  He  further  states  that  small  cpiantities  of 
agallochum  are  sometimes  imported  into  Calcutta  by 
sea  from  the  eastward,  but  that  such  is  always  deemed 
inferior  to  that  of  Silhet  (Flora  Ind.  ii,  423).  The  Guro 
de  Malacca  was  tirst  described  by  Lamarck  {Encyclopedie 
Methodique,  i,  47  sq.),  from  a  specimen  presented  to  him 
by  Sonnerat  as  that  of  the  tree  which  yielded  the  hois 
d'aiffle  of  commerce.  Lamarck  named  this  tree  Aqui- 
laria  Malaccemis,  which  Cavanilles  afterwards  changed 
mmecessarily  to  .1  quilaria  ovata.  As  Dr.  Eoxburgh 
found  that  his  plant  belonged  to  the  same  genus,  lie 
named  it  Aquilaria  agallochum,  but  it  is  printed  Agal- 
loc/ri  in  Ins  Flora  Tndica,  probably  by  an  oversight.  He 
is  of  opinion  that  the  A  gal lochum  secundariiim  of  Rura- 
pbius  i^IIerb.  Ami.  ii,  34,  t.  10),  which  that  author  re- 
ceived under  the  name  oi  Agallochum  Malacceiise,  also 
belongs  to  the  same  genus,  as  well  as  the  Swfu  of 
Kiempfer  {Aman.  Exot.  p.  903),  and  the  Ophispei-mum 
sinense  of  Loureiro.  This  last-named  missionary  de- 
scribes a  third  plant,  which  he  names  Aloexylum  agal- 
lochum, representing  it  as  a  large  tree  growing  in  the 
lofty  mountains  of  Champava,  belonging  to  Cochin 
China,  about  13°  of  N.  lat.,  near  the  great  river  La\'um, 
and  producing  calamhac  (^Flo)-a  Cochin  Chinensis,  edit. 
Wildenow,  i,  327).  This  tree,  belonging  to  the  class 
and  ortler  Decandria  monogynia  of  Linnrous,  and  the  nat- 
ural family  of  Leguminosce,  has  always  been  admitted  as 
one  of  tlie  trees  yielding  agallochum.  But,  as  Loureiro 
himself  confesses  that  he  had  only  once  seen  a  muti- 
lated branch  of  the  tree  in  flower,  which,  by  long  cai- 
riage,  had  tlie  petals,  anthers,  and  stigma  much  bruised 
and  torn,  it  is  not  impossible  that  this  may  also  belong 
to  tlie  genus  Aquilaria,  especially  as  his  tree  agrees  in 
so  many  points  with  that  descrilied  by  Dr.  Roxburgh. 
Rumphius  has  described  and  tigured  a  third  plant,  which 
he  named  A  rhor  excacans,  from  '  Blindhout,'  in  conse- 
quence of  its  acrid  juice  destroying  sight,  whence  the 
generic  name  of  Excwcaria ;  the  specilic  one  of  agallo- 
chum he  ajiplied  because  its  wood  is  similar  to,  and  often 
substituled  for  agallochum,  and  he  states  that  it  was 
sometimes  exported  as  such  to  Europe,  and  even  to 
China.  This  tree,  the  Excwcaria  agallochum,  of  the 
Liniiffian  class  and  order  Diacia  triandria,  and  the  nat- 
ural family  of  Euphorbiacece,  is  also  very  common  in  the 
delta  of  tlie  (Jangcs,  where  it  is  called  Geria;  'but  the 
wood-cutters  of  the  Sundcrbunds,'  Dr.  Roxburgh  says, 
'  who  are  the  people  best  acquauited  with  the  nature  of 
this  tree,  report  the  pale,  white,  milky  juice  thereof  to 
be  liigldy  acrid  and  very  dangerous.'  The  only  use 
made  of  tlie  tree,  as  far  as  Dr.  Roxburgh  could  learn, 
was  for  cliarcoal  and  firewood.  Agallochum  of  any  sort 
is,  he  believed,  never  found  in  this  tree,  which  is  often 
the  only  one  ((uoted  as  that  yielding  agila-wood;  but, 
notwitlistandiug  the  negative  testimony  of  Dr.  Rox- 
burgli,  it  may,  in  particular  situations,  as  stated  by 
L'umiiliius,  yield  a  substitute  for  that  fragrant  and  long- 
famed  wood.  In  Arabian  authors  numerous  varieties 
of  agalloclium  arc  mentioned  (Celsus,  llierobof.  p.  143), 
Persian  authors  mention  only  three:  \.  Aod-i-hindi ; 
that  i5,  the  Indian;  2.  Aod-i-chini,  or  Chinese   kind 


(probably  that  from  Cochin  China) ;  3.  Sumunduri,  a 
term  generally  applied  to  things  brought  from  sea,  which 
may  have  reference  to  the  inferior  variety  from  the  In- 
dian islands.  In  old  works,  such  as  those  of  Bauhin  and 
Ray,  three  kinds  are  also  mentioned:  \.  Agallochum 
prwsfantissimum,  also  called  Calamhac;  2.  A .  Ojficina- 
rum,  or  Palo  de  Aguilla  of  Linschoten  ;  3.  A.  sylvestre, 
or  Aguilla  brava.  But,  besides  these  varieties,  obtained 
from  different  localities,  perhaps  from  different  plants, 
there  are  also  distinct  varieties,  obtainable  from  the 
same  plant.  Thus,  in  a  MS.  accomit  by  Dr.  Roxburgh, 
to  which  Dr.  Royle  had  access,  it  is  stated,  in  a  letter 
from  R.  K.  Dick,  at  Silhet,  that  four  different  qualities 
may  be  obtained  from  the  same  tree  :  1st,  Ghta-ki, -which 
sinks  in  water,  and  sells  from  12  to  IG  rupees  per  seer  of 
2  lbs.;  '^d,  Doim,  G  to  8  rupees  per  seer;  3d,  Simula, 
which  floats  in  water,  3  to  4  rupees;  and,  4th,  Churum, 
which  is  in  small  pieces,  and  also  floats  in  water,  from  1 
to  1^  rupees  per  seer,  and  that  sometimes  80  lbs.  of 
these  four  kinds  may  be  obtained  from  one  tree.  AU 
these  tuggu7--trees,  as  they  are  called,  do  not  produce  the 
aggur,  nor  does  ever}'  part  of  even  the  most  productive 
tree.  The  natives  cut  into  the  wood  until  they  observe 
dark-colored  veins  yielding  the  perfume ;  these  guide 
them  to  the  place  containing  the  aggur,  which  generally 
extends  but  a  short  way  through  the  centre  of  the  trunk 
or  branch.  An  essence,  or  cdtur,  is  obtained  by  bruising 
the  wood  in  a  mortar,  and  then  infusing  it  in  boiling 
water,  when  the  attur  floats  on  the  surface.  Early  de- 
cay does  not  seem  incident  to  all  kinds  of  agallochum, 
for  -we  possess  specimens  of  the  wood  gorged  with  fra- 
grant resin  {Illustr,  Him.  Bot.  p.  173)  which  show  no 
symptoms  of  it,  but  stiU  it  is  stated  that  the  wood  is 
sometimes  buried  in  the  earth.  This  may  be  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  its  specific  gravity.  A  large  spec- 
imen in  the  museum  of  the  East-India  House  displays  a 
cancellated  structure  in  which  the  resinous  parts  remain, 
the  rest  of  the  wood  having  been  removed,  apparently 
by  decay"  (Kitto).  Notwithstanding  the  uncertainty 
respecting  the  identity  of  some  of  the  above-described 
varieties,  we  have,  at  all  events,  two  trees  ascertained  as 
yielding  this  fragrant  wood — one,  Aquilaria  agallochum, 
a  native  of  Silhet,  and  the  other  A .  ovafa  or  Malaccen- 
sis,  a  native  of  Malacca,  although  it  is  still  not  clear  that 
thev  are  anvthing  more  than  local  variations  of  the 


Aquilaria  Agallochum. 

same  species.  The  former  is  described  as  a  magnificent 
tree,  growing  to  the  height  of  120  feet,  being  12  feet  in 
girth.  "  The  bark  of  the  trunk  is  smooth  and  ash-col- 
ored, that  of  the  branches  gray  and  lightly  striped  with 
brown.  The  wood  is  white,  and  very  light  and  soft.  It 
is  totally  without  smell,  and  the  leaves,  bark,  and  flOwers 
are  equally  inodorous"  {Sc)-ipt.  IJcrh.  p.  238),     The  fra- 


LIGN-ALOE 


429 


LIGUORI 


grance  appears  to  reside  wholly  iia  the  resin  deposited 
ill  the  pores,  and  is  developed  by  heat.  Both  plants 
belong  to  the  Linnrean  class  and  order  Decandria  mono- 
gynia,  and  the  natural  family  of  A  qiii/driiicce. 

"  It  is  extremely  interesting  to  fnid  that  the  Malay 
name  of  the  substance  in  question,  which  is  agila,  is  so 
little  different  from  the  ahalim  of  the  Hebrew ;  not 
more,  indeed,  than  may  be  observed  in  many  well-known 
words,  where  the  hard  g  of  one  language  is  turned  into 
the  aspirate  in  another.  It  is  therefore  probable  that 
it  was  by  the  name  ar/ila  (arjliil  in  Kosenmliller,  Bihlic. 
Bot.  p.  234)  that  this  wood  was  first  known  in  com- 
merce, being  conveyed  across  the  bay  of  Bengal  to  the 
island  of  Ceylon  or  the  peninsula  of  India,  which  the 
Arab  or  Phoenician  traders  visited  at  very  remote  pe- 
riods, and  where  they  obtained  the  early-known  spices 
and  precious  stones  of  India.  It  is  not  a  little  curious 
that  captain  Hamilton  (Account  of  the.  East  Indies,  i,  G8) 
mentions  it  by  the  name  of  agala,  an  odoriferous  wood 
at  Muscat.  We  know  that  the  Portuguese,  when  they 
reached  the  eastern  coast  from  the  peninsula,  obtained 
it  uniler  this  name,  whence  they  caUed  it  pao  d\iguila, 
or  ear/le-tcood,  which  is  the  origin  of  the  generic  name 
Aquiluria. 

"  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that,  notwithstand- 
ing all  that  has  been  written  to  prove  the  identity  of 
the  aha/im-trees  with  the  aloes -wood  of  commerce, 
and  notwithstanding  the  apparent  connection  of  the 
Hebrew  word  with  the  Arabic  etgldugun  and  the  Greek 
agallochon,  the  opinion  is  not  clear  of  difficulties.  In 
the  lirst  place,  the  passage  in  Numb,  xxiv,  6,  '  as  the 
ahalim  which  Jehovah  hath  planted,'  is  an  argument 
against  the  identification  with  the  Aquilaria  agallo- 
chum.  The  Sept.  seem  to  have  read  D'^PilN,  olialim', 
tents ;  and  they  are  followed  by  the  Vulg.,  the  Syriac,  the 
Arabic,  and  some  other  versions.  If  this  is  not  the  true 
reading — and  the  context  is  against  it — then  if  ahalim 
be  the  Aq.  agallochum,  we  must  suppose  that  Balaam 
is  speaking  of  trees  concerning  which,  in  their  growing 
state,  he  could  have  known  nothing  at  all.  Eosenmlil- 
ler  (Schol.  in  V.  T.  ad  Numb,  xxiv,  G)  allows  that  this 
tree  is  not  found  in  Arabia,  but  thinks  that  Balaam 
might  have  become  acquainted  with  it  from  the  mer- 
chants. Perhaps  the  prophet  might  have  seen  the 
wood.  But  the  passage  in  Numbers  manifestly  implies 
that  he  had  seen  the  ahalim  growing,  and  that  in  all 
probability  they  were  some  kind  of  trees  sufficiently 
known  to  the  Israelites  to  enable  them  to  understand 
the  allusion  in  its  full  force.  But  if  the  ahalim  be  the 
agalli)<:hi(m,  then  much  of  the  illustration  would  have 
been  lost  to  the  people  who  were  the  suljject  of  the 
prophecy ;  for  the  A  q.  agallochum  is  found  neither  on 
the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  where  Balaam  lived,  nor  in 
Moab,  where  the  blessing  was  enunciated.  Michaelis 
(Supp.  p.  3-t,  35)  believes  the  Sept.  reading  to  be  the 
correct  one,  though  he  sees  no  difficulty,  but  rather  a 
beauty,  in  supposing  that  Balaam  was  drawing  a  simil- 
itude from  a  tree  of  foreign  growth.  lie  confesses  that 
the  parallelism  of  the  verse  is  more  in  favor  of  the  tree 
than  the  tent ;  but  he  objects  that  the  lign-aloes  should 
be  mentioned  before  the  cedars,  the  parallelism  requir- 
ing, he  thinks,  the  inverse  order.  But  this  is  hardly  a 
valid  objection,  for  what  tree  was  held  in  greater  esti- 
mation than  the  cedar?  And  even  if  ahalim  be  the 
A  q.  agcdlochuni,  yet  the  latter  clause  of  the  verse  does 
no  violence  to  the  law  of  parallelism,  for  of  the  two  trees 
the  cedar  'is  greater  and  more  august.'  Again,  the 
passage  in  Psa.  xlv,  8  would  perhaps  be  more  correctly 
translated  thus:  'The  myrrh,  aloes,  and  cassia,  per- 
fuming all  thy  garments,  brought  from  the  ivory  palaces 
of  the  Minni,  shall  make  thee  glad.'  The  Minni,  or 
Minrei,  were  inhabitants  of  sjiicy  Arabia,  and  carried  on 
a  great  trade  in  the  exportation  of  spices  and  perfumes 
(Pliny,  xii,  14, 16 ;  Bochart,  Bhaleg,  ii,  22, 135).  As  the 
mgrrh  and  cassia  are  mentioned  as  coming  from  the 
Minni,  and  were  doubtless  natural  productions  of  the 
country,  the  inference  is  that  aloes,  being  named  with 


them,  were  also  a  production  of  the  same  region"  (Kit- 
to).     But  see  jMinni. 

See  generally  Abulfeda,  in  Biisching's  Magazin,  iv, 
277 ;  Bokin,  in  Notices  et  Extraits  de  la  Bihlioth.  du  Roi, 
ii,  397;  Linnajus,  Pflanzensystem  nach  Ilouttyn  (Noimb. 
1777),  ii,  422  sq. ;  Michaelis,  Supplem.  p.  32;  Wahl,  Os- 
tindien,  ii,  772 ;  the  Eundgruhen  des  Orients,  v,  372 ;  Bon- 
di,  Or-Esther,  p.  13 ;  Sylv.  de  Saez,  ad  Abdollatiphi  De- 
scrip.  yEg.  p.  320.     Compare  Aloe. 

Liguori,  Alfonzo  jMaria  de,  a  Roman  Catholic 
bishop,  and  founder  of  the  Order  of  Eedemptorists,  was 
born  Sept.  27, 1G90,  at  Naples.  He  was  descended  from 
a  noble  family,  and  the  son  of  a  royal  officer;  from  his 
mother,  who  was  a  fervid  Catholic,  he  imbibed  in  early 
childhood  a  glowing  devotedness  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Educated  in  an  institution  of  the  priests  of  the  Oratory, 
he  made  such  rapid  progress  that  he  obtained  in  the  six- 
teenth year  of  his  life  the  degree  of  LL.D.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  wish  of  his  parents  he  became  a  lawj'er, 
but  the  loss  of  an  important  lawsuit  so  mortified  him 
that  he  resolved  to  enter  the  priesthood.  He  overcame 
the  violent  opposition  of  his  father,  and  took  orders  in 
1725.  Soon  after  he  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Naples,  and  began  to  labor  with  great 
zeal  for  the  religious  awakening  of  the  lowest  classes  in 
Naples  and  the  neighboring  provinces.  In  order  to  en- 
large the  sphere  of  his  labors  he  concluded  to  establish 
a  new  religious  congregation.  The  first  house  of  the 
new  congregation  was  established  with  the  assistance  of 
twelve  companions  at  Scala ;  the  chief  task  of  the  mem- 
bers was  declared  to  be  "  to  devote  themselves  to  the 
service  of  the  poorest  and  most  abandoned  souls."  Three 
years  later  the  second  house  was  established  at  Cionani, 
in  the  diocese  of  Salerno.  The  rule  of  the  new  congre- 
gation, which  Liguori  had  drawn  up  with  the  assist- 
ance of  several  prominent  men,  was  confirmed  by  a  brief 
of  pope  Benedict  XIV,  dated  Feb.  22,  1749,  and  Ligu- 
ori was  elected  superior  general  for  his  lifetime.  The 
archbishopric  of  Palermo,  which  king  Charles  III  of 
Naples  offered  to  him,  Liguori  declined,  but  in  17G2  he 
had,  at  the  request  of  pope  Clement  XIII,  to  accept  the 
bishopric  of  Sta.  Agata  de'  Goti.  A  general  chapter  of 
the  congregation  unanimously  declared  that  no  new  su- 
perior general  should  be  elected  in  place  of  Liguori, 
but  that  the  latter  should  appoint  a  vicar  general  to 
preside  over  the  congregation  in  his  place.  The  feeble 
state  of  his  health  repeatedly  induced  him  to  ask  the 
pope  to  accept  his  resignation,  but  his  Mish  was  not 
granted  until  1775.  He  retired  to  the  house  of  his  con- 
gregation at  Nocera  de'  Pagani,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  composing  theological  and,  in 
particular,  ascetical  works.  In  consequence  of  the  in- 
trigues of  several  prominent  members  of  his  order,  and 
the  government  of  Naples,  which,  against  his  will,  caused 
iha  rules  of  his  order  to  be  changed,  he  was  compelled 
to  resign  its  supreme  management.  He  died  August  1, 
1787.  In  179G  he  received  from  Pius  VI  the  title  "  Ven- 
erable," in  1816  he  was  beatified,  and  on  May  26, 1839, 
was  canonized  by  pope  Gregory  XVI.  In  1871  Pius 
IX  conferred  upon  him  the  title  and  rank  of  a  "  Doctor 
EcclesiiE."  Liguori  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  the  best 
known  among  his  works  being  the  Theologia  Moralis 
(Naples,  3  vols.):^ — Homo  Ap)ostolicus  (V^enice,  1782,  3 
vols.) : — Imtitutio  Catechetica  (Bassano,  1768) : — P?-axis 
Confessarii.  Complete  editions  of  his  works  have  been 
published  at  Paris  (1835  sq.,  in  IG  vols.),  at  Monza  (70 
vols.),  and  other  places,  llis  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  French  and  (Jerman,  and,  in  great  part,  into 
English,  Spanish,  Polish,  and  other  European  language?. 
The  principles  of  casuistry  explained  b)'  Liguori  have 
been  received  with  much  favor  by  the  Ultramontane 
school  of  the  Roman  Cathohc  theologians,  and  his  moral 
theology,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  so-called  "  prob- 
abilistic system"  of  the  age  immediately  before  his  own, 
is  largely  used  in  the  direction  of  consciences.  Few 
writers  in  modern  times  have  gone  so  far  in  the  defence 
of  the  extremest  ultra-papal  theories  and  practices  as 


LIGUORIANS 


430 


LILIENTHAL 


Liguori,  antl,  while  his  honesty  and  zeal  are  undoubted, 
he  stands  forth  in  the  recent  history  of  the  Koman 
Churcli  as  a  representative  of  the  very  worst  tendencies 
of  casuists.  In  the  ordinary  concerns  of  life,  where 
there  is  no  suspicion  and  no  warnintf,  he  elaborate]}' 
teaches  how  falsehood  and  trickery  between  man  and 
man  may  be  most  advantageously  practiced,  and  how 
far  cheating  and  stealing  on  the  part  of  tradesmen  and 
servants  may  be  venially  carried  on,  and  without  incur- 
ring rriortal  sin.  See  Connelly,  Reasons  for  abjui-ing 
A  llerjiance  to  the  See  of  Rome  (Lond,  1852) ;  Lond.  Qii. 
Rev.  185G,  p.  39G ;  Chriitidn  Remvmhr.  185-1  (Jan.),  p.  38  ; 
1855  (Oct.),  p.  407.  Biographies  of  Liguori  have  been 
written  by  Giatini  (  T7?«  del  heuto  A  Ifons.  Liyuori,  Rome, 
1815),  Jeancard  (Tie  du  C.  A.  Liguori,\jO\iva.m,  1829), 
Klotts  (Aix-la-Chapelle,  1835),  Schick  (Schaffhausen, 
1853),  and  others.  In  English  we  have  a  very  good  bi- 
ographical Z(/e  of  St.  A.M.  de  Liguori  (London,  1848,  2 
vols.  8vo).  For  an  account  of  the  religious  order  found- 
ed by  Liguori,  see  Eedejiptokists.     (A.  J.  S.) 

Liguoriaus.     See  Eedemptorists. 

Li'Sure  (D'4-;?>  le'shem,  supposed  to  be  from  an  old 
root  preserved  in  the  Arab.,  and  signifying  to  taste)  oc- 
curs but  twice  (Exod.  xxviii,  19 ;  xxxix,  12)  as  the  name 
of  the  first  stone  in  the  third  row  on  the  high-priest's 
breastplate,  where  the  Sept. renders  \iyvpiov  (apparently 
alhiduig  to  the  above  derivation),  and  is  followed  by  the 
Vulg.  ligurius,  as  well  as  the  A.V.  So  also  Josephus 
(\Vur,  V,  5,  7).  "  The  word  ligure  is  unknown  in  mod- 
ern mmeralogy.  Phillips  (^Mineralogy,  p.  87)  mentions 
ligurite,  the  fragments  of  which  are  mieven  and  transpa- 
rent, with  a  vitreous  lustre.  It  occurs  in  a  sort  of  talcose 
rock  in  the  banks  of  a  river  in  the  Apennines"  (Smith). 
The  classical  ligure  (or  XvyKovpiot^)  was  thought  to 
be  a  species  of  amber  (see  Moore,  A  nc.  Min.  p.  lOG),  al- 
though ancient  authors  speak  uncertainly  respecting  it 
(Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xxxvii,  11,13;  Theophrastus,  De  lapid. 
c.  50),  and  assign  a  false  derivation  to  the  name  (see 
Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileb.  p.  7G3).  The  Hebrew  word  has 
been  thought  to  designate  the  same  stone  as  the  jacinth 
(Braunius,  Be  vestitu  sacerd.  ii,  14),  although  others  ail- 
here  to  the  opal  as  corresponding  better  with  the  ancient 
ligure  (KosenmiiUer,  Sch.  in  Exod.  xxviii,  19).  "Dr. 
Woodward  and  some  old  commentators  have  supposed 
that  it  was  some  kind  of  helemnite,  because,  as  these  fos- 
sils contain  bituminous  particles,  they  have  thought 
that  they  have  been  able  to  detect,  upon  heating  or  rub- 
bing pieces  of  them,  the  absurd  origin  which  Theophras- 
tus {Frag,  ii,  28,  31 ;  xv,  2,  edit.  Schneider)  and  Pliny 
(ff.X.  xxxvii,  iii)  ascribe  to  the  Ignajrium.  As  to  the 
belief  that  amber  is  denoted  by  this  word,  Theophrastus, 
in  the  passage  cited  above,  has  given  a  detailecl  descrip- 
tion of  the  stone,  and  clearly  distinguishes  it  from  elec- 
tron, or  amber.  Amber,  moreover,  is  too  soft  for  engrav- 
ing upon,  while  the  Ignn/riiim  was  a  hard  stone,  out  of 
wliiih  seals  were  made"  (Smith).  See  Gem.  Beckmann 
{//isl.  /iirent.  i,  87,  Bohn)  believes,  with  Brann,  Epiplia- 
nius,  and  J.  de  Laet,  that  the  description  of  the  Ignajr- 
ium  agrees  well  with  the  liyacinth-stone  of  modern  min- 
eralogists, especially  that  species  which  is  described  as 
iK'ing  of  an  orange-j'ellow  color,  passing  on  into  a  red- 
dish-brown (see  iiosenm idler,  Bibl.  Alterth.  IV,  i,  28). 
The  liyncinth  is  a  variety  of  crj-stullized  zircon,  contain- 
ing also  iron,  which  usually  gives  it  a  reddish  or  brown 
color.  It  generally  occnrs  in  fiiur-sided  prisms,  termi- 
nated by  four  rhombic  planes.  It  is  diaphanous,  glossy, 
and  hard.  It  occurs  in  the  beds  of  rivers,  the  best  being 
lirought  from  the  West  Indies,  but  is  now  little  esteemed 
as  a  gem,  although  the  ancients  used  it  for  engraving. 
"  With  this  supposition  (that  the  h/nryriiim  is  identical 
witli  the  jacinth  or  hyacinth)  IliU  (Xotes  on  Theophras- 
tus on  Stones,  §  50,  p.  IGG)  and  Rosenmidler  {Mineral,  of 
Bible,  ]).  30 ;  Bib.  Cab.)  agree.  It  must  be  confessed, 
however,  that  this  opinion  is  far  from  satisfactory;  for 
Theophrastus,  speaking  of  tlie  properties  of  the  Ignajr- 
iuvi,  says  that  it  attracts  not  only  light  particles  of 


wood,  but  fragments  of  iron  and  brass.  Now  there  is  no 
peculiar  attractive  power  in  the  hyacinth;  nor  is  Beck- 
niann's  explanation  of  this  point  sufficient.  He  savs: 
'If  we  consider  its  (the  lyncyrium's)  attracting  of  small 
bodies  in  the  same  light  which  our  hyacinth  has  in  com- 
mon with  all  stones  of  the  glassy  species,  I  cannot  see 
anything  to  controvert  this  opinion,  and  to  induce  us  to 
believe  the  lyncyrium  and  the  tourmaline  to  be  the 
same.'  But  surely  the  lyncyrium,  whatever  it  be,  had 
in  a  marked  manner  magnetic  jn-ojierties ;  indeed,  the 
term  was  applied  to  the  stone  on  this  very  account,  for 
the  Greek  name  ligurion  appears  to  be  derived  from 
Xfi\'£ii', '  to  lick,' '  to  attract,'  and  doubtless  was  selected 
by  the  Sept.  for  this  reason  to  express  the  Hebrew  word, 
which  has  a  similar  derivation.  Hence  Dr.  Watson 
{F'hilos.  Trans.  Ii,  394)  identities  the  Greek  lyncyrium 
with  the  tourmaline,  or,  more  definitely,  with  the  red 
variety  known  as  rubeUite,  which  is  a  hard  stone,  and 
used  as  a  gem,  and  sometimes  sold  for  i-ed  sapphii-e. 
Tourmaline  becomes,  as  is  well  known,  electrically  polar 
when  heated.  Beckmann's  objection,  that, '  had  Theo- 
phrastus been  acquainted  with  the  tourmaline,  he  would 
have  remarked  that  it  did  not  acquire  its  attractive 
power  till  it  was  heated,'  is  answered  by  his  own  admis- 
sion on  the  passage,  quoted  from  the  Hist,  de  I' A  cudemie 
for  1717,  p.  7  (see  Beckmann,  i,  91).  Tourmaline  is  a 
mineral  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  The  duke 
de  Noya  purchased  two  of  these  stones  in  Holland,  which 
are  there  called  aschentrikker.  Linnseus,  in  his  preface 
to  the  Flora  Zeylandica,  mentions  the  stone  under  the 
name  of  kqns  electricus  from  Ceylon.  The  natives  call 
it  toumamal  {Phil.  Trans,  1.  c).  Many  of  the  precious 
stones  which  were  in  the  possession  of  the  Israelites 
durirg  their  wanderings  were  no  doubt  obtained  from 
the  Lgyptians,  who  might  have  procured  from  the  Tyr- 
ian  merchants  specimens  from  even  India  and  Ceylon, 
etc.  The  fine  specimen  of  rubellite  now  in  the  British 
Museum  belonged  formerly  to  the  king  of  Ava"  (Smith). 
Lik'hi  (Hel).  Likchi',  ^rip5,  learned,  otherwise  cap- 
tivator;  Sept.  AaKtici  v.  r.  Aaici^i,  Vulg.  Leci),  the  third 
named  of  the  four  sons  of  Shemidah  or  Shemida,  son  of 
Manasseh  (1  Chron.  vii,  19;  comp.  Josh,  xvii,  2).  He 
does  not  appear  to  have  had  a  numerous  if  any  progeny, 
as  his  name  does  not  occur  in  the  account  of  the  Ma- 
nassite  families  (Numb,  xxvi,  32).     B.C.  post  1860. 

Lilbiirne,  John,  a  Quaker  preacher,  noted  for  his 
republicanism,  was  born  of  an  old  family  in  Durham 
County  in  1G13.  In  liis  earl}'  youth  he  was  a  clothier. 
He  entered  the  ministry  after  he  had  suffered  great- 
ly by  prosecution  for  his  opposition  to  the  government. 
His  intrepid  defence  of  his  rights  as  a  free-born  Eng- 
lishman before  the  dreaded  bar  of  the  High -Church 
party  gained  for  him  the  familiar  appellation  of  •'  free- 
born  John."  He  was  condemned  to  receive  five  hun- 
dred lashes  at  the  cart-tail,  and  to  stand  in  the  pil- 
lory ;  but  his  spirit  was  only  aroused  by  this  disgrace- 
ful punishment.  His  name  became  the  watchword  of 
the  party  known  as  Levellers.  During  the  Kcvolution 
he  fought  bravely  against  the  king  at  Edge  Hill  and 
Marston  jNIoor,  where  he  led  a  regiment.  Lilburne's. 
chief  fault  was  the  want  of  a  more  statesmanlike  spirit, 
so  that  he  was  continually  sinking  from  the  leading  po- 
sition he  might  have  held,  in  virtue  of  his  integrity  and 
intrepidity,  to  that  of  a  demagogue.  He  boldly  ac- 
cused Oomwell  and  Ireton  of  treason,  and  the  former 
tried  in  vain  to  make  him  comprehend  the  real  situation 
of  affairs,  and  seems  at  last  to  have  given  him  uj)  in  de- 
spair, and  to  have  jirosecuted  him  from  necessity,  while 
he  valued  his  steady  qualities  and  incorru]itilile  nature. 
Reduced  to  (iniesccnce  under  the  iron  hand  of  the  ]iro- 
tector.  his  ]i()litical  enthusiasm  subsided  info  the  relig- 
ious, and  the  farrious  John  Lilburne  became  a  ])reacher 
among  the  Quakers.  He  died  in  1G57. — Appleton's  Cy- 
clop.  of  liiography.  ]).  497. 

Lilienthal,  Michael,  a  Gorman  theologian,  was 
born  at  liebstadt.  in  Prussia,  Sept.  8, 1GS6.    He  studied 


LILIENTHAL 


431 


LILY 


theology  at  Konigsberg  and  Jena,  and  became  professor 
in  the  University  of  Kostock.  He  afterwards  visited 
Holland,  where  he  studied  ])hilology  and  archiEology, 
and  after  his  return  was  for  some  years  professor  at  Ko- 
nigsberg.  In  17  U  he  became  assistent  librarian  of  that 
university,  and  in  1719  was  appointed  deacon  of  one  of 
the  churches  at  Heidelberg.  He  was  made  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Berlin  in  1711,  and  of  that  of  Strasburg 
in  1733.  He  died  at  Konigsberg  Jan.  23,  1750.  His 
principal  works  are  Biblisch-exegetische  Bibliothek  (Ko- 
nigsb.  1740-1744,  3  vols.  8vo)  •.—Bibiischer  Archivurius 
d.  tieiligen  Schrift  (Konigsb.  1745-1746,  2  vols.  4to  :  it 
contains  a  list  of  Biblical  commentators,  arranged  in 
the  order  of  the  difficult  passages)  ■.—  Theolo;iisch-humelit. 
A  rckivarius  (Konigsberg,  1749, 4to).  See  Herzog,  Real- 
Enryklop.  viii,  413  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generule,  xxxi, 
225.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lilienthal,  Theodor  Christopher,  an  eminent 
German  theologian  and  writer,  was  born  at  Konigsberg 
Oct.  8, 1711.  He  studied  at  the  university  of  his  na- 
tive place,  and  afterwards  at  Jena  and  Tubingen,  and, 
after  making  a  journey  through  Holland  and  England, 
spent  some  time  in  the  University  of  Halle.  He  was 
soon  after  appointed  adjunct  professor  at  Konigsberg, 
and  in  1744  became  extraordinary  professor  and  doctor 
of  theology.  In  174G  he  was  made  pastor  of  the  com- 
munity of  Neu-Kossgiirten,  and  subsequently  became 
ordinary  professor  of  theology,  and  church  and  school 
counsellor.  He  died  March  17, 1782.  Among  his  works 
we  notice  Die  gute  Sache  der  gottlichen  Offhibarung  wi- 
dei'  die  Feinde  derselben  enviesen  it.  gerettet  (Konigsberg, 
1750-82,  16  vols. :  additions  and  variations  to  the  first 
four  parts  appeared  in  1778,  and  also  an  augmented  ad- 
dition in  the  same  year).  It  gives  a  full  collection  of 
the  divers  objections  that  have  been  urged  agamst  Chris- 
tianity, and  answers  every  one.  It  is  consequently  use- 
ful as  a  book  of  reference  on  this  subject,  like  Lardner's 
Credibility  of  the  Gosjjel  History,  although,  on  account 
of  its  bulk  and  its  antiquated  apologetic  stand-point,  it 
is  less  lit  to  be  in  itself  used  as  a  weapon  against  incre- 
dulity. He  wrote  also  De  Canone  Missm  Gregoriano 
(Leyden,  1739,  8vo)  : — Historia  beatce  Dorothea,  Prus- 
sia} j^i^fronce,  fabulis  variis  muculata  (Dantzig,  1743, 
4to) : — Commentatio  critica  duorum  codicum  Biblia  He- 
braica  continentium  (Dantzig,  1769,  4to),  and  a  large 
number  of  sermons,  dissertations,  etc.  See  Schrockh,  K. 
Gesch.seit  d.  Reformation,  vi,  291 ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyklo- 
padic,  viii, 413 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  xxxi,  226. 
(J.  N.  P.) 

Lilith.     See  Screech-owl. 

Lillie,  John,  D.D.,  a  minister  originally  of  the  Re- 
formed (Uutcli),  but  afterwards  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  was  born  in  Kelso,  Scotland,  Dec.  16,  1812; 
graduated  with  the  highest  honors  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  prosecuted 
his  theological  studies  for  two  years  at  Edinburgh,  then 
came  to  America,  and  completed  his  course  at  tlie  The- 
ological Seminary  of  the  Keformed  (Dutch)  Church, 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  In  1835  he  was  installed  pastor 
of  the  Keformed  Dutch  Church  in  Kingston,  N.  Y,  In 
1841  he  took  charge  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  New 
York  University,  and  in  1843  of  a  congregation  which 
had  gathered  about  him  in  the  University  Chapel,  ijnd 
afterwards  (1816)  occupied  their  new  church  in  Stanton 
Street.  From  1844  until  1848  he  was  the  editor  of  the 
Jewish  Chronicle.  He  was  employed  by  the  American 
(Bai>tist)  Bible  Union  as  one  of  its  translators  from  1851 
to  1857.  In  1855  he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In  1858  he  accepted  the 
call  offered  to  him  by  the  Presbyterian  Church,  King- 
ston, N.  Y.,  and  he  there  labored  until  his  death  in  1867. 
Dr.  Lillie's  published  productions  are  not  numerous,  but 
highly  creditable.  His  revision  and  translation  of  the 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  the  Seroml  Epistla  of  Peter, 
those  of  John  and  Jitde,  and  the  Rerebi/ion,  for  the  Anglo- 
American  edition  of  "  Lange's  Commentary,"  have  won 


the  highest  encomiums.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a 
small  work  on  The  Perpetuity  of  the  Earth,  in  which  he 
developed  his  premillennial  views.  Dr.  Lillie  was  an  ear- 
nest Christian,  a  ripe  scholar,  and  a  faithful  pastor.  See 
Wilson,  Fresb.  Hist.  Aim.  1868,  p.  117;  Kingston  Argus 
and  Journal,  Feb.  1867  ;  Mem,  Sermon  by  Rev.  W.  Irviu ; 
British  and  Foreign  Evangelical  Review,  Ixix,  619. 

Lily  (yii Vii,  shushan',  from  its  whiteness,  1  Kings  vii, 
19  ;  also  "idi'j,  shoshan',  1  Kings  vii,  22,  26  ;  Cant,  ii,  16; 
iv,  5;  V,  13;  vi,  2,  3;  vii,  2;  and  iiy^ivc:,  shoshannah', 
2  Chron.  iv,  5;  Cant,  ii,  1,  2;  Hos.  xiv,  5  [see  Shu- 
shan; Shoshanniji]  ;  Sept.  and  N.  T.  (cpiVoi^  Matt,  vi, 
28 ;  Luke  xii,  27),  "  There  are,  no  doubt,  several  plants 
indigenous  in  Syria  which  might  come  under  the  de- 
nomination of  lily,  when  tliat  name  is  used  hi  a  general 
sense,  as  it  often  is  by  travellers  and  others.  The  term 
shoshan  or  sosun  seems  also  to  have  been  employed  in 
this  sense.  It  was  known  to  the  Greeks  {(toiktop),  for 
Dioscorides  (iii,  116)  describes  the  mode  of  preparing  an 
ointment  called  susinon,  which  others,  he  says,  call  koi- 
invov,  that  is,  lilinum.  So  Athenceus  (xii,  513)  identi- 
fies the  Persian  suson  with  the  Greek  krinon.  The  Ar- 
abic authors  also  use  the  word  in  a  general  sense,  several 
varieties  being  described  under  the  head  sosun.  The 
name  is  appUed  even  to  kinds  of  Iris,  of  which  several 
species,  with  various  colored  flowers,  are  distinguished. 
But  it  appears  to  us  that  none  but  a  plant  which  was 
well  known  and  highly  esteemed  would  be  found  occur- 
ring in  so  many  different  passages.  Thus,  in  1  Kings 
vii,  19-26,  and  2  Chron.  iv,  5,  it  is  mentioned  as  forming 
the  ornamental  work  of  the  pillars  and  of  the  brazen 
sea,  made  of  molten  brass,  for  the  house  of  Solomon,  by 
Hiram  of  Tyre.  In  Canticles  the  word  is  frequently 
mentioned ;  and  it  is  curious  that  in  five  passages.  Cant, 
ii,  2  and  16;  iv,  5;  vi,  2  and  3,  there  is  a  reference  to 
feeding  among  lilies,  which  appears  unaccountable 
when  we  consider  that  the  allusion  is  made  simply  to 
an  ornamental  or  sweet-smelling  plant;  and  this  the 
shushan  appears  to  have  been  from  the  other  passages 
in  which  it  is  mentioned.  Thus,  in  Cant,  ii,  1,  'I  am 
the  rose  of  Sharon  and  the  lily  of  the  valleys;'  verse  2, 
'as  the  lily  among  thorns,  so  is  my  love  among  the 
daughters ;'  v,  13,  '  his  lips  like  lilies,  dropping  sweet- 
smelling  myrrh;'  vii,  2,  'thy  belly  is  like  an  heap  of 
wheat  set  about  with  lilies.''  If  we  consider  that  the 
book  of  Canticles  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  on 
the  occasion  of  tiie  marriage  of  Solomon  with  a  princess 
of  Egypt,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  some  of  the  im- 
agery may  have  been  derivetl  from  her  native  country, 
and  that  the  above  lily  may  be  a  plant  of  Egypt  rather 
than  of  Palestine.  Especially  does  the  water-lily,  or 
lotus  of  the  Nile,  scorn  suitable  to  most  of  the  above  pas- 
sages. Thus  Herodotus  (ii,  92)  says.  'When  the  wa- 
ters have  risen  to  their  extremest  height,  and  all  the 
fields  are  overflowed,  there  appears  above  the  surface  an 
immense  quantity  of  plants  of  the  lily  species,  which 
the  Egyptians  call  the  lotus ;  having  cut  down  these, 
they  dry  them  in  the  sun.  The  seed  .of  the  flo^vers, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  poppy,  they  bake,  and  make 
into  a  kind  of  bread :  they  also  eat  the  root  of  this  plant, 
which  is  round,  of  an  agreeable  flavor,  and  about  the 
size  of  an  apple.  There  is  a  second  species  of  the  lotus, 
which  grows  in  the  Nile,  and  which  is  not  unlike  a  rose. 
The  fruit,  which  grows  from  the  bottom  of  the  root,  re- 
sembles a  wasp's  nest:  it  is  found  to  contain  a  number 
of  kernels  of  the  size  of  an  olive-stone,  which  are  very 
grateful  either  fresh  or  dried.'  All  this  exists  even  to 
the  present  day.  Both  the  roots  and  the  stalks  form 
articles  of  diet  in  Eastern  countries,  and  the  large  fari- 
naceous seeds  of  both  the  nymphiEa  and  nelumbium  are 
roasted  and  eaten.  Hence  possibly  the  reference  to 
feeding  among  lilies  in  the  above-quoted  passages" 
(Kitto\  This  flower  (the  Xymjihaa  Lotus  of  Linnanis, 
and  the  beshnin  of  the  modern  Arabs)  grows  plentifully 
in  Lower  Egypt,  flowering  during  the  period  of  the  an- 
nual inundation.     There  can  be  little  doubt  the  "  lily- 


LILY 


432 


LILY 


work"  spoken  of  in  1  Kings  vii,  19,  22,  was  an  ornament 
in  tlic  form  of  the  Egyptian  lotus.  There  were  formerly 
three  descriptions  of  \vater-lily  in  Egypt,  but  one  (the 
ved-tiowered  lotus)  has  disappeared.  '•  The  flower," 
says  IJurckhardt,  speaking  of  the  white  variety,  or 
Ni/mji/iua  lotus,  "generaily  stands  on  the   stalk  from 


Tht  \\  uei-lil>  (\  /  q  Una  Lotus). 


one  to  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  When 
tlie  flowers  open  completely,  the  leaves  form  a  horizon- 
tal disk,  with  the  isolated  seed-vessel  in  the  midst, 
which  bends  down  the  stalk  by  its  weight,  and  swims 
npon  the  surface  of  the  water  for  several  days  until  it  is 
ingulfed.  This  plant  grows  at  Cairo,  in  a  tank  called 
Birket  el-Eotoli,  near  one  of  the  northern  suburbs  where 
I  happen  to  reside.  It  is  not  found  in  Upper  Egypt,  I 
believe,  but  abounds  in  the  Delta,  and  attains  maturity 
at  the  time  when  the  Nile  reaches  its  full  height.  I 
saw  it  in  great  abundance  and  in  fidl  flower,  covering 
the  whole  inundated  plain,  on  October  12, 1815,  near  the 
ruins  of  Tiney,  about  twelve  miles  south-east  from  jMan- 
soiu-a,  on  the  Damietta  branch.  It  dies  when  the  water 
retires."  Among  the  ancient  Egyptians  the  lotus  was 
introduced  into  all  subjects  as  an  ornament,  and  as  the 
favorite  flower  of  the  country,  but  not  with  the  holy 
character  usually  attributed  to  it,  though  adopted  as  an 
emblem  of  the  god  Nophre-Atmii  (Wilkinson's  A  ncient 
Ef/iiptians,  i,  57,  256).  As  the  Hebrew  architecture  was 
of  the  Phoenico-Egyptian  style,  nothing  was  more  natu- 
ral than  the  introduction  of  this  ornament  by  Solomon 
into  the  Temple.  It  was  in  like  manner  borrowed  by 
the  Assyrians  in  their  later  structures  (Layard's  Nine- 
rch,  ii,  356).  ]\lr.  Bardwell,  the  architect,  in  his  work 
entitled  Temples,  Ancient  and  Modern  (IS'il),  says,  "The 
two  great  columns  of  the  pronaos  in  Solomon's  Temple 
were  of  the  usual  proportions  of  Egyptian  columns,  being 
live  and  a  half  diameters  high ;  and  as  these  gave  the 
great  characteristic  feature  to  the  building,  Solomon 
sent  an  embassy  to  fetch  the  architect  from  Tyre  to  su- 
perintend the  moidding  and  casting  of  these  columns, 
which  were  intended  to  be  of  brass.  Observe  how  con- 
spicuous is  tlie  idea  of  the  vase  (the  'bowl'  of  our  trans- 
lation), rising  from  a  cylinder  ornamented  with  lotus- 
flowers  ;  the  bottom  of  the  vase  was  partly  hidden  by 
the  flowers,  the  belly  of  it  was  overlaid  with  net-work, 
ornamented  In-  seven  wreatlis,  the  Hebrew  number  of 
hapi)iness,  and  l)eneath  the  lip  of  the  vase  were  two 
rows  of  pomegranates,  one  hundred  in  each  row.  These 
superb  pillars  were  eight  feet  in  diameter  and  forty-four 
feet  high,  supporting  a  noble  entablature  fourteen  feet 
high."  See  .Jachin  and  Boaz.  "In  confirmation  of 
the  above  identification  of  the  lily  of  the  O.  T.  with  the 
lotus-flower,  we  may  adduce  also  the  remarks  of  Dr.  W. 
C.  Taylor  in  his  Bible  lllnstrated  hy  F.rpjptinn  Monu- 
ments, where  he  says  that  the  lilies  of  the  45th  and  59th 
Psalms  have  jiuzzled  all  Bil)ljeal  critics.  The  title,  'To 
the  chief  musician  upon  Slinslidmnni,'  has  been  supposed 
to  be  the  name  of  some  unknown  tune  to  which  the 
psalm  was  to  be  sung.  But  Dr.  Taylor  says  '  the  word 
shoshannim  is  universally  acknowledged  to  signify  lil- 


ies, and  lilies  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  subject  of  the 
ode.  But  this  hymeneal  ode  was  intended  to  be  sung 
by  the  female  attendants  of  the  Egyptian  princess,  and 
they  are  called  "  the  lilies,"  not  only  by  a  poetic  reference 
to  the  lotus  lilies  of  the  Nile,  but  by  a  direct  allusion  to 
their  custom  of  making  the  lotus  lily  a  conspicuous  or- 
nament of  their  head-dress.'  Thus,  therefore,  all  the 
passages  of  O.-T.  Scripture  in  which  shushan  occurs. ap- 
pear to  be  explained  by  considering  it  to  refer  to  the 
lotus  lily  of  the  Nile"  (Kitto).  '•  Lynch  enumerates  the 
'  lily'  as  among  the  plants  seen  by  him  on  the  shores  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  but  gives  no  details  which  coidd  lead  to 
its  identification  {Exped.  to  the  Joixlan,  p.  286).  He  had 
l)reviously  observed  the  water-lily  on  the  Jordan  (p. 
173),  but  omits  to  mention  whether  it  was  the  yellow 
(Xup/iar  lutecC)  or  the  white  {Xympihaa  alba).  'The 
only  "  lilies"  which  I  saw  in  Palestine,'  says  Prof.  Stan- 
ley, '  in  the  months  of  INIarch  and  April,  were  large  yel- 
low water-lilies,  in  the  clear  spring  of  'Ain  Mellahah, 
near  the  lake  of  Merom'  (»S'.  and  Pal.  p.  429).  He  sug- 
gests that  the  name  'lily'  'may  include  the  numerous 
flowers  of  the  tulip  or  amaryllis  kind  which  appear  in 
the  early  summer  or  the  autumn  of  Palestine.'  The 
following  description  of  the  HCdeh-lily  Ijy  Dr.  Thomson 
(The  Land  and  the  Bool;  i,  39-i),  were  it  more  precise, 
woidd  perhaps  have  enabled  botanists  to  identify  it: 
'This  Huleh-lily  is  very  large,  and  the  three  inner  pe- 
tals meet  above  and  form  a  gorgeous  canopy,  such  as 
art  never  approached,  and  king  never  sat  under,  even 
in  his  utmost  glory.  .  .  .  We  call  it  Huleh-lily  because 
it  was  here  that  it  was  first  discovered.  Its  botanical 
name,  if  it  have  one,  I  am  unacquainted  with.  .  .  .  Our 
flower  delights  most  in  the  valleys,  but  is  also  found  on 
the  mountains.  It  grows  among  thorns,  and  I  ha\e 
sadly  lacerated  mj'  hands  in  extricating  it  from  them. 
Nothing  can  be  in  higher  contrast  than  the  luxuriant 
velvety  softness  of  this  lily,  and  the  crabbed,  tangled 
hedge  of  thorns  about  it.  Gazelles  still  delight  to  feed 
among  them ;  and  you  can  scarcely  ride  through  the 
woods  north  of  Tabor,  where  these  lilies  abound,  without 
frightening  them  from  their  flowerj'  pasture'"  (Smith). 
On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  passages  in  which 
shoshan  occurs  evidently  refer  to  afield  variety,  as  Cant, 
ii,  1, 2,  and  the  tubular  shape  of  the  trumpet  is  sufficient 
to  explain  the  transfer  of  the  word  to  that  musical  in- 
strument. See  Shoshannim.  "  The  Hebrew  word  is 
rendered  'rose'  in  the  Chaldee  Targum,  and  by  jMaimon- 
ides  and  other  Eabbinical  writers,  with  the  exception 
of  Kimclu  and  Ben-Melech,  who  in  1  Kings  vii,  19  trans- 
lated it  by  '  violet.'  In  the  Judajo-Spanish  version  of 
the  Canticles  shushan  and  shushanndh  are  always  trans- 
lated by  rosa.  but  in  Hos.  xiv,  5  the  latter  is  rendered 
lirio.  But  Kpivov,  or  'lily,'  is  the  imiform  rendering  of 
the  Sept.,  and  is,  in  all  proljability,  the  true  one,  as  it  is 
supported  by  the  analogy  of  the  Arabic  and  Persian  sti- 
san,  which  has  the  same  meaning  to  this  day,  and  by 
the  existence  of  the  same  word  in  Sj'riac  and  Coptic. 
The  Spanish  azufena,  'a  white  lily,'  is  merely  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  Arabic,  but,  although  there  is  little  doubt 
that  the  word  denotes  some  plant  of  the  lily  species,  it 
is  by  no  means  certain  what  individual  of  this  class  it 
especially  designates.  Father  Soucict  (Rectieil  de  diss, 
Crit.  1715)  labored  to  prove  that  the  lily  of  Scripture  is 
th(j  'crown  imperial,'  the  Persian  tusa'i,  the  Kpivov  (5a- 
atXiKov  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Fritillaria  imperialis  of 
Linnreus.  So  common  was  this  plant  in  Persia  that  it 
is  supposed  to  have  given  its  name  to  Susa,  the  capital 
(Athen.  xii,  1 ;  Bochart, /'/(«/c'7,  ii,  14);  but  there  is  no 
l)roof  that  it  was  at  any  time  common  in  Palestine,  and 
'  the  lily'  par  excellence  of  Persia  would  not  of  necessity 
be  '  the  lily'  of  the  Holy  Land.  Dioscorides  (i,  62)  bears 
witness  to  the  beauty  of  the  lilies  of  Syria  and  I'isidia, 
from  which  the  "best  perfume  was  made.  He  says  (iii, 
106  [116])  of  the  Kpu'ov  liaaiKiKov  that  the  Syrians 
call  it  (Tana  (^  —  shushan).  and  the  Africans  «/j(/3Ao/3oj', 
which  Bochart  renders  in  Hebrew  characters  "p?  3'^3N, 
'  white  shoot.'    Ktihn,  in  his  note  on  the  passage,  iden- 


LILY 


433 


LILY 


tlfies  the  plant  in  question  with  tlie  Lilhtm  cmididum  of 
Linn:i?iis,  It  is  probably  the  same  as  that  called  in  the 
IMishna  •  king's  lily'  (Kitaim,  v.  8).  Pliny  (xxi,  5)  de- 
fines KQivov  as  'rubens  lilium;'  and  Dioscorides,  in  an- 
other passage,  mentions  the  fact  that  there  are  lilies 
with  purple  flowers,  but  whether  by  this  he  intended 
the  Lilium  martagon  or  Chalcedonicum,  Kiihn  leaves 
undecided.  Now  in  the  passage  of  Athenajus  above 
quoted  it  is  said,  Eovaov  yap  tivai  ry  'EWIivujv  (piovy 
TO  Kpivov.  But  in  the  Etymologicum  Magnum  (s.  v. 
'Siovaa)  we  find  rd  yap  Xelpia  vtto  ruiv  ^oji^iicaiv  crovcra 
Xeytrai.  As  the  shushan  is  thus  identified  both  with 
Kpivov,  the  red  or  purple  lily,  and  with  \tipLov,  the 
white  lily,  it  is  evidently  impossible,  from  the  word  it- 
self, to  ascertain  exactly  the  kind  of  lily  which  is  refer- 
red to.  If  the  shushan  or  shoshannah  of  the  O.  T.  and 
the  Kpivov  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  be  identical, 
which  there  seems  no  reason  to  doubt,  the  plant  desig- 
nated by  these  terms  must  have  been  a  conspicuous  ob- 
ject on  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  (JMatt.  vi, 
28;  Luke  xii,  27);  it  must  have  flourished  in  the  deep, 
broad  valleys  of  Palestine  (Cant,  ii,  1),  among  the  thorny , 
shrubs  (ib.  ii,  2)  and  pastures  of  the  desert  {ih.  ii,  16 ;  iv, 
5 ;  vi,  3),  and  must  have  been  remarkable  for  its  rapid 
and  luxuriant  growth  (Hos.  xiv,  5  ;  Ecchis.  xxxix,  14). 
The  purple  flowers  of  the  Jchoh,  or  wild  artichoke,  which 
abounds  in  the  plain  north  of  Tabor  and  in  the  vallej^ 
of  Esdraelon,  have  been  thought  by  some  to  be  the  '  lil- 
ies of  the  field'  alluded  to  in  Matt,  vi,  28  (Wilson,  Lands 
of  the  Bible,  ii,  110).  A  recent  traveller  mentions  a 
plant,  with  lilac  flowers  like  the  hyacinth,  and  called  by 
the  Arabs  tisweih,  which  he  considered  to  be  of  the  spe- 
cies denominated  lily  in  Scripture  (Bonar,  Desert  of  iSi- 
na'i,  p.  329)"  (Smith).  Tristram  strongly  inclines  to 
identify  the  scarlet  anemone  {Anemone  coronaria)  with 
the  Scripture  "  lily"  (_Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  p.  4G4). 

In  the  N.  Test,  the  word  "  lily"  occurs  "  in  the  well- 
known  and  beautiful  passage  (Matt,  vi,  2G), 'Consider 
the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ;  they  toil  not,  nei- 
ther do  they  spin,  and  yet  I  say  unto  you  that  even 
Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of 
these;'  so  also  in  Luke  xii,  27.     Here  it  is  evident  that 
the  plant  alluded  to  must  have  been  indigenous  or 
grown  wild  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Sea  of  GaUlee,  must 
have  been  of  an  ornamental  character,  and,  from  the 
Greek  term  Kpivov  being  applied  to  it,  of  a  liliaceous  na- 
ture.    The  name  koivov  occurs  in  all  the  old  Greek 
writers  (see  Dioscor.  iii,  116 ;  compare  Claudian.  Epithed. 
seren.  126  ;  Martial,  v,  37,  G  sq. ;  Calpurn.  vi,  33  ;  Athen. 
XV,  677,  C80;  Virgil,  Eel.  x,  25;  Pliny,  xv,  7;  xxi,  11). 
Theophrastus  first  uses  it,  and  is  supposed  bj'  Sprengel 
to  apply  it  to  species  of  Narcissus  and  to  Lilium  can- 
didum.     Dioscorides  indicates  two  species,  but  very  im- 
perfectly :  one  of  them  is  supposed  to  be  the  Liliuvi 
camlidum,  and  the  other,  with  a  reddish  flower,  may  be 
L.  viartagon  or  /,.  Chalcedonicum.     He   alludes   more 
particularly  to  the  lilies  of  Sj-ria  and  of  PamphyUa  be- 
ing well  suited  for  making  the  ointment  of  lily.     Plinj' 
enumerates  three  kinds,  a  white,  a  red,  and  a  purple- 
colored  lily.     Travellers  in  Palestine  mention  that  in 
the  month  of  January  the  fields  and  groves  everywhere 
abound  in  various  species  of  lily,  tulip,  and  narcissus. 
Benard  noticed,  near  Acre,  on  Jan.  18th,  and  about  Jaffa 
on  the  23d,  tulips,  white,  red,  blue,  etc.     Gnmpenberg 
saw  the  meadows  of  Galilee  covered  with  the  same  flow- 
ers on  the  31st.    Tulips  figure  conspicuously  among  the 
flowers  of  I'alestine,  varieties  probably  of  Tulipa  Ges- 
neriuna  (Kitto's  Pcdestine,  p.  ccxv).     So  Pococke  says, 
'  I  saw  many  tulips  growing  wild  in  the  fields  (in  March), 
and  any  one  who  considers  how  beautiful  those  flowers 
are  to  the  eye  would  be  apt  to  conjecture  that  these  are 
the  lilies  to  which  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  to 
be  compared.'    This  is  much  more  hkely  to"  be  the  plant 
intended  than  some  others  which  have  been  adduced, 
as,  for  instance,  the   scarlet  amuryUis,  having  white 
flowers  with  bright  purple  streaks,  fdund  by  Salt  at 
Adowa.     Others  have  preferred  the  Croicn  imjierial, 
Y.— E  E 


which  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  Cashmere.  Most  au- 
thors have  united  in  considering  the  white  lily,  Lilium 
candidum,  to  be  the  ijlant  to  which  our  Saviour  referred ; 


^Vhite  Lily  {Lilium  Candidum). 

but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  has  ever  been  found  in  a 
wild  state  in  I'alestine.  Some,  indeed,  have  thought  it 
to  be  a  native  of  the  New  World.  Dr.  Lindley,  how- 
ever, in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle  (ii,  744),  says,  'This 
notion  cannot  be  sustained,  because  the  white  lily  occurs 
in  an  engraving  of  the  annunciation,  executed  some- 
where about  1480  by  Martin  Schongauer;  and  the  first 
voj-age  of  Columbus  did  not  take  place  till  1492.  In 
this  veiy  rare  print  the  lily  is  represented  as  growing  in 
an  ornamental  vase,  as  if  it  were  cultivated  as  a  curious 
object.'  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  a  correspondent 
at  Aleppo  {Gardeners'  Chronicle,  iii,  429),  who  has  re- 
sided long  in  Syria,  but  is  acquainted  only  with  the  bot- 
any of  Aleppo  and  Antioch :  '  I  never  saw  the  white  lily 
in  a  wild  state,  nor  have  I  heard  of  its  being  so  in  Syria. 
It  is  cultivated  here  on  the  roofs  of  the  houses  in  potS 
as  an  exotic  bulb,  like  the  dalfodil.'  In  consequence  of 
this  difficidty,  the  late  Sir  J.  E.  Smith  was  of  opinion 
that  the  plant  alluded  to  under  the  name  of  lily  was  the 
Amaryllis  lutea  (now  Oporanthus  luteus),  'whose  golden 
liliaceous  flowers  in  autumn  afford  one  of  the  most  bril- 
liant and  gorgeous  objects  in  nature,  as  the  fields  of  the 
Levant  are  overrun  with  them ;  to  them  the  expression 
of  Solomon,  in  all  his  glory,  not  being  arrayed  like  one 
of  them,  is  peculiarly  appropriate.'  Dr.  Lindley  con- 
ceives '  it  to  be  much  more  probable  that  the  plant  in- 
tended by  our  Saviour  was  the  Ixiolirion  montanum,  a 
plant  allied  to  the  amaryllis,  of  very  great  beauty,  with 
a  slender  stem,  and  clusters  of  the  most  delicate  violet 
flowers,  abounding  in  Palestine,  where  colonel  Chesney 
found  it  m  the  most  brilliant  profusion'  (?.  c.  p.  744).  In 
reply  to  this,  a  correspondent  furnishes  an  extract  of  a 
letter  from  Dr.  Bowring,  which  throws  a  new  light  upon 
the  subject :  '  I  cannot  describe  to  j^ou  with  botanical 
accuracy  the  Uly  of  Palestine.  I  heard  it  called  by  the 
title  of  lAlia  Syriaca,  and  I  imagine  under  this  title  its 
botanical  characteristics  may  be  hunted  out.  Its  color 
is  a  brilliant  red;  its  size  about  half  that  of  the  common 
tiger  lily.  The  white  lily  I  do  not  remember  to  have 
seen  in  any  part  of  Syria.  It  was  in  April  and  May 
that  I  observed  my  flower,  and  it  was  most  abundant  in 
the  district  of  Galilee,  where  it  and  the  Rhododendron 
(which  grew  in  rich  abundance  round  the  paths)  most 


LIMBO 


434 


LIMBO 


strongly  excited  my  attention.'  On  this  Dr.  Lindley 
observes,  'It  is  clear  that  neitlier  the  white  lily,  nor  the 
Oponiiitlius  luteus,  nor  Ixiullrion,  will  answer  to  Dr. 
Ik)wring's  ilescription,  which  seems  to  point  to  the  Chal- 
cedonian  or  scarlet  marttigon  lily,  formerly  called  the 
lily  of  Byzantium,  found  from  the  Adriatic  to  the  Le- 
-\ant,  and  which,  with  its  scarlet  turban-like  flowers,  is 
indeed  a  most  stately  and  striking  object'  {Gardeners' 
Chronicle,  ii,  854)"  (Kitto).  As  this  lily  (the  Lilium 
Chalcedonicum  of  botanists)  is  in  flower  at  the  season  of 


Scarlet  Martagon  {Lilium  Chalcedonicum), 

the  year  when  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  is  supposed  to 
have  been  spoken  (May;  but  it  is  probable  that  our 
.Saviour's  discourse  on  Providence,  containing  the  allu- 
sion to  the  lily,  occurred  on  a  diiferent  occasion,  appar- 
ently about  October;  see  Strong's  Harmony  of  the  Gos- 
pels, §  52),  is  indigenous  in  the  very  locality,  and  is 
conspicuous,  even  in  the  garden,  for  its  remarkable 
showy  flowers,  there  can  now  be  little  doubt  that  it  is 
tlie  plant  alluded  to  by  our  Saviour.  "  Strand  (Flor. 
Palicst.')  mentions  it  as  growing  near  Joppa,  and  Kitto 
{Phys.Hist.  of  Palest,  p.  219)  makes  especial  mention  of 
the  L.  cundidum  growing  in  Palestine ;  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  habitat  given  by  Strand,  it  is  worth  ob- 
serving that  the  lily  is  mentioned  (Cant,  ii,  1)  with  the 
rose  of  iShamn"  (Smith). 

Hy  some  the  lily  is  supposed  to  be  meant  by  the  term 
r?U2n  (chabatstse'leth,  "rose"),  in  Isa.  xxxv,  1 ;  Cant, 
ii,  1.  For  further  details,  consult  Oken,  Lehrb.  d.  Xatur- 
gesch.  II,  i,  757  ;  IJosenmuller,  Bihl.  A  Iterth.  iv,  138 ;  Cel- 
sius, niei-ohot.  i,  383  sq. ;  BiUcrbeck,  Flora  Class,  p.  90 
sq. ;  (Jesenms,  Thes.  Ihh.  p.  1385 ;  Penny  Cyclopwdia,  s. 
V.  Lotus. 

Limbo  or  Limbus,  meaning  a  border  or  depart- 
ment, is  used  by  Komanists  as  the  name  of  the  place  of 
some  of  the  departed,  which  the  schoolmen  who  first 
held  this  doctrine  (see  below)  believed  to  be  situated  on 
the  hmb,  i.  e.  the  edge  or  border  of  hell.  See  Inter- 
jiEDiATt;  State.  There  are  five  places  to  which  the 
Churdi  (if  liome  consigns  departed  spirits.  Heaven  is 
the  residence  of  the  holy,  and  hell  of  the  (inally  damned. 
Besides  these  she  enumerates  limbus  infinitum,  the  de- 
partment for  infants;  limbus patrum,  the  department  of 
the  fathers;  and pui-t/atory.  Hell  is  placed  lowest,  pur- 
gatory next,  then  limbus  for  infants;  and  finally  is  enu- 
merated a  place  for  those  who  died  before  the  advent 


of  Christ.  According  to  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  un- 
til Christ's  death  and  resurrection,  which  constituted 
the  decisive  moments  of  the  work  of  redemption,  the 
doors  of  heaven  were  closed  to  all  {Catech.  Rom.  i,  2,  7) ; 
since  then  they  have  been  permanently  open  to  siWjKr- 
fect  saints.  This  doctrine  was  first  advanced  by  pope 
Benedict  XII,  and  afterwards  sanctioned  by  the  Council 
of  Florence  (Perrone,  v,  213).  According  to  this  theory, 
until  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  souls  of  all  departed  were, 
without  exception,  sent  into  the  place  of  punishment, 
or  infernus,  as  is  (according  to  liomish  views)  still  the 
case  with  those  who  die  without  having  arrived  at  per- 
fection, or  with  some  penance  stiU  to  be  performed  for 
sin.  At  present  they  use  the  word  infenius  to  convey 
the  idea  that  all  sinners  are  in  some  place  outside  of 
heaven,  and  that,  on  account  of  their  different  personal 
qualities,  thej-  are  divided  into  different  classes,  which 
have  nothing  in  common  except  their  exclusion  from 
the  happiness  of  heaven,  and  therefore  divide  these  ab- 
dita  receptacula  (Augustine,  Enchiridion  ad  Laurent.  § 
109),  of  which  the  place  of  punLshment  consists,  into,  1, 
hell,  in  its  fullest  sense,  that  terrible,  immense  prison  in 
which  the  damned,  who  died  in  a  state  of  mortal  sin, 
are  to  remain  forever  {Cat.  Rom.  i,  G,  3,  5) ;  2,  purga- 
tory, in  which  the  souls  of  believers,  and  of  those  who 
are  justified,  suffer  until  they  are  entirely  free  from  sin; 
3,  the  bosom  of  Abraham,  where  the  saints  who  died 
before  the  coming  of  Christ  were  received,  and  where, 
while  free  from  torments,  they  were  nevertheless,  on 
account  of  original  sin,  prevented  by  the  dremons  from 
beholding  the  glory  of  God  until  the  coming  of  the  Ee- 
deemer,  whose  merits  freed  them  from  these  bonds,  and 
opened  to  them  the  doors  of  heaven.  Compare  here  the 
statement  of  the  early  English  reformers  in  "  the  Insti- 
tution of  a  Christian  Man,"  on  the  fifth  article  of  their 
creed :  "  Our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  at  his  entry  into  hell, 
first  conquered  and  oppressed  both  the  devil  and  hell, 
and  also  death  itself  ,  ,  ,  afterwards  he  spoiled  hell,  and 
delivered  and  brought  with  him  from  thence  all  the 
souls  of  those  righteous  and  good  men  which,  from  the 
fall  of  Adam,  died  in  the  favor  of  God,  and  in  the  faith 
and  belief  of  this  our  Saviour,  which  was  then  to  come." 
The  doctrine  of  the  Church,  as  expressed  in  the  sym- 
bols, names  no  otlier  divisions.  The  third  place  which, 
in  ecclesiastical  phraseology,  is  usually  called  Limbus 
patrum,  is  even  represented  sometimes  as  a  quiet  habi- 
tation, and  at  other  times  as  an  unpleasant  prison  (mis- 
era  illius  custodies  molestia'),  which  two  views,  being 
difficult  to  conciliate,  gave  rise  to  manj-  intricate  ques- 
tions unavoidable  as  soon  as  an  attempt  is  made  to  es- 
tablish such  a  detailed  topography  of  the  places  of 
future  life.  The  limbo  of  Dante  is  placed  in  the  outer- 
most of  the  nine  circles  of  his  Inferno.  No  weeping 
is  heard  within  it,  but  perpetual  sighs  tremble  on  the 
air,  breathed  by  an  infinite  crowd  of  women,  men,  and 
children.  atHictecl,  but  not  tormented.  These  inhabi- 
tants are  not  condemned  on  account  of  sin,  but  solely 
because  it  was  their  fortune  to  live  before  the  birth  of 
Christ,  or  to  die  unbaptized.  The  poet  was  grieved  at 
heart,  as  well  he  might  be,  when  he  recognised  in  this 
sad  company  many  persons  of  great  worth  (comp.  Mil- 
mauj  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  xiv,  chap.  ii). 

From  the  authorities  of  the  Church,  we  find  that  the 
admission  of  tlie  belief  in  a  purgatory  had  in  the  West 
great  influence  on  the  ideas  concerning  the  future.  The 
scholastics,  in  the  course  of  time,  erected  these  views  into 
a  system.  Besides  the  above-named  three  plac  ;s  of  abode 
for  departed  spirits  deprived  of  hea\enly  felicity  recog- 
nised in  the  Itoman  Catholic  Catechism,  they  asserted 
the  existence  of  a  fourth,  intended  for  children  who  died 
previous  to  Ijaptisni.  Bellarmine  (Purr;,  ii,  7)  considers 
it  a  very  dillicult  (picstion  to  decide  whether  there  may 
not  be  a  fifth,  inwhich  the  purified  souls  remain  until 
their  final  admittance  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and 
which  must  conseipiently  be  situated  somewhere  be- 
tween purgatory  and  heaven  (Boda,  Hist,  v,  13  ;  Diony- 
sius  Carthusianus,  X'jt//.  de  jud.  imrticul.  31;  Lud.  Bio- 


LIMBO 


435 


LIMBO 


sius,  Monil.  Spirit.  13).  The  necessity  of  ascribing  to 
each  of  these  loca  jjcenalia  its  special  position  accounts 
sufficiently  for  the  fact  that  the  word  limbus  is  made  to 
answer  both  for  the  place  where  the  saints  who  lived 
before  Christ  remain,  and  for  the  abode  of  children  who 
died  without  baptism.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  set 
forth  by  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  to  have  been  at  once 
adopted  by  the  Church.  Hell  is  considered  as  situated 
ill  the  centre  of  the  earth ;  next  comes  purgatory,  which 
surrounds  hell ;  then  the  Limbus  infantum,  or  j)uerorum ; 
and  finally,  as  the  central  point  between  hell  and  heav- 
en, the  Limbus  patrum,  or  Sinus  AbraJue.  Of  course 
each  different  place  has  its  own  special  punishments :  in 
hell  it  is  poena  ceterna  damni  et  sensus ;  in  purgatory, 
pmia  temporalis  damni  et  sensus ;  in  the  Limbus  miaw- 
X.\xm,2mna  damni  ceterna;  and  in  the  Limbus  patrum, 
poe7ta  damni  temporalis  (Thom.  Aq.  iii,  d.  22,  q.  2,  a.  1, 
q.  2,  4;  d.  21,  q.  1,  a.  1,  q.  2;  d.  45,  q.  1,  a.  1,  q.  2,  3,  3, 
q.  62,  2,  4,  4;  d.  45,  q.  1,  a.  q.  2,  etc.  ^  Eleucidar.  G4; 
Dante,  Inf.  4;  comp.  31  sq. ;  Durand,  De  S.  Port.  Sentt. 

3,  d.  22,  q.  4;  Sonnius,  Demonstr.  rel.  Chr.  ii,  3,  15,  and  ii, 

4,  1 ;  Bellarmiue,  Purg.  ii,  G ;  Andradius,  Defens.  Trid. 
Synod,  ii,  299). 

The  Limbus  patrum  is  exclusively  reserved  to  the 
saints  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  They  suffer  only  by 
the  consciousness  that  they  are  deprived,  in  consequence 
of  original  sin,  from  beholding  God,  and  by  an  ardent 
longing  for  the  coming  of  their  IMessiah.  Since  Christ 
has  atoned  for  original  sin,  and  freed  them  from  impris- 
onment, this  limbo  is  empty,  and  no  longer  of  any  im- 
portance in  a  religious  sense.  It  is  called  Limbus  infer- 
ni,  -'quia  erat  poena  carentite,"  Sinus  Abrahce  "propter 
requiem,  quia  erat  exspectatio  gloria:"  (Bellarmine,  De 
Christo,  iv,  10;  Becanus,  Append,  purrj.  Calv.').  This 
view  is  defended  partly  by  means  of  some  passages  in 
Scripture  (such  as  Gen.  xxxvii,  35;  1  Sam.  xxviii; 
Zech.  ix,  11;  Luke  xvi,  23;  xx,  37;  xxiii,  43;  John 
viii,  56;  Heb.  xi,  6 ;  1  Peter  iii,  19);  but  especially  by 
oral  tradition.  This  last  is  the  more  available  because, 
with  the  exception  of  the  later  attempts  at  locatuig  the 
different  places,  the  Western  Church  has  always  taught 
the  same  things  on  this  point,  at  least  since  St.  Augus- 
tine {De  civ.  Dei,  xx,  15),  that  the  limbus  in  general  was 
only  the  caput  mortuum  which  the  doctrine  of  the  pur- 
gatory had  yet  left  to  the  old  Church.  The  Greek 
Chiurch,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  no  such  views  (Smith, 
De  Locks.  Grcec.  statu,  1678,  p.  103;  Heineccius,  Abbil- 
dmvj  d.  alten  u.  neuen  griech.  Kirche,  1711,  ii,  103). 

The  doctrine  of  the  Limbus  infantum,  or,  rather,  of 
the  fate  of  unbaptized  children,  is  insisted  on  with  much 
greater  Ibrce.  On  this  point,  however,  the  consequences 
of  the  system  and  the  natural  feelings  of  humanity 
come  into  conflict,  and  therefore  the  Church  has  never 
officially  proclaimed  its  views  as  to  the  exact  nature  of 
it,  so  that  a  certain  latitude  is  given  for  different  opin- 
ions concerning  it.  The  fathers  early  held  different 
opinions  on  this  point.  Ambrosius  (Orat.  40)  does  not 
venture  to  give  any  A'iew  concerning  unbaptized  chil- 
dren. Gregory  of  Nazianzum  {Orat.  in  s.  Bapt.  xl,  21) 
claims  that  tol'Q  ni]Ti  (iot.aa^ijaiaiai,  fii]Tt  KoXaa^))- 
ci(TSrai  TTspi  Tov  ciKaiov  KpiTov  ;  and  Gregory  of  Nys- 
sa  (eii.  Paris,  1615,  ii,  770)  only  denies  in  the  very  mild- 
est manner  their  being  tv  d\y(ivoi(:.  Pelagius  knew 
better  wliere  they  do  not  go  to  than  where  they  do  go. 
Ill  accordance  with  his  general  theory,  St.  Augustine 
consigns  them  "  ad  ignem  aitornum  damnaturum  iri ;" 
but  at  the  same  time  he  admits  that  theirs  is  the  slight- 
est punishment  consequent  to  original  sin ;  their  dam- 
nation is  even  so  very  slight  that  he  expresses  the  doubt, 
"  an  eis,  ut  nuUi  essent,  quam  nt  ibi  essent,  potius  ex- 
pediret,"  and  declares  '"definirc  se  non  posse,  quse,  qiialis 
et  quanta  erit"  (Sermo  294,  n.  3  sq. ;  Enchirid.  c.  93  ;  De 
pecc.  merit,  i,  c.  16,  n.  2 ;  Contra  Julian,  v,  44 ;  Epist.  ad 
Ilieron.  131).  This  is  the  view  most  generally  held  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  General  coimcils  held  at 
Lyons  and  at  Florence  decided  that  both  those  who  died 
in  mortal  sin  and  those  who  were  only  tainted  by  orig- 


inal sin  went  down  to  the  infemus,  but  that  their  pun- 
ishments were  different.  In  this  respect  the  damnation 
of  unbaptized  children  became  defidc,  as  it  had  to  be  in 
some  way  distinguished  from  that  of  adults.  Carrying 
out  this  view,  the  most  distinguished  scholastics,  such 
as  Peter  Lombard  (^SenU  2,  d.  33),  Thomas  Bonaventura, 
and  Scotus,  assign  to  them  only  j^eena  damni,  in  contra- 
distinction from  jjcena  sensus.  The  contrary  assertion 
of  Petavius  {De  Deo,  ix,  10,  10)  is  based  on  an  error. 
Gregory  of  Itimini  alone  makes  an  exception,  and  for 
this  reason  received  the  name  of  tortor  infantum  (Sar- 
pi,  Storia  del  Cone,  di  Trento,  ii ;  Fleim',  Hist.  Eccl.  i, 
142,  n.  128). 

Now,  although  the  essential  nature  of  the^ja?;«  damni 
consists  in  the  deprivation  of  the  happiness  of  seeing 
God,  there  exists  a  difference  in  the  manner  of  applying 
the  idea  to  children  and  their  inheritance  of  original 
sin.  Ill  the  fifth  session  of  the  Council  of  Trent  the 
Dommicans  advocated  the  stricter  view,  making  of  the 
limbus  infantum  a  dark,  midergromid  prison,  while  the 
Franciscans  placed  it  above  in  a  region  of  light.  Oth- 
ers made  the  condition  of  these  children  still  better: 
they  supposed  them  occupied  with  studying  nature, 
philosophizing  on  it,  and  receivmg  occasional  visits  from 
angels  and  samts.  As  the  council  thought  it  best  not 
to  decide  this  point,  theologians  have  since  been  free  to 
embrace  either  view.  Bellarmine  {De  amiss,  grat.  vi,  6) 
considers  their  state,  like  Lombard,  as  one  of  sorrow. 
On  the  contrary,  cardinal  Sfondrani  {Nodus  prcedest. 
dissol.  i,  1,  23,  and  i,  2,  16)  and  Peter  Godoy  (compare 
Thomas,  Qucest.  5  de  malo,  a.  2)  consider  them  as  enjoy- 
ing all  the  natural  happiness  of  which  they  are  capable. 
They  do  not  even  know  that  supernatural  happiness 
consists  in  the  visio  clara  Dei,  and  can  feel  no  pain  from 
this,  to  them  unknown,  exclusion.  Finally,  Perrone  (v, 
275),  who  takes  Concil.  Tr.  sess.  v,  c.  4,  as  including  in 
de  fide  only  the  want  of  the  siqxrnaturalis  beatitudo, 
says :  "  Si  spectetnr  relative  ad  supernaturalem  beatitu- 
dinem  habet  talis  status  rationem  posnaj  et  damrj  lionis; 
si  vero  spectetnr  idem  status  in  se  sive  absolute,  cum  per 
peccatum  de  naturalibus  nihil  amiserint,  talis  erit  ipso- 
rum  conditio,  qualis  fuisset,  si  Adam  neque  peccasset 
neque  elevatus  ad  supernaturalem  statum  fuisset,  i.  e.  in 
conditione  puroe  nature."  This  attempt  at  conciliation 
agrees  so  well  with  the  Roman  Catholic  view  of  original 
sin,  that  on  this  account  it  has  been  admitted  {Cone.  Tr. 
sess.  V,  2,  3,  5,  and  sess.  vi;  Bellarmine,  De  grat.  prim, 
horn.  v).  ^Moreover,  it  is  well  known  that  Roman  Cath- 
olic principles  are  of  great  elasticitj-  in  their  application, 
so  that  there  is  always  some  way  for  the  Church  of  get- 
ting out  of  difficulties.  Thus,  while  the  Catechism  (ii, 
2,  28)  continues  to  assert  that,  aside  from  baptism,  there 
is  "  nulla  alia  salutis  comparand^  ratio,"  we  learn  from 
the  theologians,  from  Duns  Scotus  down  to  Klee  {Dogm. 
iii,  119),  that  the  mere  deslderium  haptismi  can  be  con- 
sidered as  valid  for  the  children  while  yet  in  tlie  moth- 
ers' womb,  and  is  eqidvalent  to  the  actual  performance 
of  the  rite  of  baptism  on  the  child.  What  becomes  of  the 
children  who,  though  baptized,  die  soon  after  baptism, 
and  who  thus  lose  the  meritum  e  congruo  necessary  for 
justification,  cannot  here  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Protestantism  has  taken  but  little  notice  of  all  these 
views.  It  was  considered  by  many  that  these  theories 
were  too  unimportant.  The  old  Protestant  Church,  on 
the  contrary,  tried  to  prove  the  untenability  on  Biblical 
or  philosophical  grounds  of  this  changeable  doctrine,  its 
late  origin,  and  its  inner  contradictions.  Neither  did  it 
forget  the  impossibility  of  separating  the^jajja  damni  and 
poena  sensus  (Calvin,  iii,  16,  9 ;  Aretius,  Loci,  17 ;  Rys- 
senius,  Summa,  xviii,  3,  4 ;  B.  Pictet,  ii,  265 ;  Gerhard, 
xxvii,  8,  3 ;  S.  Niemann,  De  distinct.  Pontif.  in  interna 
classib.  1689).  The  old  Protestant  theologians  consid- 
ered it  as  an  undeniable  truth  that  there  exist  no  other 
divisions  than  heaven  and  hell  in  the,  to  us,  unknown 
world ;  also  that  there  can  be  no  further  distinction  be- 
tween the  souls  of  the  departed  than  that  based  on  be- 
lief anil  mibelief,  causing  the  former  to  be  blessed  and 


-  LIMBORCH 


436 


LIME 


the  latter  to  be  damned.  Still  there  arose  questions 
which  it  was  difficidt  for  them  to  settle :  the  lleformed 
theologians  disposed  of  them  in  a  comparatively  easy 
manner,  for,  as  they  admitted  only  of  a  gradual  differ- 
once  between  the  two  dispensations,  and  upheld  the 
identity  of  tlte  action  of  grace  and  faith  possible  to  both, 
they  fiiund  no  dithculty  in  ascribing  blessedness  to  the 
saints  of  the  old  dispensation.  It  is  well  known  that 
Zwingle  went  even  further.  Thus  they  also  disposed 
of  the  doctrme  of  predestination,  at  least  in  regard  to 
elect  children,  in  which  the  Jiiks  seminalis  was  presup- 
posed, and  no  one  could  deny,  in  view  of  Matt,  xix,  14, 
that  children  dying  in  infancy  can  also  be  among  the 
elect.  Tlie  Lutherans  solved  the  two  questions  in  a 
different  manner:  in  order  to  justify  the  qualitative 
equality  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  faith,  they  were 
obliged  to  assert  the  retrospective  power  of  Christ's 
merits.  With  regard  to  children,  they  found  a  still 
greater  difficulty  on  account  of  their  stricter  conception 
of  original  sin  and  their  doctrine  concerning  baptism, 
which  bears  such  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  The  only  way  in  which  they 
could  dispose  of  it  was  to  have  recourse  to  the  free  pow- 
er of  God,  who  can  give  salvation  in  other  than  the 
general  way.  Thus  reasons  Gerhard  when  he  says, 
"Quasi  non  possit  Deus  extraordinarie  cum  infantibus 
Christianorum  parentura  per  preces  ecclesiaj  et  paren- 
tum  sibi  oblatis  agere''  (ix,  282).  Also  Buddeus  (v,  1, 
(j) :  '"In  infantibus  parentum  Christianorum,  qui  ante 
baptismum  moriuntur  per  gratiam  quamdam  extraordi- 
nariam  fltlem  produci ;  ad  infidelium  autem  infantes 
quod  attinet,  salutem  ajternam  lis  tribuere  non  aude- 
mus."'  See  Herzog,  i^ea^-A'wc^Wo/?.  viii,  415;  Biblioth. 
Sacra,  1863,  i.  See  Life,  Eternal  ;  Predestination  ; 
Election;  Salvation;  Grace;  Sin;  Infants;  Bap- 
tism (OF  Infants). 

Limborch,  Philip  van,  an  eminent  Dutch  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Amsterdam  Jmie  19,  1633.  He  first 
studied  ethics,  history,  and  philosophj'  at  his  native  place, 
and  then  applied  himself  to  divinity  under  the  Remon- 
strants. From  Amsterdam  he  went  to  Utrecht,  and  at- 
tended the  lectures  of  Yoetius,  and  other  divines  of  the 
Reformed  religion.  In  1657  he  became  pastor  of  the 
Remonstrants  at  Gonda,  and  remained  there  until  1667, 
when  he  removed  to  Amsterdam  as  pastor.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  divinity  in 
the  Remonstrant  college  at  the  latter  place,  which  po- 
sition he  held  until  his  death,  April  30, 1712.  Limborch 
was  on  intimate  terms  with  Locke,  and  corresponded 
with  him  regularly  for  several  years  on  the  nature  of 
human  liberty  (see  Locke's  Letters,  Lond.  1727,  3  vols, 
fob).  Limborch  was  gentle  in  his  disposition,  tolerant 
of  the  views  of  others,  learned,  methodical,  of  a  reten- 
tive memory,  and,  above  all,  had  a  love  for  truth,  and 
engaged  in  the  search  of  it  by  reading  the  Scriptures 
with  tlie  best  commentators.  Next  to  Arminius  him- 
self, and  Simon  Episcopius,  Limborch  was  one  of  the 
most  ilistinguished  of  the  Arminian  theologians,  "  who 
exerted  a  beneticial  reaction  upon  Protestantism  by  their 
thorough  scientilic  attainments,  no  less  than  by  the 
mildness  of  their  sentiments"  (Hagenbach's  History  of 
Doctrines,  ii,  214).  In  1660,  having  found  among  the 
papers  of  Episcopius,  his  maternal  uncle,  several  letters 
relating  to  ecclesiastical  affairs,  he  arranged  a  collection 
with  Ilartsocker,  Kpistohr  prwstdnlinm  et  ei-iiditornm 
Virortiiii  (8vo).  Limborch  was  special!}''  noted  for  his 
doetrinal  works.  His  principal  work  is  Theolnr/ia 
Chrintiana  (1686;  4th  cd.  Amst,  1715,  4to),  translated, 
with  improvements  from  Wilkins,  Tillotson,  Scott,  and 
others,  by  William  Jones,  under  the  title,  .1  complete 
System  or  Body  of  Dirinity,  hot/i  speciilatire  and practi- 
C(il,J'ourided  on  Scripture  and  Reason  (Lond.  17.02,  2  vols. 
8vo).  This  was  the  first  and  most  complete  exposition 
of  the  Arminian  doctrine,  dfsplaying  greit  originality 
of  arrangement,  and  admiral)le  perspicuity  and  judicious 
selection  of  material.  Tlie  preparation  of  the  work  was 
undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  Remonstrants  (q,  v.). 


His  other  works  are.  Be  veritate  religioms  Cliristiance 
(1687),  the  result  of  a  conference  with  the  learned  Jew, 
Dr.  Orohius, :  —  Historia  Inquisitionis  (1692,  fob;  trans- 
lated by  Samuel  Chandler,  under  the  title  The  History 
of  the  Inquisition,  to  which  is  prefixed  a  large  introduc- 
tion concerning  the  rise  and  progress  of  persecution,  and 
the  real  and  pretended  causes  of  it,  London,  1731,  2  vols. 
4to).  He  is  also  the  author  of  an  exegetical  work, 
Commentarius  in  A  eta  Apos.  et  in  Fpistolas  ad  Roma- 
nos  et  ad  Ilehi-eeos  (Rotterdam,  1711,  fob).  '•  This  com- 
mentary, though  written  in  the  interest  of  the  author's 
theological  views,  is  desers-ing  of  attention  for  the  good 
sense,  clear  thought,  and  acute  reasoning  by  which  it  is 
pervaded"  (Kitto).  In  addition,  he  edited  many  of  the 
works  of  the  principal  Arminian  theologians.  See  Ni- 
ceron,  Hist,  des  Honimes  illustres,  xi,  39-53;  Abrah.  des 
Armorie  van  der  Hoeven,  De  Jo.  Clerico  et  Philippo  a 
Limborch.  (Amstelod.  1845,  8vo)  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Bioyr, 
Generale,  xxxi,  s.  v. ;  Herzog,  Recd-Encyklop.  viii,  s.  v. ; 
Farrar,  Crit.  History  of  Free  Thovyht,  p.  386,  392 ;  Meth- 
odist Quarterly  Review,  July,  1864,  p.  513.     (C.  R.  B.) 

Limbus.     See  Limbo. 

Lime  (T^'JJ,  «!c/,  perh.from  its  boiliny  or  effervescing 
when  slaked;  Isa.  xxxiii,  12;  Amos  ii,  1;  rendered 
"plaster"  in  Dent,  li,  2,  4;  the  same  word  is  used  for 
Ume  in  Arab,  and  Syr.),  a  well-known  mineral  substance, 
which  is  a  very  prevalent  ingredient  in  rocks,  and,  com- 
bined with  carbonic  acid,  forms  marble,  chalk,  and  lime- 
stone, of  various  degrees  of  hardness  and  everv  variety 
of  color.  Limestone  is  the  prevailing  constituent  of  the 
momitains  of  Syria;  it  occurs  under  various  modifica- 
tions of  texture,  color,  form,  and  intermixture  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  country.  The  purest  carbonate  of  lime 
is  found  in  calcareous  spar,  whose  crj'stals  assume  a  va- 
riety of  forms,  all,  however,  resulting  from  a  primary 
rhomboid.  Under  the  action  of  fire,  carbonate  of  lime 
loses  its  carbonic  acid  and  becomes  caustic  lime,  which 
has  a  hot,  pungent  taste.  See  Chalk.  Iflime  be  sub- 
jected to  an  intense  heat,  it  fuses  into  transparent  glass. 
When  heated  under  great  pressure,  it  melts,  but  retains 
its  carbonic  acid.  The  modern  mode  of  manufacturing 
common  or  ''quick"  lime  was  known  in  ancient  times. 
Lime  is  obtained  by  calcining  or  burning  marble,  lime- 
stone, chalk,  shells,  bones,  and  other  substances  to  drive 
off  the  carbonic  acid.  From  Isa.  xxxii,  12  it  appears 
that  lime  was  made  in  a  kiln  lighted  with  thorn-bushes. 
Dr.  Thomson  remarks,  "It  is  a  curious  fidelity  to  real 
life  that,  when  the  thorns  are  merely  to  be  destroyed, 
they  are  never  cut  up,  but  are  set  on  fire  where  they 
grow.  They  are  only  cut  vp  for  the  lime-kiln"  {Land 
and  Book,  i,  81).  See  J'urnace.  In. Amos  ii,  1  it  is 
said  that  the  king  of  Moab  "  burned  the  bones  of  the 
king  of  Edom  into  lime."  The  interpretation  of  the 
Targnm  and  some  of  the  rabbins  is  that  the  burnt  bones 
were  made  into  lime  and  used  by  the  conqueror  for  plas- 
tering his  palace.  The  same  Hebrew  word  occurs  in 
Dent,  xxvii,  2-4 :  "  Thou  shall  set  thee  up  great  stones, 
and  plaister  them  with  plaister;  and  thou  shalt  write 
upon  them  all  the  words  of  this  law."  It  is  probable 
that  the  same  mode  of  perpetuating  inscriptions  was  fol- 
lowed as  we  know  was  customary  in  Egypt.  In  that 
country  wc  find  paintings  and  hieroglyphic  writing  upon 
plaster,  which  is  frequenth'  laid  upon  the  natural  rock, 
and,  after  the  lapse  of  perhajis  more  than  three  thousand 
years,  we  find  the  plaster  stiU  firm,  and  the  colors  of  the 
figures  painted  on  it  still  remarkably  fresh.  The  pro- 
cess of  covering  the  rock  with  plaster  is  thus  described : 
"The  ground  was  covered  with  a  thick  laj-er  of  fine 
plaster,  consisting  of  lime  and  gypsum,  which  was  care- 
fully smoothed  and  polished.  Upon  this  a  thin  coat  of 
lime  white-wash  was  laid,  and  on  it  the  colors  were 
pamted,  whicli  were  boimd  fast  either  with  animal  glue 
or  occasionally  with  wax"  (Kf/yptian  Antiq.,  in  Lib.  of 
Enlertaininy  Knowl.).  See  Plaster.  If  it  be  insisted 
that  the  words  of  the  law  were  actually  cut  in  the  rock, 
it  would  seem  best  to  understand  that  the  Hebrew  word 


LIMINA  MARTYRUM 


437     ~ 


LINDSEY 


sid  does  not  here  mean  a  "  plaister,"  but  indicates  that 
the  stones,  after  they  had  been  engraved,  were  covered 
■with  a  coat  of  tenacious  hme  white-wash,  employed  for 
similar  purposes  by  the  Egyptians,  who,  when  the  face 
of  a  rock  had  been  sculptured  in  relievo,  covered  the 
whole  with  a  coat  of  this  wash,  and  then  painted  their 
scidptured  figures  (Kitto's  Pict.  Bible,  note  ad  loc).    See 

IMOKTAK. 

Limina  Mart^rum  {the  houses  of  the  martyr s\  a 
phrase  sometimes  used  in  ancient  writers  to  designate 
churches. — Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Limiter  Qimitour'),  the  name  given  to  an  itinerant 
and  begging  friar  employed  by  a  convent  to  collect  its 
dues  and  promote  its  temporal  interests  within  certain 
limits,  though  under  the  direction  of  the  brotherhood 
who  employed  him.  Occasionally  the  limiter  is  a  per- 
son of  considerable  importance.  See  Eussell's  Notes; 
Works  of  the  Emjlish  and  Scottish  Reformers,  ii,  536, 5-12. 
—]^\^ck',  Theol.  Did.  s.  v. 

Lincoln,  Ensigx,  a  noted  philanthropist  and  lay 
minister  in  the  Baptist  Church,  was  born  at  Hingham, 
]\lass.,  Jan.  8, 1779.  He  was  brought  into  the  Church 
when  about  nineteen  years  old,  under  the  ministry  of 
the  Kev.  Dr.  Baldwin.  He  had  been  apprenticed  to  a 
printer,  and  in  1800  he  commenced  business  on  his  own 
account.  He  also  advanced  the  interests  of  Christian 
truth  by  preaching,  for  which  he  was  licensed  about 
1801,  and,  though  he  was  not  ordained,  and  therefore 
never  rehnquished  his  secidar  profession,  he  preached, 
and  prayed,  and  performed  the  ordinary  offices  of  a  min- 
ister of  the  Gospel  with  all  the  holy  fervor  of  an  apostle. 
He  «'on  the  unaffected  respect  of  all  men,  as  a  generous 
neiglibor,  an  honest  friend,  and  a  virtuous  citizen.  He 
died  Dec.  2, 1832.  "  If  I  should  live  to  the  age  of  Methu- 
selah," he  remarked,  "  I  could  find  no  better  time  to  die." 
Mr.  Lincoln  was  prominent  in  the  organization  of  the 
Evangelical  Tract  Society,  the  Howard  Benevolent  So- 
ciety, the  Boston  Baptist  Foreign  Mission  Society,  the 
^Massachusetts  Baptist  Education  Society,  and  other  m- 
stitutions  of  a  similar  character.  He  edited  Winchell's 
Watts,  the  Pronouncing  Bible,  and  the  series  of  beautiful 
volumes  styled  The  Christian  Librari/.  His  own  Scrip- 
ture Questions  and  Sabbath-school  Class-book  are  weU 
known.  See  Dr.  Sharp's  Funeral  Sermon ;  A  merican 
Baptist  Mar/azine,  April,  1833.      (J.  H.  W.) 

Linda  or  Lindanus,  William  Dasiasus  van,  a 

Roman  Catholic  prelate,  noted  as  a  controversialist,  born 
at  Dordrecht,  Holland,  in  1525,  was  professor  of  Romish 
theology  at  Louvain  and  DiUingen;  later,  dean  in  the 
Hague,  and  then  bishop  of  Ghent.  He  is  remarkable 
for  the  severity  which  characterized  his  acts  as  inquis- 
itor. In  1562  he  was  appointed  by  Philip  II  bishop  of 
Rusemond.  He  died  in  15G8  or  1588.  His  most  popu- 
lar work  was  Panoplia  Evangelica  (1563).  See  A.  Ha- 
vensius,  Vita  G.  Lindani  (1609). — Thomas,  Biogr.  Diet.  p. 
1433 ;  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  xii,  s.  v. 

Lindblom,  Jacob  Axel,  a  Swedish  prelate,  was 
born  in  Ostrogothia  in  1747.  He  was  professor  of  belles- 
lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal,  became  bishop  of 
Linkiiping  in  1789,  and  was  afterwards  chosen  archbish- 
op of  Upsal.  He  died  in  1819. — Thomas,  Biographical 
Dictionary,  p.  1433. 

Linde,  Ciikistopii  Ludwig,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Schmalkalden  June  5,  1G7G.  In  1698  he 
attended  the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  the  f(jllowing 
year  that  of  Leipsic.  After  he  was  graduated  he  be- 
came tutor,  first  at  Leipsic,  in  order  to  develop  his 
knowledge  more  fully,  and  in  1705  at  his  native  place. 
In  1700  he  accepted  a  call  as  preacher  to  Farnbach,  in 

1729  he  returned  to  Schmalkalden  as  subdean,  and  in 

1730  was  chosen  pastor.  He  died  Aug.  27, 1753.  His 
productions  are  mostly  dedicated  to"  the  youth  and 
Gchool-teachers  of  the  Lutheran  Church ;  we  mention 
or.ly  his  Theologia  in  Hymnis  (Schmalkalden,  1712,  8vo). 
— Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 


Lindevrood,  Lind^vood,  or  Lynde^vood, 
William,  an  English  prelate  who  flourished  in  the  15th 
centurj-,  was  divinity  professor  at  Oxford  in  the  time  of 
Henry  V,  and  bishop  of  St.  David's  in  1434.  He  died 
in  144G.  He  \\TOte  Const  it  utiones  Provinciales  Ecclesim 
Anglicanm  (Oxon.  1679,  fol.). — Lowndes's  Bibl.  Man.  p. 
1135;  Marvin's  Leg.  Bibl.  p.  482;  AUibone's  Dictionary 
of  British  and  American  Authors,  ii,  1101. 

Lindgerus  (Ludgerus),  St.,  a  noted  theologian, 
was  born  about  the  year  743  in  Friesland.  He  became 
a  cUsciple  of  St.  Boniface,  who  admitted  him  to  holy  or- 
ders, and  afterwards  he  went  for  four  years  and  a  half 
to  England  to  perfect  himself  under  the  renowned  Al- 
cuin,  then  at  the  head  of  the  school  of  York.  He  re- 
turned in  773,  and  in  776  was  ordained  priest  by  Alberic, 
successor  of  St,  Gregory.  He  preached  the  Gospel  with 
great  success  in  Friesland,  converted  large  numbers,  and 
ibmaded  several  convents,  but  was  obliged  to  quit  the 
country  in  consequence  of  the  invasion  of  the  Saxons. 
He  then  went  to  Rome  to  consult  with  the  pope,  Adrian 
II,  and  withdrew  for  three  years  to  the  monastery  of 
Mount  Cassin.  Charlemagne  having  repulsed  the  Sax- 
ons and  liberated  Friesland,  Lindgerus  returned,  preached 
the  Gospel  to  the  Saxons  with  great  success,  as  also  in 
Westphalia,  and  founded  the  convent  of  Werden.  In 
802  he  was,  against  his  wishes,  appointed  bishop  of  Mi- 
migardeford,  which  was  afterwards  called  Munster.  He 
always  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Charlemagne,  notwithstand- 
ing the  intrigues  of  enemies  jealous  of  his  usefuhiess. 
He  died  iu  A^D.  809.— Herzog,  Real-EncyUop.  vol.  xix, 
s.  V. 

Lindsay,  John  (1),  a  learned  English  divine,  who 
flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  17th  century,  was  ed- 
ucated at  St.  Mary's  Hall,  Oxford,  and  for  many  years 
officiated  as  a  minister  of  the  nonjuring  society  in  Trin- 
ity Chapel,  Aldersgate  Street,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
their  last  minister.  He  was  also  for  some  time  a  cor- 
rector of  the  press  for  Mr.  Bowyer,  the  printer.  He  fin- 
ished a  long  and  useful  life  June  21, 1708.  Mr.  Lindsay 
published  a  Short  History  of  the  Regal  Succession,  etc., 
icith  Remarks  on  Wkiston's  Sc?-iptU7-e  Politics,  etc.  (1720, 
8vo) ;  a  translation  of  Mason's  Vindication  of  the  Church 
of  England  (1726,  reprinted  in  1728),  which  has  a  large 
and  elaborate  preface,  containing  "  a  fuU  and  particular 
series  of  the  succession  of  our  bishops,  through  the  sev- 
eral reigns  since  the  Reformation,"  etc.  In  1747  he  pub- 
lished Mason's  Two  Sermons  irreached  at  Court  in  1620. 
See  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Lindsay,  John  (2),  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  July  18,  1788;  was  con- 
verted in  1807 ;  entered  the  New  England  Conference  in 
1809 ;  was  agent  for  the  Wesleyan  University  in  1835-6 ; 
in  1837  was  transferred  to  the  New  York  Conference,  and 
made  presiding  elder  on  New  Haven  District;  next  he 
fiUed  two  stations  in  New  York  City;  in  1842  he  was 
agent  for  the  American  Bible  Society ;  was  transferred 
in  1845  to  the  Troy  Conference ;  was  appointed  to  the 
Albany  District  in  1846 ;  and  died  at  Schenectady  Feb. 
10, 1850.  Mr.  Lindsay  was  an  impressive  and  success- 
ful preacher,  and  a  man  of  noble  benevolence.  He  was 
very  active  in  the  founding  of  the  Wesleyan  Academy 
at  Wilbraham,  and  the  Wesleyan  University. — Minutes 
of  Conf.  iv,  460 ;  Stevens,  Memorials  of  Methodism,  voL 
ii.ch.xli.     (G.L.T.) 

Lindsey,  Theopiiilus,  an  eminent  English  L^ni- 
tarian  minister,  was  born  at  Middlewich,  in  Cheshire, 
June  20,  1723  (O.  S.).  He  entered  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  in  1741,  and,  after  taking  his  degrees,  was 
elected  fellow  in  1747.  About  this  time  he  commenced 
his  clerical  duties  at  an  Episcopal  chapel  in  Spital  Square, 
London.  Later  he  became  domestic  chaplain  to  Alger- 
non, duke  of  Somerset,  aftc*  whose  death  he  travelled 
two  years  on  the  Continent  with  Algernon's  son.  On 
his  return,  about  1753,  he  was  presented  to  the  living 
of  Kirkby  Wiske,  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
and  in  1756  he  removed  to  that  of  Piddletown,  in  Dor- 


LINDSEY 


438 


LINE 


setshire.  In  1760  he  married  a  step-daughter  of  his 
intimate  friend  archdeacon  Blackhurne,  and  in  1703, 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  enjoying  his  society,  took  the 
living  of  Catterick.  Lindsey,  who  had  felt  some  scru- 
ples "respecting  subscription  to  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles even  whUe  at  Cambridge,  began  now  to  entertain 
serious  doubts  concerning  the  Trinitarian  doctrines,  and 
by  1709  his  association  with  the  llev.  William  Turner, 
a"  Presbyterian  minister  at  Wakefield,  and  Dr.  Priest- 
ley, then  a  Unitarian  miiustcr  at  Leeds,  gave  a  more 
decided  coloring  to  his  Antitrinitarian  views,  and  he 
actually  began  to  contemplate  the  duty  of  resigning 
his  living.  He  was  induced  to  defer  that  step  by  an 
attempt  which  was  made  in  1771,  by  several  clergymen 
and  gentlemen  of  the  learned  professions,  to  obtain  re- 
lief from  Parliament  in  the  matter  of  subscription  to  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  in  which  he  joined  heartily, 
travelling  upwards  of  2000  miles  in  the  winter  of  that 
year  to  obtain  signatures  to  the  petition  which  was  pre- 
pared. The  petition  was  presented  on  the  6th  of  Feb- 
ruar\',  1772,  with  nearly  250  signatures,  but,  after  a  spir- 
ited debate,  its  reception  was  negatived  by  217  to  71. 
It  being  intended  to  renew  the  application  to  Parliament 
at  the  next  session,  Lindsey  still  deferred  his  resigna- 
tion, but  when  the  intention  was  abandoned  he  began 
to  prepare  for  that  important  step.    He  drew  up,  in  July, 

1773,  a  copious  and  learned  "Apology,"  and,  notwith- 
standing the  attempts  of  his  diocesan  and  others  to  dis- 
suade him  from  the  step,  he  formally  resigned  his  con- 
nection with  the  Established  Church,  and,  selling  the 
greatest  part  of  his  library  to  meet  his  pecuniary  exigen- 
cies, he  proceeded  to  London,  and  on  the  17th  of  April, 

1774,  began  to  ofhciate  in  a  room  in  Essex  Street,  Strand, 
which,  by  the  help  of  friends,  he  had  been  enabled  to 
convert  into  a  temporary  chapel.  His  desire  being  to 
deviate  as  little  as  possible  from  the  mode  of  worship 
mlopted  in  the  Church  of  England,  he  used  a  liturgy 
very  slightly  altered  from  that  modification  of  the  na- 
tional chiu-ch-ser\'ice  which  had  been  previously  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke.  This  modified  liturgy, 
as  well  as  his  opening  sermon,  Lindsey  published.  His 
efforts  to  raise  a  Unitarian  congregation  proving  suc- 
cessful, he  commenced  shortly  afterwards  the  erection 
of  a  more  permanent  chapel  in  Essex  Street,  which 
was  opened  in  1778.  Ilis  published  "Apology"  having 
lieen  attacked  in  print  by  Mr.  Biu-gh,  an  Irish  M.P.,  by 
Mr.  Bingham,  and  by  Dr.  Randolph,  Lindsey  published  a 
"  Sequel"  to  it  in  1776,  in  which  he  answered  those  writ- 
ers. In  1781  he  published  The  Catechist,  or  an  Inquiry 
into  the  Doctrine  of  the  Scriptui-es  concerning  the  only 
True  God  and  Object  of  Relir/ious  Worship ;  in  1783.  A 
Historical  View  of  the  State  of  the  Unitarian  Doctrine 
and  Worship  from  the  Reformation  to  ourovn  Times,  an 
elaborate  work,  which  had  been  several  years  in  prepa- 
ration; and  in  1785,  anonymoush",  ^1 «  Examination  of 
Mr.  Robinson  of  Cambridge  s  Plea  for  the  Divinity  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  a  late  Member  of  the  University. 
In  1788  he  published  Vindicia-  Priestleiance,  a  defence  of 
his  friend  Dr.  Priestley,  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  the 
students  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge ;  and  this  was  fol- 
lowed, in  1790,  by  a  Second  Address  to  the  Students  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  7-elating  to  Jesus  Christ  and  the 
Origin  of  the  great  Errors  concerning  him.  In  1782  he 
invited  Dr.  Disney,  who  then  left  the  Established  Church 
for  the  same  reasons  as  himself,  to  become  his  colleague 
in  the  ministrj'  at  Essex  Street ;  and  in  1793,  on  account 
of  age  and  growing  infirmities,  he  resigned  the  pastorate 
entirely  into  his  hands,  publishing  on  the  occasion  a 
farewell  discourse  (which  he  felt  himself  unable  to 
preach)  and  a  revised  edition,  being  the  fourth,  of  his 
liturgy.  In  1795  he  reprinted,  with  an  original  pref- 
ace, the  Letters  to  a  Philosophical  Unbeliever  which  Dr. 
Priestley  had  recently  published  in  America  in  reply 
to  Paine's  Age  of  Reason ;  and  in  1800  he  republished 
in  like  manner  another  of  Priestley's  works,  on  the 
knowledge  which  the  Hebrews  had  of  a  future  state. 
Lindscy's  last  work  was   published  in   1802,  entitled 


Conversations  on  the  Divine  Government,  showing  that 
everything  is  from  God  and  for  good  to  all.  He  died 
on  the  3d  of  November,  1808.  Besides  copious  bio- 
graphical notices  of  Lindsey,  which  were  published  in 
the  Monthly  Repository  and  Monthly  Magazine  of  Dec, 
1808,  the  Kev.  Thomas  Belsham  published,  in  1812,  a 
thick  octavo  volume  of  Memoirs,  in  which  he  gives  a 
full  analysis  of  Lindsey's  works  and  extracts  from  his 
correspondence,  together  with  a  complete  list  of  his  pub- 
lications. Two  volumes  of  his  sermons  were  printed 
shortly  after  his  death.  See  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Robert 
Hall,  in  his  Works  (Uth  ed.  1853),  iv,  188  sq.;  London 
Quarterly  Revieiv,  viii,  422  sq. 

Lindsley,  James  Harvey,  a  Baptist  preacher, 
was  born  in  North  Branford,  Connecticut,  May  5,  1787. 
Brought  to  consider  his  spiritual  condition  through  a 
severe  illness,  he  sought  and  found  pardon  in  December, 
1810.  Shortly  after  he  began  a  course  of  study  with, 
the  view  of  entering  the  ministry,  and  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1817.  For  a  number  of  years  his  health 
was  so  poor  as  to  forbid  his  preaching,  and  he  was  en- 
gaged in  teaching.  He  introduced  into  the  Baptist  de- 
nomination the  religious  meetings  styled  "Conference 
of  the  Churches,"  and  was  chairman  of  the  first  two. 
His  first  regular  preaching  was  in  Stratford,  in  a  store 
hired  by  himself  in  1831,  and  in  the  same  year  he  re- 
ceived a  regular  license  to  preach.  For  five  jxars  he ' 
had  charge  of  the  churches  in  Milford  and  Strat  field. 
In  1836  his  health  became  impaired.  He  ceased  preach- 
ing, and  for  a  part  of  the  j^ear  assisted  in  the  C(jmpila- 
tion  of  the  Baptist  Select  Hymns.  He  died  Dec.  29, 1843. 
Mr.  Lindsley  was  a  ready  writer,  and  a  large  contribu- 
tor to  several  of  the  periodicals  of  the  day.  His  articles 
took  a  wide  range,  including  politics,  religion,  moral  re- 
form, literature,  and  especially  natural  science. — Sprague, 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit,  vol.  yi. 

Lindsley,  Philip,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  bom  near  Morristown,  N.  J.,  Dec.  21, 1780,  and  grad- 
uated in  the  College  of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  in  1804. 
After  teaching  for  some  time,  and  completing  his  tlieo- 
logical  coiu-se,  he  was  licensed  in  1810,  and  went  to 
Newtown,  L.  I.,  where  he  preached  as  a  stated  supply. 
In  1812  he  became  senior  tutor  in  Princeton  College, 
and  in  1813  was  appointed  to  the  professorship  of  lan- 
guages, and  chosen  secretary  of  the  board  of  trustees. 
To  these  offices  were  added  those  of  librarian  and  inspect- 
or of  the  college,  and  in  1817,  when  he  was  ordained,  that 
of  vice-president.  In  1824  he  agreed  to  go  to  Nashville, 
solely  induced  thereto  by  the  new  and  wide  field  of  ex- 
ertion which  lay  before  him  there.  He  continued  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  at  Nashville,  and  his  repu- 
tation as  a  teacher  was  so  high  in  the  South  and  AVest 
that  it  was  said  that  everj'  university  in  those  regions 
had  solicited  him  to  accept  its  headship.  He  was  twice 
invited  to  preside  over  Dickinson  College,  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  actually  elected  provost  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania  in  1834.  From  this  period  he  was 
successively  nioilerator  of  the  General  Assemblj^  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United  States,  member  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Northern  Antiquaries  at  Copenha- 
gen, professor  of  ecclesiastical  polity  and  Biblical  archae- 
ology in  the  New  Albany  Seminary  (Indiana),  1850.  He 
removed  from  New  Albany  in  April,  1853.  and  returned 
to  Nashville,  where  he  died  in  May,  1855.  Dr.  Linds- 
ley's  works  have  been  published  entire,  with  an  intro- 
ductorj'  notice  of  his  life  and  labors  by  Leroy  J.  Halsey 
(Philadel.  1865,  3  vols.  8vo).  Their  contents  are  as  fol- 
lows: vol.  i.  Educational  Discourses ;  vol.  ii.  Sermons 
and  Religious  Discourses;  vol.  iii.  Miscellaneous  Dis- 
courses and  Essays. — Sprague,  Annals,  iv,  465. 

Liudwood.     See  Lindewood. 

Line  (rejiresented  by  the  following  terms  in  the 
original:  ^Sn,  che'bel,  a  measuring-lint,  2  Sam.  viii,  2; 
Amos  vii,  17;  hence  &  jwrtion  as  divided  out  by  a  line, 
Psa.  xvi,  6;  elsewhere  "cord,"  "portion,"  etc.  Ip  or 
1 P,  kav,  a  measuring-line,  Isa.  xxxiv,  17 ;  Ezek.  xlvii. 


LINEAGE 


439 


line:n" 


3 ;  either  for  construction,  Job  xxxviii,  5 ;  Isa.  xliv,  13 ; 
Jcr.  xxxi,  39 ;  Zecli.  i,  16,  or  for  destruction,  2  Kings 
xxi,  13;  Lam.  ii,  8;  Isa.  xxxiv^,  11;  metaph.,  a  rule  or 
norm,  Isa.  xxviii,  17, 10,  13 ;  like  the  Gr.  Kaviov,  2  Cor. 
X,  13,  15,  16 ;  Gal.  vi,  16 ;  Phil,  iii,  16  ;  also  the  rim,  e.  g. 
of  a  layer,  1  Kings  vii,  23  ;  2  Chron.  iv,  2 ;  or  string  of  a 
musical  instrument,  put  for  sound,  q.  d.  accord,  Psa.  xix, 
4;  where  Sept.  6  (pSruyyog,  and  so  Rom.  x,  18,Vulg.  so- 
VHX ;  once,  strength,  Isa.  xviii,  2,  where  "  a  nation  meted 
out"  should  be  rendered  a  most  mvjhtii  nation :  in  three 
of  the  above  passages,  1  Kings  vii,  23 ;  Jer.  xxxi,  39 ; 
Zcch.  i,  16,  the  text  reads  t\'\^_,  Ice'veh,  of  the  same  im- 
port; and  in  Josh,  ii,  18,  21,  occurs  WpO,  tikvah',  a 
cord,  from  the  same  root.  Other  terms  less  proper  are : 
kJW,  chut,  a  thread,  for  measuring  a  circumference,  1 
Kings  vii,  15;  "fillets,"  Jer.  Iii,  21 ;  elsewhere  generally 
a  "  thread."  bitnQ,  pathil',  a  cord,  for  measuring  length, 
Ezek.  xl,3;  elsewhere  a  "thread,"  "lace,"  etc.,  especially 
the  string  for  suspending  the  signet-ring  in  the  bosom, 
rendered  "bracelets"  in  Gen.  xxxviii,  18,  25.  ^')V., 
se'red,  the  awl  or  stylus  with  which  an  artist  graves  the 
sketch  of  a  figure  in  outline,  to  be  afterwards  sculptured 
in  full,  Isa.  xliv,  13).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Hebrews  acquired  the  art  of  measuring  land  from 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  with  whom  it  was  early  preva- 
lent ("Wilkinson's  Anc.  Egypt,  ii,  256).  In  Josh,  xviii,  9 
we  read,  "  And  the  men  went  out  and  passed  through 
the  land,  and  described  it  by  cities  into  seven  parts  in  a 
book,  and  came  again  to  Joshua  to  the  host  at  Shiloh." 
These  circumstances  clearly  indicate  that  a  survey  of 
the  whole  country  was  made,  and  the  results  entered 
carefully  in  a  book  (see  Kitto's  Dailg  Bible  Illust.  ad 
loc).  This  appears  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  a  top- 
ographical srn-vey  on  record,  and  it  proves  that  there 
must  have  been  some  knowledge  of  mensuration  among 
the  Hebrews,  as  is  moreover  evinced  by  the  other  topo- 
graphical details  in  the  book  of  Joshua. 

Lineage  (Trarptd,  paternal  descent,  "kindred,"  Acts 
iii,  25;  "family,"  Eph.  iii,  15),  a  family  or  race  (Luke 
ii,  4).     See  Genealogy. 

Linen  has  been  made  in  the  A.  Version  or  elsewhere 
the  representative  of  a  considerable  number  of  Ileb.  and 
Greek  terms,  to  most  of  which  it  more  or  less  nearly 
corresponds.  The  material  designated  by  them  in  gen- 
eral is  no  doubt  principally,  and  perhaps  b}'  S(3me  of 
them  exclusively,  the  product  of  the  flax-plant ;  but 
there  is  another  plant  which,  as  being  a  probable  rival 
to  it,  may  be  most  conveniently  considered  here,  name- 
ly, HEMP.     See  also  Silk;  Wool. 

Hemi^  is  a  plant  which  in  the  ]irescnt  day  is  exten- 
sively distributed,  being  cultivated  in  Europe,  and  ex- 
teniling  through  Persia  to  the  southernmost  parts  of 
India.  In  the  plains  of  that  country  it  is  cultivated 
on  account  of  its  intoxicating  product,  so  well  known  as 
hang ;  in  the  Himalayas  both  on  this  account  and  for  its 
yielding  the  Ugneous  fibre  which  is  used  for  sack  and 
rope  making.  Its  European  names  arc  no  doubt  derived 
from  the  Arabic  kinnab,  which  is  supposed  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  Sanscrit  shanapee.  There  is  no  doubt, 
therefore,  that  it  might  easily  have  been  cultivated  in 
Egypt.  Herodotus  mentions  it  as  being  employed  by 
the  Thracians  for  making  garments.  "  These  were  so 
like  linen  that  none  but  a  very  experienced  person  could 
tell  whether  they  were  of  hemp  or  flax ;  one  who  had 
never  seen  hemp  would  certainly  suppose  them  to  be 
linen."  Hemp  is  used  in  the  present  day  for  smock- 
frocks  and  tunics;  and  Russia  sheeting  and  Russia  duck 
are  well  known.  Cannabis  is  mentioned  in  the  works 
of  Hippocrates  on  account  of  its  medical  properties. 
Dioseorides  describes  it  as  being  employed  for  making 
ropes,  and  it  was  a  good  d™  cultivated  by  the  Greeks 
for  this  purpose.  Though  we  are  unable  at  present  to 
prove  that  it  was  cultivated  in  Egj'pt  at  an  early  period, 
and  used  for  making  garments,  yet  there  is  nothing  im- 
probable in  its  having  been  so.    Indeed,  as  it  was  known 


to  various  Asiatic  nations,  it  could  hardly  have  been 
unknown  to  the  Egyptians,  and  the  similarity  of  the 
word  husheesh  to  the  Arabic  shesh  would  lead  to  a  belief 
that  they  were  acquainted  with  it,  especially  as  in  a 
language  like  the  Hebrew  it  is  more  probable  that  dif- 
ferent names  were  applied  to  totally  different  things, 
than  that  the  same  thing  had  two  or  three  different 
names.  Hemp  might  thus  have  been  used  at  an  early 
period,  along  with  fiax  and  wool,  for  making  cloth  for 
garments  and  for  hangings,  and  would  be  much  valued 
until  cotton  and  the  finer  kinds  of  linen  came  to  be 
known. — Kitto. 

1.  PisHTEii'  (ilfiliJQ,  or,  rather,  according  to  Gese- 
nius,  W13Q,  pe'sheth,  from  ddS,  to  cajxl)  is  rendered 
"  linen"  in  Lev.  xiii,  47,  48,  52,  59 ;  Deut,  xxii,  11 ;  Jer. 
xiii,l;  Ezek.  xliv,  17,  18;  and  "flax"  in  Josh,  ii,  6; 
Judg.  XV,  14;  Prov.  xxxi,  13 ;  Isa.  xix,  9;  Ezek.  xl,  3; 
Hos.  ii,  5,  9.  It  signifies  (1.)  /lax,  i.  e.  the  material  of 
linen,  Isa.  xix,  9 ;  Deut.  xxii,  11 ;  Prov.  xxxi,  13,  where 
its  manufacture  is  spoken  of;  also  a  line  or  rope  made 
of  it,  Ezek.  xl,  3;  Judg.  xiv,  4;  so  "stalks  of  flax,"  i.  e. 
woody  flax,  Josh,  ii,  6  (where  the  Sept.  has  \ivoica\dfii], 
Vulg.  stijndce  lini,hut  the  Arabic  Vers,  stalks  of  cotton); 
and  (2.)  wTought  flax,  i.  e.  linen  cloth,  as  made  into  gar- 
ments, e.  g.  generally.  Lev.  xiii,  47,  48,  52,  59 ;  Deut. 
xxii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17;  a  girdle,  Jer.  xiii,  1 ,  a  mitre, 
a  pair  of  drawers  worn  by  the  priests,  Ezek.  xliv,  18.  A 
cognate  term  is  itU'012,  pistah',  the  plant  "flax"  as 
growing,  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  spec,  a  tvick;  made  of  linen,  i.  e. 
of  "  flax,"  Isa.  xhi,  3,  or  "  tow,"  Isa.  xliii,  17.  To  this 
exactly  corresponds  the  Greek  \ivov  (whence  English 
linm),  which,  indeed,  stands  for  pishteh  or  pishtah  in  the 
Sept.  (at  Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Isa.  xix,  9;  xliii,  3).  It  signi- 
fies properly  the  Jiax-plant  (Xenophon,  .4^/j.  ii,  11, 12), 
but  in  the  N.  T.  is  only  used  of  linen  raiment  (Rev.  xv, 
6 ;  comp.  Homer,  II.  Lx,  661 ;  Od.  xiii,  73),  also  the  wick 
of  a  lamp,  as  being  composed  of  a  strip  or  ravellings  of 
linen  (Matt,  xii,  20),  where  the  half-expiring  flame  is 
made  the  sj-mbol  of  an  almost  despairing  heart,  which 
will  be  cheered  instead  of  having  its  religious  hopes  ex- 
tinguished by  the  Redeemer.  In  John  xiii,  4,  5  occurs 
the  Latin  term  linteum,  in  its  Greek  form  Xsvriov,  liter- 
ally a  linen  clothj  hence  a  "  towel"  or  api-on  (comp.  Ga- 
len, Comp.  Med.  9 ;  Suetonius,  Ctdig.  xxvi). 

This  well-lmown  plant  was  early  cultivated  in  Egypt 
(Exod.  ix,  31 ;  Isa.  xix,  9  ;  comp.  Pliny,  xix,  2 ;  Herod, 
ii,  105;  Hasselquist,  Trar.  p.  500),  namely,  in  the  Delta 
around  Pelusium  ("  linum  Pelusiacum,"  Sil.  Ital.  iii,  25, 
375;  "linteum  Pelusium,"  Phrodr.  ii,  6,  12);  but  also  in 
Palestine  (Josh,  ii,  6  ,  Hos.  ii,  7  ;  compare  Pococke,  East, 
i,  260),  the  stalk  attaining  a  height  of  several  feet  (see 
Josh,  ii,  6 ;  compare  Hartmann,  Ilebr.  i,  116).  Linen  or 
tow  was  employed  by  the  Hebrews,  especially  as  a 
branch  of  female  domestic  manufacture  (Prov.  xxxi,  13), 
for  garments  (2  Sam.  vi,  14 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17 ;  Lev.  xiii, 
47 ;  Rev.  xv,  G ;  comp.  Philo,  ii,  225),  girtUes  (Jer.  xxxi, 
1),  thread  and  ropes  (Ezek.  xl,  3;  Judg.  xv,  13),  nap- 
kins (Luke  xxiv,  12 ;  John  xix,  40),  turbans  (Ezek.  xliv, 
18),  and  lamp-wick  (Isa.  xl,  3;  xliii,  17;  Matt,  xii,  20). 
For  clothing  they  used  the  "  fine  linen"  ("13,  o^ovij,  1 
Chron.  xv,  27,  where  the  Sept.  has  '^vaaivoq :  see  Hart- 
mann, iii,  38 ;  compare  Lev.  xvi,  4,  23 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  17), 
perhaps  the  Pelusiac  linen  of  Egypt  (see  Mishna,  Joma, 
iii,  7),  of  remarkable  whiteness  (comp.  Dan.  xii,  6 ;  Rev. 
XV,  6  ;  see  Plutarch,  Isis,  c.  4),  with  which  the  fine  Bab- 
ylon linen  manufactured  at  Borsippa  doubtless  corre- 
sponded (Strabo,  xvi,  739),  being  the  material  of  the 
splendid  robes  of  the  Persian  monarchs  (Strabo,  xiv,  719 ; 
Curt,  viii,  9),  doubtless  the  karpas,  DS"i3,  of  Esth.  i,  6 
(see  Gesenius,  Thesaur.  Ileh.  p.  715).  Very  poor  persons 
wore  garments  of  unbleached  flax  {w/iioXn'ov,  linum  cru- 
dum,  1.  q.  tow-cloth,  Ecclus.  xl,  4).  The  refuse  of  flax  or 
toio  is  called  in  Heb.  n-li'D,  neo'reth  (Judg.  xvi,  9;  Isa. 
i,  31).  (See  generally' Celsius,  Uierobot.  ii,  283  sq.)^ 
Winer,  i,  375.     See  Flax, 


LINEN 


440 


LINEN 


2.  BPts  (V12,  from  a  root  signifying  u-hifeness)  occurs 
in  1  Chron.  iv,  21 ;  xv,  27 ;  2  Chron.  ii,  14 ;  iii,  14 ;  v,  12 ; 
Ksth.  i,  6 ;  viii,  15 ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  16,  in  all  which  passages 
the  A.Y.  renders  it "  tine  linen,"  except  in  2  Chron.  v,  12, 
where  it  translates  "  white  linen."  The  word  is  of  Ara- 
m;van  origin,  being  found  in  substantially  the  same  form 
in  all  the  cognate  dialects.  It  is  spoken  of  the  finest 
and  most  precious  stuffs,  as  worn  by  kings  (1  Chron. 
XV.  27),  by  priests  (2  Chron.  v,  12),  and  by  other  persons 
of  high  rank  or  honor  (Esth.  i,  6,  8, 15).  It  is  used  of 
the  Syrian  bi/ssits  (Ezek.  xxvii,  16),  which  seems  there 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Egyptian  bi/ssus  or  TIJ'^. 
s/tesk  (ver.  7).  Elsewhere  it  seems  not  to  differ  from 
this  last,  and  is  often  put  for  it  in  late  Hebrew  (e.  g. 
1  Chron.  iv,  21;  2  Chron.  iii,  14;  comp.  Exod.  xxvi,  31; 
so  the  Syr.  and  Chald.  eqidvalents  of  huts  occur  in  the 
O.  and  N.  T.  for  the  Heb.  d'J  and  Gr.  jSvaaoc).  That 
the  Ileb.  garments  made  of  this  material  were  white  may 
not  only  be  certainly  concluded  from  the  etymology 
(which  that  of  TIJIIJ  confirms),  but  from  the  express  lan- 
guage of  Rev.  xix,  4,  where  the  white  and  shining  rai- 
ment of  the  saints  is  emblematical  of  their  purity.  Yet 
we  should  not  rashly  reject  the  testimony  of  Pausanias 
(v,  5),  who  states  that  the  Hebrew  byssus  was  yellow,  for 
cotton  of  this  color  is  found  as  well  in  Guinea  and  India 
(Gossypium  7-elif/iosum)  as  in  Greece  at  this  day  (comp. 
Yossius,  (ul.  Virff.  Geo.  ii,  220),  although  white  was  doubt- 
less the  prevailing  color,  as  of  linen  with  us.  J.  E.  Faber 
(in  Harmar,  Obserr.  ii,  382  sq.)  suspects  that  the  bufs  was 
a  cotton-plant  common  in  Syria,  and  different  from  tlie 
s/iesh  or  tree-cotton.  It  has  long  been  disputed  whether 
the  cloths  of  bysstis  were  of  linen  or  cotton  (see  Celsius, 
Hlerobot.  ii,  167  sq. ;  Forster,  De  bysso  antiquor.  London, 
177G),  and  recent  microscopic  experiments  upon  the 
minnm3'-cloths  brought  to  London  from  Egypt  have 
been  claimed  as  determining  the  controversy  by  discov- 
ering that  the  threads  of  these  are  linen  (Wilkinson, 
Anc.  Egypt,  iii,  115).  But  this  is  not  decisive,  as  there 
may  have  existed  religious  reasons  for  employing  linen 
for  this  particular  purpose,  and  the  cloths  used  for  ban- 
daging the  bodies  are  not  clearly  stated  to  have  been  of 
byxsn.t.  On  the  contrary,  the  characteristics  ascribed  to 
this  latter  are  such  as  much  better  agree  with  the  qual- 
ities of  cotton  (see  Forster,  De  bysio,  ut  sup.).  "  The 
corresponding  Greek  word  /StcrffOf  occurs  in  Luke  xvi, 
19,  where  the  rich  man  is  described  as  being  clothed  in 
purple  and_^'»e  linen,  and  also  in  Rev.  xviii,  12, 16,  and 
xix,  8,  14,  among  the  merchandise  the  loss  of  which 
would  be  mourned  for  by  the  merchants  trading  with 
the  mystical  Babylon.  But  it  is  by  many  authors  still 
considered  uncertain  whether  this  byssus  was  of  flax  or 
cotton  ;  fur,  as  RosenmiiUer  says, '  The  Heb.  word  sliesfi, 
which  occurs  thirty  times  in  the  two  tirst  books  of  the 
Pentateuch  (see  Celsius,  ii,  259),  is  in  these  places,  as 
well  as  in  I'rov.  xxxi,  22,  by  the  Greek  Alexandrian 
translators  interpreted  byssus,  which  denotes  Egyptian 
cotton,  and  also  the  cotton  cloth  made  from  it.  In  the 
later  writings  of  the  O.  T.,  as.  for  example,  in  tlie  Chron- 
icles, the  book  of  Esther,  and  Ezekiel,  buts  is  commonly 
used  instead  of  skesh  as  an  expression  for  cotton  cloth.' 
This,  however,  seems  to  be  inferred  rather  than  proved, 
and  it  is  just  as  likely  that  improved  civilization  may 
have  introduced  a  substance,  suck  u  .otton,  which  was 
unknown  at  the  times  when  .'i/iesh  was  sjjoken  of  and 
employed,  in  the  same  manner  as  we  know  that  in  Eu- 
rope woollen,  hempen,  linen,  and  cotton  clothes  have  at 
one  period  of  society  been  more  extensively  worn  than 
at  another"  (Kitto). 

Cotton  is  the  product  of  a  plant  apparently  cultivated 
in  the  earliest  ages  not  only  in  India,  Cyprus,  and  other 
well-known  localities,  but  also  in  Egypt  (Pliny,  -xix,  2 ; 
comp.  Descript.  de  VEgypte,  xvji,  104  sq.),  and  even  in 
Syria  (Ezek.  xxvii,  16)  and  Palestine  (1  Chron.  iv,  21 ; 
Pausan.  v,  5,  2;  Pococke,  luist,  ii,  88;  Arvicux,  i,  oOG). 
Two  kinds  of  cotton  are  usually  distinguished,  the />/n«i 
{Gossypium  herbaceum)  and  the  tree  (Jjossyp.  arboreuni), 


although  the  latest  investigations  appear  to  make  them 
essentially  one.  Tlie  former,  which  in  Western  Asia  is 
found  growing  in  fields  (Olearius,  Travels,  p.  297 ;  Korte, 
Reis.  p.  437),  is  an  annual  shrub  two  or  three  feet  high, 
but  when  cultivated  (Olivier,  Truv.  ii,  461)  it  becomes 
a  bush  from  three  to  five  feet  in  height.  The  stalks  are 
reddish  at  the  bottom,  the  branches  short,  furzy,  and 
speckled  with  black  spots;  the  leaves  are  dark  green, 
large,  five-lobed,  and  weak.  The  flowers  spring  from 
the  junction  of  the  leaves  with  the  stem  ;  they  are  bell- 
shaped,  pale  yellow,  but  purplish  beneath.  They  arc 
succeeded  by  oval  capsules  of  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut, 
which  swell  to  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  (in  October) 
burst  spontaneously.  They  contain  a  little  ball  of  white 
filaments,  which  in  warm  situations  attains  the  size  of  an 
apple.  Imbedded  in  this  are  seven  little  egg-shaped, 
woolly  seeds,  of  a  brown  or  black-gray  color,  which  con- 
tain an  oily  kernel.  The  Gossypium  arboreuni  {i)ir?oov 
ioio(j>6piov  of  Theophrastus)  was  anciently  (see  Theoph. 
Plant,  iv,  9,  p.  144,  ed.  Schneider),  and  still  is  indigenous 
in  Asia  (i.  c.  India),  and  attains  a  height  of  about  twelve 
feet,  but  differs  very  little  as  to  the  leaves,  blossoms,  or 
fruit  from  the  herbaceous  cotton.  See  generally  Belon, 
in  Paulus's  Samml.  i,.214  sq. ;  Kurrer,  in  the  Hall.  Encykl. 
viii,  209  sq. ,  Oken,  Lehrb.  d.  Naturyesch.  II,  ii,  1262  sq. ; 
Ainslie,  Mater.  Ind.  p.  282  sq. ;  Patter,  Erdk.  vii,  1058  sq. 

Cotton  (Ui  w,  shesh,  according  to  Rosenmtiller,  ^4  Itert/i. 
TV,  i,  175;  comp.  Tuch,  Gen.  p.  520  sq. ;  later  "/^3,  buts, 
see  Faber,  in  Harmar,  ii,  383 ;  comp.  Gesenius,  Thesaur. 
p.  190)  was  not  only  manufactured  in  Egypt  into  state 
apparel  (Gen.  xli,  42 ;  comp.  Pliny,  xix,  2),  and  in  Persia 
into  cords  (Esth.  i,  6),  but  the  Israelites  even  made  use 
of  byssus  cloth  (Exod.  xxvi,  1 ;  xxvii,  9)  and  clothing 
(Exod.  xxviii,  89),  and  the  Hebrew  women  were  accus- 
tomed to  similar  fabrics  (Prov.  xxxi,  32).  It  has  also 
been  regarded  as  the  sumptuous  apparel  which  onlj-  the 
rich  were  able  to  afford  (Luke  xvi,  19;  on  the  byssus  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  see  Celsius,  ii,  170, 177,  and  Wet- 
stein,  ii,  767).  Nevertheless,  the  Hebrew  shesh  does  not 
designate  exclusively  cotton,  but  also  stands  sometimes, 
like  the  Gr.  byssus  often  (as  the  product  of  a  tree.Philostr, 
Apoll.  ii,  2G ;  comp.  Pollux,  Ononi.  vii,  17;  Strabo,  xv, 
693;  Arrian, //icZif.  vii),  for  the  finest  (Egyptian)  white 
linen  (certainly  in  Exod.  xxxix,  28  ;  comp.  xxviii,  42  ; 
Lev.  xvi,  4 ;  see  Pliny,  xix,  2, 3),  which  in  softness  com- 
pared with  cotton  (Hartmann,  Hebr.  iii,  37  sq.).  Indeed, 
the  Jewish  tradition  of  the  use  of  linen  for  sacred  pur- 
poses (Bilhr,  Symbol,  i,  264)  is  based  altogether  upon  the 
custom  of  the  Itlgyptians,  whose  priests  were  exclusively 
clothed  in  linen  (Pliny,  xix,  1,  2;  comp.  Philostr.  .4/;o/^. 
ii,  20),  >\-hich  it  has  likewise  been  contended  was  the  an- 
cient byssus  (Rosellini,  j1/o7i.  cii:  1,341;  comp.  Becker, 
Charikl.S33  sq.).  In  fine,  the  Orientals  often  employed 
a  single  term  to  designate  both  cotton  and  linen,  but 
Celsius  was  wrong  when  he  insisted  (Ilicrobot.  ii,  259 
sq.,  167  sq.)  that  shesh  stands  only  for  (fine)  linen  (see 
Faber,  in  Harmar,  ii,  380  sq. ;  Hartmann,  Hebr.  iii,  34 
sq.).  The  same  ambiguity  that  thus  applies  to  [ivaaoQ 
is  also  found  in  the  use  of  *  W  (chur,  Esth.  i,  6 ;  viii,  15 ; 
Sept,  /St'crffoc),  bj'  which  perhaps  cotton  is,  after  all,  in- 
tended. See  generally  J.  R.  Forster,  Be  bysso  antiquor. 
(Lond.  1776)  ;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Class.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  Byssus ; 
Eyypt.  Antiq.  in  the  lAb.  of  Entertaining  Kncnd.  ii,  182- 
192;  Penny  Cyclopadia,  s.  v.  Cotton,  Gossj-pium.  See 
Cotton. 

3.  Bad  ("12,  perha]3S  from  its  separation  for  sacred 
uses)  occurs  Exod.  xxviii,  42;  xxxix,  28;  Lev.  vi,  10; 
xvi,  4,  23,  32;  1  Sam.  ii,  18;  xxxii,  IS;  2  Sam.  vi,  14; 
1  Chron.  xv,  27 ,  Ezek.  ix,  2,  3,  11 ;  x,  2.  6.  7 ;  Dan.  x, 
5;  xii,  6,  7,  in  all  which  passages  it  is  rendered  '"linen" 
in  the  Auth.  Yers.  It  is  u^ormly  applied  to  the  sacred 
vestments  (e.  g.  drawers,  nm-c,  eplKxl,  etc.)  of  the  priests, 
or  (in  the  passages  in  Ezekiel  and  Daniel)  of  an  angel 
(comp.  .John  xx,  12 ;  Acts  i,  20),  In  these  last  instances 
it  is  in  the  plural,  D'^'na,  baddim',  in  the  concrete  sense 
of  clothes  of  this  material,  Sept.  in  the  Pent,  invariably 


LINEN 


441 


LINEN 


XiVfoc,  but  in  1  Chron.  jSvacnvog.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  official  garments  of  the  Egyptian  (as  of  the 
Brahmin)  priests  were  always  of  linen  (Koscnmiiller, 
Bot.  of  Ike  Bible,  p.  175),  and  hence  the  custom  among 
the  Hebrews  (compare  Ezek.  xliv,  17,  where  the  sacred 
apparel  is  expressly  described  as  the  product  of  tlax, 
D7P'rD  ).  Celsius,  however,  is  of  opmion  {/lierobot.  ii, 
509)  that  bad  does  not  signify  the  common  linen,  as 
some  have  imagined,  but  the  finest  and  best  Ef/yptian 
linen;  and  he  quotes  (p.  510)  Aben-Ezra  as  asserting 
that  bud  is  the  same  as  hits,  namely,  a  species  of  linen 
in  Eg\-pt.  With  this  view  Gesenius  concurs  (Thesaur. 
Ileb.  p.  179).  The  Talmudlsts  appear  to  have  been  of 
the  same  opinion,  from  their  fanciful  etymology  of  the 
term  bad  as  of  a  plant  with  a  single  stem  springing  up- 
right from  the  earth  from  one  seed  (Braun,  De  vest,  sa- 
cei'd.  p.  101).  This  interpretation  is  finally  confirmed 
by  the  Arabic  versions,  which  have  a  term  equivalent 
to  hi/s.vis.  See  No.  1  above.  Perhaps,  however,  the 
requirement  of  the  material  in  question  for  priestly  gar- 
ments may  only  signify  that  no  icool  should  be  employ- 
ed in  them,  and  they  may  therefore  have  consisted  in- 
dilferenlly  of  either  linen  or  cotton,  provided  it  was 
entirely  jmre,  and  thus  be  represented  by  the  equivocal 
term  byssus.     See  No.  2  above. 

4.  SiiEsii  ("i"^,  prob.  from  the  Egjq^tian  sheush,  in 
ancient  Egyptian  cheuti,  i.  e.  linen,  Bunsen,  ^Eg.  i,  606, 
which  the  Hebrews  appear  to  have  imitated  as  if  from 
UJ-TJ,  to  be  ichite ;  Sept.  everywhere  (ivarjoQ)  occurs 
Gen.  xli,  42-,  Exod.  xxv,  4;  xxvi,  1,  31,  36;  xxvii,  9, 
16,18;  xxviii,  5,  6,  8,15,39;  xxxv,  6, 23, 25, 35 ;  xxxvi. 
8.  35,  37  ;  xxxviii,  9,  16, 18,  23 ;  xxxix,  2,  3,  5,  8,  27,  28, 
29;  Prov.  xxxi,  22;  Ezek.  xvi,  10,  13;  xxvii,  7;  in  all 
which  passages  it  is  rendered  "  fine  linen"  in  the  Auth. 
Vers,  (except  Prov. xxxi, 22,  where  it  is  rendered  "silk;" 
in  Esth.  i,  6 ;  Cant,  v,  15^  the  same  term  occurs,  but  is 
rendered,  as  it  there  signifies,  "  marble") ;  once  siieshi' 
C'^r,  from  the  same),  Ezek.  xvi,  13,  text,  "fine  linen." 
This  word  appears  to  designate  Egj-ptian  Imen  of  pe- 
culiar whiteness  and  fineness,  and  as  such  it  is  stated 
to  have  been  imported  from  Egypt  by  way  of  Tyre 
(Ezek.  xxvii,  7),  in  distinction  from  the  Syrian  Unen  or 
bills  ("i"13,  verse  16).  In  the  Pentateuch  it  is  several 
times  applied  to  byssus,  of  which,  both  as  material  spon- 
taneously offered  (Exod.  xxv,  4;  xxxv,  6,  23)  and  as 
woven  fabrics  (Exod.  xxxv,  25,  35;  xxxviii,  23),  were 
made  both  the  curtains  and  veils  of  the  sacred  taberna- 
cle (Exod.  xxvi,  1,31,  36  ;  xxvii,  9, 10, 18  ;  xxxvi,  8,  35, 
37 ;  xxxviii,  9, 16, 18),  and  the  priestly  garments,  espe- 
cially the  high-priest's  ephod  or  shoulder-piece  (Exod. 
xxviii,  5,  6,  8,  15,  39;  xxix,  2,  5,  8,  27,  28,  29).  Eai- 
ment  of  this  description  is  stated  to  have  been  Avorn  by 
noble  ]jers()ns  besides  priests,  e.  g.  by  Joseph  as  prefect 
of  Egypt  (Gen.  xli,  42),  and  women  of  eminence  (Prov. 
xxxi,  22).  But  that  shesk  is  also  spoken  of  liwn  arti- 
cles is  apparent  from  Exod.  xxxix,  28,  where  the  "  linen 
breeches"  (12rt  "^ops^)  are  said  to  have  been  made 
"of  fine-twined  linen"  (It 'vT "3  Od),  as  well  as  from  the 
fact  that  n^Jn":3D,  pislifim,  linen  garments,  are  some- 
times (e.  g.  Isa.  xliii,  17 ;  Ezek.  xliv,  18)  rendered  by 
the  Chaldee  interpreter  by  y^'Z,  bills.  It  thus  appears 
that  s/iesh  is  equivalent  in  general  to  byssus.  See  No.  2 
above.  See  generally  Celsius,  Ilicrobot.  ii,  259 ;  J.  E. 
Foretcr,  Liber  sinyularis  de  bysso  antiquorum  (London, 
1776) ;  J.  E.  Fabcr,  Observat.  ii,  282  sq. ;  Hartmann,  He- 
braeriii,  iii,  34  sq. ;  Rosenmliller,  Bibl.  A  Iterth.  IV,  i,  175 
6(1.— tJesenius,  Thes.  Heb.  s.  v. 

5.  Ciiuu  ("lin,  from  its  u-hiteness)  occurs  Esth.  i,  6; 
viii,  15,  where  the  Auth. Version  renders  "white,"  Sept, 
jivaaoc,  besides  other  passages  where  it  signifies  a 
"  hole"  risa.  xi,  8 ;  xUi,  22,  etc.) ;  once  I'lH,  chor,  plural 
poet,  -inin,  Isa.  xLx,  9  (Auth.  Vers,  "net-works,"  Sept. 
/3t'r(T(Toc,Vidg.  sH&^tVw,  Kimchi  while  garments).  This 
term  likewise  appears  to  designate  fine  and  white  Unen, 


or  in  general  byssus,  although  Saadias  and  other  inter- 
preters understand  silk  (see  Schroder,  De  Vest.  Mul.  Heb. 
p.  40,  245).     See  No.  2  above. 

6.  Etltn'  ("i^^N,  from  an  obsolete  root  perhaps  signi- 
fying to  bind,  referring  to  the  use  of  the  material  for 
ropes)  occurs  only  in  Prov.vii,16,  as  a  product  of  Egypt, 
"  I  have  decked  my  bed  with  coverings  of  tapestry,  with 
carved  works,  with^«e  linen  of  Egypt."  As  Egypt  was 
from  very  early  times  celebrated  for  its  cultivation  of 
flax  and  manufactures  of  linen,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  elUH  is  correctly  rendered,  though  some  have'  thought 
ihat  it  may  signify  rope  or  string  of  Egypt,  "  funis 
iEgyptius,"  "  funis  salignus  v.  intubaceus;"  a  sense  that 
it  bears  in  Chaldee,  for  the  Targums  employ  "i^wX  in 
the  sense  oirope  for  the  Heb.  ban  and  "irT'p  (Josh,  ii, 
15 ,  Numb,  iv,  32 ;  1  Kings  xx,  32 ;  Esth.  i,  6,  etc.). 
But,  following  the  suggestion  of  Alb.  Schultens,  Celsius 
{Ilierobot.  ii,  p.  89)  observes  that  eliui  designates  not  a 
rope,  but  flax  and  linen,  as  even  the  Greek  o^ovi]  and 
o5vviov,  derived  from  it,  sufliciently  demonstrate.  "So 
]\Ir.  Yates,  in  his  Texli-iniim  Antiquorum,  p.  265,  says  of 
oSsuvt]  that '  it  was  in  all  probability  an  Egyptian  word, 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  commodity  to 
which  the  Egyptians  themselves  applied  it.'  For  "(^-i?, 
put  into  Greek  letters  and  with  Greek  terminations,  be- 
comes o^oi'i)  and  65i6viov.  Hesychius  states,  no  doubt 
correctly, '  that  63i6vi]  was  applied  by  the  Greeks  to  any 
fine  and  thin  cloth,  though  not  of  linen.'  Mr.  Yates  fur- 
ther adduces  from  ancient  scholia  that  o^ovai  were 
made  both  of  flax  and  of  wool,  and  also  that  the  silks 
of  India  are  called  o^ovai  ai]piKai  by  the  author  of  the 
Periplus  of  the  Erythrcean  Sea.  It  also  appears  that 
the  name  o^oviov  was  applied  to  cloths  exported  from 
Cutch,  Ougein,  and  Baroach,  and  which  must  have  been 
made  of  cotton.  ]\Ir.  Yates  moreover  observes  that, 
though  o^^ovT],  like  aivcwv,  originally  denoted  linen, 
yet  we  find  them  both  applied  to  cotton  cloth.  As  the 
manufacture  of  linen  extended  itself  into  other  coun- 
tries, and  as  the  exports  of  India  became  added  to  those 
of  Egypt,  all  varieties,  either  of  linen  or  cotton  cloth, 
wherever  woven,  came  to  be  designated  by  the  origi- 
nall}^  Egyptian  names  '0^6v>;  and  llivSibv'  (Kitto). 
Forster  {Ue  bysso  aniiquor.  p.  75)  endeavors  to  trace  the 
Egyptian  form  of  the  word,  and  Ludolf  (Comment,  ad 
hist.  ^Elhiop.  p.  204)  renders  it  by  the  Ethiopic  term  for 
frankincense.  But  these  eftbrts,  as  Gesenius  remarks 
(  Thesaur.  lleb.  p.  77),  are  wide  of  the  mark.  Among  the 
Hebrews  the  term  "thread  of  Egypt"  (D^Ti:?'?  'i^-^) 
may  properly  have  designated  a  linen  or  even  cotton 
material,  similar  to  silk  or  byssus  in  fineness,  such  as  we 
know  was  manufactured  in  Egj'pt  (Isa.  xix,  9;  Ezek. 
xxvii,  7  ;  Barhebr.  p.  218),  q.  d.  Egyptian  yarn,  not  less 
famous  among  the  ancients  than  "Turkish  yarn"  has 
been  among  moderns.  Kimchi,  the  Venetian  Greek, 
and  others  understand /"««2c«/;«n,  and  apply  it  to  cords 
hanging  from  the  side  of  a  bed,  or  something  of  that 
sort ;  rabbi  Parchon,  a  girdle  woven  in  Egypt — evident- 
ly mere  conjectures. 

"  h\  the  N.  T.  the  word  oSroviov  occurs  in  John  xix, 
40 ;  '  Then  took  they  the  body  of  Jesus  and  wound  it 
in  Unen  clothes'  {obovioic) ;  in  the  parallel  passage  (iMatt, 
xxvii,  59)  the  term  used  is  crivdovi,  as  also  in  Mark  xv, 
46,  and  in  Luke  xxiii,  53.  We  meet  with  it  again  in 
John  XX,  5,  'and  he,  stooping  down,  saw  the  linen  clothes 
lying.'  It  is  generally  used  in  the  plural  to  denote 
'Unen  bandages.'  'O^ovrf,  its  primitive,  occurs  in  Acts 
X,  11,  'and  (Peter)  saw  heaven  opened,  and  a  certain 
vessel  descending  unto  him,  as  it  had  been  a  great  sheet 
knit  at  the  four  corners,  and  let  down  to  the  earth,"  and 
also  in  xi,  5,  where  this  passage  is  repeated"  (Kitto). 
In  Homer  it  signifies  either  the  matriae  {Odys.  vii,  107), 
or  ^\TOught  veils  and  under-garments  for  women  (//.  iii, 
141;  xviii,  195) ;  in  later  writers  linen  clotlis  (Lucilius, 
Bial.  Mori,  iii,  2),  especially  for  sails  (^lel.  80 ;  AiUh.  x, 
5;  Luc.  Jup.  Trag.AG).  From  the  preceding  observa- 
tions it  is  evident  that  cSioviov,  whether  answering  to 


LINEN" 


442 


LINEN 


the  Heb.  elvn  or  not,  may  signify  cloth  made  either  of 
linen  or  cotton,  but  most  probably  the  former,  as  it  was 
more  common  than  cotton  in  Syria  and  Egypt.  In 
cla.ssical  writers  the  word  signifies  linen  bandages  (Luc. 
PliUiips.  34),  espec.  lint  for  wounds  (Hipp.  p.  772,  etc.; 
Ar.  Ach.  117G) ;  also  sail-cloth  (Polybius,  v,  89,  2;  Dem. 
1145,  G).     See  Cotton;  also  Nos.  7  and  10  below. 

7.  S.vdin'  ('■'"13,  from  an  obsolete  root  signifying  to 
loosen  or  let  down  a  garment,  as  a  veil)  occurs  in  Judg. 
xiv,  12, 13  (where  the  Auth.Vers.  has  "sheets,"  margin 
"shirts"),  and  Prov.  xxxi,  24;  Isa.  iii,  23  (A. Vers,  "tine 
Unen").  From  these  passages  it  appears  to  have  been 
an  ample  garment,  probably  of  linen,  worn  under  the 
other  clothing  in  the  manner  of  a  shirt  by  men  (Judg. 
xiv,  12, 13),  or  as  a  thin  chemise  by  women  (Isa.  iii,  23). 
The  Talmud  describes  it  as  made  of  the  tinest  lineu 
("  the  sinclon  is  suitable  for  summer,"  Meiuich.  xli,  1). 
The  Targums  similarly  explain  Psa.  civ,  2 ;  Lam.  ii,  20. 
The  corresponding  Syriac  is  employed  in  the  Peshito  for 
aovcapiov,  Luke  xix,  20;  \kvTiov,  John  xiii,  4.  The 
Sept.  has  (Tii/cTaij',  Vulgate  sindo ;  but  in  Isa.  iii,  23  the 
Sept.  appears  to  have  a  paraphrase  Ty)v  jivaaov  avv 
\<jv(yuij  Kctl  iiaKivSr({i  (TvyKa^v(paafiivr]v.  The  passage 
in  Prov.  seems  to  refer  to  the  manufacture  of  the  cloth 
or  material,  probably  linen,  but  possibly  sometimes  of 
cotton;  in  Judges  shirts  or  male  under-apparel  are  evi- 
dently referred  to;  and  in  Isaiah  we  may  infer  that  fe- 
male under-clothing  is  iii  like  manner  alluded  to. 

From  this  Heb.  term  many  have  thought  is  derived 
the  Greek  word  oivcw,  which  occurs  of  linen  or  muslin 
cloth,  e.  g.  a  loose  garment  worn  at  night  instead  of  the 
day-clothes,  q.  d.  night-gown  (IMark  xiv,  51,  52,  "linen 
cloth");  used  also  for  wrapping  around  dead  bodies, 
q.  d.  grave-clothes,  cerements  ("  fine  linen,"  JMark  xv, 
4();  "linen  cloth,"  Matt,  xxvii,  59,  "linen,"  Mark  xv, 
4(5;  Luke  xxiii,  53).  This  appears  to  have  been  a  fine 
fabric  (probably  usually,  but  not  necessarily  of  linen), 
either  the  Egyptian  (Pollux,  vii,  16,  72)  or  Indian; 
called  in  Egypt  sentei-  (Peyron,  p.  299),  the  Sanscrit 
sindhu  (Jablonski,  Opusc.  i,  297  sq.).  Others  trace  a 
connection  with  Ti'^oc,  Sind  (Passow,  Lex.  s.  v.) ;  some 
(as  Etymol.  Marj.)  from  the  city  Sidon,  etc.  It  appears 
to  have  specially  denoted  a  fine  cotton  cloth  from  India 
(Herod,  i,  200 ;  ii,  95 ;  iii,  86 ;  vii,  181) ;  also  generally  a 
linen  cloth,  used  as  a  signal  (Polyb.  ii,  G6, 10),  for  sur- 
geons' bandages  (Herod,  vii,  181),  for  mummy-cloth 
(Herod,  ii,  86),  or  other  purposes  (Sophocles,  Ant.  1222; 
Thuc.  ii,  49).  This  word  is  therefore  not  decisive  as  to 
the  material.  See  Schroder,  i)e  Vest.  Mid,  p.  339;  Mi- 
chaeVis,  Sitppl.  1720;  Wetstein,  N.  T.  i,  631.— Gesenius, 
7'hes.  Neb.  s.  v. 

8.  Karpas'  (03"i3,  Sept.  KapTrami'og,  Yulg.  carbasi- 
mis^  "  occurs  in  the  book  of  Esther  (i,  6),  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  hangings  'in  the  court  of  the  garden  of  the 
king's  palace,'  at  the  time  of  the  great  feast  given  in  the 
city  Shushan,  or  Susan,  by  Ahasuerus,  who  '  reigned 
from  India  even  unto  Ethiopia.'  We  are  told  that 
there  were  white,  rp-een,  and  blue  hangings  fastened 
with  cords  of  fine  linen  and  purple  to  silver  rings  and 
pillars  of  marl)le.  Kai-jms  is  translated  green  in  our 
version,  on  the  authority,  it  is  said, '  of  the  Chaldee  par- 
aphrase,' where  it  is  interpreted  leek-rjiren.  Rosenmiiller 
and  others  derive  the  Hel)rew  word  from  the  Arabic  hi- 
?•»(/>,  which  signifies  'garden  \\arAcy,'  A pium  petroseli- 
7iiim,  as  if  it  alluded  to  the  green  color  of  this  plant;  at 
the  same  time  arguing  tliat  as  '  the  word  karpas  is 
placed  before  two  other  words  which  undoubtedly  de- 
nfite  colors,  viz.  the  u-hite  and  the  putplc-bli/e^  it  proba- 
bly also  does  the  same.'  But  if  two  of  the  words  denote 
colors,  it  would  appear  a  good  reason  why  the  third 
should  refer  to  the  substance  which  was  colored.  This, 
there  is  little  doubt,  is  what  v.-as  intended.  If  we  con- 
sider that  the  occurrences  related  took  place  at  the  Per- 
sian court  at  a  time  when  it  held  sway  as  far  as  India, 
and  that  the  account  is  bj'  some  supposed  to  have  been 
originally  written  in  the  ancient  language  of  Persia,  we 


may  suppose  that  some  foreign  words  may  have  been 
introduced  to  indicate  even  an  already  well-known  sub- 
stance ;  but  more  especially  so  if  the  substance  itself 
was  then  first  made  known  to  the  Hebrews.  The  He- 
brew Icarjms  is  very  similar  to  the  Sanscrit  karpasinn, 
karpnsa,  or  karpase,  signifying  the  cotton-plant,  whence 
the  Armen.  kierbas,  and  the  Greek  KvpjSaaia,  Kvplic'imc, 
etc.  (^Asiat.  Researches,  iv,  231,  Calcutta).  Celsius  {Ili- 
erobot.  i,  159)  states  that  the  Arabs  and  Persians  have 
karpkas  and  kiibas  as  names  for  cotton.  These  must 
no  doubt  be  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  while  the  word 
karpas  is  now  applied  throughout  IntUa  to  cotton  with 
the  seed,  and  may  even  be  seen  in  English  prices-cur- 
rent. KapTTOCTOc  occurs  in  the  Periplus  of  Arrian,  who 
states  (p.  165)  that  the  region  about  the  Gidf  of  Barj^- 
gaze,  in  India,  was  productive  of  carpasus,  and  of  the 
fine  Indian  muslins  made  of  it.  The  word  is  no  doubt 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit  karpasa,  and,  though  it  has 
been  translated ^'?ie  muslin  by  Dr.  Vincent,  it  may  mean 
cotton  cloths,  or  calico  in  general.  Mr.  Yates,  in  his 
recently  published  and  valuable  work,  Textrinvm  A  nti- 
quorum,  states  that  the  earliest  notice  of  this  Oriental 
name  in  any  classical  author  which  he  has  met  with  is 
the  Ime  '  Cai-basina,  molochina,  ampelina'  of  Cascilius 
Statins,  who  died  B.C.  169.  Mr.  Yates  infers  that  as 
this  poet  translated  from  the  Greek,  so  the  Greeks  must 
have  made  use  of  muslins  or  cahcoes,  etc.,  which  were 
brought  from  India  as  early  as  200  j-ears  B.C.  See  his 
work,  as  well  as  that  of  Celsius,  for  numerous  quotations 
from  classical  authors,  where  carbasus  occurs;  proving 
that  not  only  the  Avord,  but  the  substance  which  it  indi- 
cated, was  known  to  the  ancients  subsequent  to  this  pe- 
riod. It  might,  indeed  must,  have  been  known  long 
before  to  the  Persians,  as  constant  communication  took 
plaoj  by  caravans  between  the  north  of  India  and  Per- 
sia, as  has  been  clearly  shown  by  Heeren.  Cotton  was 
known  to  Ctcsias,  who  lived  so  long  at  the  Persian  court. 
PUny  describes  it  as  a  Spanish  article  {Nat.  If.  xix,  1), 
but  other  ancient  writers  call  it  a  product  of  India  and 
the  East  (Strabo,  xiv,  719;  Curtius,  viii,  9).  Xothing 
can  be  more  suitable  than  cotton,  white  and  blue,  in  the 
above  passage  of  Esther,  as  J.  F.  Royle  long  since  (1837) 
remarked  in  a  note  in  his  Essay  on  the  A  ntiqiiity  of 
Hindoo  Medicine,  p.  145 :  '  Hanging  curtains  made  with 
calico,  usually  in  stripes  of  different  colors  and  padded 
with  cotton,  called  purdahs,  are  employed  throughout 
India  as  a  substitute  for  doors.'  They  may  be  seen  used 
for  the  very  purposes  mentioned  in  the  text  in  the  court 
of  the  king  of  Delhi's  palace,  where,  on  a  paved  mosaic 
terrace,  rows  of  slender  pillars  support  a  light  roof,  from 
which  hang  by  rings  immense  padded  and  stri]ied  cur- 
tains, which  may  be  rolled  up  or  removed  at  pleasure. 
These  either  increase  light  or  ventilation,  and  form,  in 
fact,  a  kind  of  movable  wall  to  the  building,  which  is 
used  as  one  of  the  halls  of  audience.  This  kind  of  struc- 
ture was  probably  introduced  by  the  Persian  conc]uerors 
of  India,  and  therefore  maj'  serve  to  explain  the  object 
of  the  colonnade  in  front  of  the  palace  in  the  ruins  of 
Persepolis''  (Kitto).  See  Abulpharag.  Hist,  dynast,  p. 
433 ;  Salmasius, //o/Honym.  c.81 ;  C&l&ins,  Hierobvt.  ii,  157; 
Schroder,  Be  Vest.  Mnl.  p.  108  sq.     See  Cotton. 

9.  Shaatnez'  (TDipj."^),  a  kind  of  garments  woven 
of  two  sorts  of  thread,  linen  and  wool,  like  the  (ireek 
v(ptt(Tpa  aii<pi;.UTor,  Eng.  linsey-woolsey,  which  the  He- 
brews were  forbidden  to  use,  as  appears  from  the  two 
passages  in  the  Mosaic  law  where  the  word  occurs: 
Lev.  xix,  19,  "  Neither  shall  a  garment  mingled  of  linen 
andu-oolen  come  upon  thee ,-"  Deut.  xxii,  11,"  Tliou  shalt 
not  wear  a  garment  of  dirers  sorts,  as  of  linen  and  wool- 
en together."  In  the  former  of  these  passages  the  term 
Shaatnez  is  interpreted  by  CNpS  "152,  a  garment  of 
two  dijfei-ent  kinds,  i,  e.  of  heterogeneous  materials ;  and 
in  the  latter  by  the  explicit  definition,  C^PwEI  "l'22E 
"p'nri^,  of  wool  and  fax  threads  together.  The  Sept. 
renders  KijSSrjXov,  i.  e.  adulterated ;  Aquila,  ch'Ticia- 
Ktijxivov,  i.  e.  various,  of  different  sorts ;  the  Peshito  and 


LINGA 


443 


LINGENDES 


Samaritan,  variegated.  Other  ancient  interpreters  have 
either  retained  the  original  word,  as  Onkelos,  or  have 
entirely  neglected  it,  as  the  Vidg.,  usually  introducing 
the  interpretation  from  Dent,  into  Levit,,  as  the  Vene- 
tian Greek  (tQioXivov),  Saadias,  the  Armenian,  Erpeni- 
us,  and  the  Persic.  The  derivation  is  uncertain.  The 
early  etymologists  have  sought  in  vain  a  Samar.  origin 
for  the  word,  as  Bochart  {Hieroz.  i,  545).  The  Talmud 
gives  only  fanciful  derivations  (Mishna,  Kilaim,  ix,  8 ; 
comp.  Nidda,  61  b ;  Buxtorf,  Lex.  Tain.  s.  v. ;  Abr.  Gei- 
ger,  Lehrbuch  d.  Miscknah,  ii,  75)  ;  and  the  Targums  are 
little  better  (see  Pseudojon.  mj  i>e«^  ad  loc).  Ernest 
Meyer  proposes  the  signitication  fjradually  formed,  from 
a  transposition  of  the  letters  and  comparison  with  the 
Arabic  and  Ethiopic  {Lex  rad.  Ileb.  p.  68G).  The  word 
is  prob.  of  Egyptian  origin,  although  Forster  {L)e  bysso 
antiquorum,  p.  95)  and  Jablonski  {Opusc.  i,  29'4  sq.)  have 
not  fidly  succeeded  in  tracing  its  original  in  the  Coptic, 
which  language,  however,  furnishes  the  nearest  etymon 
(see  Peyron,  L^exicon,  s.  v.  KijSSrjXoQ). — Gesenius,  Thes. 
JJeb.  s.  V.     See  Woollen. 

10.  MiKVEii'  (nip's,  a  collection,  as  often)  occurs  only 
in  connection  with  this  subject  in  1  Kings  x,  28,  "And 
Sdlomon  had  horses  brought  out  of  Egypt,  and  liiK7i 
yarn ;  the  king's  merchants  received  the  liiieii  yarn  at 
a  price ;"  also  2  Chron.  i,  IG,  where  the  same  language 
occurs.  In  these  passages  it  evidently  signifies  a  com- 
pany of  horses,  i.  e.  a  drove  or  string,  as  brought  from 
Egypt  at  a  fixed  valuation.  The  Sept.  in  most  copies 
renders  Ik  Oikovs  or  t|  'E/couf,  otherwise  e^oSoq,  as  in 
2  Chron. ;  the  Vulg.  has  Coa  in  both  places,  as  a  proper 
name,  referring,  as  some  have  thought,  to  Michoe  (Pliny, 
vi,  29),  the  country  of  the  Troglodytes  (see  CaXm&t,  Diet. 
s.  V.  Coa).  Others  have  sought  less  direct  elucidations 
(see  Bochart,  I/ieroz.  i,  171, 172;  Lud.  de  Dieu,  ad  loc; 
Clericus  and  Dathe  On  Kings,  ad  loc;  JiQc^Q, Paraphr, 
Chald.  ad  Chron.,  ad  loc,  p.  7 ;  Michaelis,  Supplem.  1271, 
and  In  Jure  Mosaico,  iii,  332,  Bijttcher,  Specim,  p.  170). 
But  of  these  far-fetched  explanations  there  is  no  occa- 
sion ;  the  passages  simply  refer  to  a  caravan  of  horse- 
merchants  carrying  on  the  commerce  of  Solomon  with 
Egvpt  (see  Taylor,  Fragments,  No.  190). — Gesenius,  Thes. 
lieb.  s.  V. 

Liiiga  (a  Sanscrit  word  which  literally  means  a  sign 
or  symbol)  denotes,  in  the  sectarian  worship  of  the  Hin- 
dus, tha  phallus,  as  an  emblem  of  the  male  or  generative 
power  of  nature.  The  Liuga-worship  prevails  with  the 
Saivas,  or  adorers  of  Siva.  See  Hinuuisji.  Originally 
of  an  ideal  and  mystical  nature,  it  has  degenerated  into 
practices  of  the  grossest  description,  thus  taking  the 
same  course  as  the  similar  worship  of  the  Chaldasans, 
Greeks,  and  other  nations  of  the  East  and  West.  The 
accounts  how  Linga  became  a  representative  of  Siva 
vary  greatly,  but  coincide  in  the  main  in  that  Siva,  hav- 
ing scandalized  the  penitent  saints  by  his  amour  with 
Parwati,  was  cursed  by  them  to  be  changed  into  what 
occupied  so  much  his  being,  and  to  lose  his  genitals,  by 
which  he  had  given  offence;  later,  when  finding  the 
punishment  not  in  proportion  to  the  result,  they  resolved 
to  hold  that  very  sign  in  reverence.  It  is  most  proba- 
ble that  the  organ  of  generation  was  here  considered  in 
the  same  light  as  Phallos  and  Priapus  in  Egypt  and 
Greece.  The  manner  in  which  the  Linga  is  represented 
is  generally  inoffensive — the  pistil  of  a  tlower,  a  pillar  of 
stone,  or  other  erect  and  cylindrical  objects  being  held 
as  appropriate  symbols  of  the  generative  power  of  Siva. 
Its  counterpart  is  Yoni,  or  the  symbol  of  female  nature 
as  fructified  and  productive.  The  Siva-Purana  names 
twelve  Lingas  which  seem  to  have  been  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  this  worship  in  India.  See  Chambers,  Cyclop. 
s.  v.;  VoUmer,  Mythol.  Wurterb.  s.  v. 

Lingard,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
priest,  and  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  histo- 
rians, was  born  at  Winchester,  England,  Feb.  5,  1771. 
He  studied  at  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Douai, 
France,  and  remained  there  until  obliged  by  the  horrors 


of  the  French  Revolution  to  return  to  England.  The 
college  was  finally  settled  at  Ushaw,  near  the  city  of 
Durham,  and  IMr.  Lingard  there  performed  the  duties  of 
some  of  its  offices.  He  revisited  France  for  a  short 
time  during  the  dangerous  period  of  the  Revolution,  and 
on  one  occasion  barely  escaped  being  mobbed  as  a  priest. 
In  1805  he  wrote  for  the  Newcastle  Courant  a  series  of 
letters,  which  were  collected  and  published  under  the 
title  of  Catholic  Loyalty  vindicated  (12mo).  He  after- 
wards wrote  several  controversial  pamphlets,  which  in 
1813  were  published  in  a  volume  having  the  title  of 
Tracts  on  several  Subjects  connected  ivith  the  Civil  ami 
Religious  Principles  of  the  Catholics  (reprinted  by  F. 
Lucas,  Jr.,  at  Baltimore,  1823,  12mo,  and  often).  Dr. 
Lingard's  great  work,  however,  is  his  History  of  Eng- 
land from  the  First  Invasion  by  the  Romans  to  the  Ac- 
cession of  William  and  Mary  in  1688  (London,  1819- 
25,  6  vols.  4to ;  2d  edit.  1823-31, 14  vols.  8vo ;  4th  edit. 
1837,  13  vols.  12mo ;  5th  ed.  1849-50, 10  vols.  8vo ;  6th 
ed.  1854-55, 10  vols.  8vo;  American  editions,  published 
by  Dunigan,  N.  Y.,  13  vols.  12mo ;  by  Sampson  &  Co.,  of 
Boston,  1853-54, 13  vols.  12mo,  of  which  the  last  is  the 
best).  It  is  a  work  of  great  research,  founded  on  an- 
cient writers  and  original  documents,  displaying  much 
erudition  and  acuteness,  and  opening  fields  of  inquiry 
previously  unexplored.  The  narrative  is  clear,  the 
dates  are  accurately  given,  and  the  authorities  referred 
to  distinctly.  The  style  is  perspicuous,  terse,  and  unos- 
tentatious. The  work,  perhaps,  exhibits  too  exclusive- 
ly the  great  facts  and  circumstances,  militarj',  civil,  and 
ecclesiastical,  and  enters  less  than  might  be  desirable 
into  the  manners,  customs,  arts,  and  condition  of  the 
people.  In  all  matters  connected  with  the  Romish 
Church  the  work  is,  as  might  have  been  expected,  col- 
ored by  the  very  decided  religious  opinions  of  the  au- 
thor, but  these  arc  not  offensively  set  forth.  Dr.  Lin- 
gard, after  the  completion  of  his  "  History  of  England," 
paid  a  visit  to  Rome,  where  pope  Leo  XII  offered  to 
make  him  cardinal,  but  he  refused  the  dignity,  partly 
because  he  did  not  feel  qualified  for  the  office,  and  partly 
because  it  woulil  have  interfered  with  his  favorite  stud- 
ies. He  spent  the  last  forty  years  of  his  life  in  the 
small  preferment  belonging  to  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
at  the  village  of  Hornby,  near  Lancaster,  enjoying  the 
esteem  and  friendship  of  all,  both  Protestants  and  Ro- 
man Catholics.  He  died  July  13, 1851,  and  was  buried 
in  the  cemetery  of  St.  Cuthbert's  College,  at  Ushaw,  to 
which  institution  he  bequeathed  his  librarj%  Lingard 
was  also  the  author  of  Catechetical  Instructions  on  the 
Doctrines  and  Worship  of  the  Catholic  Church  (2d  edit. 
Lond.  1840, 12mo;  3d  ed'it.  1844, 18mo) :— .4  Revieio  of 
certain  Anti-Catholic  Publications  (Lond.  1813,  8vo)  : — 
Examination  of  certain  Opinions  advanced  by  Bishop 
Burgess  (anon.)  (Manchester,  1813,  8vo)  :  —  Strictures 
on  Dr.  Marsh's  Comparative  View  of  the  Churches  of 
England  and  Rome  (Lond.  1815,  8vo)  : — Observations  on 
the  Laws  and  Ordiriances  which  exist  in  Foreign  States 
relative  to  the  Religious  Concerns  of  their  Roman  Catholic 
Subjects  (anon.)  (Lond.  1817, 8vo) : — Documents  to  ascer- 
tain the  Sentiments  of  British  Catholics  in  former  Ages 
respecting  the  Power  of  the  Popes  (Lond.  1819,  8vo)  : — 
The  Ilistori/  and  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
(Lond.  1806;  1845,  2  vols.  8vo;  Phil.  1841,  12mo).  In 
1836  he  published  anonymously  an  English  translation 
of  the  N.  T.,  which  is  said  to  be  accurate  and  faithful  in 
several  passages  where  the  Douai  translation  is  faulty. 
See  Engl.  Cycl.  s.  v.;  the  London  Times  (July  25, 1851) ; 
Gentleman's  Magazine  (Sept.  1851,  p.  323  sq.)  ;  Herzog, 
Real-Encyklvp.  vol.  viii,  s.  v. ;  Lowndes,  Brit.  Lib.  p.  1096 
sq. ;  Bi-it.  and  For.  Rev.  1844,  p.  374  sq. ;  and  the  excel- 
lent article  in  Allibone,  Diet.  By-it.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors, 
ii,  1102-1105.     (J.  H.W.) 

Lingendes,  Claude  de,  a  noted  French  pulpit 
orator  of  the  Jesuits,  was  bom  at  iMoulins  in  1591.  He 
entered  the  order,  and  soon  rose  to  high  distinction. 
He  was  intrusted  with  several  important  missions.  He 
died  at  Paris,  where  he  was  superior  of  his  order,  April 


LINGENDES 


444 


LINUS 


12, 1660.     See  Hoefcr,  Xoin:  Biograph.  GeneraJe,  xxxi, 
'27.S. 

Lingendes,  Jean  de,  a  French  pulpit  orator,  a 
relative  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  IMoulins  in  1595. 
As  chaplain  to  Louis  XIII,  he  became  quite  eminent  for 
liis  i,'reat  talents  in  the  pulpit.  lie  was  made  bishop 
of  Macon  in  1650.  He  died  in  1GG5.  See  Hoefer,  A'ouf. 
Biog.  Geni'r.  xxxi,  278. 

Link,  Johann  Wolfgang  Conrad,  a  German 
theologian,  was  born  at  Pirmasens  April  23,  1753.  In 
1771  he  entered  the  University  of  Giessen,  and  in  177-1 
was  graduated  A.M.  In  1775  he  obtained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  at  that  university  as  professor  extraordinary, 
and  in  1778  he  became  pastor  at  Bischofsheim,  near 
Darmstadt.  He  died  suddenly  Dec.  23, 1788.  In  addi- 
tion to  liis  theological  researches,  his  extensive  knowl- 
etlge  of  modern  languages  enabled  him  to  translate  Eng- 
lisii  ^vorks  into  German  and  German  productions  into 
English,  the  latter  for  the  "Universal  English  Library." 
Of  his  own  compositions  we  mention  Ueber  das  hehrd- 
isdie  Spnichstudium  (Giess.  1777,  8vo)  : — Diss.de  Schilo 
a  Jacoho  predicto  Genes.  -19, 10  (il)id,  1774, 4to).  See  Do- 
ring,  Gekhrte  Theol.  Leittschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Link,  "Wenceslaiis,  a  German  theologian,  noted 
for  his  eft'orts  in  behalf  of  Martin  Luther  and  the  cause 
of  the  reformatory  movement,  was  born  at  Colditz,  near 
^Meissen,  Saxony,  about  1483.  He  was  an  Augustinian 
monk  of  the  convent  ^^'aldheim  when  he  went  to  the 
"Wittenberg  University  to  pursue  theological  studies, 
and,  after  attaining  to  the  distinction  of  doctor  of  the- 
ology, became  successively  prior  of  the  convents  at  Wit- 
tenberg, Munich,  Nuremberg,  etc.  He  enjoyed  great 
notoriety  and  popularity  when  the  Keformation  was 
first  assuming  shape,  but  his  leaning  towards  it  made 
him  unpojiular  with  Romanists,  and  he  gradually  went 
over  to  the  new  cause.  In  1523  he  married,  and  two 
years  lattr  appeared  as  Protestant  preacher  at  Nurem- 
berg. He  died  there  March  11,1547.  His  works  are 
not  of  any  special  merit.  A  list  of  them  is  given  in 
Jijeher,  Gelelirten  Lexikon,  ii,  2442  sq. 

Linn,  John  Blair,  D.D.,  son  of  the  succeeding,  a 
Presbyterian  minister,  was  born  at  Shippensburg,  Pa., 
March  14, 1777,  and  graduated  in  1795  at  Columbia  Col- 
lege, where  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  proficiency 
in  polite  literature.  Having  abandoned  the  study  of 
law,  he  removed  to  Schenectady,  where  he  studied  the- 
ology, and  was  licensed  in  1798.  He  was  ordained  in 
1799,  and  installed  in  the  First  Presbyterian  Church, 
Philadelphia,  where  he  continued  mitil  his  sudden  death, 
August  30, 1804.  Linn  was  quite  a  poet,  and  most  of 
his  publications  are  of  a  poetical  nature.  His  best  works 
are,  Pieces  in  Prose  and  Poetry : — A  Sermon  on  the  Death 
ofDr.Eirintj  (1802) : — -4  Poem  on  t/ie  Influence  ofChris- 
iianiti/: — a  narrative  poem,  entitled  ]'aJe7ian,  with  a 
.sketch  of  his  life  by  Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1805, 
8vo) ;  and  two  tracts  against  the  doctrine  of  Dr.  Priest- 
ley. See  Sjjrague,  A  nnals,  iv,  210  ;  Allibone,  Diet.  Brit, 
and  Arncr.  A  iithors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Linn,  William,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch)  minis- 
ter, was  born  near  Shippensburg,  Pa.,  Feb.  27, 1752.  He 
graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  1772  with  honor, 
.studied  divinity  with  Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Cooper,  of  jMiddle 
Spring,  Pa.,  and  in  1775  was  licensed  to  preach  by  Done- 
gal Presbytery.  Fired  with  the  patriotism  of  the  Rev- 
t)hition,  he  became  a  chaplain  in  (ien.  Thompson's  regi- 
ment, and  was  ordained  to  the  ministry  at  this  period. 
His  regiment  being  soon  ordered  to  Canada,  for  domes- 
tic reasons  he  resigned  his  chaplaincy.  After  a  brief  set- 
tlement at  Big  Spring,  he  taught  an  academy  in  Somer- 
set County,  ^Id.,  with  success,  until  in  1786  he  became 
jiastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  at  Elizabethto\yn,  N.  ,1., 
from  whence  he  removed  to  New  York  in  the  same  year 
as  one  of  tlie  pastors  of  the  Collegiate  lieftrrmcd  Dutch 
Church.  He  was  full  of  genius  and  [lOwer.  His  sermons 
were  written,  and  committed  to  memory.  His  delivery 
was  graceful, natural,  animated,  and  accompanied  by  that 


electric  power  which  thrills  and  sways  an  audience.  His 
imagination  was  vivid,  his  language  choice  and  classical, 
and  his  pictorial  ability  remarkable.  He  was  celebrated 
for  his  missionary  and  charitable  discourses.  "  Earnest, 
pathetic,  persuasive,  and  alarming  in  his  addresses,  he 
peculiarly  excelled  in  awakening  sinners  and  urging 
them  to  the  refuge  of  the  Gospel.  On  special  occasions 
he  shone  with  conspicuous  lustre,  aad  rose  above  him- 
self." In  consequence  of  the  failure  of  his  health,  he 
retired  from  the  active  ministry  in  1805,  and  died  at 
Albany  Jan.  8,  1808.  Among  his  published  addresses 
are  some  of  his  celebrated  missionary  and  charity  ser- 
mons, historical  discourses,  controversial  sermons,  a  eu- 
logy on  Washington,  delivered  before  the  New  York  State 
Society  of  the  Cincinnati,  and  a  sermon  preached  in  1776 
to  a  regiment  of  soldiers  who  were  about  to  join  the 
army. — Sprague,  A  nnals,  vol.  ix ;  Dr.  De  Witt's  Histori- 
cal Discourse ;  Dr.  Bradford's  Funeral  Sermon,  etc.  (W. 
J.  R.  T.) 

Lintel  (prop,  kjlp^p,  mashlvjih',  lit.  a  projecting 
cover ;  Exod.  xii,  22,  33 ;  '•  upper  door-post,"  ver.  7 ;  also 
inSS,  haphtor',  a  chaplet,  i.e.  capital  of  a  column,  Amos 
ix,  1 ;  Zeph.  ii,  14;  elsewhere  a  "knop"  of  the  candela- 
brum ;  and  P""?*,  a't/il,  a  "  ram,"  as  often ;  hence  aj^Haster 
or  pillar  in  a  wall,  1  Kings  vi,  31,  elsewhere  "  post"),  the 
head-])lece  of  a  door,  or  the  horizontal  beam  covering  the 
side-posts  or  jambs.  See  Post.  This  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  mark  with  the  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb 
on  the  memorable  occasion  when  the  Passover  was  in- 
stituted.    See  Passover, 

Li'niis  (usually  Alvoc,  but  prop.  AiVor,  the  name 
originally  of  a  mythological  and  musical  personage,  per- 
haps from  \ivov,  linen),  one  of  the  Christians  at  Rome 
whose  salutations  Paul  sent  to  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iv,  21). 
A.D.  64.  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of 
Rome  after  the  mart^-rdom  of  Peter  and  Paid  (Ircn.TJus, 
Adv.  Ilceres.  iii,  3  ;  Eusebius.  Hist.  Eccles.  iii,  2,  4, 13,  14, 
31;  v,  G;  comp.  Jerome, Z'e  17 w. ///«s^  15;  Augustine, 
Epist.  liii,  2 ;  Theodoret,  ad  2  Tim.  iv,  21),  but  there  is 
some  discrepancy  in  the  early  statement  respecting  his 
date  (see  Heinichen  ud  Euseh.  iii,  187 ;  Burton,  Ilist.  of 
the  Christ.  Church  ;  Lardner,  Works,  ii,  31,  32, 176.  187), 
"  Eusebius  and  Theodoret,  followed  by  Baronius  and 
TiUemont  {IJist.  Eccles.  ii.  165,  591),  state  that  he  be- 
came bishop  of  Rome  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Avords  of  Irena?us, '  [Peter  and  Paul] 
when  they  founded  and  built  up  the  Church  [of  Rome], 
committed  the  office  of  its  episcopate  to  Linus,'  certain- 
ly admit,  or  rather  imply  the  meaning  that  he  held  that 
office  before  the  death  of  St.  Peter;  as  if  the  two  great 
apostles,  having,  in  the  discharge  of  their  own  peculiar 
office,  completed  the  organization  of  the  Church  at  Rome, 
left  it  under  the  government  of  Linus,  and  passed  on  to 
preach  and  teach  in  some  new  region.  This  proceeding 
would  be  in  accordance  with  the  practice  of  the  apostles 
in  other  places.  The  earlier  appointment  of  Linus  is  as- 
serted as  a  fact  by  Ruffinus  {Pr(ef.  in  Clem.  liecor/n.),  and 
by  the  author  of  ch.  xlvi,  bk.  vii  of  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions. It  is  accepted  as  the  true  statement  of  the  case 
by  bishop  I'earson  (De  Seiie  et  Successione  Pi-ioruni 
Romcv  Episcoporum,  ii,  5,  §  1)  and  by  Fleury  (Hist.  Eccl. 
ii,  26).  Some  persons  have  objected  that  the  undistin- 
guished mention  of  the  name  of  Linus  between  the 
names  of  two  other  Roman  Christians  in  2  Tim.  iv,  21  is 
a  proof  that  he  was  not  at  that  time  bishop  of  Rome. 
But  even  Tillcmont  admits  that  such  a  way  of  introduc- 
ing the  bishop's  name  is  in  accordance  with  the  simplic- 
ity of  that  early  age.  No  lofty  pre-eminence  was  at- 
tributed to  the  episcopal  office  in  the  apostolic  times" 
(Smith). 

According  to  the  Roman  Breviarj-,  Linus  was  born  at 
Volterra,  but  an  old  papal  catalogue  represents  him  as 
an  Etrurian.  According  to  tradition,  he  went  to  Rome 
when  22  j'ears  of  age,  made  there  the  acquaintance  of 
Peter,  and  was  sent  by  him  to  Besan^on,  in  France,  to 
preach  the  Gospel.     After  his  retiurn  to  Rome  Peter  ap- 


LINUS 


445 


LION 


pointed  liim  his  coadjutor;  but,  according  to  the  Brev- 
iary, he  was  the  one  who  primus  2MSt  I'etrum  r/uheniavit 
eccksia/i).  He  is  said  to  liave  enacted,  on  his  accession 
to  the  bishopric,  that,  in  accordance  with  1  Cor.  xi,  5, 
women  sliould  never  enter  the  church  with  tlieir  heads 
uncovered. 

The  duration  of  his  episcopate  is  given  by  Eusebius 
(whose  //.  E.  iii,  16,  and  Chronicon  give  inconsistent  evi- 
dence) as  A.D.  G8-80;  by  Tilleniont,  who,  however,  re- 
proaches Pearson  with  departing  from  the  chronology 
of  Eusebius,  as  66-78;  by  Baronius  as  67-78;  and  by 
I'earson  as  55-67.  Pearson,  in  the  treatise  already 
(juoted  (i,  10),  gives  weighty  reasons  for  distrusting  the 
chronology  of  Eusebius  as  regards  the  years  of  the  early 
bishops  of  Rome,  and  he  derives  his  own  opinion  from 
certain  very  ancient  (Ijut  interpolated)  lists  of  those 
bishops  (see  i,  13,  and  ii,  5).  This  point  has  been  sub- 
sequently considered  by  Baraterius  {De  Successimie  A  nii- 
quisainm  Episc.  Rom.  1740),  who  gives  A.D.  56-67  as  the 
date  of  the  episcopate  of  Linus. 

"  The  statement  of  Kuffinus,  that  Linus  and  Cletus 
were  bishops  in  Rome  while  St.  Peter  was  alive,  has 
been  quoted  in  support  of  a  theory  which  sprang  up  in 
the  17th  century,  received  the  sanction  even  of  Ham- 
mond in  his  controversy  with  Blondel  (  Worls,  ed.  1684, 
iv,  825 ;  Episcopatus  Jura,  v.  1,  §  1 1),  was  held  with  some 
.  slight  modification  by  Baraterius,  and  has  recently  been 
revived.  It  is  supposed  that  Linus  was  bishop  in  Rome 
only  of  the  Christians  of  Gentile  origin,  while  at  the 
same  time  another  bishop  exercised  the  same  authority 
over  the  Jewish  Christians  there.  Tertullian's  assertion 
(i)e  Prcfscr.  llaret.  §  32)  that  Clement  [the  third  bish- 
op] of  Rome  was  consecrated  by  St.  Peter  has  been 
quoted  also  as  corroborating  this  theory,  but  it  does  not 
follow  from  the  words  of  Tertullian  that  Clement's  con- 
secration took  place  immediately  before  he  became  bish- 
op of  Rome ;  and  the  statement  of  Ruffinus,  so  far  as  it 
lends  any  support  to  the  above-named  theory,  is  shown 
to  be  without  foundation  by  I'earson  (ii,  3,  4).  Tille- 
mont's  observations  (p.  590)  in  reply  to  Pearson  only 
show  that  the  establishment  of  two  contemporary  bish- 
ops in  one  city  was  contemplated  in  ancient  times  as  a 
possible  provisional  arrangement  to  meet  certain  tempo- 
rary difficulties.  The  actual  limitation  of  the  authority 
of  Linus  to  a  section  of  the  Church  in  Rome  remains  to 
be  proved.  Ruthnus's  statement  ought,  doubtless,  to  be 
interpreted  in  accordance  with  that  of  his  contempo- 
rary Epiphanius  {Adv.  liar,  xxvii,  6,  p.  107),  to  the  ef- 
fect that  Linus  and  Cletus  were  bishops  of  Rome  in  suc- 
cession, not  contemporaneously.  The  facts  were,  how- 
ever, ditferently  viewed,  (1)  by  an  interpolator  of  the 
Gestu  Pontijicum  Damasi,  quoted  by  J.  Voss  in  his  sec- 
ond epistle  to  A.  Rivet  (App.  to  Pearson's  Vindicice  Igna- 
iiancE) ;  (2)  by  Bede  {Vita  S.  Benedicti,  §  7,  p.  146,  edit. 
Stevenson),  when  he  was  seeking  a  precedent  for  two 
contemporaneous  abbots  presiding  in  one  monasterj' , 
and  (3)  by  Rabanus  Maurus  {De  Chon-piscopis,  in  0pp. 
cd.  Migne,  iv,  1197),  who  ingeniously  claims  primitive 
authority  for  the  institution  of  chorepiscopi  on  the  sup- 
position that  Linus  and  Cletus  were  never  bishops  with 
fidl  powers,  but  were  contemporaneous  chorepiscopi  em- 
l)loycd  by  St.  Peter  in  his  absence  from  Rome,  and  at  his 
request,  to  ordain  clergymen  for  the  Church  at  Rome" 
(Smith). 

Linus  is  reckoned  by  Pseudo-Hippolj'tus,  and  in  the 
Greek  Menxa,  among  the  seventy  disciides.  According 
to  the  Breviary,  he  cured  the  possessed,  raised  the  dead, 
and  was  beheaded  at  the  instigation  of  the  consul  Satur- 
ninus,  although  he  had  restored  the  latter's  daughter 
from  a  dangerous  illness.  He  was  buried  in  the  Vatican, 
by  the  side  of  St.  Peter.  Various  days  are  statcil  by  dif- 
ferent authorities  in  the  Western  Church,  and  by  the 
Eastern  Church,  as  the  day  of  his  death.  According  to 
the  most  generally  received  tradition,  he  died  on  Sept. 
23.  A  narrative  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paid,  printed  in  the  Bihliotluca  Put  rum  (Paris,  1644,  vol. 
viii),  and  certain  pontifical  decrees,  are  incorrectly  as- 


cribed to  Linus,  but  he  is  generally  considered  as  the 
author  of  a  history  of  Peter's  dispute  with  Simon  Magus. 
See  Ilerzog,  lieui-Eiic/jklop.  viii,  421 ;  Lipsius,  Die  Pujjst 
Katalocje  dts  Eusebius  (Kiel,  1868,  8vo). 

Iiinz  or  Lintz,  The  Peace  of,  so  named  after  the 
place  where  it  was  concluded,  Dec.  13,  1645,  between 
Rakoczy,  prince  of  Transylvania,  and  the  emperor  Fer- 
dinand HI,  as  king  of  Hungary,  was  an  event  of  great 
importance  for  the  legal  existence  of  the  Evangelical 
Church  in  Ilungarj'.  Ralioczy,  who  aimed  at  the  crown 
of  that  country,  and  relied  on  the  Protestant  party  for 
support,  had  concluded  in  April,  1643,  with  Sweden  and 
France,  a  defensive  and  offensive  alliance  against  Fer- 
dinand. In  an  address  to  the  Hungarians,  in  which  he 
enumerated  their  various  grievances,  he  laid  great  stress 
on  the  oppression  of  the  evangelical  party.  He  suc- 
ceeded in  assembling  an  army,  and  in  obtaining  John 
Kemenyi,  an  experienced  general,  to  command  it.  Swe- 
den sent  him  soldiers  under  tlie  renowned  Dugloss,  and 
France  furnished  him  with  large  amounts  of  money. 
His  troops  obtained  some  unimportant  advantages  over 
those  of  Frederick,  and  the  Swedish  soldiers  succeeded 
in  driving  the  Imperialists  out  of  several  towns.  This, 
however,  did  not  continue,  and  in  October,  1644,  Rakoc- 
zy began  negotiations  for  peace  with  Ferdinand.  The 
advantages  he  asked,  namely,  the  absolute  religious  lib- 
erty of  Hungary,  etc.,  were  approved  at  Vienna  August 
8,  i645,  and  the  peace  finally  signed  as  above.  The 
most  important  feature  of  the  treaty  is  the  grant  of  re- 
ligious liberty  to  the  Hungarians.  It  gave  permission 
to  all  to  attend  whatever  Church  they  might  choose; 
ministers  and  preachers  of  all  the  different  confessions 
were  to  be  left  undisturbed,  and  such  as  had  previously 
been  persecuted  and  driven  away  on  account  of  their 
religious  principles  were  allowed  to  return,  or  to  be  re- 
called by  their  congregations.  The  churches  and  Church 
property  taken  from  the  evangelical  party  were  restored 
to  their  previous  owners.  The  eighth  article  of  the  sixth 
decree  of  king  Wladislaus  VI  was  re-enacted  against 
those  who  infringed  these  regulations,  and  made  them 
subject  to  a  trial  and  punishment  at  the  next  session  of 
the  Diet.  These  regulations,  however,  so  favorable  to 
the  Protestants,  met  with  great  opposition  at  the  Diet 
of  Presburg  in  1647,  and  were  most  violently  opposed  bj' 
the  Jesuits.  The  Roman  Catholics  refused  to  surrender 
to  the  Protestants  the  churches  they  had  taken  from 
them,  and  the  evangelical  party  finally  agreed  to  accept, 
instead  of  some  400  churches  which  had  been  taken 
from  it,  the  small  number  of  90,  which  had  been  assured 
to  it  by  a  royal  edict,  under  date  of  Feb.  10, 1647.  See 
Steph.  Katona,  llistoria  mtica  regum  Hungaricorum, 
xxii,  332  sq. ;  Dumont,  Cor/js  iiniversel  diplomatique  da 
droit  des  gem,  vi,  1  sq. ;  J.  A.  Fessler,  Die  Gesch.  d.  Un- 
garn,  etc.,  ix,  25  sq. ;  Johann  Mailath,  D.  Religionswir- 
ren  in  Ungarn  (Regensb.  1845),  pt.  i,  p.  30  sq. ;  Gesch.  d. 
Erangelischen  Kirche  in  Ungarn  (Berlin,  1854),  p.  199 
sq. ;  History  of  the  Protestant  Church  in  Hungary,  transl. 
by  J.  Craig  (Boston  and  New  York,  1856, 12mo).     See 

HUXGAUY. 

Lion  (prop.  I'^X,  ari',  or  n."''1X,  aryeh' ;  Sept.  and 
N. T.  X'tiov),  the  most  powerful,  daring,  and  impressive 
of  all  carnivorous  animals,  the  most  magniticent  in  as- 
pect and  awful  in  voice.  Being  very  common  in  Syria 
in  early  times,  the  lion  naturally  supplied  many  forcible 
images  to  the  poetical  language  of  Scripture,  and  not  a 
few  historical  Incidents  in  its  narratives.  This  is  shown 
b}^  the  great  number  of  passages  where  this  animal,  in 
all  the  stages  of  existence  —  as  the  whelp,  the  young 
adult,  the  fully  mature,  the  lioness— occurs  under  differ- 
ent names,  exhibiting  that  multiplicity  of  denomina- 
tions which  always  results  when  some  great  image  is 
constantly  present  to  the  popular  mind.  Thus  we  have, 
1.  "is,  gov,  or  "i^lS,  gur  (a  sncHing),  a  lion's  "whelp,"  a 
very-  young  lion  (Gen.  xlix,  9 ;  Deut.  xxxiii,  20 ;  Jer. 
U,  38 ,'  Ezek.  xix,  2,  3,  5  ;  Nahum  ii,  11, 12).  2.  T'SS, 
kephir'  (the  shaggy),  a  '•  young  lion,"  when  first  leaving 


LION 


446 


LION" 


the  protection  of  the  old  pair  to  hunt  independently 
(Ezek.  xix,  2,  3,  6,  6;  xli,  19;  Rsa.  xci,  13;  I'rov.  xix, 
12;  XX,  2;  xxviii,  1;  Isa.  xxxi,  4;  Jer.  xli,  3«  ;  lios. 
V,  14;  Nah.  ii,  11;  Zech.  xi,  3),  old  enough  to  roar 
(Judg.  xiv,  5 ;  Psa.  civ,  21 ;  Prov.  xix,  12 ;  Jer.  ii,  lo ; 
Amcis  iii,  4) ;  beginning  to  seek  prey  for  itself  (Job  iv, 
10;  xxxviii,  39;  Isa.  v,  29;  Jer.  xxv,  38;  Ezek.  xix,  3; 
jNIic.  V,  8 ) ;  and  ferocious  and  blood-thirsty  in  his  youth- 
ful strength  (Psa.  xvii,  12 ;  xci,  13 ;  Isa.  xi,  6).  This 
term  is  also  used  tropically  for  cruel  and  blood-thirsty 
enemies  (Psa.  xxxiv,  10 ;  xxxv,  17 ;  Iviii,  G  ;  Jer.  ii,  15) ; 
I'haraoh,  king  of  Egypt,  is  called  a  "  young  lion  of  the 
nations,"  i.  e.  an  enemy  prowling  among  them  (Ezek. 
xxxii,  2) ;  it  is  also  used  of  the  young  princes  or  war- 
riors of  a  state  (Ezek.  xxxviii,  13;  Nah.  ii,  13),  3, 
11X,  ari'  (the  pullei-  in  pieces,  plur.  masc.  in  1  Kings  x, 
20,  elsewhere  fem.),  or  fT^"iX,  unjeh'  (the  same  with  H 
paragogic,  also  Chald.),  an  adidt  and  vigorous  lion,  a 
lion  having  paired,  vigilant  and  enterprising  in  search 
of  prey  (Nah.  ii,  12;  2  Sam.  xvii,  10;  Numb,  xxiii,  24, 
etc.).  This  is  the  common  name  of  the  animal.  4. 
^n'^,  sha'chal  (the  roarer),  a  mature  lion  in  fidl 
strength  (Job  iv,  10;  x,  IG;  xxviii,  8;  Psa.  xci,  13; 
Prov.  xxvi,  13  ;  Hos.  v,  14 ;  xiii,  7).  Bochart  (Hieroz. 
i,  717)  understands  the  sicarthy  lion  of  Syria  (Pliny,  //. 
iV.  viii,  17),  deriving  the  name  from  "ilTCJ,  blach,  by  an 
interchange  of  liquids.  This  denomination  may  very 
possibly  refer  to  a  distinct  variety  of  lion,  and  not  to  a 
l)lack  species  or  race,  because  neither  black  nor  white 
lions  are  recorded,  excepting  in  Oppian  {De  Venat.  iii, 
43) ;  but  the  term  may  be  safely  referred  to  the  color  of 
the  skin,  not  of  the  fur ;  for  some  lions  have  the  former 
fair,  and  even  rosy,  while  in  other  races  it  is  perfectly 
black.  An  Asiatic  lioness,  formerly  at  Exeter  Change, 
hatl  the  naked  part  of  the  nose,  the  roof  of  the  mouth, 
and  the  bare  soles  of  all  the  feet  pure  black,  though  the 
fur  itself  was  very  pale  buff.  Yet  albinism  and  mela- 
nism are  not  uncommon  in  the  felinre ;  the  former  oc- 
curs in  tigers,  and  the  latter  is  frequent  in  leopards, 
panthers,  and  jaguars.  5.  D*?,  lu'yish  (the  sti-ong),  a 
fierce  lion,  one  in  a  state  of  fury,  or  rather,  perhaps,  a 
poetical  term  for  a  lion  that  has  reached  the  utmost 
growth  and  effectiveness  (Job  iv,  11;  Prov.  xxx,  30; 
Isa,  xxx,  6).  6.  SJ'^n^,  IMa',  or  "^ab,  lehi'  {loioing, 
roaring),  hence  a  Uon,  lioness  (Numb,  xxiv,  9 ;  Hos,  xiii, 
8 ;  Joel  i,  G ;  Dent,  xxxiii,  20 ;  Psa,  Ivii,  4  ;  Isa,  v,  29), 
Bochart  (^Hieroz.  i,  719)  supposes  this  word  not  to  de- 
note the  male  lion,  but  the  lioness ;  and  Gesenius  (Thes. 
p.  738)  says  this  rests  on  good  grounds,  as  it  is  coupled 
witli  other  nouns  denoting  a  lion,  where  it  can  hardly 
be  a  mere  synonyme  (Gen,  xlix,  9 ;  Numb,  xxiv,  9 ;  Isa, 
xxx,  6;  Nah,  ii,  11);  and  the  passages  in  Job  iv,  11; 
xxxviii,  39 ;  Ezek,  xix,  2,  accord  much  better  -with  a 
lioness  than  with  a  lion,  7.  In  Job  xxviii,  8,  tlie  Heb. 
words  yn'J  '^^'2,  betwy  sha'chats,  are  rendered  '■'■the 
lion's  vhelpsT  The  terms  properly  signify  "  sons  of 
]>ri(le,"  and  are  apjjlied  to  the  larger  beasts  of  prey,  as 
tlie  lion,  leriathan,  so  called  from  their  proud  gait,  bold- 
ness, and  courage.  The  lion  is  often  spoken  of  as  "  the 
king  of  the  forest,"  or  "the  king  of  beasts;"  and  in  a 
similar  sense,  in  Job  xli,  34,  the  leviathan  or  crocodile 
is  called  the  "  king  over  all  the  children  of  pride,"  that 
is,  the  head  of  the  animal  creation  (see  Bochart,  Hie- 
roz. i,  718).     See  Whkli". 

As  "  king  of  beasts,"  "  the  lion  is  the  largest  and 
most  formidably  armed  of  all  carnassier  animals,  the 
Indian  tiger  alone  claiming  to  be  his  ecpial.  One  full 
grown,  of  Asiatic  race,  weighs  above  450  pounds,  and 
those  of  Africa  often  above  500  pounds.  The  fall  of  a 
fore-paw  in  striking  lias  been  estimated  to  be. equal  to 
twenty-five  pounds'  weight,  and  tins,  with  the  grasp  of 
the  claws,  cutting  four  inches  in  depth,  i§  sufficiently 
))i)wcrful  to  break  the  vertebra;  of  an  ox.  The  huge 
laniary  teeth  and  jagged  molars,  worked  by  powerful 
jaws,  and  the  tongue  entirely  covered  with  horny  papil- 


lae, hard  as  a  rasp,  so  as  to  crush  the  frame  of  the  victim 
and  clean  its  bones  of  the  tlesh,  are  all  subservient  to  an 
otherwise  immensely  strong,  muscular  structure,  capable 


-^^w^? 


African  Lion. 


of  prodigious  exertion,  and  minister  to  the  self-confi- 
dence which  these  means  of  attack  inspire.  In  Asia  the 
lion  rarely  measures  more  than  nine  feet  and  a  half  from 
the  nose  to  the  end  of  the  tail,  though  a  tiger-skin  has 
been  known  of  the  dimensions  but  a  trifle  less  than  thir- 
teen feet.  In  Africa  they  are  considerably  larger,  and 
supplied  with  a  much  greater  quantity  of  mane.  Both 
lion  and  tiger  are  furnished  with  a  small  horny  apex  to 
the  tail — a  fact  noted  by  the  ancients,  but  only  verified 
of  late  years  (see  the  Proceedings  of  the  Council  of  the 
Zoological  Society  of  London,  1832,  p.  146),  because  this 
object  lies  concealed  in  the  hair  of  the  tip,  and  is  very 
liable  to  drop  off"  (Kitto).  Yet  this  singidar  circum- 
stance has  not  escaped  the  attention  of  the  Assyrians, 
and  it  is  found  represented  on  the  ruined  inscriptions  of 
Nineveh  (Bonomi's  Nineveh,  p.  245,  24G). 


Claw  in  Lion's  Tail. 
"All  the  varieties  of  the  lion  are  spotted  when  whelps, 
but  they  become  gradually  buff  or  pale.  One  African 
variety,  very  large  in  size,  perhaps  a  distinct  species, 
has  a  peculiar  and  most  ferocious  physiognomy,  a  dense 
blaclv  mane  extending  half  way  down  the  back,  and  a 
black  fringe  along  the  abdomen  and  tip  of  the  tail,  while 
those  of  Southern  Persia  anil  the  Dekkan  are  nearly  des- 
titute of  that  defensive  ornament.  The  roaring  voice 
of  the  species  is  notorious  to  a  proverb,  but  the  warning 
cry  of  attack  is  short,  snappish,  and  shaqi"  (Kitto).  This 
is  always  excited  by  opposition,  and  upon  those  occa- 
sions when  the  lion  summons  up  all  its  terrors  for  the 
combat,  nothing  can  be  more  formidable.  It  then  lash- 
es its  sides  with  its  long  tail,  its  mane  seems  to  rise  and 
stand  like  bristles  round  its  head,  the  skin  and  mus- 
cles of  its  face  are  all  in  agitation,  its  huge  eyebrows 
half  cover  its  glaring  eyeballs,  it  discovers  its  formida- 
ble teeth  and  tongue,  and  extends  its  powerful  claws. 
AVhcn  it  is  tluis  prejiareil  for  war.  even  the  boldest  of 
the  human  kind  iu-c  daunted  at  its  approach,  and  there 
are  few  animals  that  will  venture  singly  to  engage  it. 
Like  all  the  felina;,  it  is  more  or  less  nocturnal,  and  sel- 
dom goes  abroad  to  pursue  its  prey  till  after  sunset. 
When  not  pressed  by  hunger  it  is  naturally  indolent, 
and,  from  its  habits  of  uncontrolled  superiority,  per- 


LION 


447 


LION 


haps  capricious,  but  often  less  sanguinary  and  vindic- 
tive than  is  expected.  In  those  regions  where  it  has 
not  experienced  the  dangerous  arts  and  combinations  of 
man  it  has  no  apprehensions  from  his  power.  It  bold- 
ly faces  him,  and  seems  to  brave  the  force  of  his  arms. 
Wounds  rather  serve  to  provoke  its  rage  than  to  repress 
its  ardor.  Nor  is  it  daunted  by  the  opposition  of  num- 
bers ;  a  single  lion  of  the  desert  often  attacks  an  entire 
caravan,  and  after  an  obstinate  combat,  when  it  tinds 
itself  overpowered,  instead  of  Hying,  it  stLU  continues  to 
combat,  retreatmg  and  still  facing  the  enemy  until  it  dies. 
"  Lions  are  monogamous,  the  male  living  constantly 
with  the  lioness,  both  hunting  together,  or  for  each  oth- 
er when  there  is  a  litter  of  whelps,  and  the  mutual  affec- 
tion and  care  for  their  offspring  which  they  display  are 
remarkable  in  animals  doomed  by  natm-e  to  live  by  blood 
and  slaughter.  It  is  while  seeking  prey  for  their  young 
that  they  are  most  dangerous;  at  other  times  they  bear 
abstinence,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  will  sometimes 
feed  on  carcasses  found  dead.  They  live  to  more  than 
fifty  years;  consequently,  having  annual  litters  of  from 
three  to  five  cubs,  they  multiply  rapidly  when  not  seri- 
ously opposed.  Zoologists  consider  Africa  the  primitive 
abode  of  lions,  their  progress  towards  the  north  and  west 
having  at  one  time  extended  to  the  forests  of  iMacedonia 
and  Greece,  but  in  Asia  never  to  the  south  of  the  Ner- 
budda  nor  east  of  the  Lower  Ganges.  Since  the  invention 
of  gunpowder,  and  even  since  the  havoc  which  the  osten- 
tatious barbarism  of  Roman  grandees  made  among  them, 
they  have  diminished  in  number  exceedingly,  although 
at  the  present  day  mdividuals  are  not  unfrequently  seen 
in  Barbary,  within  a  short  distance  of  Ceuta"  (Kitto). 
"At  present  lions  do  not  exist  in  Palestine,  though  they 
are  said  to  be  found  in  the  desert  on  the  road  to  Egypt 
(Schwarz,  Desc.  of  Pal. ;  see  Isa.  xxx,  G).  They  abound 
on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  between  Bussorah  and 
Bagdad  (Russell,  Aleppo,  p.  61),  and  in  the  marshes  and 
jungles  near  the  rivers  of  Babylonia  (Layard,  Nineveh 
and  Bahtjlon,  p.  oGG).  This  species,  according  to  Layard, 
is  without  the  dark  and  shaggy  mane  of  the  African  lion 
(ibid.  487),  though  he  adds  in  a  note  that  he  had  seen 
lions  on  tlie  River  Karun  with  a  long  black  mane.  Dut, 
though  lions  have  now  disappeared  from  Palestine,  they 
must  in  ancient  times  have  been  numerous.  The  names 
Lebaoth  (Josh,  xv,  32),  Beth-Lebaoth  (Josh,  xix,  6), 
Arieh  (2  Kings  xv,  25),  and  Laish  (Judg.  xviii,7;  1  Sam. 
XXV,  44)  were  probabl}'  derived  from  the  presence  of,  or 
connection  with  lions,  and  point  to  the  fact  that  they 
were  at  one  time  common.  They  had  their  lairs  in  the 
forests  which  have  vanished  with  them  (Jer.  v,  6;  xii, 
8;  Amos  iii,  4),  in  the  tangled  brushwood  (.Jer.  iv,  7; 
XXV,  38 ;  Job  xxxviii,40),  and  in  the  caves  of  the  moun- 
tains (Cant,  iv,  8 ;  Ezek.  xix,  9  ,  Nah.  ii,  12).  The  cane- 
brake  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  the  '  pride'  of  the 
river,  was  their  favorite  haunt  (Jer.  xlix.  19 ;  1, 44 ;  Zech. 
xi,  3),  and  in  this  reedy  covert  (Lam.  iii,  10)  they  were 
to  be  found  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  as  we  learn 
from  a  passage  of  Johannes  Pliocas,  who  travelled  in  Pal- 
estine towards  the  end  of  the  12th  century  (Reland,  Po^. 
i,  274).  They  abounded  in  the  jungles  which  skirt  the 
rivers  of  Mesopotamia  (Ammian.  3Iarc.  xviii,  7,  5),  and 
in  the  time  of  Xenophon  {De  Veiiut.  xi)  were  found  in 
Nysa"  (Smith), 


■VSi#*%P^ 


Persian  Lion. 


"Naturalists  are  disposed  to  consider  the  lion  as  a 
genus,  consisting  of  some  three  or  four  species.  Two  of 
these  are  found  in  Asia,  the  one  called,  from  the  scanti- 
ness of  its  mane,  the  maneless  lion  (Leo  Goozeratensis), 
found  only  in  Western  India,  and  the  other  furnished 
with  that  appendage  in  its  ordmary  profusion  {L.Asiai- 
icus), -which,  is  spread  over  Bengal, Persia,  the  Euphrate- 
an  Valley,  and  some  parts  of  Arabia.  This  is  smaller, 
and  more  slightly  built  than  the  African  lions,  with  a 
fur  of  a  lighter  yellow.  It  is  doubtfiU,  however,  wheth- 
er it  is  really  more  than  a  variety"  (Fairbairn). 

"The  lion  of  Palestine  was  in  all  probability  the 
Asiatic  variety,  described  by  Aristotle  {H.  A.  ix,  44) 
and  Pliny  (viii,  18)  as  distinguished  by  its  short  curly 
mane,  and  by  being  shorter  and  rounder  in  shape,  like 
the  scidptured  lion  found  at  Arban  (Layard,  A7«ciY A  and 


Lion  at  Arbau. 


Bahtjlon,  p.  278),  It  was  less  daring  than  the  longer- 
maned  species,  but  when  driven  by  hmiger  it  not  only 
ventured  to  attack  the  flocks  in  the  desert  in  presence 
of  the  shepherd  (Isa.  xxxi,  4 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  84),  but  laid 
vaste  towns  and  villages  (2  Kings  xvii,  25,  26 ;  Prov, 
xxii,  13  ;  xxvi,  13),  and  devoured  men  (1  Kings  xiii,  24 ; 
XX,  36  ;  2  Kings  xvii,  25 ;  Ezek.  xix,  3,  6).  The  shep- 
herds sometimes  ventured  to  encounter  the  lion  single- 
handed  (1  Sam.  xvii,  34),  and  the  vivid  figure  employed 
by  Amos  (iii,  12),  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  was  but  the 
transcript  of  a  scene  which  he  must  have  often  wit- 
nessed. At  other  times  they  pursued  the  animal  in 
large  bands,  raising  loud  shouts  to  intimidate  him  (Isa. 
xxxi,  4)  and  drive  him  into  the  net  or  pit  they  had  pre- 
pared to  catch  him  (Ezek.  xix,  4,  8).  This  method  of 
capturing  wild  beasts  is  described  by  Xenophon  {De  Ven. 
xi,  4)  and  by  Shaw,  who  says,  '  The  Arabs  dig  a  pit 
where  they  are  observed  to  enter,  and,  covering  it  over 
lightly  with  reeds  or  small  branches  of  trees,  they  fre- 
quently decoy  and  catch  them'  {Travels,2i\  ed. p.  172). 
Benaiah,  one  of  David's  heroic  body-guard,  had  distin- 
guished himself  by  slaying  a  lion  in  his  den  (2  Sam. 
xxiii,  20).  The  kings  of  Persia  had  a  menagerie  of 
lions  (35,  guh,  Dan.  vi,  7,  etc.).  When  captured  alive 
they  were  put  in  a  cage  (Ezek.  xix,  9),  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  they  were  tamed.    In  the  hunting  scenes  at 


Lion-huntins— Lion  being  let  out  of  a  Cage.    ^Fn)m  the 
bas-relief  of  Sardanapahia  III,  British  Museum.) 


LION 


448 


LION^ 


Beni-Hassan  tame  lions  are  represented  as  used  in  hunt- 
iiiy  (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  E'jypi.  iii,  17).     On  the  bas-reliefs 


Ilanting  with  a  Liou,  which  has  beized  an  Ibex. 

at  Kouyunjik  a  lion  led  by  a  chain  is  among  the  pres- 
ents brought  by  tlie  conquered  to  their  victors  (Layard, 
Nineveh  and Bahi/lon,  p.  138)"  (Smith).  Wilkinson  says : 
"  The  worship  of  the  lion  was  particularly  regarded  in 
the  city  of  Leontopolis,  and  other  cities  adored  this  an- 
imal as  the  emblem  of  more  than  one  deity."  It  was  the 
svmbiil  of  strength,  and  therefore  typical  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Hercules  (Wilkinson,  A  nc.  E</i/pt.  v,  169).  In  Baby- 
lon it  appears  to  have  been  the  custom  to  throw  offend- 
ers to  be  devoured  by  lions  kept  in  dens  for  that  pur- 
pose (Dan.  vi,  7-28).  This  is  thought  to  be  contirmed 
by  the  evidence  of  several  ancient  monuments,  brought 
to  light  by  the  researches  of  recent  travellers,  on  the 
sites  of  Babylon  and  Susa,  which  represent  lions  destroy- 
ing and  preying  upon  human  beings.     See  Den.     The 


Supposed  repiesentatiou  of  a  Lion  devouring  a  Man. 
(From  the  Babylonian  Remains.) 

Assyrian  monuments  abound  in  illustrations  of  lion- 
hunting,  which  appears  to  have  been  a  favorite  pastime, 
especially  with  royalty  (Layard,  Xineveh,  i,  120).  See 
Hunting. 

"  The  terrible  roar  of  the  lion  is  expressed  in  Hebrew 
Iiy  four  different  words,  between  which  the  following  dis- 
tinction appears  to  be  maintained:  '^'i<0,shdag'  (Judg. 
xiv,  5 ;  Psa.  xxii,  13 ;  civ,  21 ;  Amos  iii,  4),  also  used  of 
the  thunder  (Job  xxxvii,  4),  denotes  the  roar  of  the  lion 
while  seeking  his  prey;  0^3,  ndham'  (Isa.  v,  29),  ex- 
presses the  cry  which  he  utters  when  he  seizes  his  vic- 
tim ;  riyn,  liatjah'  (Isa.  xxxi,  4),  the  growl  with  which 
he  defies  any  attempt  to  snatch  the  prey  from  his  teeth ; 
while  ^"D,  na'ar'  (Jer.  li,  38),  which  in  Sj'riac  is  applied 
to  the  braying  of  the  ass  and  camel,  is  descriptive  of  the 
crj'  of  the  young  lions.  If  this  distinction  be  correct, 
the  meaning  attached  to  ndham  will  give  force  to  Prov. 
xix,  12.  The  terms  which  describe  the  movements  of 
the  animal  arc  equally  distinct:  'TS"!,  i-ubats' (Gen.  xlix, 
9 ;  Ezek.  xix,  2),  is  applied  to  the  crouching  of  the  lion, 
as  well  as  of  any  wild  beast,  in  his  lair;  riH'^,  shdchuh', 
S'^J^,  ydshah'  (Job  xxxviii,  40),  and  ^^X,  drah'  (Psa.  x, 
9),  to  his  lying  in  wait  in  his  den,  the  two  former  denot- 
ing the  position  of  the  animal,  and  the  latter  the  secrecy 
of  the  act;  i^^^,  rdnias'  (Psa,  civ,  20),  is  used  of  the 
stealthy  creeping  of  the  lion  after  his  prey;  and  pSt^ 
zinnvk'  (Deut,  xxxiii,  22\  of  the  leap  with  which  he 
hurls  himself  upon  it"  (Smith).  "The  Scriptures  pre- 
sent many  striking  jiictures  of  lions,  touched  with  won- 
derful force  and  fiilelity ;  even  where  the  animal  is  a  di- 
rect instrument  of  the  ^Vlmightv,  while  true  to  his  mis- 


sion, he  stiU  remains  so  to  his  nature.  Tluis  nothing 
can  be  more  graphic  than  the  record  of  the  man  of  (iod 
(1  Kings  xiii,  28),  disobedient  to  his  charge,  struck  down 
from  his  ass,  and  lying  dead,  while  the  lion  stands  by 
him,  without  touching  the  lifeless  body  or  attacking  the 
living  animal,  usually  a  favorite  prey.  (See  also  Gen. 
xlix,  9 ;  Job  iv,  10, 11 ;  Nah.  ii,  11, 12.)  Samson's  adven- 
ture also  with  the  young  lion  (Judg.  xiv,  5,  6),  and  the 
picture  of  the  young  lion  coming  up  from  the  underwood 
cover  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  all  attest  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  animal  and  its  habits.  Finally,  the 
lions  in  the  den  with  Daniel,  miracidously  leaving  him 
unmolested,  still  retain,  in  all  other  respects,  the  real 
characteristics  of  their  nature"  (Kitto), 

"  The  strength  (Judg,  xiv,  18,  Prov,  xxx,  30 ;  2  Sam, 
i,  23),  courage   (2  Sam.  xvii,  10;  Prov.  xxviii,  1;  Isa, 
xxxi,  4;  Nah.  ii,  11),  and  ferocity  (Gen.  xlix,  9;  Numb, 
xxiv,  9)  of  the  lion  were  proverbial.     The  '  lion-faced' 
warriors  of  Gad  were  among  David's  most  valiant  troops 
(1  Chron.  xii,  8) ;  and  the  hero  Judas  MaccabiEus  is  de- 
scribed as  '  like  a  lion,  and  like  a  lion's  whelp  roaring  for 
his  prey'  (1  Mace,  iii,  4)"  (Smith).     Hence  the  lion,  as 
an  emblem  of  power,  was  symbolical  of  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah  (Gen.  xlix,  9).    Grotius  thinks  the  passage  in  Ezek. 
xix,  2, 3,  alludes  to  this  fact  that  Judtea  was  among  the 
nations  like  a  lioness  among  the  beasts  of  the  forest ; 
she  had  strength  and  sovereignty.     The  same  type  of 
sovereignty  recurs  in  the  prophetical  visions,  and  the 
figure  of  this  animal  was  among  the  few  which  the  He- 
brews admitted  in  sculpture  or  in  cast  metal,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  throne  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  x,  19,  20)  and 
the  brazen  sea  (1  Kings  vii,  29,  36).     The  heathen  as- 
sumed the  lion  as  an  emblem  of  the  sun,  of  the  god  of 
war,  of  Arcs,  Ariel,  Arioth,  Re,  the  Indian  Siva,  of  do- 
minion in  general,  of  valor,  etc. ;  and  it  occurs  in  the 
names  and  standards  of  many  nations.     This  illustrates 
Dan,  vii,  4,  "  The  first  was  like  a  lion,  and  had  eagle's 
wings,"     The  Chaldajan  or  Babylonian  empire  is  here 
represented  (see  Jer.  iv,  7).     Its  progress  to  what  was 
then  deemed  universal  empire  Avas  rapid,  and  therefore 
it  has  the  wings  of  an  eagle  (see  Jer.  xlviii,  40,  and 
Ezek.  xvii,  3).     It  is  said  bj'  Megasthenes  and  Strabo 
that  this  power  advanced  as  far  as  Spain.     W'hen  its 
wings  were  plucked  or  torn  out,  that  is,  when  it  was 
checked  in  its  progress  h\  frequent  defeats,  it  became 
more  peaceable  and  humane,  agreeably  to  that  idea  of 
Psa.  ix,  20.   A  remarkable  coincidence  between  the  sj-m- 
bolical  figure  of  Daniel's  vision  and  the  creations  of  an- 
cient Assj-rian  art  has  lately  been  brought  to  light  bj' 
the  researches  of  Layard  and  Botta  on  the  sites  of  Bab- 
ylon and  Nineveh.    SeeCiiERLB.    In  Isa.  xxix,  l,"Woe 
to  the  lion  of  God,  the  city  where  David  dwelt,"  Jeru- 
salem is  denoted,  and  the  terms  used  appear  to  signify 
the  strength  of  the  place,  by  which  it  was  enabled  to 
resist  and  overcome  all  its  enemies.     See  Ariel.     The 
ajjostle  Paid  says  (2  Tim,  iv,  17), "  I  was  delivered  out 
of  the  mouth  of  the  lion,''     The  general  opinion  is  that 
Nero  is  here  meant,  or,  rather,  his  prefect  JElius  Caesari- 
anus,  to  whom  Nero  committed  the  government  of  the 
city  of  Rome  during  his  absence,  with  power  to  put  to 
death  whomsoever  he  pleased.    See  Paul,    So,  when  Ti- 
berius died,  Marsyas  said  to  Agrippa, "  The  lion  is  dead,'' 
So  likewise  speaks  Esther  of  Artaxerxes,  in  the  apocrj'- 
phal  chapters  of  that  book  (ch,  xiv,  13), "  Put  a  word 
into  my  mouth  before  the  lion,"     There  are  some  com- 
mentators who  regard  the  ajiostle's  expression  as  a  pro- 
verbial one  for  a  deliverance  from  any  great  or  immi- 
nent danger,  but  others  conclude  that  he  had  been  actu- 
ally delivered  from  a  lion  let  loose  against  him  in  the 
amphitheatre.     That  the  same  symbol  should  some- 
times be  applied  to  opposite  characters  is  not  at  all  sur- 
prising or  inconsistent,  since  different  qualities  may  re- 
side in  the  symbol,  of  which  the  good  may  be  referred 
to  the  one,  the  bad  to  another.    Thus  in  the  lion  reside 
courage  and  victorj-  over  antagonists.    In  these  respects 
it  may  be  and  is  employed  as  a  symbol  of  Christ,  called 
the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Rev.  v,  5),  as  being  the 


LIONESS 


449 


LIPPE 


illustrious  descendant  of  that  tribe,  whose  emblem  was 
the  lion.  In  the  lion  also  reside  fierceness  and  rapacity. 
In  this  point  of  view  it  is  used  as  a  fit  emblem  of  Satan  : 
"  Be  sober,  be  vigilant;  because  your  adversary  the  dev- 
il, as  a  roaring  lion,  walketh  about,  seeking  wliom  he 
may  devour"  (1  Peter  v,  8).  On  the  subject  generally, 
see  Bochart,  Ilieroz.  ii,  1  sq.;  Kosenmiiller,  Alterth.  IV, 
ii.  Ill  sq. ;  Wemyss,  Clavis  Symholica,s.\.\  renmj  Cy- 
clopedia, s.  V. ;  Wood,  Bible  A  ninials,  p.  18  sq. ;  Tristram, 
Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  p.  115  sq. 

Lioness.     See  Lion. 

Lip  (nsb,  saphah',  usually  in  the  dual;  Gr.  xctAo^), 
besides  its  literal  sense  (e.  g.  Isa.  xxxvii,  29 ;  Cant,  iv, 
3, 11 ;  V,  13  ;  Prov.  xxiv,  28),  and  (in  the  original)  met- 
aphorically for  an  edge  or  border,  as  of  a  cui)  (1  Kings 
vii,  2G),  of  a  garment  (Exod.  xxvii,  32),  of  a  curtain 
(Exod.  xxvi,  4;  xxxvi,  11),  of  the  sea  (Gen.  xxii,  17; 
Exod.  ii,  3 ;  Heb.  xi,  12),  of  the  Jordan  (2  Kings  ii,  13 ; 
Judg.  vii,  22),  is  often  put  as  an  organ  of  speech,  e.  g. 
to  "  open  the  lips,"  i.  e.  to  begin  to  speak  (Job  xi,  5 ; 
xxxii,  20),  also  to  "  open  the  lips"  of  another,  i.  e.  cause 
him  to  speak  (Psa.  Ii,  17),  and  to  "refrain  the  lips,"  i.  e. 
tu  keep  silence  (Psa.  xl,  10;  Prov.  x,  19).  So  speech 
or  discourse  is  said  to  be  "  upon  the  lips"  (Prov.  xvi, 
10;  Psa.  xvi,  4),  once  "under  the  lips"  (Psa.  cxl,  4; 
Kom.  iii,  13 ;  comp.  Ezek.  xxxvi,  3),  and  likewise  "sin- 
ning with  lips"  (Job  ii,  10;  xii,  20;  Psa.  xlv,  3),  and 
"  uncircumcised  of  lips,"  i.  e.  not  of  ready  speech  (Exod. 
vi,  12),  also  "  fruit  of  the  lips,"  i.  e.  praise  (Heb.  xiii, 
15 ;  1  Pet.  iii,  5),  and,  by  a  bolder  figure, "  the  calves  of 
the  lips,"  i.  e.  thank-offering  (Hos.  xiv,  2) ;  finally,  the 
moilon  of  the  lips  in  speaking  (Matt,  xv,  8;  Mark  vii, 
6;  from  Isa.  xxix,  13).  By  mctonomy,  "lip"  stands  in 
Scripture  for  a  manner  of  speech,  e.  g.  in  nations,  a  dia- 
lect (Gen.  xi,  1,  G,  7,  9;  Isa.  xix,  18;  Ezek.  iii,  5,  6;  1 
Cor.  xiv,  21,  alluding  to  Isa.  xxviii,  11),  or,  in  individ- 
uals, the  moral  quality  of  language,  as  "  lying  lips,"  etc., 
i.  e.  falsehood  (Prov.  x,  18;  com]),  xvii,  4,  7)  or  wicked- 
ness (Psa.  cxx,  2),  truth  (Prov.  xii,  19)  ;  "  burning  lips," 
i.  e.  ardent  professions  (Prov.  xxvi,  23) ;  "  sweetness  of 
lips,"  i.  e.  pleasant  discourse  (Prov.  xvi,  22 ;  so  Zeph. 
iii,  9 ;  Isa.  vi,  5 ;  Psa.  xii,  3, 4).  To  "  shoot  out  the  lip" 
at  any  one,  i.  q.  to  make  mouths,  has  always  been  an 
expression  of  the  utmost  scorn  and  defiance  (Psa.  xxii, 
8).  In  like  manner,  "  unclean  lips"  are  put  as  a  repre- 
sentation of  unfitness  to  impart  or  receive  the  divine 
communications  (Isa.  vi,  5,  7).  Also  the  "  word  of  one's 
lips,"  i.  e.  communication,  e.  g.  Jehovah's  precepts  (Psa. 
xvii,  4;  comp.  Prov.  xxiii,  1(5:  spoken  of  as  something 
before  unknown,  Psa.  Ixxxi,  G) ;  elsewhere  in  a  bad 
sense,  i.  q.  lip-talk,  i.  e.  vain  and  empty  words  (Isa. 
xxxvi,  5;  Prov.  xiv.  23),  and  so  of  tlie  person  uttering 
them,  e.  g.  a  man  of  talk,  i.  e.  an  idle  talker  (Job  xi,  2), 
a  prating  fool  (Prov.  x,  8 ;  comp.  Lev.  v,  4 ;  Psa.  cvi,  33). 
See  Tongue. 

The  "upper  lip"  (DS'IJ,  sapham',  a  derivative  of  the 
above),  wliich  the  leper  was  required  to  cover  (Lev. 
xlii,  45),  refers  to  the  lip-beard  or  mustachios,  as  the 
Venet.  Greek  (/.wara^}  there  and  the  Sept.  in  2  Sam. 
xix,  24,  render  it,  being  the  beard  (in  the  latter  passage), 
which  jMcpliibosheth  neglected  to  trim  during  David's 
absence  in  token  of  grief.  The  same  practice  of  "cov- 
ering the  lip"  with  a  corner  of  one's  garment,  as  if  pol- 
luted (comp.  "  unclean  lips"),  as  a  sign  of  mourning,  is 
alluded  to  in  Ezek.  xxiv,  17,  22 ;  Mic.  iii,  7,  where  the 
•  Sept.  has  ryrojia,  xfi'X'?.     See  MouTir. 

Lipmann,  Jomtob  (of  IMiihlhausen),  also  called 
Tab-Jomi  (i-31in-J  i=  21::  CT^),  a  Jewish  writer  and 
rabbi  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  born,  according  to  some, 
at  Craco\v,  Pcdand,  but  most  authorities  are  now  agreed 
that  he  flourished  at  Prague  about  the  mitldle  of  the 
14th  century.  While  a  resident  of  the  Bohemian  cap- 
ital he  brought  forward  his  Nitsachon  (■,in:J3,  Victory), 
an  important  polemical  work.  It  consists  of  seven  parts, 
divided,  he  tells  us  himself  in  liis  preface, "  according 
v.— Ff 


to  the  seven  days  of  the  week,"  and  of  354  sections, 
"  according  to  the  number  of  days  in  the  lunar  year, 
which  is  the  Jewish  mode  of  calculation  to  indicate 
that  every  Israelite  is  bound  to  study  his  religion  ev- 
ery day  of  his  life,  and  to  remove  every  obstruction 
from  the  boundaries  of  his  faith."  In  his  treatment  of 
the  subject,  the  denial  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion,  Lipmann  does  not  adopt  any  systematic 
plan,  but  discusses  and  explains  every  passage  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  which  is  either  adduced  by  Christians  as 
a  INIessianic  prophecy  referring  to  Christ,  or  is  used  by 
sceptics  and  blasphemers  to  su]iport  their  scepticism  and 
contempt  for  revelations,  or  is  appealed  to  bj'  rational- 
istic Jews  to  corroborate  their  rejection  of  the  doctrine 
of  creation  out  of  nothing,  tlie  resurrection  of  the  body, 
etc.,  beginning  with  (renesis  and  ending  with  Chroni- 
cles, according  to  the  order  of  the  books  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  so  that  any  passage  in  dispute  might  easily  be 
found.  The  work,  which,  as  we  have  seen  from  its  di- 
visions, partook  botli  of  the  character  of  a  Jewish  po- 
lemic and  an  O.-T.  apologetic,  was,  until  near  the  middle 
of  the  IGth  century,  entirely  controlled  by  Jews.  They 
largely  transcribed  and  circulated  it  in  MS.  form  among 
their  people  throughout  the  world;  and  in  the  numer- 
ous attacks  whicli  they  had  to  sustain  both  from  Chris- 
tians and  rationalists  during  the  time  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, this  book  constituted  their  chief  arsenal,  supplying 
them  with  weapons  to  defend  themselves.  About  1642 
the  learned  Hascapan,  then  professor  in  the  Bavarian 
University  at  Altdorf,  was  engaged  in  a  controversy 
on  the  questions  at  issue  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity with  a  neighboring  rabbi  residing  in  Schnei- 
tach,  who  in  his  dissertations  frequently  referred  to  this 
Nitsachon  (a  MS.  copy  made  in  1589),  which  Hasca- 
pan asked  the  privilege  to  examine.  Refused  again 
and  again,  he  at  last  called  with  three  of  his  students 
on  the  rabbi,  when  he  pressed  him  in  such  a  man- 
ner to  produce  the  IMS.  tliat  lie  could  not  refuse.  He 
pretended  to  examine  it,  and  when  the  students  had 
fairly  surrounded  the  rabbi,  the  professor  made  his  way 
to  the  door,  got  into  a  conveyance  which  was  waiting 
for  him,  had  the  MS.  speedily  transcribed,  and  only  re- 
turned it  to  the  rabbi  after  much  earnest  soUcitation. 
The  professor  enriched  it  by  valuable  notes  and  an  in- 
dex, and  then  presented  the  work  procured  in  such  a 
dastardly  manner  to  the  Christian  world  (Altdorf,  1G44). 
It  was  rapidly  reprinted,  translated  into  Latin,  correct- 
ed and  refuted  by  Blendinger,  Lipmanni  Nizzachon  in 
Christianos,  etc.,  Latine  concersum  (Altdorf,  1G45)  ;  Wa- 
genseil.  Tela  iynea  Satance  (Altdorf,  1681) ;  Sofa,  Liber 
Mischnicus  de  Uxore  Adulterii  iSuspecta  (Altdorf.  1674), 
Appendix,  and  others  (see  Wolf,  Bibl.  Jud.  i,  347  sq.)v 
Lipmann's  ])ersonal  history  is  to  our  day  very  ob- 
scure. Jewish  historians  represent  him  as  having  been 
among  the  prisoners  arrested  at  Prague  (Aug.  3, 1399) 
for  irreverent  mention,  etc.,  of  the  name  of  Jesus.  AVhat 
punishment  he  suffered  is  not  known ;  certain  it  is  that 
he  was  not  one  of  the  seventy-seven  Jews  who  v/ere  ex- 
ecuted on  the  day  of  the  dethronement  of  king  Wences- 
laus  (Aug.  22, 1400),  for  he  mentions  the  fact  himself  in 
the  Nitsachon.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juden,  viii,  76  sq.; 
Fiirst,  Biblioth.  Judaica,  ii, 403  sq. ;  Stemschneider,.C«^a- 
lor/us  Libr.  Hebr.  in  Biblioth.  Bodleiana,  col.  1410-1414; 
Geiger,  Proben  Jiid.  Vertheidigimg  gegen  Christliche  Au- 
grife  im  Mittelalter  in  Liehermann^s  Deutscher  Volks- 
Kalemler  (Brieg,  1854),  p.  9  sq.,  47  sq. ;  Kitto,  CycLBibl. 
Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Lippe,  sometimes  also  (but  less  properly)  Lippk- 
Detmold,  a  small  principality  of  Northern  Germany, 
surrounded  on  the  M''.  and  S.  by  WestphaUa,  and  on  the 
E.  and  N.  by  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Waldeck,  and  a  de- 
tached portion  of  Ilesse-Cassel,  extends  over  an  area  of 
432  square  miles,  and  has  a  population  (1871)  of  111,153, 
mainly  belonging  to  the  Reformed  Church.  The  earli- 
est inhabitants  were  the  Cherusci ;  subsequently  it  was 
a  part  of  the  country  of  the  Saxons.  The  first  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity  in  that  province  dates  back  to 


LIPPE 


450 


LIPSCOMB 


Charlemagne.  In  the  very  beginning  of  his  war  against 
the  Saxons,  in  772,  he  took  the  caslrum  j-Ereshurguni 
(probably  Kadtberg,  on  the  Diemcl,  near  the  southern 
frontier  "of  the  principahty),  and  there  destroyed  the 
statue  of  the  idol  Irmansaul.  In  770  he  went  to  Lipp- 
spriiigo,  and  the  following  year  to  I'adrabrun  (Fader- 
born),  both  on  the  southern  frontier  of  the  province, 
obliging  whole  tribes  of  the  con(iuered  Saxons  to  receive 
baptism.  In  783  Charlemagne  again  vanquished  the 
Saxons  in  the  great  battle  of  Theotmelli  (Detmold),  in 
the  very  heart  of  the  present  principalit}%  The  Saxon 
army  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  Charlemagne,  in  com- 
memoration of  this  event,  erected  a  church  which  is  still 
in  existence.  The  next  Christmas  he  spent  at  Ski- 
droburg-supra-Ambram,  now  Schieder,  on  the  Emmer, 
where  it  is  said  he  also  erected  a  church.  But  his  most 
important  measure  for  Christianizing  the  country  was 
his  establishment  of  the  bishopric  of  Paderborn,  embra- 
cing the  district  of  Lippe  within  its  diocese,  for  which 
the  house  of  the  princes  of  Lippe  furnished  many  a 
bishop. 

The  Reformation  early  found  strong  supporters  in 
Lippe.     The  first  city  of  the  province  to  adopt  it  was 
Lemgo,  moved  to   such  a  course  by  Luther's  theses 
against  indulgences.     By  1524  the  Reformation  was 
further  advanced  in  this  part  of  Germany  by  the  adhe- 
rents it  had  gained  in  the  town  of  Herford,  adjoining 
Lemgo,  where  the  works  of  Luther  and  Melancthon 
liad  been  circulated  freely.     Foremost  among  Luther's 
supporters  there   were  his   colleagues   the  Augustine 
monks.    One  of  them,  Dr.  John  Dreyer,  a  native  of  Lem- 
go and  a  personal  friend  of  Luther,  distinguished  for  his 
learning  and  eloquence,  was  the  first  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel in  Herford.     In  spite  of  the  priests,  the  people  in- 
troduced the  singing  of  the  German  hymns  of  Luther 
into  their  churches,  and  all  attempts  to  put  an  end  to  this 
by  violence  gave  way  before  the  unanimous  will  of  the 
people.    The  first  to  take  the  decided  step  of  separation 
was  Moriz  Piderit,  a  priest,  and  formerly  one  of  the  most 
determined  adversaries  of  the  evangelical  doctrines,  and 
by  his  influence  the  city  was  carried  for  Luther's  doc- 
trines.    Lippstadt  embraced  them  nearly  at  the  same 
time.     The  monks  of  the  Augustine  convent  in  that 
city,  who  had  sent  t;vo  of  their  number  to  Wittemberg 
to  be  instructed  by  Luther,  on  their  return  preached  the 
Gospel  with  great  success  to  the  people  of  Lippe  and  of 
neighboring  places ;  and  they  so  quickly  advanced  the 
cause  of  the  Reformers,  that  when  an  inquisitor  was 
sent  to  Lippe  from  Cologne  in  1526  to  stay  the  heresy, 
he  found  the  evangelical  party  so  strong  that  he  gave 
up  all  attempts  to  control  it,  and  returned  to  his  home. 
In  1533  the  town  was  besieged  by  the  dukes  of  Cleves 
and  Juliers,  and  the  count  of  Lippe  forced  to  surrender. 
The  evangelical  ministers  were  of  course  driven  away, 
but  it  was  not  long  before  permission  was  granted  for 
the  preaching  by  Lutheran  ministers  again.     After  the 
death  of  the  zealous  Roman  Catholic  count  Simon  V,  in 
1536,  the  Reformation  made  more  rapid  progress  in  the 
province.     The  landgrave  Philip  of  Hessia  and  count 
Jobst  von  Hoya,  two  determined  partisans  of  the  Refor- 
mation, became  guardians  of  the  children  of  the  deceased 
count,  and  caused  them  to  be  diligently  instructed  in  the 
Protestant  doctrines ;  and  when,  in  1538,  both  the  no- 
bility and  the  people  loudly  demanded  a  reform  in  the 
Church  of  the  count  de  Hoya,  John  Timann,  surnamed 
Amstolrodamus,  and  Adrian  Buxschoten,  both  of  Brem- 
en, were  called  and  sent  to  Lipjie  to  frame  a  plan  of  evan- 
gelical church  organization,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
States  and  to  Luther,  and,  upon  api)roval  (1538),  it  was 
promulgated  throughout  the  principality,  and  Protest- 
ant ministers  were  everywhere  appointed.    Under  John 
von  Eyter,  of  Wittemberg,  then  general  superintend- 
ent of  Lippe,  a  new  church  organization  was  drawn  up 
and  i)rinted  in  1571,  with  the  authorization  of  the  au- 
thorities, and  it  is  still  in  our  day  in  force  among  the 
Lutheran  communities  of  the  country. 

In  1600,  during  the  reign  of  count  Simon  YI  (ruled 


1583-1613),  who  had  imbibed  Calvinistic  views  at  the 
court  of  Cassel,  Calvinism  found  an  entrance  in  Lippe, 
It  commenced  by  the  appointment  of  a  Calvinistic  min- 
ister to  preach  at  Horn  in  1602.  This  preacher  at  once 
forbade  the  use  of  the  Lutheran  Catechism  ui  the  schools, 
administered  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  strict 
Calvinistic  form,  and  established  the  Reformed  mode  of 
worship  in  spite  of  the  local  authorities  and  of  tlie  peo- 
ple. In  1605  the  same  step  was  taken  at  Detmold,  and 
was  supported  by  the  government,  notwithstanding  the 
opposition  of  the  people  and  city  authorities.  In  this 
manner  Calvinism  was  established  throughout  the  coun- 
try, the  nobility  alone  and  the  city  of  Lemgo  remaining 
Lutheran.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1684  that  Calvin- 
ism was  sanctioned  as  the  state  reUgion.  In  that  year 
comit  Simon  Henrich  promulgated  the  Reformed  eccle- 
siastical organization,  which  recognises  as  its  formula  of 
confession  the  Catechism  of  Heidelberg,  and  is  in  force 
in  our  day.  The  city  of  Lemgo  resisted  these  meas- 
ures, and  succeeded  in  obtaining  in  1717  an  edict  assur- 
ing its  inhabitants  the  fullest  religious  liberty,  the  right 
of  appointing  their  own  ministers,  etc.  But  as  Ration- 
alism had  obtained  lull  control  of  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Lippe  in  the  18th  century,  upon  reaction  towards  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  the  whole  countr}-,  including 
Lemgo,  was  subjected  to  the  Reformed  consistory,  which, 
however,  by  the  admission  of  one  Lutheran  member, 
became  a  mixed  consistory.  As  an  outline  of  doctrine, 
the  Heidelberg  Catechism  was  introduced. 

In  1871  the  principality  numbered  about  2700  Roman 
Catholics,  6500  Lutherans,  1150  Israelites;  the  remain- 
der belonged  to  the  Reformed  Church.  The  latter  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  at  the  head  of  each  of  which 
is  a  superintendent;  at  the  head  of  the  whfile  clergy  is 
a  superintendent  general  at  Detmold.  The  supreme 
ecclesiastical  board  for  both  Reformed  and  Lutherans  is 
the  consistory  at  Detmold.  The  principality  has  43  Re- 
formed, 5  Lutheran,  and  6  Catholic  parishes ;  the  Cath- 
olics belong  to  the  diocese  of  Paderborn,  in  Westphalia. 
See  llerzoi^,Real-]'Mcyklojmdie,\in,'i2'&\  Falkmann  und 
Preuss,  LippescJie  Regesten  (Lemgo,  1860-63, 2  vols.  8vo) ; 
Falkmann,  Eeitrage  ziir  Gesch.  tier  Fiirstenth.  (ibid.  1847 
-56) ;  and  his  Graf  Simon  VI  zur  Lijtpe  (Detm.  1869, 
vol,i).     (A.J.S.) 

Lippomani,  Aloysius  {or  Ludovicus),  horn  in  Yen- 
ice  in  1500,  was  alike  renowned  for  his  historical  and 
linguistic  learning  and  for  the  purity  of  his  life.  He 
was  in  turn  bishop  of  IModena,  Yerona,  and  Bergamo, 
He  was  active  in  securing  the  pope's  assent  to  the 
transfer  of  the  Tridentine  Council  to  Bologna ;  was  for 
two  years  after  the  interruption  of  the  council  pajial 
nuncio  in  Germany,  and  in  1549  one  of  the  tliree  pres- 
idents of  the  council.  In  Poland  the  Reformation  had 
made  great  advances  through  the  influence  of  the  Huss- 
ites and  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  as  also  through 
the  Socinian  movement.  At  the  national  Diet  of  Pet- 
rikau  in  1550,  1551,  and  especially  1555,  the  preroga- 
tives of  the  Catholic  bishops  Avere,  through  special  in- 
fluence of  the  king,  Sigismund  II,  greatly  diminished, 
and  the  Protestant  theologians  —  such  as  Calvin,  Me- 
lancthon, Bcza — were  recognised  as  important  authori- 
ties in  matters  of  faith.  The  Confession  of  Hosius, 
adopted  in  a  provincial  synod  at  Petrikau,  obtained 
great  acceptance  with  the  people.  Liiipomani  was 
specially  commissioned  by  iiope  Paul  l\,  in  1556,  as 
nuncio  in  Poland,  to  exert  himself  against  this  rapid 
progress  of  reform.  His  efforts  made  him  peculiarly 
obnoxious  to  the  adherents  of  Protestantism,  but  were 
without  marked  success.  He  died  as  bishop  of  Bergamo 
in  August,  1559.  He  wrote  commentaries  on  Genesis, 
Exodus,  and  the  Psalms,  but  they  are  of  no  special  value 
to  the  exegetist  of  to-day.  See  A\'etzer  u.  Welte,  /ur- 
chen-Lexikon,  s.  v. ;  Krasinski,  Hist.  Sketch  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  roland,  vol.  i,  chap.  vi.     (E.  B.  O.) 

Lipscomb,  Philip  D.,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  min- 
ister, was  born  in  Georgetown,  D.  C,  in  October,  1798. 


LIPSIUS 


451 


LITANY 


He  was  converted  probably  in  early  life,  and  joined  the 
Baltimore  Conference  in  lS-22.  Among  his  brethren  in 
Conference  assembled  he  was  pleasant,  cattentive  to  bus- 
iness, safe  in  council.  ^He  v/as  many  years  one  of  the 
stewards  of  the  Conference.  He  was  also  for  a  time 
treasurer  of  the  Preachers'  Fund  Society.  A  number  of 
the  years  of  his  mmistry  were  given  to  the  service  of 
the  American  Colonization  Society,  and  from  that  work 
he  retired  in  18G3  to  a  place  on  the  superannuated  list. 
A  minister  of  this  Conference,  who  knew  him  long  and 
intimately,  says,  '•  His  life  was  beautiful  in  its  consist- 
ency." lie  died  in  January,  1870.— 6'o«/.  Minutes,  1871. 
Lipsius.-JrsTus,  a  Iloman  Catholic,  renowned  as  a 
scholar  in  the  16th  century,  was  born  near  Brussels  in 
1547.  His  talent  was  precocious,  and  he  edited  his  Va- 
rue  lecfiones  at  the  age  of  19.  He  was  secretary  to 
cardinal  Granville  about  this  time  (1572-74).  Later, 
as  professor  of  history  at  Jena,  he  became  a  Protestant, 
and  remained  such  for  13  years  while  professor  of  an- 
cient languages  at  Leyden,  but  subsequently  he  returned 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  was  made  professor 
at  Louvain  (1602).  He  died  March  23,  IGOG,  holding  at 
that  time  the  appointment  of  historiographer  to  the  king 
of  Spain.  His  scholarship  was  honored  by  the  pope  and 
at  several  European  courts.  He  distinguished  himself 
especially  by  his  commentary  upon  Tacitus,  whose  works 
he  could  repeat  word  for  word,  and  by  his  enthusiastic 
regard  for  the  stoical  philosophy.  He  wrote  De  Con- 
stimtia  manudiictia  ad  philosojjhiam  Stoicam: — Pfi)/si- 
olof/iie  Stoicorum  Hbri  tres  (new  edit.  Antv.  1605,  fol.)  : 
— also  De  una  relirjioiie,  etc.  His  works  were  collected 
under  the  title  Opera  Omnia  (Antv.  1585 ;  2d  edit.  ]  637). 
See  Wetzer  u. Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vol.  ii,  s. v. ;  Theol. 
Univ.  Lex.  (Elberf.  1860),  vol.  i,  s.  v. 

Iiiptines  or  Lestines,  Synod  of  {Concilium  Lip- 
tincnsc).  This  synod  was  held  at  Liptinil  or  Lestines, 
near  the  convent  of  Laubcs,  in  Hennegau,  in  743,  by 
order  of  Carloman,  Bonifacius  presiding.  Four  canons 
■were  published.  The  bishops,  earls,  and  governors  prom- 
ised in  this  council  to  observe  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Germany  (A.D.  742).  All  the  clergy,  moreover, 
promised  obedience  to  the  ancient  canons-,  the  abbots 
and  monks  received  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  a 
part  of  the  revenue  of  the  Church  was  assigned  for  a 
time  to  the  prince,  to  enable  him  to  carry  on  the  wars 
then  raging.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Liquor  ("^'n,  de'ma,  a  tear,  fig.  of  the  juice  of  olives 
and  grapes,  Exod.  xxii,  29 ;  jtp,  me'zeg,  mixed,  i.  e.  high- 
ly flavored  wine,  Cant,  vii,  3  ;  iTTJ"a,  mishrah',  macera- 
tion, i.  e.  drink  prepared  by  steepuig  grapes,  Numb,  vi,  3). 
See  Wine. 

Lismaniui,  Fuancis,  a  Socinian  theologian,  was 
born  at  Corfu  in  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century. 
He  studied  in  Italy,  joined  the  Franciscans,  and  a  few 
years  after  became  doctor  of  theology ;  removed  to  Po- 
land, and  was  appointed  by  queen  Bona,  \vife  of  Sigis- 
mund  I,  her  preacher  and  confessor.  He  became  also 
superior  of  the  Franciscans  of  Poland,  director  of  all  the 
convents  of  the  nuns  of  St.  Clara,  etc.  The  society  of 
Andrew  Frlcesio  and  the  reading  of  Ochin's  works  led 
him  to  question  the  authority  of  the  Roman  Church, 
yet  he  was  not  displaced  on  account  of  it,  but  continued 
in  favor  with  the  quoen,  and  was  sent  by  her  to  Rome, 
in  1549,  to  congratulate  Julius  HI  on  his  election  as 
pope.  On  his  return  to  Poland  in  1551,  Lismanini  be- 
came acquainted  with  Socinius,  and  it  is  this  association 
that  no  doubt  gave  rise  to  the  mission  with  which  he 
was  intrusted  by  the  king  of  Poland,  ostensibly  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  works  for  the  royal  library,  but  in 
reality  to  study  the  position  of  the  Reformation,  and  to 
report  concerning  it.  Lismanini  accordingly  visited 
Padua,  :\Iilan,  and  Switzerland,  where  he  finally  left  his 
order,  embraced  the  Helvetic  confession,  and  married. 
The  king,  fearing  to  be  compromised  by  this  overt  act, 
broke  all  connection  with  him,  ceased  to  supply  him 


with  funds,  and  Calvin,  Bullinger,  and  Gesuer-in  vain 
sought  to  obtain  for  Lismanini  leave  to  return  to  Po- 
land. It  was  not  until  1556  that  he  was  permitted  to 
return,  but  the  king's  favor  he  never  regained,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  a  large  number  of  the  Polish 
nobility  in  his  behalf.  His  Socinian  views  on  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity  served  still  more  to  bring  him  into 
discredit.  As  he  attempted  to  make  converts  he  was 
exiled  from  Poland.  He  retired  to  Konigsberg,  where 
he  became  counsellor  of  duke  Albrecht.  About  1563 
he  became  distracted  on  account  of  family  difficulties, 
and  committed  suicide  by  drowning.  His  chief  pro- 
duction is  Brevis  ExpUcatio  doctriiuB  de  sanctissima 
Trinitate,  quani  Stancaro  et  aliis  quihusdam  opposuit 
(1565,  8 vo).  See  Bibl.  antitrinitai-iorum,  p.  34;  Bayle, 
Hist.  Diet. ;  Friese,  Beitrdge  z.  Ref.-Gesch.  in  Polen,  ii,  1, 
p.247sq.;  Yock,Der Socinianismus,\,\^b;  Herzug, Real- 
Encyklopddie,  x,  426 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv,  Biog.  Gen.  xxxi,  356. 
(J.H.W.) 

LLst,  Carl  Benjajiin,  a  German  theologian,  was 
born  at  JMannheim,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  Feb. 
5, 1725.  He  attended  the  universities  of  Jena  and  Stras- 
burg,  and  afterwards  spent  some  time  in  Neufchatel  to 
acquire  I*"rench.  About  1749  he  was  appointed  court 
dean,  in  1753  third  pastor  of  his  native  city,  and  in  1756 
first  pastor  of  the  Evangelical-Lutheran  Church,  togeth- 
er with  the  dignity  of  counsellor  of  the  Consistory.  He 
died  Jan.  16, 1801.  He  possessed  a  pure,  liberal,  and  re- 
forming character,  and  to  him  is  due  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing abrogated  the  custom  of  paying  for  confession  in  the 
Evangelical-Lutheran  Church.  His  productions,  mostly 
of  a  corrective  character  in  liturgy  and  hymns,  were  of 
great  service  to  the  Church  to  which  he  belonged.  We 
mention  Die  Geschichte  der  Evangelisch  - Lutherischen 
Gemeinde  zu  Mannheim  (Mannheim,  1767,  8vo) : — Neue 
Liturgie  fur  die  Evangelisch-Lutherische  Kirche  in  der 
Churjifalz  (ibid.  1783, 8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Theol. 
Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Litany  (Xiravda,  entreaty'),  a  word  the  specific 
meaning  of  which  has  varied  considerably  at  different 
times,  is  used  in  the  liturgical  services  of  some  churches 
to  designate  a  solemn  act  of  supplication  addressed  with 
the  object  of  averting  the  divine  anger,  and  especially  on 
occasions  of  public  calamity.  Hooker,  in  his  Ecclesias- 
tical Polity  (book  v,  p.  265),  has  the  following :  "  As 
things  invented  for  one  purpose  are  by  use  easily  con- 
verted to  more,  it  grew  that  supplications  with  this  so- 
lemnity for  the  appeasing  of  (Jod's  wrath  and  the  avert- 
ing of  public  evils  were  of  the  Greek  Church  termed 
litanies ;  rogations,  of  the  Latins." 

The  term  litany  for  a  supplicatory  form  of  worship 
among  the  pagans  was  early  adopted  by  Christian  writ- 
ers. In  the  fourth  century  we  find  such  occasions  as 
litanies  connected  with  processions,  the  clergy  and  peo- 
ple in  solemn  procession  using  certain  forms  of  sup- 
phcation  and  making  special  entreaty  for  deliverance. 
Whether  anything  of  this  kind  would  have  been  ven- 
tured before  Christianity  became  a  '-religio  licita"  (A.D. 
270)  may  be  doubted.  The  predominance  of  a  Chris- 
tian popidation,  however,  in  certain  localities,  and  the 
intervals  of  repose  between  persecutions,  admit  of  their 
possibility  at  an  earlier  period.  In  these  earliest  de- 
velopments, moreover,  of  the  processional  litany,  wheth- 
er before  or  during  the  fourth  century,  they  rested, 
doubtless,  upon  an  earlier  Christian  habit  and  custom 
— that  of  special  seasons  of  prayer  and  supplication. 
These,  in  some  cases,  would  be  by  the  assembled  body 
of  believers  in  their  houses  or  places  of  assembling;  in 
others,  for  purposes  of  safety  from  the  fury  of  their  en- 
emies, in  their  individual  homes  and  places  of  abode. 
Certainly  the  Church  was  not  wanting  in  such  occa- 
sions during  the  first  centuries  of  her  existence,  when 
the  course  pursued  by  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem  (Acts 
xii,  5),  and  for  similar  reasons,  would  need  to  be  repeat- 
ed. Occasions  of  this  particular  kind  woidd  of  course 
pass  away  with  the  passing  away  of  persecution.     But 


LITANY 


452 


LITANY 


others  of  a  different  character  would  take  their  place. 
As  early,  indeed,  as  the  times  of  Tertullian  and  Cyprian 
we  linoi  allusions  to  Christian  prayers,  and  fastings,  and 
.supplications  for  the  removal  of  drought,  the  repelling 
of  enemies,  the  moderation  of  calamities ;  and  later,  in 
the  fourth  and  tifth  centuries,  we  find  the  same  thing, 
on  a  larger  scale  and  in  a  more  formal  manner.  Theo- 
(losius,  preliminary  to  a  battle,  spent  the  whole  night  in 
fasting  and  prayer,  and  in  sackcloth  went  with  the 
])riests  and  people  to  make  supplication  in  all  the 
clmrches.  So,  again,  in  the  reign  of  one  of  his  suc- 
cessors, a  solemn  litany  or  supplication  on  account  of  a 
great  earthquake  was  made  at  Constantuiople.  In  these 
last  cases,  the  element,  to  which  allusion  has  been  made, 
that  of  the  procession,  was  undoubtedly  present,  and  so 
continued  until  the  time  of  the  Keformation ;  the  name 
litany,  indeed,  being  sometimes  used  simply  to  describe 
this  part  of  it,  as  where  seven  litanies  are  directed  by 
(iregory  the  Great  to  proceed  from  seven  different 
churches  (see  below).  The  processions  of  the  Arians  in 
the  times  of  Chrysostom,  and  the  counter  movement,  on 
his  part,  by  more  splendid  and  imposing  ones,  to  detract 
from  any  popularity  which  the  j^ians  may  have  at- 
tained in  this  way,  are  described  by  Socrates.  It  is  not 
at  all  improbable  that  in  somewhat  the  same  manner 
the  hymns  of  Arius  became  circulated  in  Alexandria  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  centurj-,  and  found  lodgment 
in  the  minds  of  the  populace. 

The  prevalence  of  litanies  in  the  Western  Church  may 
be  recognised  after  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century ; 
and  during  the  time  of  Charlemagne  we  find  allusion  to 
large  numbers  of  them,  to  be  attended  to  as  a  matter  of 
special  appointment.  The  Council  of  Orleans,  A.D.  511, 
expressly  recognises  litanies  as  peculiarly  solemn  suppli- 
cat ions,  and  enjoins  their  use  preparatory  to  the  celebra- 
tion of  a  high  festival.  In  tlie  Spanish  Church,  in  like 
manner,  they  were  observed  in  the  week  after  Pentecost. 
Other  councils  subsequently  appointed  them  at  a  variety 
of  other  seasons,  till,  in  the  seventeenth  Council  of  To- 
ledo, A.D.  G94,  it  was  decreed  that  they  should  be  used 
once  in  each  month.  By  degrees  they  were  extended 
to  two  days  in  each  week,  and  Wednesday  and  Friday, 
being  the  ancient  stationary  days,  were  set  apart  for  the 
purpose.  Gregory  the  Great  instituted  a  service  at 
Kome  for  the  25th  of  April,  which  was  named  Litania 
Septiformis,  because  a  procession  was  formed  in  it  of 
seven  different  classes.  This  service  is  distinguished 
as  Litania  Major,  from  its  extraordinary  solemnity. 
The  Lilanice  Jllinores,  on  the  other  hand,  are  supposed 
by  Bingham  to  consist  only  of  a  repetition  of  Kvpif 
tXiijaou,  the  customarj'  response  in  the  larger  supplica- 
tions. "It  was  a  short  form  of  supplication,  used  one 
way  or  other  in  all  churches,  and  that  as  a  part  of  all 
their  daily  offices,  whence  it  borrowed  the  name  of  the 
Lesser  Litany,  in  opposition  to  the  greater  litanies, 
which  were  distinct,  complete,  and  solemn  services, 
adapted  to  particular  times  or  extraordinary  occasions. 
I  must  note,  fiu-ther,  that  the  greater  litanies  are  some- 
times termed  •  exomolorjeses' — confessions — because  fast- 
ing, and  weeping,  and  mourning,  and  confession  of  sins 
were  usually  enjoined  with  supplication,  to  avert  God's 
wrath,  and  reconcile  him  to  a  sinful  people."  Du  Cange 
cites  a  passage  from  the  acts  of  the  Cone.  Cloveskoviense, 
A.D.  747,  conlirmiiig  tlie  i<lentity  oi  litania  and  rogatio, 
but  showhig  that  originally  there  was  a  distinction  be- 
t\veeii  Utauiu  and  ixomologcsis.  Johannes  de  Janua 
terms  litany,  proi)erly,  a  service  for  the  dead.  But  Du 
(Jange,  by  the  authorities  he  cites  for  the  early  litanies, 
hazards  the  assertion  that  they  differ  but  little  from 
those  in  modern  usage.  In  the  AVestern  litanies  two 
features  are  to  be  foinid  not  jirevalent  in  the  Eastern — 
the  invocation  of  saints,  and  the  appointment. of  stated 
annual  seasons  for  tlieir  use,  as  the  rogation  days  of  the 
Komish,  and  the  iri-weekly  usage  of  the  EnJ^lish  Ciiurch. 
There  is,  indeed,  mention  made  of  an  annual  litany  in 
commemoration  of  the  great  earthquake  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian.     But  the  general  and  present  habit  of  the 


patriarchate  of  Constantinople  has  been  and  is  to  con- 
fine such  services  to  their  original  purpose — extraordi- 
nary occasions. 

Freeman  {Principles  of  Biviii^,  Service,  ii,  325)  insists 
that  in  its  origin  the  litany  is  distinctly  a  '■  cucharistic 
feature,"  a  series  of  intercessions  closely  associated  with 
the  eucharistic  sacrifice.  So  we  find  in  the  East,  and 
so  it  was  originally  in  the  West  also,  one  most  notable 
feature  being  the  pleading  of  the  work  of  Christ  in  be- 
half of  his  Church.  In  a  Syriac  form  given  by  Kenau- 
dot,  the  priest,  taking  the  paten  and  cup  in  his  right  and 
left  hand,  commemorates  (1)  the  annunciation ;  (2)  the 
nativity  ;  (3)  the  baptism  ;  (4)  the  passion;  (5)  the  lift- 
ing up  on  the  cross ;  (G)  the  life-giving  death ;  (7)  the 
burial ;  (8)  the  resurrection ;  (9)  the  session.  Then 
follows  the  remembrance  of  the  departed,  and  then  sup- 
plication for  all,  both  living  and  departed,  ending  with 
three  kyries  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  This  extended  eu- 
charistic intercession  St.  Ephraem  the  Syrian  rendered 
into  a  very  solemn  hymn  (comp.  Ulunt,  JJict.  of  Ductr. 
and  Hist.  TheoL  p.  417). 

As  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  litanies,  which  are 
prayers,  certain  features  may  be  mentioned  that  distin- 
guish them  from  other  prayers  (the  collects  and  the  so- 
called  common  prayers),  for  in  the  litany  the  priest  or 
minister  does  not  pray  alone,  the  people  responding  after 
each  separate  petition.  It  is  even  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary that  the  minister  should  lead,  as  the  whole  may  be 
divided  between  two  choirs;  for  we  must  also  notice 
that  the  litany,  occupying  a  medium  position  between 
prayer  and  singing,  may  be  sung  or  spoken,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  place  where  it  is  used.  Some  com- 
positors even — Mozart,  for  instance — sometimes  treated 
it  in  the  same  manner  as  the  usual  Church  chants  (the 
Stabat  Mater,  Requiem,  etc.)  ;  but  in  this  case,  by  losing 
the  distinction  between  petitions  and  responses,  the  lit- 
any entirely  changed  its  character.  In  the  next  place, 
it  must  be  noticed  that  in  all  litanies  preceding  the  Ref- 
ormation there  is  great  uniformity.  They  all  begin 
alike — Kyrie  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  and  end  alike — Ag- 
nus Dei,  qui  tollis,  etc.  In  this  respect  they  resemble 
the  mass.  A  form  of  supplication  somewhat  resembUng 
a  litany  exists  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions;  as  the 
deacon  named  the  subjects  of  petition,  the  people  an- 
swered to  each.  Lord,  have  mercy.  That  of  the  Church 
of  England  begins  with  an  invocation  of  the  persons  of 
the  Trinity,  but  uses  the  old  invocations  in  its  progress 
and  close.  In  their  origmal  purpose  litanies  were  con- 
nected with  fasting  and  humiliation,  and  were  therefore 
inappropriate  to  the  festal  character  of  the  Sunday  ser- 
vice. In  this  respect  their  usage  has  been  changed,  and 
they  are  now  part  of  divine  service  not  only  on  Sundays, 
but  on  the  most  joyous  seasons  of  Christian  commemo- 
ration, such  as  Easter  and  Christmas  day.  One  of  the 
last  efforts,  indeed,  in  this  kind  of  composition  is  the 
litany  of  Zuizcndorf  for  Easter  morning.  The  ordmary 
arrangement  of  litany  material  may  be  described  as,  first, 
the  invocations,  where  we  find  the  greatest  difference 
between  Eomish  and  Protestant  litanies ;  these  are  fol- 
lowed b}'  the  deprecations,  from  which  this  kind  of  ser- 
vice originally  took  its  predominant  character;  next 
come  intercessions  for  various  classes  and  conditions 
of  men,  the  whole  closing  with  supplications  for  divine 
audience,  and  blessing  upon  the  worshippers.  The  lit- 
any of  the  Church  of  Kome  is  that  of  Gregory,  with 
subsequent  additions,  especially  in  the  material  of  invo- 
cation to  the  body  of  Christ,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  all 
the  saints.  There  was  an  earlier  form, bearing  the  name 
of  Ambrose,  agreeing  in  many  respects  with  the  Luther- 
an and  English  (see  below).  There  was  another,  put  in 
shape  by  Mamertius,  bishop  of  Vienna,  about  the  year 
460,  which  was  used  by  Sidonius  of  Arranque  soon  after, 
in  connection  witli  an  invasion  of  the  Goths,  the  annual 
usage  of  which  the  Council  of  Orleans  enjoined.  That 
of  (iregory,  however,  composed  during  the  next  centurj", 
became  the  prevailing  one,  or  rather  the  typical  form  of 
others  in  subsequent  use. 


LITAKY 


io'i 


LITERS  FORMATS 


The  three  different  forms  now  in  use  in  the  Eomish 
churches  are  called  the  '-litany  of  the  saints"  (which  is 
the  most  ancient),  the  "litany  of  tlie  name  of  Jesus," 
and  the  "  litany  of  Our  Lady  of  Loretto."  Of  these  the 
first  alone  has  a  place  in  tlie  public  service-books  of  the 
Church,  on  the  rogation  days,  in  the  ordination  service, 
the  service  for  the  consecration  of  churches,  the  conse- 
cration of  cemeteries,  and  many  other  offices.  The  one 
called  by  the  name  of  litaiiij  of  the  saints  bears  its  name 
from  the  praj-ers  it  contains  to  the  saints  for  their  help 
and  intercession  in  behalf  of  the  worshipjDers.  Almost 
every  saint  in  the  calendar  of  the  Romish  Church  has  his 
particular  form  in  the  litany.  Tlie  people's  response  in 
the  prayer  is  Orn  pi-o  nobis,  "  Pray  for  us."  Tlie  litany 
of  Jesus  consists  of  a  number  of  addresses  to  Christ  under 
liis  various  relations  to  men,  in  connection  with  the  sev- 
eral details  of  his  passion,  and  of  adjurations  of  him 
through  the  memory  of  what  he  has  done  and  suffered 
for  the  salvation  of  mankind.  The  date  of  this  form  of 
prayer  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  referred,  with  much  proba- 
bility, to  the  time  of  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena,  in  the  15th 
century.  The  litanT/  of  Loretto  [see  Loretto]  resem- 
bles both  the  above-named  litanies  in  its  opening  ad- 
dresses to  the  Holy  Trinity  and  in  its  closing  petitions 
to  the  "  Lamb  of  God,  who  taketh  away  the  sins  of  the 
world;"  but  the  main  body  of  the  petitions  are  address- 
ed to  the  Virgin  Mary  under  various  titles,  some  taken 
from  the  Scriptures,  some  from  the  language  of  the 
fathers,  some  from  the  mystical  writers  of  the  mediasval 
Church.  Neither  this  litany  nor  that  of  Jesus  has  ever 
formed  part  of  any  of  the  ritual  or  liturgical  offices  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
both  have  in  various  ways  received  the  sanction  of  the 
highest  authorities  of  the  Romish  Church.  Tliose  of 
the  Lutheran  and  English  churches,  which  are  very 
much  alike,  are  derived  from  the  same  source,  being 
shorter  in  that  these  invocations  are  expunged. 

In  the  Church  of  England  it  was  originally  a  distinct 
service,  and  seems  to  have  been  used  at  a  different  time 
of  day  from  the  ordinary  morning  service,  and  only  on 
certain  occasions.  In  1544  it  was  given  to  the  people 
in  a  revised  form  by  Henry  VIII.  Upon  its  insertion 
in  the  Prayer-book  published  by  Edward  VI,  A.D.  1549, 
the  litany  was  placed  between  the  communion  office 
and  the  office  of  baptism,  under  the  title  "  The  Litany 
and  Suffrages,"  without  any  rubric  for  its  use ;  but  at 
the  end  of  the  communion  office  occurred  the  follow- 
ing rubric :  "  Upon  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  the  Eng- 
lish litany  shall  be  said  or  sung  in  aU  places,  after 
such  form  as  is  appointed  by  his  majesty's  injunc- 
tions, or  as  it  shall  be  otherwise  appointed  by  his  high- 
ness." In  the  revision  of  the  Common  Prayer  in  1552, 
the  litany  was  placed  where  it  now  stands,  and  the  ru- 
bric was  added  to  "be  used  on  Sundays, Wednesdays, 
and  Fridays,  and  at  other  times  when  it  shall  be  com- 
manded by  the  ordinary."  So  late  as  the  last  revision 
in  1661,  the  litany  continued  a  distinct  service  by  itself, 
used  sometimes  after  the  morning  prayer  (then  read  at 
a  very  early  hour)  was  concluded,  the  people  returning 
home  between  them.  The  rubric  which  inserts  the  lit- 
any after  the  third  collect  in  morning  prayer  is  formed 
from  a  similar  rubric  in  the  Scotch  Common  Prayer- 
bool;  with  this  difference,  that  the  English  rubric  en- 
joins the  omission  of  certain  of  the  ordinary  interces- 
sional  prayers;  the  Scotch  rubric,  on  the  other  hand, 
states  expressly,  "  without  the  omission  of  any  part  of 
the  other  daily  service  of  the  Church  on  those  days." 

The  litany  of  the  German  and  Danish  Lutherans 
closely  resembles  that  of  the  Church  of  England  and  that 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  and  needs,  therefore,  no  special  mention  here. 
The  processional  feature  is  still  retained  in  the  Greek 
and  Roman  litanies  on  special  occasions,  but  is  not  their 
special  accompaniment.  Efforts  towards  its  restoration 
in  the  English  and  American  Episcopal  Church  have 
for  the  past  ten  years  been  in  progress.  Judging  from 
the  prevalent  sentiment  of  the  episcopate  in  both  coun- 


tries, and  the  tone  of  the  last  General  Convention  in  this, 
the  prospects  of  success  are  not  very  favorable.  See 
Procter,  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  246  sq. ;  Palmer, 
Ori(/ines  Liturgiccr,  i,  264  sq.;  Wheatly,  Common  Prayer, 
p.  163  sq.;  Dean  Stanley  in  Good  Words  for  1868  (June) ; 
Co\(ixasm,  Manual  of  Prelacy  and  Ritualism,  p.  392  sq. ; 
Ch ristiun  A ntiq.  p.  66 1 ;  Blunt,  Did. Doct.  and  Hist.  Theol. 
S.V.;  iL&die,  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary,  s.  v.;  Walcott,  »S'a- 
cred  A  rchcEolor/y,  p.  353.     See  Liturgy. 

Literae  Encyclicae,  a  term  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  denote  letters  addressed  by  the  pope 
to  the  whole  Church,  but  primarily  to  the  clergy  at 
large,  as  representatives  of  the  Church.  They  are  to 
be  distinguished  from  apostolical  briefs  and  buUs  as 
never  being  applicable  to  local  or  individual  cases  only. 
They  relate  to  some  general  need  or  tendency  of  a  mor- 
al or  doctrinal  kind  within  the  Church,  or  to  any  sup- 
posed dangers  from  without,  and  contain  the  pope's 
views  on  the  matters  alluded  to,  with  exhortations  to 
co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  clergy  and  the  Church 
at  large  in  the  course  of  conduct  advised.    See  E^'cvc- 

LICA. 

Literse  Formatae,  or  simply  Forjiat.e,  are  the 
epistles  of  bishops  and  churches  to  others  of  like  char- 
acter, and  are  so  called  because  they  are  framed  after  cer- 
tain prescribed  canonical  rules.  There  have  been  need- 
less discussions  over  the  fitness  of  the  expression  for- 
mata,  and  some  would  have  it  to  heformalis  (Suetonius, 
Domitian,  13) ;  others  will  derive  it  hom  forma,  tvttoq, 
seal  (hence  formata,  T(TV!rojfji.kin],  equivalent  to  sigil- 
lata),  etc.  Originally  they  were  termed  KavoviKai,  ca- 
nonicw,  but  afterwards  formatce.  The  adoption  of  a 
particular  form  was  early  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  alteration  of  and  tampering  with  letters,  of  which 
Dionysius,  bishop  of  Corinth  (f  c.  a.  167),  complained, 
according  to  Eusebius  {hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iv,  cap.  23),  as  also 
Cyprian  (Ejnst.  3).  From  the  earliest  times  the  brother- 
ly union  of  the  churches  was  cultivated  by  means  of  a 
regular  correspondence,  of  which  Optatus  of  Mileve  says 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century :  "  Totus  orbis  com- 
mercio  formatarum  in  una  communionis  societate  con- 
cordat." The  holy  Scriptures  themselves,  namely,  the 
epistles  of  the  apostles,  served  as  the  first  models.  Let- 
ters of  introduction  and  recommendation  of  brethren  to 
the  different  churches  were  in  the  infancy  of  the  Church 
the  chief  subject  of  this  correspondence ;  these  were 
called  by  the  apostles  avaraTiKal  iTzmroXai  (2  Cor.  iii, 
1),  lite7-(e  commendaiitice.  They  are  mentioned  by  Ter- 
tullian  {Adcersus  hccreses,  cap.  20),  Gregory  of  Nazian- 
zum  (Oratio,  iii),  and  Sozomen  {Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v,  cap. 
16),  etc.  The  demand  for  such  letters  of  recommenda- 
tion became  so  numerous  that  it  was  necessary  to  frame 
regulations  determining  who  was  and  who  was  not  en- 
titled to  them,  and  in  what  form  they  shoidd  be  writ- 
ten. The  Council  of  Elvira,  a.  305  (?  310),  c.  25,  that 
of  Aries,  a.  314,  c.  9,  etc.,  decided  that  bishops  alone 
should  be  authorized  to  write  them.  Every  traveller, 
whether  laic  or  clerical,  was  to  provide  himself  with 
one.  It  is  said,  cap.  32  (al.  34)  :  "  Nullus  episcopus 
peregrinoruni  aut  presbyteroriim  aut  diaconorum  sine 
commendatitiis  recipiatur  epistolis ;  et  cum  scripta  de - 
tulerint,  discutiantnr  attentius,  et  ita  suscipiantur,  si 
prc-cdicatores  pietatis  extiterint;  sin  minus,  base  qute 
sunt  necessaria  subministrantur  eis,  et  ad  communionem 
nullatenus  admittantur,  quia  per  subreptionem  multa 
proveniunt"  (see  Cone.  Antioch.  a.  341  [?  332],  c.  7,  in  c, 
9,  dist.  Ixxi;  African,  i,  a.  506,  c.  2  [c.  21,  dist.  1],  c. 
5),  The  defence  of  the  right  of  these  members  of  the 
clergy  to  officiate  was  often  withdrawn,  as  by  the  Cone. 
Chalcedon.  a.  451,  c,  13,  in  c,  7,  dist.  Ixxi,  etc.  The 
form  of  the  writings  was  taken  from  the  apostolic  mod- 
els. Atticus,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  stated  in  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  451,  that  there  was  a  formiUa 
established  by  the  Council  of  Nicrea,  325 :  "  Nic;\?»  .... 
constitutum,  ut  epistohc  formatie  banc  calculationis  seu 
supputationis  habeant  rationem,  id  est,  ut  assumantur 
in  supputationem  prima  Grteca  elementa  Patris  et  Filii 


LITPI 


454 


LITHUANIA 


et  Spiritus  Sancti,  hoc  est  tt.  v.  a.  qure  elementa  octo- 
gcnariuin,  et  quadringentesimum,  et  primiim  signiiiicant 
nimierura.     Tetri  quoquc  apostuli  prima  litera,  id  est 

TT :  ejus  quoque,  qui  scribit,  episcopi  prima  litera ; 

cui  scribitur  secuiida  litera ;  accipientis  tertia  litera ; 
civitatis  quoque,  de  qua  scribitur,  quarta :  et  indictioiiis, 
quix'cunque  est  illius  temporis,  Humerus  assumatur.  At- 
quc  ita  his  omnibus  Grajcis  literis  .  .  .  .  iu  mium  ductis, 
unam,  quajcunque  fuerit  collecta,  sumraam  epistola  te- 
neat,  hauc  qui  suscipit  omni  cum  cautela  requirat  ex- 
presse.  Addat  prasterea  separatim  iu  epistola  etiam 
iionagenarium  et  nonum  numerum,  qui  secundum  Grjeca 
elementa  signiticat  ap]i>y  From  these  letters  of  rec- 
ommendation must  be  distinguished  the  ilpipnKai  tiri- 
(TToXai,  UtercE  pacijine,  a  kind  of  letters  of  dismission 
(hence  also  called  cnroXnTiKai),  stating  that  the  giver 
was  privy  to  the  bearer's  intention  of  traveUing  (c.  7,  8, 
Cone.  Antioch.  a.  332,  c.  11 ;  Coiic.  Chalced.  451;  Cone. 
Trnllan.  a.  672,  c.  17,  etc.).  Formatce  also  contamed 
the  communications  of  one  community  to  another,  such 
as  the  information  concerning  the  election  of  bishops, 
etc.  (ypdj^ii^icira  ii'SrpoinariKii,  Euscbius,  Hist.  Ecel.  lib. 
vii,  cap.  30 ;  Evagrius,  Hist.  Keel.  lib.  4,  cap.  iv)  ;  no- 
tices of  festivals,  particularly  Easter,  etc.  (ypiifiiJiaTa 
iopraariKci,  Traaxu^ta,  epistoke  Jestales,  puschales,  etc. ; 
Cone.  A relat.  i,  a.  314,  c.  1 ;  Carthu;j.  v,  a.  401,  c.  7 ;  Bia- 
car.  ii,  a.  572,  c.  7 ;  Gratian.  c.  24-26,  dist.  iii,  "  de  con- 
secr.").  The  publication  of  ordinations  was  also  made 
by  J'u?-matce,  as  circulars,  tyKVK\ia,  tTrtaToXai,  circu- 
hires,tractorice.  See  Du  Fiesne,  Glossa?:  Lat.;  Suicer, 
Thesaur.  ecel.  s.  v.  tipijviKog ;  F.  B.  Ferrarii  Be  antiquo 
epistolarum  ecelesiastiearum  genere  (Meliol.  1613 ;  and 
edit.  G.  Th.  Meier,  Helmstadt,  1678,  4to)  ;  Phil.  Priori! 
De  literis  canonieis  diss,  eum  appendice  de  traetoriis  et 
synodicis  (Paris,  1675) ;  J.  R.  Kiesling,  De  stabili  primi- 
tirce  ecclesire  opie  literarum  conmnmicatoriartim  connitbio 
(Lipsioe,  1745,  4to) ;  Gonzalez  Tellez,  Kommenhir  z.  d. 
Deeretakn  (lib.  ii,  tit.  xxii,  "Z'e  clerieis  p)erefirinis,^''  cap. 
3);  Rheinwald,  A'iVc/(?2c/;e  Archdoloc/ie  (Berlin,  1830). 
— Herzog,  Real-EncyUoj).  s.  v. 

Iiith,  JoHANN  WiLiiELM  ■\'OX,  a  German  theologian, 
was  bom  at  Anspach,  in  Bavaria,  Fel).  4. 1678.  In  1693 
he  entered  the  University  of  Jena,  and  became  in  1694 
A.M.  In  the  following  year  he  went  to  the  University 
of  Altdorf  to  continue  his  studies ;  in  1697  he  studied  at 
the  University  of  Halle,  and  in  1698  he  was  admitted  to 
the  philosophical  faculty  of  that  universit}-.  His  health 
failing,  he  was  obliged  to  leave  for  his  native  city.  In 
1707  he  became  dean  at  Wassertrlidingen.  In  1710  he 
accepted  a  call  to  his  native  city  as  preacher  of  a  foun- 
dation and  counsellor  of  the  Consistory;  in  addition  to 
this,  he  became  in  1714  city  pastor.  He  died  March 
13,  1743.  Yon  Lith  repeatedly  declined  calls  to  far 
higher  dignities  abroad.  His  polemics  against  Cathol- 
icism prove  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  wide  knowledge 
and  great  acuteness ;  and  his  repeatedly  reprinted  ser- 
mons, and  liis  valuable  contributions  to  the  history  of 
the  lieformation,  give  evidence  of  his  success  as  a  great 
preacher  and  historian.  We  mention  Evlduterung  der 
Reformationshistorie  von  1524-28  (Schwabach,  1733, 
8vo;  2d  edit.  ibid.  1739,  8vo): — Disquisitio  de  ndora- 
iione  pcinis  consecrati,  etc.  (Suabaji,  1754,  8vo).  See 
Diiring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Dcutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lithuania,  a  grand-duchy  in  Eastern  Europe, 
which  fiirmerly  constituted  a  y)art  of  the  kingdom  of 
I'olaud,  and  whicli  at  the  partition  of  the  kingdom  was 
partly  united  with  Russia  (the  governments  of  Vilna, 
Grodno,  ]\Iohilev,  Minsk,  and  A'itebsk ),  jiartly  with  Prus- 
sia (the  administrative  district  of  (jombiimen).  Tlie 
area  of  Lithuania  is  about  105,000  square  miles.  In 
the  earliest  historic  times  the  country  of  the  Lithu- 
anians was  subject  to  tlie  neighboring  tribes,  in  partic- 
ular to  the  Russians  of  Polocz.  Asum  independent 
state  it  appears  for  the  first  time  about  1217  under 
Ercziwil,  who  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Polock,  and  con- 
quered Podlesia,  Grodno,  and  Brzesk.    Eberwand,  about 


1220,  began  to  expel  the  Tartars  from  Lithuania,  and 
Ringold,  about  1235,  was  the  first  independent  grand- 
duke.  His  son  Mindore,  who  had  to  cede  Podlesia, 
Samogitia,  and  Courland  to  the  prince  of  Ilalicz  Nov- 
gorod and  to  the  Teutonic  Order,  was  in  1245  baptized 
by  the  archbishop  of  Riga  and  crowned  as  king ;  but  in 
1261  he  apostatized  from  Christianity,  and  in  1263  he 
was  slaiit  by  Svintorog,  the  governor  of  Samogitia,  who 
in  1268  obtained  control  of  the  country.  In  1281  Pod- 
lesia was  reunited  with  Lithuania.  In  1282  Witen  be- 
came ruler  of  Lithuania,  after  murdering  his  predeces- 
sor. His  son  Gedinim  (1315-1328)  conquered  Samo- 
gitia and  a  portion  of  lUissia,  inclusive  of  Kiev,  and 
founded  the  towns  of  Yilna  and  Troki.  The  son  of 
Gedinim,  Olgerd,  wholly  expelled  the  Tartars  from  Po- 
dolia,  and  conquered  the  pruice  Demetrius  of  Russia  at 
Moscow,  in  1333  at  Mosaisk.  His  son  Jagello  was  bap- 
tized on  F'eb.  14,  1386,  at  Cracow,  and  on  this  occasion 
received  the  name  of  Vladislav.  The  maiTiage  of  Ja- 
gello with  the  princess  Hedwig  of  Poland  led  to  the 
union  of  Lithuania  with  Poland,  and  made  the  latter 
countrj'  the  greatest  power  of  Eastern  Europe.  In  1401, 
and  again  in  1413,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  jmnces  of 
Poland  and  Lithuania  should  only  be  elected  with  the 
consent  of  both  nations.  L'nder  Witold,  who  in  1413 
conquered  Smolensk,  Lithuania  was  a  powerful  state, 
which  emliraced,  besides  Lithuania  proper,  the  larger 
portion  of  White  and  Red  Russia,  Samogitia,  and  otlier 
districts.  After  a  brief  separation  from  I'oland  in  the 
15th  century,  Lithuania  and  Poland  were  reunited  in 
1501,  and  after  this  time  the  union  was  not  again  inter- 
rupted. In  1569  even  the  administrative  union  with 
Poland  was  carried  through,  and  the  history  of  Lithu- 
ania fully  coincides  with  that  of  Poland.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  Reformation,  and  the  subsequent  contiicts 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  hierarchy  with  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment, see  Poland  and  Russia.  The  Lithuanians, 
who  still  number  about  1,340,000  inhabitants,  are  di- 
vided into  three  branches:  1,  the  Lithuanians  proper, 
about  717,000,  in  the  Russian  government ;  2,  tlie  Sa- 
mogitians  or  Shamaites,  of  whom  about  308,000  live  in 
the  district  of  Samogitia,  which  in  1795  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Russia,  and  belongs  to  the  government  of 
Vilna,  and  184,000  in  the  former  government  of  Au- 
gustovo  of  Poland;  3,  the  Prussian  Lithuanians,  about 
137,000.  Before  the  partition  of  Poland,  nearly  the 
entire  popidation  of  Lithuania,  which  embraced  Lithu- 
anians, Poles,  and  Little  Russians  or  Ruthenians,  be- 
longed to  the  Catholic  Church :  the  Lithuanians  and 
Poles  to  the  Latin  rite,  and  the  Little  Russians  or  Ru- 
thenians to  the  Greek  rite.  The  united  Greek  bishops 
were  in  1839  prevailed  upon  to  sever  their  connection 
with  the  pope  and  unite  with  the  orthodox  Greek 
Church,  whereu]ion  the  Russian  government  officially 
regarded  the  entire  population  of  their  dioceses  as  being 
part  of  the  Greek  Church.  The  Catholics  now  consti- 
tute a  majority  only  in  the  government  of  Vilna :  they 
have  within  the  boundaries  of  the  ancient  Lithuania 
the  archdiocese  of  Mohilev,  and  the  dioceses  of  Vilna, 
Samogitia,  and  iMinsk.  The  Protestants  belong  mostly 
to  the  Reformed  (Tiurch,  which  is  divided  into  four  dis- 
tricts, each  of  which  has  a  superintendent  and  vice-su- 
perintendent at  its  head.  It  has  about  30  ministers, 
and  aninially  holds  a  synod  which  often  lasts  three  or 
four  weeks,  and  which  has  to  be  attended  by  all  tlie  lay 
members,  aiul  by  those  ministers  in  whose  district  the 
synod  assembles.  Every  district  must  be  represented 
either  by  the  president  or  by  the  vice-president.  The 
meeting  of  the  synod  takes  place  every  year  in  a  dif- 
ferent district  and  parish,  the  clergyman  of  the  latter 
receiving  a  compensation  for  entertaining  the  members 
of  the  synod.  The  synod  rules  the  Reformed  Church 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  ministry  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. It  ]iays  the  salaries  of  the  clergymen,  attends  to 
the  repairs  of  the  churches,  and  has  also  the  care  of  all 
schools  and  poor-houses.  It  has  from  dotations  an  an- 
nual revenue  of  22,000  silver  rubles.     The  Lutheran 


LITTER 


455 


LITTLE  CHRISTIANS 


congregations  of  Lithuania,  which  are  less  numerous, 
belong  to  the  diocese  of  Courland.  The  orthodox  Greek 
Church  has  within  the  limits  of  Lithuania  the  arch- 
bishop of  White  Kussia  and  Lithuania,  the  bishop  of 
Mohilev,  the  bishop  of  A'ilna,  and  the  bishop  of  Vi- 
tebsk. The  dioceses  of  the  two  former  belong  to  the 
eparchies  of  the  second,  those  of  the  two  latter  to  the 
eparchies  of  the  third  and  fourth  class.  The  following 
table  of  the  live  governments  formerly  belonging  to 
Lithuania  exhibits  the  total  population,  the  Jioman 
Catholics,  Protestants,  and  Israelites ;  the  remainder  be- 
long chietly  to  the  orthodox  Greek  Church  : 


Govern- 

Roman 

Per 

Prot-   1  Per 

Israel- 

Per 

ment. 

Catholics. 

Cent. 

estHnts. 

ct. 

ites. 

Cent. 

a  . 

Grodno . 

265,506 

29.7 

7,339 

0.8 

99,473 

11.1 

■  958,852 

Minsk. . . 

1S.5,3S0 

18.5 

1,.360 

0.1 

97,830 

9.8 

l,135,58s 

Mohilev. 

37,on3 

4.0 

525 

. — 

122,662 

13.3 

908,858 

Vlhm  . . . 

568,890 

61.0 

1,879 

0.2 

104,007 

11.6 

973,57-! 

Vitebsk . 
Total . . 

200,381 

26.6 

12,343 

1.6 

70,520 
494,492 

9.1 

838,046 

1,263,161 

27.9  23,446 

0.7 

11.0 

4,814,9ls 

See  Krause,  Lithauen  u.  (lessen  Bewohiier  (Halle,  1834) ; 
Glagau,  Lithauen  unci  Lithauer,  gesummelte  Skizzen  (Til- 
sit, 18G'.>).     (A.  J.  S.) 

Litter  occurs  in  the  Auth.  Vers,  as  a  translation  of 
S^  {tsab,  from  33^,  to  move  slowly),  in  Isa.  Ixvi,  20, 
(Sept.  XafiTTiji'ii),  where  a  sedan  or  palanquin  for  the 
conveyance  of  a  princely  personage,  borne  by  hand  or 
upon  the  shoulders,  or  perhaps  on  the  backs  of  ani- 
mals, is  evidently  referred  to.  The  original  term  oc- 
curs elsewhere  only  in  Numb,  vi,  3,  in  the  phrase  "73" 
2^  (ef/loth'  tsab,  carts  oj' the  lifte?-  kind,  A.  Y.  "covered 
wagons"),  where  it  is  used  of  the  large  and  commodious 
vehicles  employed  for  the  transportation  of  the  mate- 
rials anil  furniture  of  the  tabernacle,  being  drawn  by 
oxen.  The  term  therefore  signifies  properly  a  hand- 
litter,  and  secondarily  a  wain  or  wheel-carriage.  Lit- 
ters or  palanquins  were,  as  we  know,  in  use  among  the 
ancient  Egyptians.     They  were  borne  upon  the  shoul- 


Ancieul  Egyptian  Palaiu|uiii,  coutainiug  a  military  chief, 
borne  by  four  men,  with  an  attendant  carrying  a  para- 
sol behind  him. 

ders  of  men,  and  appear  to  have  been  used  for  carrying 
persons  of  consideration  short  distances  on  visits,  like 
the  sedan  chairs  of  a  former  day  in  England  (see  Wil- 
kinson, .1  iw.  E(j.  i,  73).  In  Cant,  iii,  9,  we  tind  the  wortl 
*|i"'"IQ><,  appirijon'  (perhaps  a  foreign  [Egyptian]  word), 
Sept.  cpoptiov,  Vidg.  ferculum,  which  occurs  nowhere 
else  in  Scripture,  and  is  applied  to  a  vehicle  used  by 
king  Solomon.  In  the  immediate  context  it  is  described 
as  consisting  of  a  framework  of  cedar-wood,  in  which 
were  set  silver  stanchions  supporting  a  gold  raUing, 
with  a  purple-covered  seat,  and  an  embroidered  rug, 
the  last  a  present  from  the  -Jewish  ladies.  This  word  is 
rendered ''  chariot"  in  our  Authorized  Version,  although 
unlike  any  other  word  so  rendered  in  that  version.  It 
literallj'  means  a  moving  couch,  and  is  usually  conceived 
to  denote  a  kind  of  sedan,  litter,  or  rather  palanquin, 
in  which  great  personages  and  women  were  borne  from 
place  to  place.  "  The  name  as  well  as  tlie  object  im- 
mediately suggests  that  it  may  have  been  nearly  the 
same  tbing  as  the  takht-ravan,  the  morhuj  throne  or 
seat  of  the  Persians,     It  consists  of  a  light  frame  fixed 


Modern  Persian  covered  Palanquin. 


on  two  strong  poles,  like  those  of  our  sedan  chair.  This 
frame  is  generally  covered  with  cloth,  and  has  a  door, 
sometimes  of  lattice-work,  at  each  side.  It  is  carried  by 
two  mides,  one  between  the  poles  before,  the  other  be- 
hind. These  conveyances  are  used  by  great  persons 
when  disposed  for  retirement  or  ease  during  a  journey, 
or  when  sick  or  feeble  through  age ;  but  they  are  chietly 
used  by  ladies  of  consideration  in  their  journeys"  (Ivit- 
to).  Some  readers  may  remember  the  "litter  of  red 
cloth,  adorned  with  pearls  and  jewels,"  together  with  ten 
mules  (to  bear  it  by  turns),  which  king  Zahr-Shah  pre- 
pared for  the  journey  of  his  daughter  (Lane's  Arabian 
Nights,  1,  528).  This  was  doubtless  of  the  kind  which 
is  borne  by  four  mules,  two  behind  and  two  before.  In 
Arabia,  or  in  countries  where  Arabian  usages  prevail, 
two  camels  are  usually  employed  to  bear  the  takht- 
ravan,  and  sometimes  two  horses.  When  borne  by 
camels,  the  head  of  the  hindmost  of  the  animals  is  bent 
painfully  down  under  the  vehicle.     This  is  the  most 


Double  Palanquin  of  Modern  Syria, 
comfortable  kind  of  litter,  and  two  light  persons  may 
travel  in  it.     "  The  shibrieyeh  is  another  kind  of  camel- 
litter,  resemblitig  the  Indian  howdah,  h\  which  name 
(or  rather  hodaj)  it  is  sometimes  called.     It  is  com- 


Camel  beaini^  the  Hudaj. 

posed  of  a  small  square  platform  with  a  canopy  or  arched 
covering.  It  accommoilates  but  one  person,  and  is  ]ilaced 
upon  the  back  of  a  camel,  and  rests  upon  two  siptare 
camel-chests,  one  on  each  side  of  the  animal"  (Kitto), 
See  Cakt;  Camel. 

Little  Christians  is  the  name  of  a  new  sect,  com- 


LITTLE  HORN 


456 


LITURGY 


posed  of  members  lately  (1868)  seceded  from  the  Eus- 
so-(;reek;  Churcli  at  Atkarsk,  in  the  province  of  Sar- 
atof,  and  diocese  of  the  bishop  of  Tsaritzin.  The  se- 
ceders  from  the  orthodox  Church,  or  founders  of  this 
new  sect,  were  only  sixteen  persons  in  number.  "  They 
set  up  a  new  religion,  and  began  to  preach  a  gospel  of 
their  own  devising."  They  condemned  saints  and  altar- 
pieces  as  idolatrous,  and  abandoned  the  use  of  bread  and 
wine  in  the  sacrament.  Before  they  founded  the  new 
Church,  which,  they  claim,  Christ  commanded  them  to 
do,  they  were  immersed,  and  also  fasted  and  clianged 


secular  character — those,  for  instance,  which  had  refer- 
ence to  the  supervision  of  theatrical  exhibitions  or  the 
presiding  in  the  public  assemblies.  The  religious  mean- 
ing of  the  word  in  such  case  was  not  necessarily  in- 
volved. In  Isa.  vii,  30  (Sept.),  the  idea  of  religions  ser- 
vice predominates;  in  IJom.  xiii,  6,  that  of  the  secular,  as 
under  God;  and  again,  in  Luke  i,  23,  and  in  Heb.  x,  11, 
it  refers  to  the  priestly  function.  At  a  later  period  we 
find  it  used  by  Eusebius  {Life  of  Constuniine,  iv,  47)  in 
speaking  of  the  work  of  the  Christian  ministry.  By  a 
very  natural  process,  the  word,  which  thus  designated 


their  names.  "  Tliey  have  no  priests,  and  hardly  any .  the  public  function  or  service  performed  by  the  minis- 
form  of  prayer.  They  keep  no  images,  use  no  wafers,  |  trj-,  became  restricted  in  its  meaning  to  the  form  it- 
and  make  no  sacred  "oil.  Instead  of  the  consecrated  i  self— the  form  of  words  in  which  such  ser^-ice  was  ren- 
bread,  they  bake  a  cake,  which  they  afterwards  worship,  I  dered,  and  thus,  certainly  before  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
as  a  special  gift  from  God.  This'cake  is  like  a  penny,  century,  we  find  in  the  Chmch,  in  the  present  sense  of 
bun  in  shape  and  size,  but  in  the  minds  of  these  Liitle\  the  word  liturgies,  forms  for  the  conducting  of  public 


Christians  it  possesses  a  potent  virtue  and  a  mystic 
charm"  (Dixon,  />ee  Russia,  ]).  143,  144).  The  name 
they  bear  they  gave  themselves.  Persecuted  by  the 
goverimient,  they  have  increased  and  are  daily  increas- 
ing in  numbers.     See  Russlv.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Little  Horn.     See  Antichrist;  Daniel. 

Littlejohn,  John,  an  early  Methodist  Episcopal 
minister,  was  born  in  Penrith,  Cumberland  Co.,  Eng., 
Dec.  7,  1756;  emigrated  to  Maryland  about  17G7;  re- 
ceived a  respectable  education;  was  converted  in  1774; 
entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  177G ;  located  on  ac- 
count of  poor  health  in  1778;  removed  to  Kentucky  in 
1818 ;  re-entered  the  Baltimore  Conference  in  1831,  and 
was  the  same  j-ear  transferred  to  the  Kentucky  Confer- 
ence as  a  superannuate,  and  died  May  13, 1836.  He  pos- 
sessed considerable  mental  power  and  much  eloquence. 
His  piety  was  deep  and  fruitful,  and  his  ministrations 
were  weighty  and  very  useful. — 3Iinut€s  of  Conferences, 
ii,  486.     (G.  L.  T.) 

Littleton,  Adam,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine, 
was  bom  Nov.  8, 1627,  at  Hales  Owen,  Shropshire,  and 
was  educated  first  at  Westminster  School,  and  later 
(1647)  at  Christ-church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  ejected 
by  the  Parliamentary  visitors  in  1G48.  He  was  after- 
ward usher,  and  taught  as  second  master  at  Westmin- 
ster School  (1658).  He  became  rector  of  Chelsea  in 
1674,  and  the  same  year  was  made  prebendary  of  West- 
minster, and  received  a  grant  to  succeed  Dr.  Busby  in 
the  mastership  of  that  school.  He  had  for  some  years 
been  the  king's  chaplain,  and  in  1670  received  his  de- 
gree in  divinity,  which  was  conferred  upon  him  with- 
out taking  any  in  arts,  on  account  of  his  extraordinary 
merit.  He  was  for  some  time  subdean  of  Westminster, 
and  in  1687  was  transferred  to  the  church  of  St.  Botolph, 
Aldersgate,  London,  which  he  held  four  years.  He  died 
June  30,  1694.  He  was  an  excellent  philologist  and 
grammarian,  learned  in  the  Oriental  languages  and  Rab- 
binical lore.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  Dictionary, 
long  popular,  but  finally  superseded  by  Ainsworth's.  He 
also  ijublished  many  sermons  and  other  works. — Thomas, 
Bior/r.  Diet.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cijclop.  Bibliog.  s.  v. 

Littleton,  Edward,  LL.D.,  an  English  divine, 


worship  and  the  administration  of  sacraments. 

I.  Jewish  Liturgies. — This  subject  has,  of  course,  its 
connection  with  the  question  of  a  similar  state  of  things 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation.  Were  there  liturgical 
forms  among  the  Jews,  and,  if  so,  to  what  extent?  We 
find  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  certain  set  forms  in 
connection  with  their  sacrifices,  passing,  it  would  seem, 
from  mouth  to  mouth  of  successive  priestly  generations, 
and  a  usual  form  of  prayer  for  the  civil  magistrate 
(DtiUinger's  Heathenism  and  Judaism,  i,  221-225)  ; 
among  the  sacred  books  of  India,  hymns  and  prayers 
to  be  used  on  stated  occasions  (MiiUer's  Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop,  i,  297) ;  and  in  the  Roman  and  in  the 
Mohammedan  worship,  formulaj  of  a  similar  character 
(Lane's  Mod.Egypt.  i,  120  sq.).  How  was  it  in  this  mat- 
ter with  the  Jews?  There  was,  of  course,  a  ritual  of 
form  ,  but  was  there  with  it  also  a  form  of  words  ?  The 
reading  of  the  law,  although  enjoined,  could  hariUy  be 
said  to  meet  this  demand.  There  are,  however,  special 
forms  in  the  Pentateuch  which  are  litiu-gieal  in  the 
stricter  sense  of  that  expression.  Some  of  these  have 
reference  to  possible  contingencies,  and  would  therefore 
be  only  occasional  in  their  employment.  Instances  of 
this  class  may  be  found  in  the  formula  (Deut.  xxi,  19), 
where  complaint  shoidd  be  made  to  the  elders  by  par- 
ents against  a  rebellious  and  incorrigible  son.  Of  sim- 
ilar character  is  the  formula  (Deut.  xxv,  8,  9)  connected 
with  the  refusal  to  take  the  widow  of  a  deceased  broth- 
er or  nearest  kinsman,  and  so  perpetuate  his  name  in 
Israel.  Another,  again,  of  the  same  class,  was  that  ap- 
pointed to  be  used  by  the  elders  and  priests  (Deut.  xxi, 
1-9)  of  any  locality  in  which  the  body  of  a  murdered 
person  should  be  found ;  and  still  another,  and  more  of 
the  nature  of  a  stated  religious  ser^-ice,  was  the  pre- 
scribed declaration  and  mode  of  proceeding  connected 
with  the  going  out  to  battle  (Deut.  xx,  1-8).  These 
were  occasional  and  contingent.  For  some  of  them 
there  might  never  be  the  actual  usage,  as  was  probably 
the  case  with  the  first — that  of  the  complaint  against 
and  the  execution  of  a  rebellious  son.  But  there  were 
others  of  a  more  stated  character,  having  reference  to 
regularly  occurring  seasons  and  ceremonies  when  they 
were  required  to  be  used.  The  priestly  benediction, 
repeated,  it  would  seem,  upon  everj'  special  gathering 


was  born  about  tlie  opening  of  the  last  cent ur_v,  and  was  |  of  the  people  (Numb.  vi.  23-27),  is -an  instance  of  this 
educated  at  Eton  and  King's  College,  Cambridge,  enter-  j  class.     The  form  of  offering  of  the  first-fruits  (Deut. 


the  latter  in  1716.  He  early  turned  his  attention 
to  poetry,  but  he  also  studied  philosophy.  In  1720  Mr. 
Littleton  was  recalled  to  Eton  as  an  assistant  in  the 


xxvi,  1-15)  is  another :  in  this  latter  the  person  making 
the  offering  uses  the  formula,  the  priest  receiving  the 
offering ;  and  still  another  is  the  appointed  formula  of 


school,  and  in  1727  was  elected  a  fellow,  and  presented  ■  commination  by  the  tribes  at  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  the 
to  the  living  of  Maple  Dcrham  in  Oxfordshire.     He    Levites  repeating  the  curse,  the  whole  people  following 


was  aiijxiirUed  June  9, 1730,  chajilain  in  ordinary  to  the 
king,  and  died  in  1734.  He  published  poems  and  sev- 
eral discourses.  He  was  an  admired  preacher  and  ex- 
cellent scholar. — General  Biog.  Diet.  s.  v. 

Liturgy  (Greek  Xiirovpyia),  a  function,  service,  or 
duty  of  a  public  character.  These  public>  services  or 
duties  among  the  Greeks  were  frequently,  if  not  al- 
ways, connected  with  religious  ideas  or  ceremonies  of 
some  kind,  even  when  the  duties  themselves  were  of  a 


with  the  solemn  amen.  Distinct,  moreover,  from  these 
were  certain  transactions,  in  which,  without  any  specified 
form,  the  official  was  required  to  use  certain  words.  The 
confession  by  the  high-priest  of  the  sins  of  the  people 
over  the  head  of  the  scape-goat  is  one  of  these ;  in  any 
such  case,  a  set  form,  passing  from  priestly  father  to  son, 
not  improbably  came  into  use.  The  liturgical  use  of 
the  I'salnis  in  the  Temple  worship  was,  of  course,  a 
matter  of  much  later  arrangement.    The  fiftieth  chapter 


LITURGY 


457 


LITURGY 


of  Ecclesiasticus  describes  an  exceptional  service,  and  is, 
moreover,  too  indefinite  in  its  lan!j;iiage  to  justify  any 
conclusion  as  to  its  liturgical  character.  During  this 
period,  however,  between  the  captivity  and  the  times 
of  the  New  Testament,  there  comes  to  view  another 
ecclesiastical  development  of  Judaism  which  has  its 
connection  with  this  subject — that  of  the  worship  of  the 
synagogue.  This,  which  in  all  probability  originated 
during  the  captivity,  and  in  the  efibrt  to  supply  the 
want  occasioned  by  the  loss  of  the  worship  of  the  Temple, 
would  in  many  respects  be  like  that  Temple  worship  ;  in 
others,  and  from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  it  would  be 
very  different.  The  greatest  of  these  diversities  would 
be  in  the  fact  of  the  necessary  presence  of  the  sacriticial 
and  priestly  element  in  the  service  of  the  Temple,  their 
absence  in  that  of  the  synagogue.  In  the  Temple  the 
Levites  sang  psalms  of  praise  before  the  altar,  and  the 
priests  blessed  the  people.  In  the  synagogue  there 
were  prayers  connected  with  the  reading  of  certain  spe- 
cific passages  of  Scripture,  of  which  are  distinctly  dis- 
cernible two  "  chief  groups,  around  which,  as  time  wore 
on,  an  enormous  mass  of  liturgical  poetry  clustered — 
the  one,  the  Sheina  ('Hear,  Israel,'  etc.),  being  a  collec- 
tion of  the  three  Biblical  pieces  (Deut.  vi,  4-9  ;  xi,  13- 
21 :  Numb,  xv,  37-41),  expressive  of  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  memory  of  his  government  over  Israel,  strung 
together  without  any  extraneous  aildition ;  the  second, 
the  Tcphillah,  or  Prayer,  by  way  of  eminence  (adopted 
in  the  Koran  as  Salavat,  Sur.  ii,  40 ;  comp.  v.  15),  consist- 
ing of  a  certain  number  of  supplications,  with  a  hymnal 
introduction  and  conclusion,  and  followed  by  the  priest- 
ly blessing.  The  single  portions  of  this  prayer  grad- 
ually increased  to  eighteen,  and  the  prayer  itself  re- 
ceived the  najae Shemonah Esveh  (eighteen;  afterwards, 
however,  increased  to  nineteen;  the  additional  one  is 
noiv  twelfth  in  the  prayer,  and  is  against  apostates  [to 
Christianity]  and  heretics  [all  who  refused  the  Talmud], 
including  consequently  the  Karaites).  The  first  addi- 
tion to  the  Shema  formed  the  introductory  thanksgiv- 
ing for  the  renewed  day  (in  accordance  with  the  ordi- 
nance that  every  supplication  must  be  preceded  by  a 
prayer  of  thanks)  called  Juzer  (Creator  of  Light,  etc.),  to 
which  were  joined  the  three  Holies  {Ophan),  and  the  sup- 
plication for  spiritual  enlightening  in  the  divine  law 
(,1  habah).  Between  the  Shema  and  the  Tephillah  was 
ulserted  the  Geulah  (Liberation),  or  praise  for  the  mirac- 
iilous  deliverance  from  Egypt  and  the  constant  watch- 
ings  of  providence.  A  Kuddish  (Sanctitication  or  Ben- 
ediction) and  certain  psalms  seem  to  have  concluded 
the  service  of  that  period.  This  was  the  order  of  the 
Shaharith,  or  morning  prayer,  and  very  similar  to  this 
was  the  Maarih,  or  evening  prayer ;  while  in  the  Min- 
chah,  or  afternoon  prayer,  the  Shema  was  omitted.  On 
new  moons.  Sabbath  and  feast  days,  the  general  order 
was  the  same  as  on  week  days;  but  since  the  festive 
joy  was  to  overrule  all  individual  sorrow  and  supplica- 
tion, the  intermediate  portion  of  the  Tephillah  was 
changed  according  to  the  special  significance  and  the 
memories  of  the  day  of  the  solemnity,  and  additional 
prayers  were  introduced  for  these  extraordinary  occa- 
sions, corresponding  to  the  additional  sacrifice  in  the 
Temple,  and  varymg  according  to  the  special  solemnity 
of  the  day  (^Mussaph,  Neilah,  etc.)"  (Chambers).  Com- 
pare Etheridge,  Introduction  to  llebreto  lAteraturc,  p.  3G7 
S(i. ;  Prideaux,  ii,  160-170.  It  is  likewise  to  be  noted 
that  in  the  Temple  worship  there  were  occasions  and 
o[)portunities  in  which  the  individual  worshipper  might 
confess  the  plague  of  his  own  heart,  make  individual 
supplication,  or  oifer  individual  thanksgiving.  Thus  it 
was  at  the  time  of  the  coming  of  Christ.  The  Jewish 
liturgies  since  then,  under  the  iuHuence  of  Rabbinisra, 
and  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  synagogue,  so  far  as 
p(jssible,  supplies  the  absence  of  the  Temjile,  have  been 
very  much  enlarged,  and  extend  to  numberless  partic- 
ularities. It  may,  in  fact,  be  said  that  the  whole  life 
of  the  modern  Jew  is  regulated  by  Rabbinic  forms,  that 
there  is  a  rubric  for  every  moment  and  movement  of 


social  as  of  individual  existence.  "  The  first  compila- 
tion of  a  liturgy  is  recorded  of  Amram  Gaon  (A.D.  870- 
880) ;  the  first  that  has  survived  is  that  of  Saadja  Gaon 
(d.  A.D.  942).  These  early  collections  of  prayers  gen- 
erally contained  also  compositions  from  the  hand  of  the 
compiler,  and  minor  additions,  such  as  ethical  tracts, 
almanacs,  etc.,  and  were  called  Siddurini  (Orders,  Ritu- 
als), embracing  the  whole  calendar  year,  week-days  and 
new  moons,  fasts  and  festivals.  Later,  the  term  was 
restricted  to  the  week-day  ritual,  that  for  the  festivals 
being  called  Machzor  (Cycle).  Besides  these,  we  find 
the  iielichoth,  or  Penitential  Prayers ;  Kinoth,  or  Elegies ; 
Hoshanuhf,  or  Hosannahs  (for  the  seventh  day  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles) ;  and  Bakashoth,  or  Special  Sup- 
plications, chiefly  for  private  devotion.  The  Karaites 
(q.  v.),  being  harshly  treated  in  these  liturgies,  especial- 
ly by  Saadja,  have  distinct  compilations.  The  first  of 
these  was  made  by  David  ben-Hassan  about  A.D.  9G0 
(compare  Rule,  Karaites,  p.  88, 104  sq.,  118, 135  sq.,  173 
note).  The  public  prayers  were  for  a  long  time  only 
said  by  the  public  reader  (Chasan,  Sheliach  Zibbur),  the 
people  joining  in  silent  responses  and  amens.  These 
readers  by  degrees — chiefly  from  the  10th  century — in- 
troduced occasional  prayers  (I'iutim)  of  their  own,  over 
and  above  those  used  of  yore.  The  materials  -were 
taken  from  the  Halachah  as  well  as  the  Haggadah  (q. 
V.) ;  religious  doctrine,  history,  saga,  angelology,  and 
mysticism,  interspersed  with  Biblical  verses,  are  thus 
found  put  together  like  a  mosaic  of  the  most  original 
and  fantastic,  often  grand  and  brilliant,  and  often  ob- 
scure and  feeble  kind;  and  the  pure  Hebrew  in  manj^ 
cases  made  room  for  a  corrupt  Chaldee.  We  can  only 
point  out  here  the  two  chief  groups  of  religious  poetry 
— viz.  the  Arabic  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  French- 
German  school  on  the  other.  The  most  eminent  repre- 
sentative of  the  Pajtanic  age  (ending  c.  1100)  is  Eleazar 
Biribi  Kalir.  Among  the  most  celebrated  poets  in  his 
manner  are  Meshulam  b.-Kalonymos  of  Lucca,  Solomon 
b.-Jehuda  of  Babylon,  R.  Gerson,  Elia  b.-Menahem  of 
Mans,  Benjamin  b.-Serach,  Jacob  Zom  Elem,  Eliezer 
b.-Samuel,  Kalonymos  b.-Moses,  Solomon  Isaaki.  Of 
exclusively  Spanish  poets  of  this  period,  the  most  bril- 
liant are  Jehuda  Halevi,  Solomon  b.-Gabirol,  Josef  ibn- 
Abitur,  Isaac  ibn-Giat,  Abraham  Abn-Esra,  Moses  ben- 
Nachman,  etc.  When,  however,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  13th  centurj',  secret  doctrine  and  philosophy,  casu- 
istry and  dialectics,  became  the  paramount  study,  the 
cultivation  of  the  Pint  became  neglected,  and  but  few, 
and  for  the  most  part  insignificant,  are  the  writers  of 
liturgical  pieces  from  this  time  downwards"  (Chambers). 
Comp.  Zunz,  Synagor/ale  Poesie  des  Mittelalters,  p.  69  sq. 
These  liturgies,  adopted  by  the  Jews  in  different  coun- 
tries, were  naturally  subject  to  great  variation,  not  only 
in  their  order,  but  also  in  their  contents.  Even  in  our 
day  there  exists  the  greatest  variety  imaginable  in  the 
synagogues  of  even  one  and  the  same  country,  due,  in  a 
measure,  also  to  the  influence  of  the  reformatory  move- 
ments. See  Judaism.  Particidarly  worthy  of  note  are 
the  rituals  of  Germany  (Poland),  of  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal  (Sefardim),  Italy  (Rome),  the  Levant  (Ro- 
magna),  and  even  of  some  special  towns,  like  Avignon, 
Carpentras,  Montpellier.  The  rituals  of  Barbary  (Al- 
giers, Tripoli,  Oran,  IMorocco,  etc.)  are  of  Spanish  origin. 
The  Judieo-Chinese  liturgy,  it  may  be  observed  by  the 
way,  consists  only  of  pieces  from  the  Bible.  Yet,  in 
the  main  body  of  their  principal  prayers,  all  these  lit- 
urgies agree.  As  illustrative  of  these  unessential  di- 
versities, we  give  the  jirayer  of  the  Shemonah  Esreh, 
which  has  been  added  to  the  number  since  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  second  Temple,  but  which  now  stands  as  the 
twelfth,  and  shows  its  manifest  reference  to  the  follow- 
ers of  the  Nazarene :  "  Let  there  be  no  hope  to  those 
who  apostatize  from  tiie  true  religion ;  and  let  heretics, 
how  many  soever  they  be,  all  perish  as  in  a  moment ; 
and  let  the  kingdom  of  pride  be  speedily  rooted  out  and 
broken  in  our  days.  Blessetl  art  thou,  O  Lord  our  God, 
who    destroyest   the   wicked,  and  bringest    down   the 


LITURGY 


458 


LITURGY 


proud"  (Priiloaux).  "  Let  slanderers  have  no  hope,  and 
all  ])r('suniiitiious  apostates  perish  as  in  a  moment;  and 
may  thine  enemies,  and  those  who  hate  thee,  be  sudden- 
ly cut  oil',  and  all  those  who  act  wickedly  be  suddenly 
broken,  consumed,  and  rooted  out;  and  humble  thou 
tlu  in  speedily  in  our  days.  Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord, 
who  destroyest  the  enemies  and  humblest  the  proud" 
(Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews'  Prayer-book).  That  in 
the  German  and  Polish  Jews'  Prayer-book  is  more  brief, 
and  less  pointed  in  its  application  to  apostates,  i.  e.  Jews 
converted  to  Christianity.  There  are  translations  and 
commentaries  on  them  in  most  of  the  modern  languages. 
In  the  orthodox  congregations,  these  forms  of  prayer, 
whether  for  the  worship  of  the  synagogue  or  for  domes- 
tic and  private  use,  are  all  appointed  to  be  said  in  He- 
brew, One  of  the  best  moves  in  this  direction  is  the 
effort  within  the  last  century  to  remedy  this  evil  by 
parallel  translations.  In  this  country  the  service-books 
in  the  synagogues  are  usually  of  this  kind :  either  the 
Hebrew  on  one  page  and  the  English  on  the  other,  or 
both  in  parallel  columns  on  the  same  page, 

II.  Early  Christian  Lititrfjies.  —  1.  Their  Origin.  —  So 
far  as  regards  the  primitive  or  apostolic  age,  the  only 
trace  of  anything  of  that  kind  is  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and 
the  Amen  alluded  to  in  1  Cor.  xiv,  IG ;  this  latter  an  un- 
doubted importation  from  the  synagogue.  As,  more- 
over, \\Q  tiud  the  Master,  with  the  twelve,  singing  a  hymn, 
one  of  the  psalms  probably,  on  the  night  of  the  last  sup- 
per, it  is  not  improbable  that  such  portions  of  Old-Testa- 
ment Scripture,  with  which  the  early  believers  had  been 
already  familiar  in  the  synagogue,  should  have  still  found 
favor  in  the  Church.  Even  in  free  prayer  fragments  and 
sentences  of  old  devotional  forms,  almost  spontaneous 
through  earUer  use  and  sacred  association,  would  natu- 
rally tind  utterance.  This,  however,  would  be  the  ex- 
ception. Christian  prayer,  for  its  own  full  and  peculiar 
utterance,  must  find  its  own  peculiar  modes  of  expres- 
sion; and  it  would  baptize  into  a  new  life  and  meaning 
any  of  those  familiar  expressions,  tl;e  fragments  of  an 
earlier  devotion.  That  men,  however,  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  liturgical  worship  under  the  old  system 
should  gradually  go  into  it  under  the  new,  is  not  at  all 
surprising ;  and  to  this  special  inducements  before  very 
long  were  presented.  The  demand  for  some  form  of  pro- 
fession of  faith,  of  a  definition  of  the  faith,  as  dissensions 
and  heresies  arose,  would  be  one  of  these  occasions.  The 
form  of  prayer  given  by  the  Master,  in  its  present  usage, 
would  become  the  nucleus  of  others.  The  fact,  again, 
that  the  most  solemn  act  of  Christian  communion,  the 
Lord's  Supper,  involved  in  the  distribution  of  the  ele- 
ments a  form  of  action,  and  that  this  action,  in  its  origi- 
nal institution,  had  been  accompanied  by  words,  would 
have  a  like  influence.  That  every  thing  in  this  respect, 
if  not  pureh'  extemporaneous,  was  exceedingly  simple  in 
the  time  of  Justin  Mart}T,  is  very  manifest  from  his  own 
writings.  The  same  remark  is  applical)le  to  the  state- 
ment (if  Pliny  {Kp.  ad  Traj.  in  Ep.  x,  97). 

2.  Primitive  Type. — The  earUest  form  in  which  litur- 
gical arrangement,  to  any  extent,  is  found,  is  that  which 
presents  itself  in  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  order  of  daily  service,  as  given  in  these 
Constitutions :  After  the  morning  psalm  (the  sixty-third 
of  our  enumeration),  prayers  were  offered  for  the  several 
classes  of  catechumens,  of  persons  possessed  by  evil  spir- 
its, and  candidates  for  bajitism,  for  penitents,  and  for  the 
faithful  or  communicants,  fur  the  i)eace  of  the  world,  and 
for  tlie  wIkjIc  state  of  Christ's  Church.  Tliis  was  follow- 
ed by  a  short  bidding  ])rayer  for  {(reservation  in  the  en- 
suing day,  and  by  the  bishop's  commendation  or  thanks- 
giving, and  by  his  imposition  of  hands  or  benediction. 
The  morning  sen'ice  was  much  frequented  by  people 
of  all  sorts.  The  evening  service  was  much  the  same 
with  that  of  the  mornmg,  excML-pt  that  Psahn  cxl  (Psalm 
cxli  of  the  present  enumeration)  introduced  the  ser- 
vice, and  that  a  special  collect  seems  to  have  been  used 
sometimes  at  the  setting  up  of  the  lights.  See  Seiivice. 
This  work,  a  fabrication  by  an  unknown  author,  and  tak- 


ing its  present  form  about  the  close  of  the  third  century^ 
contains  internal  evidence  (see  Schaif,  C'/(U/t/(  IHstoi-y,i, 
441)  that  much  of  its  material  belongs  to  an  earlier  date. 
It  may  be  regarded  as  affording  a  type  of  the  liturgi- 
cal worship  in  use  during  the  latter  part  of  the  ante- 
Nicene  period.  Bunsen  (^Christianity  and  ManMnd,  vol. 
ii)  has  attempted  to  construct,  out  of  fragments  of  this 
and  other  liturgies,  the  probable  form  of  worship  then 
prevailing.  Krabbe,  in  his  prize  essay  on  this  suliject, 
regards  the  eighth  book  as  of  later  date  than  the  oth- 
ers. Kurtz,  agreeing  with  Bunsen,  substantially  finds 
in  this  work  the  earliest  extant  form  of  liturgical  ar- 
rangement, and  the  type  of  those  of  a  later  jioriod. 
While,  therefore,  apocryphal  as  to  its  name  and  claims, 
yet  in  the  character  of  its  material,  in  its  peculiarity  of 
structiu-e,  in  the  estimation  which  it  enjoyed,  and  in  its 
influence  upon  later  forms  of  devotion,  it  is  of  great  his- 
torical significance.  Taking  it  as  it  comes  to  our  day, 
the  eighth  book  contains  an  order  of  prayer,  praise,  read- 
ing, and  sermon,  followed  by  the  dismissal  successivelj'' 
of  the  catechumens,  the  penitents,  and  the  possessed. 
After  this  comes  the  order  of  the  Lord's  Supper  for  the 
faithful,  beginning  with  intercessory  prayer,  this  follow- 
ed by  collects  and  responses,  the  fraternal  kiss,  warnings 
against  unworthy  reception  of  communion,  with  suita- 
ble hymns,  pra3-ers,  and  doxologies.  jNIuch  of  this  ma- 
terial, as  already  hinted,  is  probably  of  a  much  earlier 
date  than  that  of  its  unknown  last  compiler.  The  hymn 
Gloria  in  Excelsis  may  have  been  the  same  of  which 
Justin  and  Pliny  speak,  or  an  enlargement  of  it.  This 
liturgy  is  remarkable,  as  contrasted  with  subsequent  lit- 
urgies, in  that  it  wants  the  Lord's  Prayer.  The  gen- 
eral spirit  and  tone  pervading  all  its  forms  afford  grate- 
ful indication  of  the  interior  Christian  life  of  that  jieriod. 
3.  Class! jication. — This  brings  us  to  the  particular  lit- 
urgies which  found  acceptance  and  usage  in  particular 
communities.  One  remark  in  connection  with  these 
needs  to  be  made.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  litur- 
gical influences  of  the  synagogue  in  shaping  the  wor- 
ship of  the  early  Church,  they  had,  b}'  this  time,  been 
superseded  by  another  of  a  much  more  objectionable 
character,  that  of  the  Temple.  In  other  words,  the  sac- 
erdotal idea  of  the  Christian  mmistrj',  and  the  sacrificial 
idea  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  were  makmg  themselves  felt, 
not  only  in  the  substance,  but  in  the  minutiae  of  form 
which  the  liturgies  were  assuming.  Of  these  liturgies 
there  is  to  be  made  the  general  division  of  Eastern  and 
W^estern, 

(a.)  Liturgies  of  the  Eastern  Churches. — Chronologi- 
cally those  of  the  Oriental  Church  first  demand  exami- 
nation. (1.)  The  earliest,  perhaps,  is  that  of  Jerusalem 
or  Antioch,  ascribed  to  the  apostle  James ;  the  first  word 
in  it,  6  'itpivQ — a  word  never  used  by  apostolic  men  in 
speaking  of  the  Christian  ministrj- — puts  the  seal  of  rep- 
robation upon  every  such  claim.  The  same  may  be  said 
as  to  another  anachronism,  the  word  vpoovaioc  applied 
to  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity.  Putting  aside,  there- 
fore, such  claim,  as  also  the  stranger  notion  that  the 
apostle  in  1  Cor.  ii,  9,  quotes  from  this  liturgj-  rather 
than  that  the  liturgist  quotes  from  him,  we  may  still  rec- 
ognise in  this  early  form  of  Christian  worship  features 
of  peculiar  interest.  It  is  still  used  on  St.  James's  day 
in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  is  the  pat- 
tern of  two  others,  those  of  Basil  and  Chrj-sostom.  I'or- 
tions  of  it  may  have  existed  at  an  earlier  period,  but  in 
its  present  form  it  dates  from  the  last  half  of  the  fourth 
centur}-.  For  the  distinction  between  the  orthodox 
Greek  and  the  Monophysite  Syrian  forms  of  this  litur- 
gy, see  Palmer,  Origines  JAturgicev,  vol.  i.  The  latter, 
the  Monophysite  form,  it  is  to  be  observed,  is  still  in  use, 
and  in  both  are  portions  of  the  material  to  be  fomul  in 
that  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions. 

(2.")  The  second  of  these  liturgies  is  that  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Church,  called  that  of  St.  Mark,  but.  quite  ss 
clearly  as  that  of  St.  James,  betraying  its  later  origin. 
In  this,  as  in  the  other  two,  there  may  be  materials  pre- 
viously existing  ;  but  the  probabilities  indicate  Cyril  of 


LITURGY 


459 


LITURGY 


Alexandria  as  the  author  of  it  in  its  present  shape.  Tlie 
effort  lias  been  made  to  sejiarate  in  it  the  apostolic  from 
the  later  elements,  as  is  also  attempted  by  Neale  with 
that  of  St.  James.  As  the  object  of  this  effort  seems  to  be 
to  prove  the  sacerdotal  character  of  apostolic  Christiani- 
ty, so  all  sacerdotal  elements  become  proof  of  apostolic 
authorship.  The  conclusion  is  as  false  as  the  premise. 
The  special  historical  interest  of  this  liturgy  of  St. 
aiark  is  its  relation  to  those  of  the  Coptic  and  Ethio- 
pic  churches,  of  which  it  forms  the  main  constituent. 
The  remark  of  Palmer  as  to  its  claim  to  inspired  author- 
ship is  well  worthy  of  attention.  '•  In  my  opinion,"  says 
he, "this  appellation  of  St. I\Iark's  liturgy  began  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century, 
after  Basil  had  composed  his  liturgy,  which  was  the  first 
that  bore  the  name  of  any  man.  Other  churches  then 
gave  their  liturgies  the  names  of  their  founders,  and  so 
the  Alexandrians  and  Egyptians  gave  theirs  the  name  of 
jNIark,  while  they  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch  called  theirs 
St.  James's,  and  early  in  the  fifth  century  it  appears  that 
Cyril,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  perfected  and  improved 
tlie  liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  from  whence  this  improved  lit- 
urgy came  to  be  called  by  the  Jlonophysites  St.  Cyril's, 
and  by  the  orthodox  St.  Mark's."  The  peculiarity  of 
tliis  last,  in  Neale's  estimation,  is  the  difference  from 
other  liturgies  in  the  position  of  the  great  intercession 
for  quick  and  dead.  That  such  intercession  found  place 
in  any  of  them  is  evidence  of  their  post-apostolic  origin. 
(3.)  The  third  and  last  of  these  liturgies  is  that  of 
Ci^sarea  or  Byzantium,  composed  probably  by  Basil  of 
C«sarea,  and  held  to  have  been  recast  and  enlarged  by 
Chrysostom ;  but  more  properly,  perhaps,  both  these  are 
to  be  regarded  as  elaborations  of  that  of  St.  James.  Thej', 
moreover,  have  historical  and  moral  significance  in  the 
fact  that,  through  the  Byzantine  Church,  they  have  been 
received  into  that  of  Russia,  and  are  used  in  its  patriarch- 
ates, each  for  special  occasions,  at  the  present  time. 
Such  additions,  of  course,  have  been  made  as  have  been 
rendered  necessary  through  peculiarities  of  Greek  wor- 
ship, and  accumulation  of  ritualistic  minutiai  coming  into 
use  since  these  liturgies  in  their  original  forms  were  in- 
troduced. They  now  contain  expressions  not  to  be  f  lund 
in  the  wTitings  of  Chrysostom  :  e.  g.  the  appellation  of 
Mother  of  God,  given  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  which  was 
not  heard  of  until  after  the  third  General  Council  at 
Ephesus  [A.D.431] — the  bod}'  which  condemned  the 
doctrines  of  Nestorius — held  2-1  years  after  the  death  of 
Chrvsostom. 

From  these  Oriental  liturgies  have  sprung  others,  va- 
riously modified  to  meet  doctrinal  and  other  exigencies. 
The  largest  number  is  from  that  of  Jerusalem,  the  next 
from  that  of  Basil.  The  most  important  is  that  of  the 
Armenians,  Monophysite,  those  of  the  Nestorians,  and 
that  of  Malabar.  For  discussion  as  to  the  special  origin 
of  these  subordinate  forms,  and  the  principles  of  classi- 
fication, see  Falmci's  Oriffines  Liturgka,\o\.  i;  Neale's 
Primitive  Liturgies ;  Riddle,  Christian  Antiquities,  bk.  iv, 
ch.  i,  sec.  6. 

(h.)  Liturgies  of  the  Wesfei-ii  Church.  —  In  the  West 
liturgical  development  went  on  with  less  rapidity.  (1.) 
That  of  the  Roman  Church,  under  the  infiuence  of  the 
sort  of  feeling  alluded  to  above  in  the  quotation  from 
Palmer,  after  it  came  into  use,  received  the  name  of  Pe- 
ter, and  was  traced  to  his  authorship.  In  point  of  fact, 
it  probably  first  assumed  definite  shape  under  Leo  the 
Great  during  the  first  half  of  tlie  fifth  century,  was  add- 
ed to  by  Gelasius  during  the  latter  half  of  the  same 
century,  elaborated  again  by  Gregory  the  Great  not 
very  long  after,  and  through  his  infiuence  secured  its 
reputation  and  position.  "His  Ordo  et  Canon  Misste, 
making  allowance  for  the  unavoidable  changes  taking 
place  in  it  during  the  centuries  mtervening,  was  settled 
under  Pius  V,  liJTO,  as  the  Missale  Komanorum.  It  was 
revised  under  Clement  VII  and  Urban  VIII,  and  forms 
at  the  ]iresent  time  the  liturgical  text  of  Romish  wor- 
ship" (Palmer,  in  Herzog).  The  Liturgy  of  Milan  seems 
to  have  been  very  much  the  same  as  that  of  Rome  prior 


to  the  alterations  of  the  latter  under  Gregory.  These 
differences,  at  the  greatest,  were  not  of  an  essential  char- 
acter. The  question  of  the  independence  of  the  Mi- 
lanese and  the  supremacy  of  the  Romans  was  probably 
the  great  issue  upon  which  these  differences  turned. 
As  nothing  less  than  apostolicity  could  enable  the  lit- 
urgy of  Milan  to  sustain  itself  in  such  a  conflict,  its  ori- 
gin was  traced  to  Barnabas;  and  miracles,  it  was  be- 
lieved, had  been  wrought  for  its  preservation  against 
the  efforts  of  Gregory  and  Hadrian  to  bring  it  to  the 
form  of  that  of  Rome.  The  severest  point  of  this  con- 
flict was  doubtless  when  Charlemagne  abolished  the 
Ambrosian  Chant  throughout  the  West  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  singing-schools  under  Roman  instructors  to 
teach  the  Gregorian.  The  attachment  of  the  people 
and  clergy  of  Milan,  however,  to  their  liturgy  could  not 
be  overcome,  and  it  is  stiU  in  their  possession.  Alex- 
ander VI  established  it  expressly  as  the  "  Ritus  Ambro- 
sianus." 

Of  even  greater  interest  than  the  Roman  liturgy  are 
the  Galilean  and  the  IMozarabic. 

(2.)  The  former  of  these,  the  Gallican,  claims,  and  it 
would  seem  justly,  an  antiquity  greater  than  that  of 
Rome.  The  connection  of  Gaulish  Christianity  with 
that  of  Asia,  whether  through  the  person  of  IreuKus  or 
by  earlier  missionaries,  would  lead  to  a  liturgical  devel- 
opment of  an  independent  character.  It  was  displaced 
by  the  Roman  liturgy  during  the  Carolingian  a?ra,  and 
for  a  long  time  was  almost  lost  sight  of  and  forgotten. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  used  or  appealed  to  in 
the  various  conflicts  of  prerogative  between  the  French 
monarchs  and  the  pope,  and  no  allusion  to  its  existence 
is  made  in  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  PubUc  attention 
was  again  called  to  it  during  the  controversies  of  the 
16th  century.  Interest  both  of  a  literary  and  doctrinal 
character  has  been  exhibited  in  connection  with  this 
liturgy.  But  there  seems  to  be  but  little  probability 
of  its  restoration  to  use.  While  unlike  in  certain  spe- 
cialities, its  differences  from  the  Roman  hturgy  are  not 
essential.  Like  the  others  preceding,  it  has  been  traced 
to  the  hand  of  an  apostle — to  the  Church  at  Lyons, 
through  that  of  Ephesus,  from  the  apostle  John !  The 
apex  upon  which  this  inverted  historical  pjTamid  rests 
is  the  single  fact,  which  has  been  questioned,  that  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced  into  Gaul  by  missionaries  from 
I  the  Church  at  Ephesus. 

(3.)  The  JNIozarabic,  that  of  the  Spanish  churches  un- 
der Arabic  dominion,  has  so  many  resemblances  to  the 
Gallic  liturgy  that  it  would  seem  probable  they  proceed- 
ed from  the  same  source.  It  is  described  by  Isidore  His- 
palensis  in  the  6th  century.  During  the  INIiddle  Ages, 
and  in  the  time  of  the  cardmal  Ximenes,  it  received  an 
addition  of  several  rites.  As  Spanish  territory  was  re- 
conquered from  the  IMoors,  and  came  more  fully  under 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  papacy  in  other  re- 
spects, the  effort  was  made,  and  eventually  succeeded, 
although  at  times  warmly  resisted  by  the  people,  to 
displace  the  jMozarabic,  and  introduce  the  Roman  lit- 
urgJ^  In  the  beginning  of  the  IGth  century  cardi- 
nal Ximenes  endowed  a  college  and  chapel  at  Toledo 
for  the  celebration  of  the  ancient  rites,  and  this  is  now, 
perhaps,  the  only  i)lace  in  Spain  where  the  primitive 
liturgy  of  that  country  and  of  Gaid  is  in  some  degree 
observed.  The  old  P>ritish  liturgy,  which  was  displaced 
by  the  Gregorian  alter  the  decision  of  Oswy  in  664, 
seems,  like  the  Mozarabic,  to  have  been  essentiaUy  the 
same  with  the  Gallican. 

(4.)  One  other  liturgical  composition  of  some  interest, 
dating  from  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  is  that  of  the 
Cathari,  published  by  E.  Kunitz  (Jena,  1852).  It  is  of 
interest  as  giving  a  more  favorable  view  of  the  com- 
munity for  which  it  was  composed  than  had  been  pre- 
viouslv  entertained.  It  is  to  be  remembered  in  connec- 
tion w-ith  all  these  liturgies  of  the  W^est,  as  already  re- 
marked of  those  of  the  East,  that  they  are  the  names 
of  manv  subordinate  offshoots  in  use  and  prevalence  in 
different  portions  of  the  Church.     The  discretionary 


LITURGY 


4G0 


LITURGY 


power  of  the  bishops,  both  at  this  and  at  earlier  periods, 
to  modii'y  and  adapt  prevalent  liturgies  to  peculiar  exi- 
gencies of  time  and  place,  naturalh'  produced  after  a  time 
this  kind  of  diversity.     The  ecclesiastical  confusion  of 


mediteval  times,  and  clerical  ignorance  and  carelessness, 
would  of  course  increase  it.  The  traces,  however,  of  the 
parent  stock  in  any  such  case  would  not  be  difficidt  of 
recotrnition. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  DESCENT  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  LITURGIES  NOW  USED  IN  THE  CHURCH. 

OUR  LORD'S  WORDS  OF  INSTITUTION. 

I 
Apostolic  Nucleus  of  a  Litur^'.     [See  Lord's  Prayer,  and  Lord's  Supper.] 

I 

III  I 

Liturgj'  of  St.  John,  St.  Paul, 
or  Ephesus. 


Present  Liturgy  of      Ambrosian  Liturgy. 
Egypt.  I 


Liturgy  of  Lyons, 


Liturgy  of  St.  Chrysoston 


Present  Liturgy  of  OrienI 
and  Russian  Church. 


[Monophysito 
Liturgies.] 


.  Liturgy  of  Dio-     Sacrnmentary 
e  of  Milan.  of  (jlelasius. 


Sacranientary 
of  St.  Gregory. 

Present  Liturgy  o 
Church  of  Rome. 


Mozarabic, 
or  Spanish 
Liturgy. 


Liturgy  of  =  Liturgy  of 
Britain.      1       Tours, 

Augustine's  revised 
Liturgy  of  Britain. 

Salisbury,  York,  and  other 
Missals  of  English  Church. 

Present  LituTQj/  of  the 
English  cXurch, 


Liturgy  of  Scottish        Liturgy  of 
Church.  American 


4.  Structure  of  Liturgies.  —  The  variations  of  detail 
which  are  found  in  the  parent  liturgies  of  the  Christian 
world  arc  all  ingrafted  on  a  structural  arrangement 
which  they  possess  in  common,  much  as  four  buildings 
might  differ  in  the  style  and  form  of  their  decorations, 
and  yet  agree  in  their  [)lans  and  elevation,  in  the  posi- 
tion of  their  several  chambers,  and  in  the  number  of 
their  principal  columns, 

i.  There  is  invariably  a  division  of  the  liturgy  into 
three  portions — the  office  of  the  Prothesis,  the  l*ro-An- 
aphora,  and  the  Anaphora,  the  latter  being  the  "  Canon" 
of  the  Western  Church,  and  the  ofiice  of  the  Prothesis 
being  a  preparatory  part  of  the  service  corresponding  to 
the  "  Pra^paratio"  of  the  \Yestern  Liturgy,  and  not  used 
at  the  altar  itself.  In  the  Pro-Anaijhora  the  central  feat- 
ures are  two,  viz. :  (1)  the  reading  of  holy  Scripture,  and 


(2)  the  recitation  of  the  Creed.  In  the  Anaphora  they 
are  four,  viz. :  (1)  the  Triumphal  Hymn,  or  Tkisagion  ; 
(2)  the  formula  of  Consecration ;  (3)  the  Lord's  Prayer ; 
and  (4)  the  Communion.  These  four  great  acts  of 
praise,  benediction,  intercession,  and  communion  gather 
around  our  Lord's  words  of  institution  and  his  pattern 
prayer,  which  form,  in  reaUty,  the  integral  germ  of  the 
Christian  liturgies.  They  are  also  associated  with  other 
jjrayers,  intercessions,  and  thanksgivings,  by  which  each 
is  expanded  and  developed,  the  whole  blending  into  a 
comprehensive  service,  by  means  of  which  the  worship 
of  the  Church  ascends  on  the  wings  of  the  eucharistic 
service,  and  her  strength  descends  in  eucharistic  grace. 
The  order  in  which  these  different  portions  of  the  lit- 
ui'gy  are  combined  in  the  four  ancient  parent  forms  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  : 


COMPARATIVE  TABLE,  SHOWING  THE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  FOUR  PARENT  LITURGIES  OF  THE 

CHURCH. 


ST.  JAMES  (Palestine). 

ST.  MARK  (Alexandria). 

ST.  JOHN  (Gallican.Mozakabic, 

AND   EpHESIAN). 

ST.  PETER  (Roman). 

Prefatory  Prayer. 
Inlroit. 

Prefatory  prayer. 
Introit. 

'Prefatory  prayer. 
Introit. 

'Prefatory  praj'er, 
Introit. 

The  little  entrance. 

<s 

The  little  entrance. 

a 

Gloria  in  ezcelsia. 

£ 

Gloria  in  excelsis. 

1 

Trisagion. 

Lections  from  Old  and  New  Ttt- 
tament. 

g- 

Trisagion. 

Epistle  and  Gospel. 

i. 

Epistle  and  Gospel. 

Epistle  and  Gospel, 

G, 

Pniver  after  Gospel. 

Oblation  of  elements. 

; . 

c 

Prayer. 

< 

Exp"ulBion  of  Catechumens. 

< 

•^ 

< 

E.xp"ulsion  of  Catechumens. 

£ 

The  great  entrance. 

£ 

o 

£ 

Tile  great  entrance. 
Nicene  Creed. 

Kiss  of  peace. 
Creed. 

Ph 

Ifieene  Creed. 

Nieene  Creed, 

Kiss  of  peace. 

Prayer  for  all  conditions. 

Sursum  corda. 

Expulsion  of  Catechumens. 

^• 

Oblation  of  elements. 

Prayer  for  Church  militant. 

'Prayer  for  the  Church. 

« 

Sursum  corda. 

Sursum  corda. 

Prayer  for  the  departed. 

1" 

Triumphal  Bf/mn. 

Triumphal  Hymn. 

Triumphal  Ili/mn. 

Triumphal  Hymn. 

Prayer  for  quick  and  dead. 

'Commemoration  of  living  ("Te 

Kiss  of  peace. 

igitur"). 

Commemoration  of  Institution. 

Commemoraiion  of  Institution, 

Commemoration  of  Institution. 

Ilorrf*  ff  Institution, 

Oblation. 

Oblation. 

Elevation  and  fraction  of  host 

Oblation. 

Invocation. 

Invocation. 

into  nine  parts. 

Commemoration  of  dead. 

s 

Prayer  for  quick  and  dead. 

j= 

ITnion  of  consecrated  elements. 
Prayer. 

i 

Invocation. 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 
Elevation, 

J= 

s. 

Lord's  Praver. 

■&• 

^ 

J.ord^ji  Prayer. 

B 

Embolismus. 

Lord's  Prayer. 

c  • 

Lord's  Prayer, 

c 

Embolismus. 

<; 

Prayer  of  intense  adoration. 

<; 

Embolismus. 

Embolismus. 

< 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 
Elevation.                    _    ■ 
Fraction. 

Fraction. 
Confession. 

Union  of  consecrated  elements. 

O 

Comvnmiim. 

Cnmmnmon. 

Communion, 

Communion. 

Thanksgiving. 

Thanksgiving. 

Prayer. 

Thanksgiving. 

Dismissal  with  pax. 

Dismissal  with  blessing. 

Dismissal  by  the  deacons'  dec- 
laration,'' The  mysteries  are 
complete." 

Dismissal  with  blessing. 

ii.  There  is  also,  in  the  second  place,  a  substantial 
agreement  among  all  the  four  great  parent  liturgies  as 
to  the  formula  of  consecration  (see  Coxseckatiox  ;  and 
conip.  IJliuit.  Diet,  of  Doct,  nndjiist,  Tkeol.  \\.  42.5-42*!). 

iii.  Another  point  in  which  the  four  parent  liturgies 
of  the  Church  uniformly  agree  is  in  the  well-defined 
sacerdotal  character  of  their  language.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently illustrated  by  the  preceding  comparative  view. 


iv.  The  intercessory  character  of  the  primitive  litur- 
gies is  also  a  very  conspicuous  feature  common  to  them 
all.  The  holy  Eucharist  is  uniformly  set  forth  and  used 
in  them  as  a  service  offered  up  to  God  for  the  benefit  of 
all  classes  of  Christians,  living  and  departed,  ''  Then," 
says  St,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem, ''  after  the  spiritual  sacri- 
fice is  perfected,  the  bloodless  service  upon  that  altar  of 
propitiation,  we  entreat  God  for  the  common  peace  of 


LITURGY 


461 


LITURGY 


the  Church  ;  for  the  tranquillity  of  the  world  ;  for  kings ; 
for  soldiers  and  allies ;  for  the  sick  ;  fur  the  aihicted ; 
and,  in  a  word,  for  all  who  stand  in  need  of  succor  Ave 
all  supplicate  and  otfer  this  sacrifice.  Then  we  com- 
memorate also  those  who  have  fallen  asleep  before  us, 
first,  patriarchs,  prophets,  apostles,  martyrs,  that  at  their 
prayers  and  intervention  God  would  receive  our  petition. 
Afterward  also  on  behalf  of  the  holy  fathers  and  bishops 
who  have  fallen  asleep  before  us,  and,  in  a  word,  of  all 
who  in  past  years  have  fallen  asleep  among  us,  believing 
that  it  will  "be  a  very  great  advantage  to  the  souls  for 
whom  the  supplication  is  put  up  while  that  holy  and 
most  awful  sacrifice  is  presented"  (Cafec/i.  Lecf,  xxiii,  9, 
10).  St.  Cyril  was  speaking  thus  in  Jerusalem,  where 
the  liturgy  used  was  that  of  St.  James,  and  in  that  lit- 
urgy we  find  a  noble  intercession  exactly  answering  to 
the  description  there  given  (Neale's  Trumlation,  p.  52 ; 
Blunt's  Annot.Book  of  Com.  Prayer,  p.  156).  A  simi- 
lar intercession  is  to  be  found  in  the  other  liturgies,  and 
it  is  evident  that  its  use  was  one  of  the  first  principles 
of  the  Church  of  that  day. 

III.  ]\Iodern  Greek  amlEastern  Lituy-gies. — Three  litur- 
gies are  in  use  in  the  modern  Greek  or  Constantinopolitan 
Church,  viz.,  those  of  Basil  and  of  Chrysostom,  and  the 
liturgy  of  the  Presanctificd.  The  liturgy  bearing  the 
name  of  Basil  is  used  b\'  the  Constantinopolitan  Church 
ten  times  in  the  year,  viz.,  on  the  eve  of  Christmas 
Day ;  on  the  festival  of  St.  Basil ;  on  the  eve  of  the 
'Feast  of  Lights,  or  the  Epiphany ;  on  the  several  Sun- 
days in  Lent,  except  the  Sunday  before  Easter ;  on  the 
festival  of  the  Virgin  Mary ;  and  on  Good  Friday,  and 
the  following  day,  which  is  sometimes  termed  the  great 
Sabbath.  The  liturgy  ascribed  to  Chrysostom  is  read  on 
all  those  days  in  the  year  on  which  the  liturgies  of  Basil 
and  of  the  Presanctitied  are  not  used.  The  liturgy  of 
the  Presanctified  is  an  office  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  during  Lent, 
with  the  elements  which  had  been  consecrated  on  the 
preceding  Sunday.  The  date  of  this  liturgy  is  not 
linown,  some  authors  ascribing  it  to  Gregory  Thauma- 
turgus  in  the  third  century,  while  others  ascribe  it  to 
Germanus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  in  the  eighth 
century.  These  liturgies  are  used  in  all  those  Greek 
churches  which  are  subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinojjle,  and  in  those  countries  which  were  originally 
converted  by  Greeks,  as  in  Eussia,  (ieorgia,  Mingrelia, 
and  by  the  Melchite  patriarchs  of  ^Vlexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Jerusalem  (King's  Rites  of  the  Greek  Church,  p.  131- 
134;  Kichard  et  Giraud's  Biblioth'eque  Sacree,  xv,  222- 
224).  The  Coptic  Jacobites,  or  Christians  in  Egypt, 
make  use  of  the  Liturgy  of  Alexandria,  v.'hich  formerly 
v,as  called  indiflferentlj^  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Mark,  the  re- 
puted founder  of  the  Christian  Clmrch  at  Alexandria,  or 
the  Liturgy  of  St.  Cyril,  who  caused  it  to  be  committed 
to  writing.  The  Egyptians  had  twelve  liturgies,  which 
are  still  preserved  among  the  Abyssinians;  but  the  patri- 
archs commanded  that  the  Egyptian  churches  should 
use  only  three,  viz.,  those  of  Basil,  of  Gregory  the  The- 
ologian, and  of  CjTil.  The  earliest  liturgies  of  the 
Church  of  ^Vlexandria  were  written  in  Greek,  which  was 
tlie  vernacular  language,  until  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies; since  that  time  they  have  been  translated  into 
tlie  Coptic  and  Arabic  languages.  The  Abyssinians  or 
Ethiopians  receive  the  twelve  liturgies  which  were  for- 
merly in  use  among  the  Coptic  Jacobites :  they  are  com- 
monly found  in  the  following  order,  viz.,  l.The  liturgy 
of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  2.  That  of  the  three  hundred 
and  eighteen  fathers  present  at  the  Council  of  Nice.  3. 
That  of  Epiphanius.  4.  That  of  St.  James  of  Sarug  or 
Syrug.  5.  That  of  St.  John  Chrysostom.  6.  That  of 
Jesus  Christ.  7.  That  of  the  Apostles.  8.  That  of  St. 
Cyriac.  9.  That  of  St.  Gregory.  10.  That  of  their  patri- 
arch Uloscurus.  11.  That"of"St.  Basil.  12.  That  of  St. 
Cyril.  The  Armenians  who  were  converted  to  Christi- 
anity by  Gregory,  surnamed  the  Illuminator,  have  only 
one  liturgy,  which  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  Church 
of  Csesarea  ia  Cappadocia,  in  wliich  city  Gregory  re- 


ceived his  instruction.  This  liturgy  is  used  on  every 
occasion,  even  at  funerals.  The  Syrian  Catholics  and 
Jacobites  have  numerous  litm-gies,  bearing  the  names 
of  St.  James,  St.  Peter,  St.  John  the  EvangeUst,  St.  Mark, 
St.  Dionysius,  Ijishop  of  Athens,  St.  Xystus,  bishop  of 
Korae,  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  of  St.  Ignatius,  of  St.  Ju- 
lius, bishop  of  Korae,  of  St.  Eustathius,  of  St.  Chrysostom, 
of  St.Maruthas,  etc.  Of  these,  the  liturgy  of  St.  James 
is  most  highly  esteemed,  and  is  the  standard  to  which 
are  referred  all  the  others,  which  are  chiefly  used  on  the 
festivals  of  the  saints  whose  names  they  bear.  The 
INIaronites,  who  inhabit  ]\Iount  Lebanon,  make  use  of  a 
missal  printed  at  Rome  in  1594  in  the  Chaldeo-Syriac 
language:  it  contains  thirteen  liturgies  under  the  names 
of  St.  Xystus,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St.  John  the  P^vange- 
list,  St."Peter,  St.  Dionysius,  St.  Cyril,  St.  Matthew,  St. 
John  the  Patriarch,  St.  Eustathius,  St.  Maruthas,  St. 
James  the  Apostle,  St.  Mark  the  Evangelist,  and  a  second 
liturgy  of  St.  Peter.  The  Nestorians  have  three  Utur- 
gies — that  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  that  of  Theodoras, 
surnamed  the  Interpreter,  and  a  third  under  the  name 
of  Nestorius.  The  Indian  Christians  of  St. Thomas  are 
said  to  make  use  of  the  Nestorian  liturgies  (Richard  et 
Giraud,  Bibliotheque  Sacree,  xv,  221-227). 

IV.  LAturgies  of  the  Church  of  Rome. — There  are  va- 
rious liturgical  books  in  use  in  the  modern  Church  of 
Rome,  the  greater  part  of  which  are  common  and  gen- 
eral to  all  the  members  in  communion  with  that  Church, 
while  others  are  permitted  to  be  used  only  in  particular 
places  or  by  particular  monastic  orders. 

1.  The  Breviary  (Latin  hreviurium)  is  the  book  con- 
taining the  daily  service  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  It  is 
frequently,  but  erroneously,  confounded  with  Missal  and 
Ritual.  The  Breviary  contains  the  matins,  lauds,  etc., 
with  the  several  variations  to  be  made  therein,  accord- 
ing to  the  several  days,  canonical  hours,  and  the  like. 
It  is  general,  and  may  be  used  in  every  place ;  but  on 
the  model  of  this  have  been  formed  various  others,  spe- 
cially appropriated  to  different  religious  orders,  such  as 
those  of  the  Benedictines,  Carthusians,  Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Jesuits,  and  other  monastic  orders.  The 
difference  between  these  books  and  that  which  is  by 
way  of  eminence  designated  the  Roman  Breviary,  con- 
sists chiefly  in  the  number  and  order  of  the  psalms, 
hymns,  ave-marias,  pater-nosters,  misereres,  etc.,  etc. 
Originally  the  Breviary  contained  only  the  Lord's 
Prayer  and  the  Psalms  which  were  used  in  the  divine 
offices.  To  these  were  subsequently  added  lessons  out 
of  the  Scriptures,  according  to  the  institutes  of  the 
monks,  in  order  to  diversify  the  service  of  the  Church. 
In  the  progress  of  time  the  legendary  lives  of  the  saints, 
replete  with  ill-attested  facts,  were  inserted,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  opinions  and  superstition  of  the  times. 
This  gave  occasion  to  many  revisions  and  reformations 
of  the  Roman  Breviary  by  the  councils,  particularly  of 
Trent  and  Cologne,  and  also  by  several  popes,  as  Greg- 
ory IX,  Nicholas  III,  Pius  V,  Clement  VIII,  and  Urban 
VIII ;  as  likewise  by  some  cardinals,  especially  cardinal 
Quignon,  by  whom  various  extravagances  were  removed, 
and  the  work  was  brought  nearer  to  the  simplicity  of 
the  primitive  oflices.  In  its  present  state  the  Breviary 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  consists  of  the  services  of  matins, 
lauds,  prime,  third,  sixth,  nones,  vespers,  complines,  or 
the  jwst-communion,  that  is  of  seven  hours,  on  account 
of  the  saying  of  David,  Septies  in  die  laudem  dixi — "  Sev- 
en times  a  day  do  I  praise  thee"  (Psa.  cxix,  164).  The 
obligation  of  reading  this  service-book  everj'  day,  which 
at  first  was  imiversal,  was  by  degrees  reduced  to  the 
beneficiary  clergy  alone,  who  are  bound  to  do  it  on  pain 
of  being  guilty  of  mortal  sin,  and  of  refunding  their  rev- 
enues in  proportion  to  their  delinquencies  in  discharg- 
ing this  duty.  The  Roman  Breviary  is  recited  in  the 
Latin  language  throughout  the  Romish  Church,  ex- 
cept among  the  IMaronites  in  Syria,  the  Armenians,  and 
some  other  Oriental  Christians  in  communion  with  that 
Church,  who  rehearse  it  in  their  vernacular  dialects. 

2.  The  Missal,  or  volume   employed  in  celebrating 


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462 


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mass.  According  to  a  tradition  generally  believed  by 
members  of  the  Romish  Church,  this  liturgy  owes  its 
origin  to  St.  Peter.  The  canon  of  the  mass  was  com- 
mitted to  -writing  about  the  middle  of  tlie  fifth  century. 
Various  additions  were  subsequently  made,  especially  by 
Gregory  the  Great,  who  reduced  the  whole  into  better 
order.  This  Missal  is  in  general  use  throughout  the 
Romish  Church.     See  Mass. 

3.  The  Ceremoniale  contains  the  various  offices  peculiar 
to  the  pope.  It  is  divided  into  three  books,  the  first  of 
wliich  treats  of  the  election,  consecration,  benediction, 
and  coronation  of  the  pope,  the  canonization  of  saints, 
creation  of  cardinals,  the  form  and  manner  of  holding  a 
council,  and  the  funeral  ceremonies  on  the  death  of  a 
pope  or  of  a  cardinal,  besides  various  public  ceremonies 
to  be  performed  by  the  pope  as  a  sovereign  prince.  The 
second  book  prescribes  what  divine  offices  are  to  be  cel- 
ebrated by  the  pope,  and  on  what  days;  and  the  third 
discusses  the  reverence  which  is  to  be  shown  to  popes, 
cartlinals,  bishops,  and  other  persons  performing  sacred 
duties;  the  vestments  and  ornaments  of  the  popes  and 
cardinals  when  celebrating  divine  service ;  the  order  in 
which  they  are  severally  to  be  seated  in  the  papal  chapel; 
incensing  the  altar,  etc.  The  compiler  of  this  liturgi- 
cal work  is  not  known. 

4.  The  Pontificale  describes  the  various  functions 
which  are  pecidiar  to  bishops  in  the  Komish  Church, 
such  as  the  conferring  of  ecclesiastical  orders;  the  pro- 
nouncing of  benedictions  on  abbots,  abbesses,  and  nuns; 
the  coronation  of  sovereigns ;  the  form  and  manner  of 
consecrating  churches,  burial-grounds,  and  the  various 
vessels  used  in  divine  service ;  the  public  expulsion  of 
penitents  from  the  Church,  and  reconciling  them ;  the 
mode  of  holding  a  synod ;  suspending,  reconciling,  dis- 
pensing, deposing,  and  degrading  priests,  and  of  restor- 
ing them  again  to  orders;  the  manner  of  excommuni- 
cating and  absolving,  etc.,  etc. 

6.  The  Ritiude  treats  of  all  those  functions  which  are 
to  be  performed  by  simple  priests  or  the  inferior  clergy, 
both  in  the  public  service  of  the  Church,  and  also  in  the 
exercise  trf  their  private  pastoral  duties.  The  Pasfoi-ale 
corresponds  with  the  Pitnale,  and  seems  to  be  only  rai- 
other  name  for  the  same  book. 

V.  Continental  Reformed  or  Protestant  Liturgies. — At 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  there  were,  of  necsssitj', 
great  changes  in  the  matter  of  public  worship.  The 
liturgies  in  use  at  its  commencement  included  the  prev- 
alent doctrinal  system,  especially  as  connected  with  the 
Lord's  Supper;  and  very  soon  changes  were  made  hav- 
ing in  view  the  repudiation  of  Romish  error,  and  the 
adaptation  of  reformed  worship  to  the  restored  system  of 
scriptural  doctrine.  The  old  forms,  moreover,  had  there 
been  no  objection  to  them  doctrinally,  were  liable  to  the 
practical  objection  that  they  were  locked  up  from  popu- 
lar use  in  a  dead  language.  The  Reformation,  to  a  very 
great  degree,  had  opened  the  ears  of  the  people  to  the 
intelligent  hearing  and  recei)tion  of  Christian  doctrine. 
Its  task  now  was  to  open  their  mouths  to  the  intelligent 
utterance  of  supplication  —  in  other  words,  to  provide 
forms  of  worship  in  the  vernacular.  This  was  done 
very  largely  by  selection  and  translation  from  old  forms, 
and,  as  was  necessari-.  by  the  preparation  of  new  ma- 
terial. With  the  English  and  Lutheran  Reformers,  the 
oliject  seems  to  have  been  to  make  as  few  changes  in 
existing  forms  as  ])ossible.  Doubtful  expressions,  which 
admitted  of  a  Protestant  interjiretation,  but  which,  for 
their  own  merits,  would  never  have  been  selected,  were 
thus  retained.  It  is  to  be  said  for  the  Reformers  that 
they  seem  to  have  acted  in  view  of  the  existing  circum- 
stances of  the  communities  b_v  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded, and  from  one  of  tliem,  the  most  eminent  of  all, 
Luther,  we  have  the  liistinct  disavowal  of  all  wish  and 
expectation  that  his  work,  in  this  respect,  should  be  im- 
posed upon  other  churches  or  continued  in  4iis  own  any 
longer  than  it  was  found  for  edification. 

a.  Lutheran  Liturr/ies. — As  first  among  the  Reform- 
ers we  notice  these  liturgical  works  of  Luther.    Differ- 


ent offices  were  prepared  by  him,  as  needed  by  the 
churches  tuider  his  influence,  the  earliest  in  1523,  the 
latest  in  1534.  These  were  afterwards  collected  in  a 
volume,  and  became  a  model  for  others.  In  his  "  Or- 
der of  Service"  provision  is  made  for  daily  worship  in  a 
service  for  morning  and  evening,  and  a  third  might  be 
held  if  desirable.  These  services  consist  of  reading  the 
Scriptures,  preaching  or  expounding,  with  psalms  and 
responsoria,  with  the  addition,  for  Sundays,  of  mass  or 
communion.  lie  dwells  earnestly,  however,  upon  the 
idea,  already  mentioned,  that  these  forms  are  not  to  be 
considered  binding  otherwise  than  in  their  appropriate 
times  and  localities.  These  views  and  this  action  of 
Luther  were  responded  to  by  similar  action  on  the  part 
of  the  churches  which  through  him  had  received  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  These  drew  up  liturgies 
for  themselves,  some  of  them  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Wittemberg,  others  differing  from  it 
widely;  the  differences,  in  one  direction,  being  condi- 
tioned by  the  Zwinglian  or  Calvinistic  element,  in  the 
opposite  by  the  Romish.  These,  in  particular  localities, 
have  been  changed  at  different  times  as  circumstances 
seemed  to  require.  No  one  Lutheran  form  has  ever 
been  accepted  as  obligator^'  upon  all  Lutheran  church- 
es, as  is  the  case  with  the  liturgy  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land in  all  its  dependencies ;  although  it  is  claimed  that 
there  is  essential  unity — an  essential  unity  of  life  and 
spirit  in  all  these  unessential  diversities  as  to  outward 
form  of  particular  states  and  churches.  The  tendency 
of  the  Rationalism  of  the  last  centurj'  was  to  neglect,  to 
depreciate,  and  to  mutilate  the  old  liturgies,  and  then 
to  procure  changes  which  would  substitute  others  in 
their  stead.  From  this,  and  in  connection  with  another 
movement,  has  followed  a  healthful  reaction.  This  re- 
action may  be  seen  in  its  effects  upon  the  two  great 
classes  into  which  Lutheran  Germany  is  now  divided. 
It  has  controlled  to  a  very  great  degree  the  efforts  of 
the  Unionists,  has  given  form  to  the  Union  liturgy,  and 
it  is  leading  those  v/ho  are  opposed  to  this  movement 
to  a  more  careful  study  and  diligent  use  of  the  older 
liturgies.  The  object  of  this  new  liturgy,  that  of  the 
king  of  Prussia,  first  published  in  1822,  revised  once  or 
twice  since  then,  is  to  unite  the  worship  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches  in  the 
Prussian  dominions.  The  excitement  connected  with 
this  movement,  in  the  way  of  attack  and  defence,  has 
given  a  deeper  and  wider  interest  to  all  liturgical  ques- 
tions— an  interest  deeply  felt  by  the  Lutheran  churches 
of  this  country.  Here,  where  the  use  of  such  forms  is 
optional,  the  number  of  congregations  returning  to  such 
use  is  on  the  increase.     See  Lutheraxism. 

In  Sweden,  which,  although  Lutheran,  retains  the 
episcopate,  and  may  seem  to  demand  a  more  special  no- 
tice, there  was  published  in  1811  a  new,  revised  edition 
of  the  Liturgy,  prepared  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
This  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  contains  the  usual 
parts  of  a  Church  service,  with  forms  for  bajitism,  mar- 
riage, etc.  In  Denmark  there  is  also  a  regidarly  con- 
stituted liturgy,  of  Bugcnhagen's,  which,  besides  morn- 
ing and  evening  service  for  Sundays,  contains  three 
services  for  each  of  the  three  great  festivals  of  Christ- 
mas, Easter,  and  Pentecost. 

b.  Moravian  Litur(fy.  —  The  liturgy  of  the  Moravi- 
ans, as  recipients,  through  their  great  leader,  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  is  not  without  its  interest  in  this 
connection.  It  was  first  published  in  1632.  Tli;it  which 
has  been  adopted  by  the  renewed  Moravian  Clnirch  is 
mauily  the  work  of  count  Zinzendorf,  who  com]iilcd  it 
chiefly  from  the  services  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  church- 
es, but  who  also  availed  himself  of  the  valuable  labors 
of  Luther  and  of  the  English  Reformers.  The  L'nited 
Brethren  at  present  make  use  of  a  Church  litany,  intro- 
duced into  the  morning  service  of  every  Sunday ;  a  lit- 
any for  the  morning  of  Easter-day,  containing  a  short 
but  comprehensive  confession  of  faith ;  two  oflSces  for 
the  baptism  of  adults,  and  two  for  the  baptism  of  chil- 
dren: two  litanies  at  burials;  and  oftices  for  confirma- 


LITURGY 


463 


LITURGY 


tion,  the  holy  communion,  and  for  ordmation ;  the  Te 
Deum,  and  doxologies  adapted  to  various  occasions.  All 
these  liturgical  forms  in  use  in  England  are  comprised 
in  the  new  and  revised  edition  of  the  Litutyjy  and  Ifijmns 
for  the  Use  of  (he  Protestant  Church  of  the  United  Bi-eth- 
ren  (London,  18-49).  Other  services  peculiar  to  this 
Church,  which  are  called  "liturgies,"  consist  mainly  of  a 
choral,  with  musical  responsoria  as  a  litany.  This  litany 
is  for  Sundays,  There  is  a  short  prayer  of  betrothal, 
a  baptismal  office,  also  a  form  on  Easter,  used  in  the 
church-yards,  of  expressing  their  confidence  in  regard  to 
tlie  brethren  departed  of  the  year  preceduig.  The  daily 
service,  which  is  in  the  evening,  is  a  simple  prayer- 
meeting.  In  this,  as  in  the  Sunday  service,  the  prayers 
and  exhortations  are  extemporaneous. 

c.  Calrinislic  Liturgies.  —  The  liturgy  of  Calvin, 
which,  like  that  of  Luther,  constitutes  the  type  of  a 
class,  differs  from  this  latter  in  two  imjwrtant  respects — 
the  absence  of  responsive  portions,  and  the  discretion 
conferred  npon  the  officiator  in  the  performance  of  pub- 
lic worship.  This  discretion  seems  to  have  been  limit- 
ed, however,  to  the  use  of  one  form  of  prayer  rather 
than  another,  given  in  the  Directory.  These  prayers 
were  read  by  the  pastor  from  the  pulpit.  The  service 
began  with  a  general  confession,  was  followed  by  a 
psalm,  prayer  again,  sermon,  prayer,  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
and  benediction.  Two  additional  prayers  were  pro- 
vided for  occasions  of  communion,  one  coming  before, 
the  other  after ;  also  a  very  long  one  of  deprecation  in 
times  of  war,  calamity,  etc.  For  the  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  there  is  an  exhortation  as  to  its  in- 
tent— "fencing  the  tables,"  as  it  is  called  in  Scotland. 
This  is  followed  by  the  distribution  of  the  elements, 
with  psalms  and  passages  of  Scripture  appropriate  to 
the  occasion.  The  offices  of  baptism  and  marriage  are 
simple,  but  not  discretionary  as  to  their  form.  In  ac- 
cordance with  what  seems  to  be  the  peculiar  Genevan 
characteristic,  they  are  not  wanting  in  length. 

The  present  liturgy  of  Geneva  is  a  development  of 
that  of  Calvin,  with  certain  modifications.  It  has  no 
responses.  Several  additional  prayers  have  been  added. 
A  distinct  service  for  each  day  in  the  week  is  provided, 
also  for  the  principal  festivals,  and  for  certain  special 
occasions.  So  also  as  to  the  churches  in  sj'mpathy  with 
the  system  of  Calvin.  They  have  liturgies  similar  to 
that  of  Geneva,  although  not  identical.  Such  is  the 
case  with  the  churches  of  Holland  and  Neufchatel,  and 
the  Keformed  churches  of  France.  A  new  edition  of 
the  old  French  Liturgy  of  15G2  was  published  in  1826, 
with  additional  forms  for  special  occasions.  The  liturgy 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland  is  in  some  respects  different. 
It  was  drawn  up  at  Frankfort  by  Knox  and  others,  after 
tlie  model  of  Calvin's,  and  was  first  used  by  Knox  in  a 
congregation  of  English  exiles  at  Geneva.  It  was  af- 
terwards introduced  by  him  into  Scotland;  its  use  en- 
joined in  15G-1,  and  such  usage  was  continued  until  after 
his  death.  An  edition  of  this  liturgy  was  published  in 
1811  by  Dr.  Gumming.  It  differs  from  that  of  Calvin 
in  that  it  more  clearly  leaves  to  the  minister  officiating 
to  decide  whether  he  shall  use  any  form  of  prayer  given 
or  one  of  his  own  compositions  extemporaneously  or 
otherwise.  It  begins  with  the  confession,  as  in  Calvin's, 
and  with  the  same  form.  This  is  followe<l  by  a  psalm, 
by  prayer,  the  sermon,  prayer,  psalm,  and  benediction. 
The  book  contains  various  offices  and  alternate  forms; 
among  other  things,  an  order  of  excommunication,  and 
a  treatise  on  fasting,  with  a  form  of  prayer  for  private 
houses,  and  grace  before  and  after  meals.  The  new 
book  of  Scotland  of  1G4-1  may  be  regarded  as  a  modifi- 
cation of  those  of  Knox  and  Calvin.  In  the  Directory 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly  the  discretionary'  power 
is  greatly  enlarged.  Scriptural  lessons  are  to  be  read 
in  regular  course,  the  quantity  at  the  discretion  of  the 
minister,  with  liberty,  if  he  see  fit,  of  expounding. 
Heads  of  prayer  in  that  before  the  sermon  are  pre- 
scribed, and  rides  for  the  arrangement  of  the  sermon. 
The  Lord's  Prayer  is  recommended  as  the  most  perfect 


form  of  devotion.  Private  and  lay  baptism  are  forbid- 
den. The  arrangement  of  the  Lord's  table  is  to  be  such 
that  communicants  may  sit  about  it,  and  the  dead  are 
to  be  buried  without  prayer  or  religious  ceremony. 

d.  Intermediate  between  these  two  great  families  of 
liturgies,  the  Lutheran  and  Calvinistic,  are  those  of  the 
other  Reformed  churches  on  the  Continent.  It  may 
be  said,  in  general,  that  the  German-speaking  portion 
of  these  churches  approach  and  partake  of  the  Lutheran 
spirit  and  forms,  and  the  Swiss  of  the  Calvinistic,  though 
there  are  individual  exceptions.  In  15'23,  the  same  j-ear 
with  Luther's  work  already  mentioned,  Zwingle  and  Leo 
Judah  published  at  Zurich  offices  for  baptism,  the  Lord's 
Supper,  marriage,  commtin  prayer,  and  burial.  This 
was  followed  by  a  more  complete  work  in  1525,  and  sub- 
sequently by  others.  Similar  works  were  published  at 
Berne,  Schaffhausen,  and  Basle  at  a  later  period.  The 
peculiarity  of  these,  according  to  Ebrard,  quoted  in  Iler- 
zog,  "is  the  liturgical  character  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  they  compare  favorably 
with  the  Calvinistic  liturgies;  also  the  custom  of  an- 
noimcing  the  dead,  and  the  special  prayers  for  the  fes- 
tivals." The  liturgical  issues  which  during  this  cen- 
tury have  agitated  the  Lutheran  Church  have  extended 
to  those  of  the  Keformed,  not,  however,  to  the  same  ex- 
tent, nor  with  results  of  such  decided  character. 

VI.  Litui'gies  in  the  English  Language. — Previous  to 
the  introduction  of  the  Reformation  on  Anglican  ground, 
the  public  service  of  the  English  churches  was,  like 
that  of  other  Western  churches,  performed  in  the  Lat- 
in language.  But,  though  the  language  was  univer- 
sally Latin,  the  liturgy  itself  varied  greatly  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  dioceses  of  Bangor, 
Hereford,  Lincoln,  Sarum,  York,  and  other  churches, 
used  liturgies  which  were  commonly  designated  by  the 
"  Uses,"  and  of  these  the  most  celebrated  were  the 
Breviary  and  Missal,  etc.,  secundum  vsum  Sarum,  com- 
piled by  Osmund,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  about  the  year 
1080,  and  reputed  to  be  executed  -with  such  exact- 
ness according  to  the  rules  of  the  Romish  Church  that 
they  were  also  employed  in  divine  service  in  many 
churches  on  the  Continent.  They  consiste^I  of  prayers 
and  offices,  some  of  which  had  been  transmitted  from 
very  ancient  times,  and  others  were  of  later  origin,  ac- 
commodated to  the  Romish  religion.  Compare  MaskeU, 
The  Ancient  Liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  accord- 
ing to  the  Uses  of  Sarum,  Bangor,  York,  Hereford,  and 
the  Modern  Roman  Liturgy  (London,  1844,  8vo).  Also 
by  the  same,  Monumenta  Ritualia  Ecclesia  A  nglicance ; 
or,  Occasional  Offices  of  the  Church  of  England,  ac- 
cording to  the  Ancient  Use  of  Salisbury ;  the  Prymer  in 
English,  and  other  Prayeis  and  Foi'ms  (Loudon,  1846,3 
vols.  8vo). 

Tlie  first  attempt  in  England  to  introduce  the  ver- 
nacular was  made  in  1536,  when,  in  pursuance  of  Henry 
VIH's  injunctions,  the  Bible,  Pater-noster,  Creed,  and 
Decalogue  were  set  forth  and  placed  in  churches,  to  be 
read  in  English.  In  1545  the  King's  Primer  was  pub- 
lished, containing  a  form  of  morning  and  evening  prayer 
in  English,  besides  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Creed,  and  Ten 
Commandments,  the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  Litany, 
and  other  devotions,  and  in  1547,  on  the  accession  of  Ed- 
ward VI,  archbishop  Cranmer,  bishop  Ridley,  and  elev- 
en other  eminent  divines,  martyrs,  and  confessors,  v.ere 
commissioned  to  draw  up  a  liturgy  in  the  English  lan- 
guage "  free  from  those  unfounded  doctrines  and  super- 
stitious ceremonies  which  had  disgraced  the  Latin  litur- 
gies ;"  and  this  was  ratified  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1548, 
and  published  in  1549.  This  liturgy  is  commonly  known 
and  cited  as  the  First  Prayer-Bouk  of  Edward  VL  In 
the  great  body  of  their  work  Cranmer  and  his  associates 
derived  their  materials  from  the  earlier  services  which 
had  been  in  use  in  England;  "  but  in  the  occasional  of- 
fices they  were  indebted  to  the  labors  of  IMelancthon 
and  Buccr,  and  through  them  to  the  older  liturgy  of  Nu- 
remberg, which  those  reformers  were  instructed  to  fol- 
low" (Dr.Cardwell's  Two  Books  of  Common  Prayer,  set 


LITURGY 


464 


LIVER 


forih  .  .  .  in  the  reirfn  of  Kim/  Echcard  the  Sixth,  com- 
jHirtd,  p.  xiv,  Oxford,  1838).  In  consequence,  however, 
of  exceptions  being  taken  at  some  things  in  this  book, 
wliicli  were  thought  to  savor  too  much  of  superstition, 
it  underwent  another  revision,  and  was  further  altered 
ill  I.").') I,  when  it  was  again  confirmed  by  Parliament. 
This  edition  is  usuallj'  cited  as  the  Second  Prai/er-book 
of  I'.dwttrd  VI.:  it  is  very  nearly  the  same  with  that 
whicli  is  at  present  in  use.  The  two  Liturgies,  A.D. 
1549  and  A.D.  1552,  icith  other  Documents,  set  forth  hy 
Authority  in  the  Reiyn  of  King  Edicard  VI,  were  very 
carefully  edited  for  the  I'arker  Society  by  the  Kev.  Jo- 
seph Ketley,  M.A.,  at  the  Cambridge  University  Press, 
in  1844,  in  octavo.  The  two  acts  of  Parliament  (2  and 
3  Edward  YI,  c.  1,  and  5  and  6  Edward  VI,  c.  1)  which 
had  been  passed  for  establishing  uniformity  of  divine 
ser\ice  were  repealed  in  the  first  year  of  Queen  Mary, 
who  restored  the  Latin  litiu-gies  according  to  the  popish 
forms  of  worship.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  how- 
e^•er,  the  Prayer-book  was  restored,  and  has  been  in  use 
ever  since.  For  the  later  history  of  the  subject,  includ- 
ing liturgical  books  in  England,  Scotland,  and  America, 
see  Common  Prayer. 

Among  the  curiosities  of  the  subject  we  notice  the 
following : 

(«.)  Liturgy  of  the  P?-imitive  Episcopal  Church.  — 
"  The  Hook  of  Common  Prayer,  and  A  dministration  of 
the  Sacraments  and  other  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the 
Church,  according  to  the  Use  of  the  Primitive  Ejiiscopal 
Church,  revived  in  England  in  the  Year  of  our  Redemp- 
tion One  thousand  eight  hundred  and  thirty-one,  together 
icith  the  Psalter  or  Psalms  of  David, ^^  though  bearing 
the  imprint  of  London,  was  printed  at  Liverpool,  but 
was  never  published.  It  was  edited  by  the  Kev.  George 
IMontgomery  AVest,  M.A.,  a  presbyter  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  state  and  diocese  of  Ohio,  in 
North  America.  This  volume  is  of  great  raritj',  not 
more  than  five  or  six  copies  being  found  in  the  libraries 
of  tlie  curious  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  liturgy  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America  is  the  basis  of  this  edition,  excepting  two  or 
three  alterations  in  the  office  for  the  ministration  of 
liaptism,  and  a  few  verbal  alterations  to  fit  it  for  use  in 
England  and  in  Ireland.  "The  Primitive  Episcopal 
Cliurch,  revived  in  England  in  1831,"  had  a  short  exist- 
ence of  little  more  than  twelve  months. 

(h.)  Deistical  Liturgy.  —  In  1752  a  liturgy  was  pub- 
lished in  Liverpool  by  some  of  the  Presbyterians,  as 
Antitrinitarians  are  often  called  in  England,  but  Christ's 
name  is  hardly  mentioned  in  it,  and  the  third  part  of 
the  (iodhead  is  not  at  aU  recognised  in  it.  It  is  known 
als(3  by  the  name  of  "  Liverpool  Liturgy."  In  1776  was 
jiublishcd  ",1  lAturgy  on  the  universal  Principles  of  Re- 
ligion and  Morality:"  it  was  compiled  by  David  Wil- 
liams, with  the  chimerical  design  of  uniting  all  parties 
and  persuasions  in  one  comprehensive  form.  This  lit- 
urgy is  composed  in  imitation  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  with  responses  celebrating  the  divine  perfec- 
tions and  works,  with  thanksgivings,  confessions,  and 
supplications.  The  principal  part  of  three  of  tlic  hj'mns 
for  morning  and  evening  service  is  selected  from  the 
Works  of  j\lilton  and  Thomson,  though  considerable  use 
is  made  of  the  language  of  the  Scriptures  (see  Orton, 
Eetters,  i,  80  sq.;  Bogue  and  Bennett, //jV.  (fthe  Dis- 
senters, iii,  342), 

VII.  Literatu7-e. — Of  bibliographical  treatises  on  the 
literature  of  liturgy  we  may  name  Zaccaria,  Bihliotheca 
Ritualis  (Rome,  177G-8,  4  vols.  4to);  Gueranger,  Institu- 
tidiis  Liturgiques  (Paris,  1840-51);  Kcacher,  Bihliotheca 
Liturgica,  etc.,  p.  699-8()();  Liturgies  and  other  Documents 
of  the  Ante-Nicene  /"en'orf  (Ante-Nicene  Library,  Edinb. 
1872,  8vo).  Special  works  of  note  on  the  subject  of  lit- 
urgy are:  J.  (loar,  Ki');^oX(')yioj',  sive  Rituale  (Jrdcoi-um, 
etc.,  Gr.  and  Lat.  (Par.  1(547  ;  Venice,  1740) ;  „Tos.  Aloys. 
Assemani  (K.  C),  Codex  Liturgicus  ecclesiir  niiinrsa' .... 
in  quo  continentur  libri  rituales,  missalcs.jiiiiitifralis,  of- 
Jicia,  dypticha,  etc.,  ecclesiurum  Occidintis  et  Orientis 


(published  under  the  auspices  of  pope  Boniface  XR^, 
Kome^  1749-0(5,  13  vols.);  Euseb.  Renaudot  (R.  C),  Li- 
turgiarum  Orientalium  colkctio (VsLris,  1716  ;  reprinted  in 
1847,  2  vols.) ;  L.  A.  Muratori  (K.  C),  Liturgia  Romana 
velus  (Venet.  1748,  2  vols.),  contains  the  three  Roman 
sacramentaires  of  Leo,  Gelasius,  and  Gregory  I,  also  the 
Missale  Gothicum,  and  a  leanied  introductory  disserta- 
tion— De  rebus  liturgicis ;  \V.  Palmer  (Anglican),  Ori- 
gines  Liturgical  (Loud.  1832  and  1845,  2  vols.  8vo)  [with 
special  reference  to  the  Anglican  liturgy] ;  Thos.  Brett, 
Collection  of  the  Principal  Liturgies  used  in  the  Christian 
Church  in  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist,  particularly 
the  ancient  (translated  into  English),  ivith  a  Dissertation 
upon  them  (London,  1838) ;  W.  TroUope  (Anglican),  The 
Greek  Liturgy  of  St.  James  (Edinb.  184S)  ;  Daniel  (Lu- 
theran, the  most  learned  German  liturgist).  Codex  Litur- 
gicus ecclesice  unive7-scp.  in  epitomem  redactus  (Lips.  1847 
sq.,  4  vols. ;  vol.  i  contains  the  Roman,  vol.  iv  the  Orient- 
al liturgies) ;  Fr.  J.  Mone  (R.  C),  Lateinische  u.  Griech- 
ische  JMessen  aus  dem  2'"'  bis  6'"'  Jahrhundert  {Yrankf.  a. 
M.  1850),  contains  valuable  treatises  on  the  Gallican,  Af- 
rican, and  Roman  Mass ;  J.M.Neale  (Anglican,  the  most 
learned  English  ritualist  and  liturgist),  Tetralogia  litur- 
gica ;  sice  St.  Chiysostom,  St.  Jacohi,  St.  Muixi  divince 
misscB  :  quibus  accedit  oi-do  Mozairibicus  (Lond.  1849)  ; 
the  same,  The  Liturgies  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James,  St.  Clem- 
ent, St.  Chrysostom,  St.  Basil,  or  according  to  the  U.se  of 
the  Chui-ches  of  Alexandria,  Je?-usalem,  Constantinople 
(Lond.  1859,  folio,  in  the  Greek  original ;  and  the  same 
liturgies  in  an  English  translation,  with  an  introduction 
and  appendices,  also  at  London,  1859) ;  the  same.  Hist,  of 
the  Holy  Eastern  Ch.  (Lond.  1850-72,  5  vols.  8vo;  Gen. 
Introd.  vol.  ii) ;  the  same.  Essays  on  Liturgiology  and  Ch. 
History  (Lond.  1863)  [this  work,  dedicated  to  the  metro- 
poUtan  Philaret  of  Moscow,  is  a  collection  of  various 
learned  treatises  of  the  author  from  the  Christian  Re- 
membrancer, on  the  Roman  and  Gallican  Breviary-,  the 
Church  CoUects,  the  Mozarabic  and  Ambrosian  liturgies, 
liturgical  quotations,  etc.]  ;  Bintcrim,  Denkwiirdigkeiten 
d.  Christ.-Kathol.  Kirche ,  Freeman,  Principles  of  Divine 
Sei-vice  (Oxf.  1855,  8vo,  enlarged  in  1863) ;  IMabillon,  De 
lAturgia  Gallicana,  etc.  (1865) ,  Etheridge,  Syrian  Ch. 
p.  188  sq. ;  Coleman,  Ancient  Christianity  Exemplified,  p. 
284  sq. ;  and  his  Manual  of  Prelacy  and  Ritualism  (Phila. 
1869, 12mo),  p.  275  sq. ;  Riddle,  Chi-istian  Antiquities,  p. 
396  sq.,  602  sq. ;  Siege],  Handb.  d.  Christl.  Kirchl.  A  Iter- 
thianer,  iii,  202  sq. ;  Augusti,  Handb.  d.  Christl.  A  ixliwol. 
i,  191  sq. ;  ii,  537  sq. ;  iii,  704  sq.,  714  sq. ;  Bliuit,  Diet,  of 
Hist,  and  Docir.  Theol.  s.  v.,  and  Eadie,  Eccles.  Diet,  s.  v. ; 
Bimsen,  Christianity  and  Mankind  (Lond.  1854),  vol.  vii, 
which  contains  Reliquia  Liturgicce  (the  Irvingitc  work) ; 
Readings  upon  the  Liturgy  and  other  Divine  Offices  (fthe 
C7»/;-c/i  (London,  1848-54) ;  HijAing, Liturgisches  Urkun- 
denbuch  (Leipz.  1854) ;  Hefele  (C.  Jos.),  Bcitr,  zu  Kirch- 
engesch,  A  rchdol.  u.  Liturgik  (Tub.  1864),  vol.  ii :  Diillin- 
ger.  Heathenism  and  Judaism ;  Schaff,  Ch.  Hist,  ii,  §  lUO ; 
Edinb,  Revietc,  1852  (April) :  The  Round  Table,  1867  (Au- 
gust 10);  Neiu  Englander,  1861  (July),  art.  vi;  Mercers- 
burg  Review,  1871  (January),  art.  v ;  Brit,  and  For,  Miss, 
Rev,  1857  (July).     (C.W.) 

Liutpraiid.     Sec  LuirrRAXD. 

Liver  ("I^S,  kdbed',  so  called  as  being  the  heaviest  of 
the  viscera)  occurs  in  Exod.  xxix,  13, 22 ;  Lev.  iii,  4, 10, 
15;  iv,  9;  vii,  4;  viii,  16,  25;  Lx,  10,  19;  Prov.  vii,  23; 
Lam.  ii,  11 ;  Ezek.  xxi,  21.  In  the  Pentateuch  it  forms 
part  of  the  phrase  translated  in  the  Authorized  A'ersion 
'•  the  caul  that  is  above  the  liver,"  but  which  Gesenius 
{Thesaur,  Heb.  p.  645,  646),  reasoning  from  the  root,  un- 
derstands to  be  the  great  lobe  of  the  liver  itself  rather 
than  the  caul  over  it,  wliich  latter,  he  observes,  is  incon- 
siderable in  size,  and  lias  but  little  fat.  Jahn  thinks  the 
smaller  lobe  to  be  meant.  The  phrase  is  also  rendered 
in  the  Sept.  "  tlie  lobe  or  lower  pendent  of  the  liver,"  the 
chief  object  of  attention  in  the  art  of  hepatoscopy,  or 
divination  by  the  liver,  among  the  ancients.  (Jerome 
gives  "  the  net  of  the  liver,"  "  the  suet,"  and  "  the  fat;" 


LIVERPOOL  LITURGY 


465 


LIVING  CREATURES 


see  Bochart,  llieroz.  i,  498.)  See  Cauu  It  appears 
from  the  same  passages  tliat  it  was  burnt  upon  the  al- 
tar, and  not  eaten  as  sacriticial  food  (Jahn,  Bibl.  A  r- 
chmol.  §  378,  n.  7).  The  liver  was  supposed  by  the  an- 
cient Greeks  and  Romans  to  be  the  seat  of  the  passions 
— pride,  love,  etc.  (see  Anacreon,  Ode  iii,  fin. ;  Theocritus, 
IdijU.  xi,  IG;  Horace,  Carm.  i,  13,  4 ;  25,  15;  iv,  1,  12; 
and  the  Notes  of  the  Delphin  edition.  Comp.  also  Per- 
sius,  Sat.  V,  129 ;  Juvenal,  Sat.  v,  047).  Some  have  ar- 
gued that  the  same  symbol  prevailed  among  the  Jews 
(rendering  "^"ibs,  in  Gen.  xlix,  G, "  my  licer"  instead  of 
"  my  honor,"  Sept.  to.  i'^iraTa  ;  compare  the  Hebrew  of 
Psa.  xvi,  9;  Ivii,  9;  cviii,  2),  but  Gesenius  {llcbr.  Lex. 
s.  v.  1133)  denies  this  signification  in  those  passages. 
Wounds  in  the  liver  were  supposed  to  be  mortal ;  thus 
the  expression  in  Prov.  vii,  23, ''  a  dart  through  his  liv- 
er," and  Lam.  ii,  11,  "my  liver  is  poured  out  upon  the 
earth,"  are  each  of  them  a  periphrasis  for  death  itself, 
^schylus  uses  a  similar  phrase  to  describe  a  mortal 
wound  (-4 gamemnon,  1. 442).     See  Heart. 

The  passage  in  Ezekiel  (xxi,  21)  contains  an  interest- 
ing reference  to  the  most  ancient  of  all  modes  of  divina- 
tion, by  the  inspection  of  the  viscera  of  animals,  and 
even  of  mankind,  sacrificially  slaughtered  for  the  pur- 
pose.    It  is  there  said  that  the  king  of  Babylon,  among 
other  modes  of  divination  referred  to  in  the  same  verse, 
"  looked  upon  the  liver."     The  liver  was  always  con- 
sidered the  most  important  organ  in  the  ancient  art  of 
L'xti<piciujn,  or  divination  by  the  entrails.     Philostra- 
tus  felicitously  describes  it  as  "  the  prophesying  tripod 
of  all  divination"  (Life  of  Apollonius,  viii,  7,  5).     The 
rules  by  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  judged  of  it  are 
amply  detailed  in  Adams's  Roman  Antiquities,  p.  261  sq. 
(Lond.  1834),  and  in  Potter's  Aj-chaeologia  Grceca,  i,  316 
(Lond.  1775).    Vitruvius  suggests  a  plausible  theory  of 
the  first  rise  of  hepatoscopy.     He  says  the  ancients  in- 
spected the  livers  of  those  animals  which  frequented  the 
places  where  they  wished  to  settle,  and  if  they  found 
the  liver,  to  which  they  chiefly  ascribed  the  process  of 
sanguification,  was  injured,  they  concluded  that  the  wa- 
ter and  nourishment  collected  in  such  localities  were 
unwholesome  (i,  4).     But  divination  is  coeval  and  co- 
extensive with  a  belief  in  the  divinity.    Cicero  ascribes 
divination  by  this  and  other  means  to  what  he  calls 
'•  the  heroic  ages,"  by  which  term  we  know  he  means  a 
period  antecedent  to  aU  historical  documents  {De  Ijii-i- 
natione').     Prometheus,  in  the  play  of  that  title  (i,  474 
sq.),  lays  claim  to  having  taught  mankind  the  different 
kinds  of  divination,  and  that  of  extispicy  among  the  rest; 
and  Prometheus,  according  to  Servius  (ad  Virg.  Eel.  vi, 
42),  instructed  the  Assyrians ;  and  we  know  from  sacred 
record  that  Assyria  was  one  of  the  countries  first  peo- 
pled.    It  is  further  important  to  remark  that  the  first 
recorded  instance  of  divination  is  that  of  the  teraphim 
of  Laban,  a  native  of  Padan-Aram,  a  district  bordering 
on  that  country  (1  Sam.  xix,  13, 16),  but  by  which  tera- 
phim both  the  Sept.  and  Josephus  understood  "  the  lii-er 
of  goats"  (.4  h/.  vi,  11,4).     See  Teraphim.     See  gener- 
ally Whiston's  Josephus,  p.  169,  note  (Edinb.  1828) ;  Bo- 
chart, i,  41,  Z>e  Caprarum  Nominihus ;  Encyclopeedia  Me- 
tropolitana,  s.  v.  Divination ;  Rosenmiiller's  Scholia  on 
the  several  passages  referred  to ;  Perizonius,  ad  ^-Elian, 
ii,  31 ;  Peucer,  Be  Preecipins  Divinationum  Generibus, 
etc.  (Wittemberg,  15G0). — Kitto.     See  Divination. 
Liverpool  Liturgy.     See  Liturgy. 
Living  Creatures.    These,  as  presented  in  Ezek. 
i-x,  and  Rev.  iv  sq.,  are  identical  with  the  cherubim. 
Besides  the  general  resemblance  in  form,  position,  and 
service,  we  have,  Ezek.  x,  20 :  "  I  knew  that  they  were 
the  cherubim."     Ezekiel,  being  a  priest,  was  familiar 
With  these  symbolical  forms.     The  living  ones  present 
some  variations  from  the  cherubim,  but  not  greater  than 
appear  in  the  cheruljim  themselves.     The  discussion  of 
their  forms  and  probalile  uses  has  already  been  given, 
and  is  not  here  resumed.    See  CnERfB.    They  are  taken 
up  here  to  give  a  more  careful  attention  to  their  symbol- 
V.— Gg 


iVa?  utility.  The  importance  of  these  symbols  is  mani- 
fest, 1,  in  the  very  minute  description  of  them  ;  2,  in  the 
fact  that  they  do  in  some  way  pervade  the  entire  pe- 
riod of  grace,  from  the  expulsion  of  Adam  till,  in  the 
apocalyptic  vision,  we  arrive  at  the  gates  of  the  city, 
having  a  right  to  the  tree  of  life  in  the  midst  of  the  par- 
adise of  God — such  a  right  as  man  in  innocence  never 
attained.  They  were  placed  first  at  the  front  of  the 
garden  of  Eden ;  renewed  in  the  tabernacle ;  extended 
in  the  Temple ;  resumed  in  the  visions  of  Ezekiel ;  in- 
corporated in  the  book  of  Psalms ;  and  in  the  prospec- 
tive history  of  Revelation  they  are  left  with  us  till  the 
end  of  the  world.  The  seraphim  of  Isaiah  (ch.  vi)  ap- 
pear in  all  respects  to  be  the  same ;  though  differing  in 
name  and  in  position,  they  perform  the  same  service. 
Even  the  idolatrous  images,  the  teraphim,  were  proba- 
bly «n  miwarranted  and  superstitious  imitation  of  the 
figures  at  the  east  of  Eden.  True,  there  are  periods 
when  they  are  under  a  cloud,  e.  g.  from  the  Deluge  till 
the  erecting  of  the  tabernacle ;  still,  we  dare  not  say 
they  were  extinct,  for  before  the  tabernacle  was  built  in 
the  wilderness  we  read  of  another,  called  the  tabernacle 
of  the  congregation  (Exod.  xxxiii,  7-11).  There  is 
much  mystery  about  them,  and  many  mistakes  occur 
among  expositors  in  relation  to  them.  1.  They  are  not 
angels,  nor  do  they  represent  the  peculiar  ministry  of 
angels.  («)  The  Scriptures  know  no  such  orders  as 
angels,  archangels,  cherubim,  and  seraphim ;  the  orders 
of  angelic  nature  are  described  as  thrones,  dominions, 
principalities,  powers  (Col.  i,  16).  (b)  Angelic  power 
woidd  have  been  a  very  ineffectual  agency  for  offsetting 
the  sword  of  flame,  and  was  not  needed  to  wield  that 
sword  w'hicli  turns  on  its  own  axis,  (c)  The  living 
ones  are  distinguished  from  angels  in  Rev.  xv,  7.  (c^) 
They  join  the  elders  in  the  new  song, "  Hast  redeemed 
us  to  God  by  thy  blood,"  etc.  (Rev.  v,  9).  (e)  Angels 
take  but  a  small  part  in  the  direct  administration  of 
grace;  they  rather  point  the  inquirer,  and  furnish  as- 
sistance to  the  administrator  (Acts  x,  3  ;  Rev.  i,  1 ;  1 
Chron.  xxi,  18 ;  Acts  xii,  7).  2.  Nothing  vindictive  or 
judicial  belongs  to  them,  (jt)  There  is  no  need  of  such 
power ;  the  sword  and  the  fire  imbody  the  whole  power 
of  justice,  (b)  We  never  find  them  executing  ^uAgment, 
though  they  concur  in  it  when  executed,  (c)  They 
warn  of  danger  from  divine  justice  (Isa.  vi,  3-5).  (rZ) 
They  call  attention  to  justice  (Rev.  vi,  1,  3,  5,  7).  (<?) 
They  deliver  the  commission  to  those  who  execute  it 
(Ezek.  X,  2,  7;  Rev.  xv,  7).  (_/')  They  join  in  celebra- 
ting the  triumph  over  the  victims  of  judgment  (Rev. 
xix,  4).  Very  different  is  their  function  in  the  admin- 
istration of  grace ;  there  they  make  application  of  the 
remedy  to  the  very  spot  (Isa.  vi,  6,  7),  3.  They  are  not 
devoid  of  human  sympathy,  (ct)  I'hey  have  the  face 
of  a  man.  (b)  They  have  the  hands  of  a  man  under 
their  wings  (Ezek.  i,  8).  (c)  When  the  prophet  was 
alarmed  ("  undone"),  one  of  them  brought  him  instant 
relief— just  such  relief  as  he  felt  in  need  of.  (d)  The 
throne  Avhich  they  bear  has  a  man  above  upon  it  (Ezek. 
i,  26).  (e)  In  Rev.  iv,  6,  we  find  them  in  the  midst  of 
the  same  throne,  and  round  about  it.  (f)  They  asso- 
ciate with  the  elders  in  sympathy  with  the  one  hundred 
and  forty-four  thousand  who  sing  the  new  song  (Rev. 
xiv,  3),  and  with  the  Church  in  celebrating  the  over- 
throw of  her  enemies  (Rev.  xix,  4).  They  thus  abound 
in  the  sympathies  of  a  redeemed  humanity. 

(I.)  In  general  terms  they  represent  mercy,  as  contra- 
distinguished from  justice.  1.  They  are  distinct  from 
the  sword,  as  already  shown.  If,  in  Ezek.  i,  6,  they 
seem  to  be  evolved  out  of  the  fire,  this  is  no  more  than 
we  have  already  in  the  first  promise,  where  the  death  of 
death  is  our  life;  and  in  Psa.  cxxxvi,  10  sq.  2.  They 
were  united  to  the  iXaariipiov,  the  mercy-scat  itself. 
3.  They  belonged  to  the  holy  of  holies,  both  the  larger 
figures  of  olive-tree,  and  the  smaller  of  pure  gold ;  but 
this  chamber  was  a  type  of  heaven  (Heb.  ix.  24).  4. 
Other  cherubic  emblems  were  wrought  on  the  inner  cur- 
tains of  the  tabernacle,  and  inner  walls  of  the  Temple, 


LIVINGSTON 


46G 


LIVINGSTON 


both  Solomon's  and  Ezekiel's  (1  Kings  vi,  29 ;  Ezek.  xli, 
18-20).  All  is  mercy  inside  of  the  Temple.  5.  The  like 
figures  were  made  on  the  washstands  of  the  Temple,  in- 
terspersed with  lions  and  oxen  (1  Kings  vii,  29 ;  "  lions 
and  palm-trees,"  ver.  3() ;  comp.  Eph.  v,  20 ;  Titus  iii,  6). 
0.  The  lirraament  over  their  heads,  with  its  throne  and 
man  upon  it  (Ezek.  i,  20,  27,  combines  Exod.  xxiv,  10 
with  Kev.  i,  15).  7.  The  i7'is  surroimding  all  this  glorj' 
of  the  Lord  puts  on  the  finish  to  that  institution  where 
mercy  rejoices  against  judgment  (Ezek.  i,  28). 

(II.)  They  seem  to  represent  mercy  in  its  dispensa- 
tion, so  to  speak — in  its  instrumentalities,  with  all  their 
hiteresting  and  happy  varieties.  AVhile  the  swoj-d=the 
whole  power  of  justice,  deters  man  from  entering  the 
earthly  paradise ;  drives  men  away  in  their  wickedness ; 
awakes  against  the  Shepherd;  torments  enemies  in  the 
second  death ;  on  the  contrary,  the  living  ones  represent 
the  entire  administration  of  mercy  (Ezek.  i,  12 :  '•  Whith- 
er the  spirit  was  to  go,  they  went ;"  ver.  20  :  "  Thither 
was  their  spirit  to  go").  "Wliether  an  organized  Church, 
an  open  Bible,  an  altar,  or  a  temple ;  whether  patriarchs 
or  prophets,  priests  or  presbyters ;  apostles,  John  the 
Baptist,  or  Christ  himself;  evangelists,  pastors,  or  teach- 
ers ;  whether  angelic  messengers,  or  httle  children,  be 
the  instrumentalities  in  dispensing  the  grace  of  God, 
the  qualities  of  cherubim  are,  and  ought  to  be,  the  char- 
acteristics with  which  they  are  imbued :  the  courage 
and  power  of  the  lion ;  the  patience  and  perseverance 
of  the  ox ;  the  sublimity,  rapidity,  and  penetration  of 
the  eagle  ;  with  the  sympathetic  love  and  prudent  fore- 
cast of  our  own  humanity ;  each  one  full  of  eyes,  within 
and  without  (Eph.  iv,  IG).  In  this  view  they  do,  as  it 
were,  bring  God  near  to  men. 

(III.)  The  cherubim,  in  this  dispensation  of  mercy, 
bring  out  prominently  the  idea  of  the  throne  of  God — 
the  throne  of  grace  (Ezek.  i,  26:  "  Likeness  of  a  throne"). 
In  I'salm  xcix,  1,  "  The  Lord  reigneth"  is  parallel  with 
"inhabiting  the  cherubim."  Both  in  the  tabernacle 
and  Temple  the  Shekinah  was  between  the  two  cher- 
ubim, which  seemed  to  constitute,  with  the  lid  of  the 
ark,  the  verj'  throne  itself,  according  to  Exod.  xxv,  22, 
and  Ezek.  xliii,  7.  In  the  versions  of  Ezekiel,  the  cher- 
ubim seem  to  support  the  throne  ;  in  Isa.  vi,  2,  and  Rev. 
iv,  G-9,  they  appear  as  attendants.  To  the  English 
reader  the  seraphim  might  seem  to  be  above  the  flu-one, 
but  the  original  places  them  above  the  Temple,  in  which 
position  they  ma}'  still  be  below  the  throne,  for  the 
skirts  of  his  robe  tiow  down  and  till  the  holy  house. 

(IV.)  The  idea  of  carrying  tlie  throne,  or  bearing 
royalty  in  his  throne  from  one  place  to  another,  brings 
us  to  the  acme  of  the  whole  cherubic  system — "the 
chariot  of  the  Lord.'''  The  key-note  of  this  is  given  in 
1  Chron.  xxviii,  18:  '-Gold  for  the  pattern  of  the  char- 
iot...  .  the  cherubim  that  spread  out  their  wings  and 
covered  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the  Lord ;"  compare 
Psa.  xviii,  10  :  "  He  rode  upon  a  cherub ;"  and  Hab.  iii, 
8, 13, 15.  These  figures  constituted  a  "  moving  throne." 
Sec  Ci'.KATrRE.     (K.  II.) 

Livingston,  Gilbert  Robert,  D.D.,  a  (Dutch) 
Eeformed  minister,  a  descendant  of  the  celebrated  Ilev. 
John  Livingston  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Stamford,  Conn., 
Oct.  8,  1786,  and  graduated  at  Union  College  in  1805. 
He  studied  theologj'  imder  Kev.  Dr.  Perkins,  of  Great 
Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Rev.  Dr.  John  Henry  Livingston 
(q.  v.).  In  1811  he  l)ecame  i)astor  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church  in  Coxsackic,  N.Y.,  where  about  six  hundred  per- 
sons were  the  fruits  of  his  ministry  of  fifteen  years.  In 
1826  he  removed  to  Philadeliihia  as  pastor  of  the  First 
(Dutch)  Reformed  (or  Crown  Street)  Church.  Here 
again  his  ministry  was  greatly  blessed,  three  hundred 
and  twenty  persons  being  added  to  the  Church,  and 
over  one  hundred  in  a  single  year.  He  died  jNIarch  9, 
1834.  He  was  a  man  of  large, physical  frame,  benevo- 
lent countenance,  and  amiable  temjier.  His  |ireacliing 
was  practical,  and  addressed  more  to  the  understanding 
and  conscience  of  the  people  than  to  their  feelings.  His 
pastoral  labors  were  incessant  and  successful.     At  one 


period  of  his  life  he  embraced  what  were  generally 
known  as  "New  Measures,"  but  he  lived  to  abandon 
them  in  his  later  ministry.  A  single  sermon  and  a 
tract  are  all  that  he  is  known  to  have  published. — 
Sprague,  Annals;  Corwin's  Manual  Eef.  Chttrch ;  Fu- 
neral Sermon  bv  C.  C.  Cuvler,  D.D. ;  Historical  Dis- 
course by  W.  J.  R.  Taylor,  D.D.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Livingston,  Henry  Gilbert,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  born  at  Coxsackie,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  3, 1821,  graduated 
at  Williams  College  in  1840,  was  principal  of  Clinton 
Academy  (now  Hamilton  College)  for  two  j'ears,  studied 
theology  in  Union  Theological  Seminar}',  N.  Y.,  where 
he  graduated  in  1844,  and  was  licensed  to  preach  by  the 
Presbytery  of  Long  Island  in  the  following  autumn.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church  of  Carmel,  N. 
Y.,  in  1844,  but  removed  in  1849  as  pastor  of  the  Tliird 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  Philadelphia.  Resigning 
in  1854  on  account  of  feeble  health,  he  returned  to  Car- 
mel, and  became  principal  of  the  Raymond  Institute, 
and  also  supplied  the  vacant  church  of  which  he  was 
formerly  pastor.  He  died  suddenly,  Jan.  25, 1855.  "  No 
doubts,  no  fears,  no  darkness"  beclouded  his  dying 
hours.  IMr.  Livingston  was  a  man  of  noble  mould,  tall, 
massive,  intellectual,  modest,  amiable,  dignified  in  man- 
ners, somewhat  reserved,  diffident,  and  self-distrustful. 
His  character  was  finely  balanced.  True  manliness, 
transparent  simplicity,  moral  purity,  generosity,  and  the 
most  delicate  sensibility,  were  blended  with  deep  jiiety 
and  beautifid  consistency  of  life,  with  a  holy  ministry 
and  a  full  use  of  all  his  talents.  Only  two  of  his  dis- 
courses \vere  published.  See  Memorial  Sermon  by  W. 
J.  R.  Tavlor,  D.D.,  and  Sprague's  Annals,  vol.  ix.  (W, 
J.  R.  T.) 

Livingston,  John,  a  noted  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  in  1003,  and  was  educated  at  Glasgow, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  A.M.  in  1021.  He  entered 
the  ministry,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  as  an  able 
preacher.  A  zealous  Covenanter,  he  opposed  the  ejiis- 
copal  government  of  the  Church  after  the  Restoration, 
and  on  this  account  suftered  many  inconveniences. 
Very  remarkable  in  his  life  was  the  result  wliich  fol- 
lowed his  preaching  on  a  special  fast-day  appointed  by 
the  "Kirk  of  Shotts,"  June  21, 1630.  He  was  at  this 
time  domestic  chaplain  to  the  countess  of  Wigton. 
Later  he  became  minister  at  Ancram.  He  was  twice 
suspended  from  his  pastoral  office,  but,  his  opposition  to 
the  government  continuing,  he  was  banished  the  king- 
dom in  1603.  He  retired  to  Holland,  and  became  min- 
ister of  a  Scottish  church  at  Rotterdam.  There  he  died 
in  1672.  He  -wrote  his  Autobioi/raphi/  (Glasgow,  1754, 
12mo) ;  also  Lives  of  eminent  Scottish  Divines  (1754, 
8vo).  See  Chambers,  Biog.  Diet,  of  eminent  Scotsmen,  s. 
v.;  A.  Gunn,  Memoirs  oj'  John  Livingsion  (N.  Y.  1829)  ; 
Gorton,  Biog.  Diet.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Livingston,  John  Henry,   D.D.,  S.T.P.,  the 

"father  of  the  Refornud  Dutch  (.'hiuTh  in  this  coun- 
try," and  ill  many  respects  its  most  celebrated  re]ircsciit- 
ativc,  was  born  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  May  30,  1746, 
son  of  Henry  Livingston,  and  a  Uneal  descendant  in  the 
fourth  generation  from  the  Rev.  John  Livingston,  of 
Scotland.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1762,  and 
then  studied  law  for  two  years,  when  his  healtli  gave 
way  under  his  close  application,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
discontinue  it.  About  this  time  he  was  converted,  and 
then  directed  his  attention  to  the  Christian  nunistry. 
By  advice  of  Dr.  Laidhe,  of  New  York,  he  went  to  Eu- 
rope to  complete  his  theological  studies  at  the  L'nivcrsi- 
ty  of  Utrecht,  in  Holland,  where  he  remained  four  years, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  tlie  CJospel  by  the  Classis  of 
Amsterdam.  Having  received  a  call  to  become  pastor 
and  second  preacher  in  English  of  the  Churcli  of  New 
York,  he  passed  examination  at  the  university  fur  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  divinity,  returned  to  New  York  Sept. 
3,  1770,  and  at  once  began  his  labors  as  pasttjr  of  the 
Church.  Here  he  soon  established  his  great  reputation 
as  a  pulpit  orator  and  as  a  learned  theologian ;  but  his 


LIVONIA 


467 


LIVONIA 


gjrand  ecclesiastical  achievement  was  the  settlement  of 
the  old  and  bitter  controversy  between  the  "Coetus"  and 
"  Conferentie''  parties  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church, 
and  the  consummation  in  about  two  years  of  the  union, 
which  has  never  since  been  broken.  His  pastoral  rela- 
tion to  the  Church  in  New  York  continued  forty  years — 
1770  to  1810 — although  during  the  Revolutionary  War 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  city,  and  upon  his  return 
in  1783  he  found  himself  the  sole  pastor,  and  so  re- 
mained for  three  years.  The  next  year  he  was  appoint- 
ed professor  of  theology,  and  retained  this  office,  with 
his  pastorate,  until  1810,  when  he  removed  to  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  at  the  request  of  the  spiod,  and  open- 
ed the  theological  seminary  in  that  city,  occupying,  in 
connection  with  it,  the  presidency  of  Queens,  now  Rut- 
gers College.  These  two  offices  he  held  until  his  death 
in  1825.  It  is  difficult,  in  this  brief  notice,  even  to  sum 
up  the  services  and  character  of  this  eminent  man. 
More  than  four  hundred  souls  were  received  into  the 
Church  on  profession  of  their  faith  during  the  three 
years  of  his  sole  pastorate  after  the  war.  Nearly  two 
luuidred  young  men  were  trained  by  him  for  the  min- 
istry of  the  Church.  To  him,  more  than  to  any  other 
man,  is  due  the  credit  of  the  separate  organization  of 
the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  this  country.  He 
principally  shaped  its  Constitution ;  he  prepared  its  first 
psalm  and  h3-mn  book.  His  theological  lectures  still 
form  the  basis  of  didactic  and  polemic  instruction  in  th^ 
theological  seminary  of  which  he  was  the  founder  and 
father.  The  whole  denomination  is  reaping  to-day  the 
fruits  of  the  sacrifices  which  lie  made  for  it.  His  influ- 
ence in  the  Church  was  like  that  of  Washington  in  the 
nation.  His  grand  and  eloquent  sermon,  preached  be- 
fore the  New  York  Missionary  Society  in  1804,  from 
Rev.  xi\-,  6,  7,  was  one  of  the  leading  influences  in  that 
revival  of  the  missionary  spirit  which  gave  Samuel  J. 
]\lills  and  his  j'oung  friends  to  the  work,  and  which  re- 
sulted in  the  subsequent  organization  of  the  "American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions''  in  1813. 
Several  of  Dr.  Livingston's  occasional  productions  were 
published  by  himself,  and  a  posthumous  volume,  con- 
taining a  syllabus  of  his  theological  lectures,  was  issued 
by  the  Rev.  Jesse  Fonda,  one  of  his  pupils.  His  death, 
at  his  residence  in  New  Brunswick,  January  19,  18-25, 
was  like  a  translation,  without  pain  or  complaint,  "  in 
a  moment,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye."  His  wife, 
Sarah  Livingston,  whom  he  married  in  October,  1775, 
■was  the  daughter  of  Philip  Livingston,  one  of  the  sign- 
ers of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Like  him.  Dr. 
Livingston  was  an  ardent  and  fearless  patriot,  and  dur- 
ing all  of  the  Revolutionary  struggle  he  earnestly  sus- 
tained the  cause  of  freedom.  In  person  Dr.  Livingston 
was  tall,  commanding,  dignified,  and  imposing.  His 
features  were  regular  and  handsome.  His  manners 
were  refined  and  studiously  polite.  He  was  the  model 
of  the  Christian  gentleman.  In  his  later  years  his  ap- 
pearance was  truly  patriarchal.  His  piety  was  all-per- 
vading. As  a  preacher,  he  possessed  eminent  abilities. 
Ills  oratory  was  pecidiar  to  himself,  and  very  effective. 
It  was  fiUl  of  action,  variety,  and  power.  As  a  theo- 
logical teacher,  he  was  clear,  concise,  learned,  syste- 
matic, and  practical.  His  influence  over  his  students 
was  wonderful.  His  great  aim  was  to  make  them  ex- 
perimental ministers  of  Christ,  and  they  loved  and  rev- 
erenced him  almost  as  an  apostle.  Whatever  faults  he 
had  were  more  than  covered,  to  the  eyes  of  his  friends, 
by  his  majestic  bearing,  his  admirable  character,  his  pi- 
ous hfe,  and  fruitful  ministry,  and  by  his  services  to  the 
Church  of  Christ.  See  Dr.  (iunn's" /.j/c,  etc.,  abridged 
by  Dr.  T.  W.  Chambers ;  also  Sprague,  A  wiak,  vol.  ix,  an 
admirable  portraiture;  also  several  funeral  discourses, 
etc.     (W.  J.  R.  T.) 

Livonia,  the  largest  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Russia  ;  area,  17,801  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1871,  980,784.  The 
Oermans,  who  chiefly  live  in  the  towns,  number  about 
64,000  inhabitants;  the  remainder  are  mostly  cither 
Letts  (a  branch  of  the  Slavi,  kindred  to  the  Lithuanians) 


or  Esthonians,  who  are  of  Finnish  descent.  Christian- 
ity was  first  introduced  at  Riga  about  1180  by  merchants 
from  Bremen.  The  great  missionary  was  the  Augus- 
tinian  monk  Meinhard,  who  in  118G  established  the  first 
church  at  WexkUll,  on  the  Duna,  and  in  1191  was  con- 
secrated bishop  of  Livonia.  His  successor,  abbot  Ber- 
thold,  of  Loccum,  endeavored  to  accelerate  the  conver- 
sion of  the  Livonians  by  force  of  arms,  and  in  1198  fell 
in  a  victorious  battle  of  the  Crusaders.  Bishop  Albert, 
of  Apeldern,  in  1202  founded  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of 
the  Sword,  and  gradualh'  overcame  the  persistent  oppo- 
sition of  the  Livonians  to  the  enforcement  of  Christian- 
ity. After  his  death  (in  1229)  the  see  of  Riga  was  sep- 
arated from  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Bremen,  and 
in  1246  made  an  independent  archbishopric.  The  union 
of  the  Order  of  the  Sword  with  the  Teutonic  Knight  se- 
cured the  subjection  and  Christianization  of  Livonia, 
but  involved  the  bishops  in  long-protracted  conflicts 
with  the  order,  which  hastened  the  decay  of  the  Church. 
The  army-master,  Walter  of  Plcttenberg  (1494-1531), 
adopted  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  and  converted 
Livonia  into  a  secular  duchy  imder  Polish  sovereignty. 
The  centre  of  the  reformatory  movement  was  in  Riga, 
where  the  Hussite  Nicolaus  Russ,  of  Rostock,  had,  from 
1511  to  1516,  prepared  the  way  for  a  religious  reforma- 
tion. Among  the  first  promoters  of  the  Lutheran  Ref- 
ormation were  Andreas  Knopken,  a  Lutheran  school- 
teacher from  Treptow,  in  Pomerania,  who  arrived  in 
Riga  in  1521,  and  Sylvester  Tagetmeier,  from  Hamburg, 
who  arrived  in  the  following  year.  Both  were  appoint- 
ed preachers  by  the  town  council,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  the  archbishop.  In  Wolmar  and  Dorpat, 
Melchior  Hoffmann  labored  so  violently  in  behalf  of  the 
Reformation  that  he  created  dissatisfaction  even  among 
the  friends  of  the  movement,  and  had  to  leave  Livonia. 
Luther's  epistle  of  congratulation  and  exhortation  (1523) 
to  the  congregations  of  Riga,  Revel,  and  Dorpat  shows 
that  at  that  time  the  Reformation  had  made  considera- 
ble progress.  In  1524,  the  archbishop,  Caspar  Lindc,  of 
Riga,  died,  deeply  mortified  at  the  utter  failure  of  his 
zealous  efforts  for  saving  the  Catholic  Church.  His  suc- 
cessor, John  VII  Blankenfeld,  previously  bishop  of  Dor- 
pat and  Revel,  was  no  longer  recognised  by  the  town 
coimcil  of  Riga  as  sovereign,  and  in  1525  he  was  even 
made  a  prisoner.  LTndcr  the  archbishop  Wilhelm,  mar- 
grave of  Brandenburg,  who  in  1539  succeeded  Thomas 
Schonnig,  the  Reformation  spread  throughout  Livonia ; 
the  archbishop  himself  became  favorable  to  the  new 
doctrine,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  the  Catholic 
Church  in  Livonia  had  almost  ceased  to  exist.  Johann 
Briesmann  (1527-31),  who  was  called  from  Kcinigsberg 
to  Riga,  drew  up  in  1530  the  first  agenda.  The  liturgy 
for  Revel  appeared  in  1561,  but  had  in  1572  to  yield  to 
that  of  Coiu-land.  The  Esthonian  catechism  and  the 
Livonian  hymn-book  of  IMathias  Knopken  were  likewise 
published  in  1561.  In  the  same  year  the  armj'-master 
Ketteler  concluded  a  treaty  with  Poland,  by  virtue  of 
which  Livonia  was  placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  Po- 
land; it  was  stipulated,  however,  that  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  Livonia  should  not  be  interfered  with.  In 
violation  of  this  treaty,  the  Jesuits  at  once  began  their 
agitation  for  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church,  but 
the  Swedish  rule  again  secured  the  predominance  of 
Protestantism,  and  greatly  strengthened  it  by  establish- 
ing the  University  of  Dorpat.  A  new  liturgy  was  in- 
troduced in  1632,  a  new  agenda  in  1633 ;  at  the  same 
time,  a  Lettish  and  Esthonian  translation  of  the  Bible 
was  published.  In  the  18th  century  the  religious  life 
of  the  province  suffered  greatly  from  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  preachers,  being  called  from  Germany,  were  una- 
ble to  preach  in  the  native  languages.  The  sjiiritual 
destitution  of  many  country  districts  attracted  the  Mo- 
ravians, who  continued  their  zealous  labors  even  when, 
in  1743,  their  meetings  had  been  forbidden.  For  a  long 
time  they  conthied  themselves  to  the  Lutheran  Church  ; 
but  the  large  attendance  at  their  meetings  led  them 
(since  1817)  to  separate  from  the  Lutheran  Church. 


LIZARD 


468 


LIZARD 


The  latter  therefore,  began,  iii  1843,  to  engage  in  a  vig- 
orous contest  with  the  Moravians,  invoking  the  stipula- 
tions of  the  peace  of  Nystiidt  (1721),  in  which  Sweden 
had  cedoil  Livonia  to  Russia,  while  the  latter  contirmed 
the  privileges  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  Russian 
government  supported  the  Lutherans  against  the  Mo- 
ravians, but,  on  the  other  hand,  began  (1841)  to  make 
great  efforts  to  prevail  upon  the  Lettish  peasants  to  join 
the  Greek  Church.  Several  thousands  of  Letts  and  Li- 
vonians  succumbed  to  the  pressure  brought  upon  them 
bv  the  government,  and,  after  having  once  joined  the 
orthodox  Greek  Church,  they  were  forbidden  (as  many 
soon  desired)  to  return  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  iVll 
the  children  born  of  mixed  marriages  (Lutheran  and 
Greek)  must  be  educated  in  the  Greek  religion.  In 
1863,  the  Lutheran  bishop  Walter,  who  vigoroush'  stood 
up  for  the  defence  of  the  rights  of  his  Church,  had  to 
yield  to  an  intrigue,  and  not  until  1868  was  the  rigor  of 
the  Russian  government  against  the  Lutheran  Church 
somewhat  relaxed.  These  conflicts  have  awakened  a 
general  interest  in  the  religious  community,  to  which 
the  re-establishment  of  the  University  of  Dorpat  (1802) 
has  been  greatly  instrumental.  The  number  of  Roman 
Catholics  is  about  5000,  that  of  Greek  Catholics  is  esti- 
mated at  143,000 ;  the  remainder  are  Lutherans.  (A.  J.  S.) 

Lizard  appears  in  the  Auth.Vers.  in  but  one  pas- 
sage (Lev.  xi,  30)  as  the  rendering  of  ilJ<I35,  letadh'; 
but  different  species  of  the  animal  seem  to  be  desig- 
nated by  several  Hebrew  terms,  variously  rendered  in 
the  English  translation.  In  the  East  numerous  varie- 
ties of  these  reptiles  are  met  with  in  great  abundance, 
several  of  which  are  regarded  as  venomous  (Hasselquist, 
Trav.  p.  241,  344  sq.).  Others,  again,  are  used  by  the 
modern  Arabs  for  food  (comp.  also  Arrian,  Mai:  Eryth. 
p.  17,  ed.  Hudson),  whereas  the  Mosaic  law  (Lev.  xi) 
classes  them  among  unclean  animals. 

(1.)  Ko'ach  (ns,  s^;vh7//(,  Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept.  ;^a;uai- 
Xftur,  Auth.Vers.  "chameleon"),  prob.  the  Lacerta  siel- 
lio,  an  olive-brown  lizard,  with  black  and  white  spots, 
and  a  tail  about  a  span  long,  while  the  body  itself  is 
scarcely  of  this  length  (Hasselquist,  Tt-ai'.  p.  352;  fig- 
ure in  Riippel,  .4//(/.t,  tab.  2).  Bochart  {Ilieroz.  ii,  493 
sq.)  understands  this  term  to  refer  to  the  species  called 
El-waral,  which  exhibits  its  great  strength  (hence  its 
name)  in  combat  with  the  crocodile  and  serpents,  is  dis- 
gusting in  appearance,  and  said  to  be  poisonous  (Leon. 
Afric.  Descript.  Afric.  ix,  53).  But  Michaelis  {Suppl. 
2221)  and  Rosenmiiller  have  long  since  remarked  that 
the  derivation  of  the  name  koiich  is  perhaps  from  a  dif- 
ferent root.  According  to  the  Arabic  interpreters,  it  is 
the  land  crocodile,  or  a  species  of  it,  perhaps  the  Wai-an 
el-hard  or  shinh  (Lacei-fa  sciiicus),  which  sometimes  at- 
tains a  length  of  six  feet  or  more.     See  Chameleon. 

(2.)  Letaaii'  (nXi3^,perh.  so  called  from  its  hiding; 
Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept.  ^aXa/3air7/c,Yulg.  .s/c//to,  Auth.Vers. 
"lizard"),  perhaps  the  species  called  in  Egypt  Shecha- 
lit,  described  by  Forskal  (Descr.  p.  13)  as  a  delicate  lit- 
tle anitnal,  about  a  span  in  length  and  of  the  thickness 
of  the  thumb,  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  houses. 
Bochart  {Hieroz.  ii,  497  sq.)  maintains  that  it  is  the  wa- 
(jrat  of  the  Arabs,  a  kind  of  lizard  that  clings  close  to 
the  ground  (hence  his  derivation  from  an  Arabic  root, 
signifying  to  stick  to  the  earth),  to  which  also  the  Sept. 
alludes  (comp.  Oken,  Natiirr/esch.  Ill,  ii,  203).  Geddes 
regards  it  as  identical  with  the  Lacerta  fjecko. 

(3.)  Cho'met  (l3^H.  so  called  from  li/iiif/  close  to  the 
ground;  Lev.  xi^30;  Sept.  rrcj/'prr,  Auth.Vers.  "snail") 
has  been  supposed  by  Bochart  (ii,500  sq.)  to  mean  the 
Galkan,  a  species  of  lizard  that  burrows  in  the  sand  (on 
the  precarious  interpretation  of  the  Talmud).  The  in- 
terpretation snail  rests  on  no  better  foundation.  Both 
the  Aral)ic  interpreters  understand  the  chavidcon.  The 
species  intended  is  uncertain.    (See  Fuller, Miscell.  vi, 9.) 

(4.)  Anakah' (njrjX,  a  shriek;  Lev.  xi,  30;  Sept. 
and  Vulg.  shrewmouse,  A\it\\.\ firs,  "ferret")  is  regarded 


by  the  Arab.  Erpen.  as  the  Waral,  considered  by  some  as 
identical  with  the  Laceiia  Nilotica  (Hasselquist,  Trav. 
p.  3G1  sq.),  but  which  last  Forskal  {Descript.  A  niiniil.  p. 
13)  calls  Waran  (comp.  Robinson,  ii,  253).  The  Waral 
is  described  by  those  who  have  personally  seen  it  (see 
Leo  Afric.  Descr.  ix,  51)  as  having  a  length  of  three  or 
four  feet,  a  scaly,  very  strong,  grayish-yellow  skin,  and 
is  regarded  as  poisonous  in  every  part.  (See  Rosen- 
miiller, Alterth.  IV,  ii,  256  sq. ;  Gesen.  Thesaur.  p.  128.) 

(5.)  TsAB  (31£,  prob.  from  its  slufff/ishness ;  Lev.  xi, 
29 ;  Sept,  and  Vulg.  the  crocodile,  Auth.Vers. "  tortoise") 
is  doubtless  the  species  of  lizard  still  called  by  the  Arabs 
JJhab  (see  Bochart,  Hieroz.  ii,  463  sq.),  a  stupid  creature 
tenanting  rocky  waters.  According  to  Leo  Afric.  (ix, 
52),  it  is  about  a  yard  long,  without  poisonous  qualities, 
and  incapable  of  drinking.  They  are  caught  and  eaten 
in  the  desert.  Forskal  {Descript.  Animal,  p.  13)  and 
Hasselquist  {Trav.  p.  353  sq.)  appear  to  have  described 
it  under  the  name  oi Lacerta  ^Er/yjitiaca  (comp.  Paulus, 
Samml.  ii,  263).  According  to  Burckhardt  (11,863  sq.), 
it  has  a  scaly  skin  of  a  yeUow  color,  and  sometimes  at- 
tains a  length  of  eighteen  inches. 

(6.)  Tinshe'meth  (H'QkJSO,  the  hard  Jrea^Af?-;  Sept., 
Vulgate,  and  Auth.  Vers,  mole ;  Lev.  xi,  30 ;  being  the 
same  Heb.  word  used  in  Lev.  xi,  18 ;  Deut.  xiv,  16,  to 
describe  a  bird,  rendered  "  swan")  is  (according  to  Sa- 
adias)  a  species  of  lizard,  probably  the  Gecko  (Hassel- 
quist, Trav.  p.  356  sq.),  a  kind  described  as  having  a 
round  tail  of  moderate  length,  and  tufted  feet,  lamellated 
lengthwise  on  the  bottom,  said  to  be  peculiar  for  ex- 
uding poison  from  the  divisions  of  its  toes,  eagerly  seek- 
ing spots  imbued  with  salt,  which  it  leaves  infected  with 
a  virus  that  engenders  leprosy  (see  also  Forskal,  p.  13). 
Bochart  (ii,  503  sq.)  understands  the  chameleon,  deriving 
the  etymology  from  the  ancient  belief  that  this  crea- 
ture lived  upon  the  air  (Pliny,  Hist,  Nut.  viii,  33,  51),  a 
notion  probably  derived  from  its  long  endurance  of  hun- 
ger. (See  Hasselquist,  Trav.  p.  348  sq. ;  Sonnini,  Trav. 
i,  87;  Oken,  iVa^u/'^escA.  Ill,  ii,  306  sq. ;  'R\xss&\,  Aleppo, 
ii,  128  sq.)     See  Chameleon. 

(7.)  Semamith'  (rr^^^b,  prob.  as  being  held  poi- 
sonous;  Prov.  XXX.  28;  Sept.  (caXo/3wr»;c,  Vulg.  stellio, 
Auth.Vers.  "spider")  is  mentioned  as  a  small  creature 
of  active  instmcts;  prob.  the  Arabic  saum,  a  poisonous 
lizard  with  leopard-like  spots  (Bochart,  Hieroz.  ii,  1084). 
Comp.  Rosenmuller,  Alterth.  IV,  ii,  268.     See  Spider. 

(8.)  Tannin'  ('piP)  or  Taknim'  (a^^iPl),  othersvise 
Tan  ("Fl),  seems  occasionally  to  signify  a  huge  land 
serpent  or  saurian.     See  Dkagon. 

(9.)  Liattathan'  ("rrilb)  sometimes  stands  for  the 
largest  of  the  lizard  tribe,  the  crocodile. — "Winer.  See 
Leviathan. 

Under  the  denomination  of  lizard  the  modern  zoolo- 
gist places  all  the  cold-blooded  animals  that  have  the 
conformation  of  seqients  with  the  addition  of  four  feet. 
Thus  viewed  as  one  great  family,  they  constitute  the 
Saurians,  Lacertinw,  and  Lacertidai  of  authors,  embra- 
cing numerous  geuerical  divisions,  which  commence 
w'ith  the  largest,  that  is,  the  crocodile  group,  and  pass 
through  sundry  others,  a  variety  of  species,  formidalde, 
disgusting,  or  pleasing  in  appearance — some  equally  fre- 
quenting the  land  and  water,  others  absolutely  conlined 
to  the  earth  and  to  the  most  arid  deserts;  and,  tliough 
in  general  harmless,  there  are  a  fe^\•  with  disputed  prop- 
erties, some  being  held  to  jjoison  or  corrode  by  means  of 
the  exudation  of  an  ichor,  and  others  extolled  as  aphro- 
disiacs, or  of  medical  use  in  pharmacy  ;  but  these  prop- 
erties in  most,  if  not  in  all,  are  undetermined  or  illusory. 
One  of  the  best  known  of  these  is  the  common  chame- 
leon {Chamaleo  ridgarig).  See  Chameleon.  When  it 
is  considered  that  the  regions  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt 
are  overrun  with  animals  of  this  family,  there  is  every 
reason  to  expect  allusion  to  more  than  one  genus  in  the 
Scriptures,  where  so  many  observations  and  similes  are 
derived  from  the  natural  objects  vv'hich  were  familiar 


LIZARD 


469 


LIZARD 


to  the  various  writers. 


and  in  ruins  in  even'  part  of  Palestine  and  the 
adjacent  comitries.  There  is  one  species  partic- 
idarly  abundant  and  small,  well  known  in  Arabia 
by  the  name  of  Sarabcvidi.  We  now  come  to  the 
SfeUiones,  wliich  have  been  confounded  with  the 
noxious  geckos  and  otliers  from  the  time  of  Al- 
drovandus,  and  tlience  have  been  a  source  of  in- 
extricable trouble  to  commentators.  They  are 
best  known  by  the  bundles  of  starlike  spines  on 
the  body.  Among  these  Lacerta  stellio,  Sttllio 
Oi'ientalis,  the  kooklCh\oq  of  the  Greeks,  and 
hardiai  of  the  Arabs,  is  abundant  in  the  East,  and 
a  great  frequenter  of  ruinous  walls.  The  genus 
Uroinastix  offers  SielJio  fpim'pes  of  Daudin  or  Ur- 
sjnnipes,  two  or  three  feet  long,  of  a  fine  green, 
and  is  the  species  which  is  believed  to  strike  v.-itli 
the  tail ;  hence  formerly  denominated  Caudce  vcr- 
bera.  It  is  frequent  in  the  deserts  around  Egj-pt, 
and  is  probably  the  Guaril  of  the  Arabs.  Another 
subgenus,  named  Trapelus  by  Cuvier,  is  exempli- 
fied in  the  7V.  ^■Er/ypliacus  of  Geoff.,  with  a  spi- 
nous swelled  body,  but  remarkable  for  the  faculty 
Among  the  names  enumerated  i  ofchanging  color  more  rapidly  than  the  chameleon.   Next 


Chamcelco  Vulgaris. 


above,  Bochart  refers  3iJ,  tsuh  (Lev.  xi,  29),  to  one  of  the 
group  of  Monitors  or  Varanus,  the  Nilotic  lizard,  Z(/ce?-- 
ta  Nilotica,  Varanus  I^'iloticus,  or  Waran  of  the  Arabs. 
Like  the  others  of  this  form,  it  is  possessed  of  a  tail 
double  the  length  of  the  body,  but  is  not  so  well  known 
in  Palestine,  where  there  is  only  one  real  river  (Jordan), 
and  that  not  tenanted  by  this  species.  It  appears  that 
tlic  true  crocodile  frequented  the  shores  and  marshes  of 
the  coast  down  to  a  comparatively  late  period,  and  there- 
fore it  may  well  have  had  a  more  specific  name  than 
leviathan — a  ^vord  apparently  best  suited  to  the  digni- 
fied and  lofty  diction  of  the  prophets,  and  clearly  of 
more  general  signification  than  the  more  colloquial  des- 
ignation. Jerome  was  of  this  opinion ;  and  it  is  thus 
likely  that  fsab  was  applied  to  both,  as  Wcu-an  is  now 
considered  only  a  variety  of,  or  a  young,  crocodile. 
There  is  a  second  of  the  same  group,  Lacerta  scinciis 
of  iMerrem  {Varanus  arenarius),  Waran  el-hard,  also 
reaching  to  six  feet  in  length ;  and  a  third,  not  as  yet 
clearly  described,  which  appears  to  be  larger  than  either, 
growing  to  nine  feet,  and  covered  with  bright  cupreous 
scales.  This  last  prefers  rocky  and  stony  situations. 
One  of  the  last  mentioned  pursues  its  prey  on  land  with 
a  rapid  bounding  action,  feeds  on  the  larger  insects,  and 
is  said  to  attack  game  in  a  body,  sometimes  destroj'ing 
even  sheep.  The  Arabs,  in  agreement  with  the  an- 
cients, assert  that  this  species  will  do  fierce  and  victori- 
ous battle  with  serpents.  Considerations  like  these  in- 
duce us  to  assign  the  Hebrew  name  Xyz,  Lvach  (a  desig- 
nation of  strength)  to  the  species  of  the  desert ;  and  if 
the  Nilotic  tcaran  be  the  tsab,  then  the  Arabian  dhab, 
as  Bruce  asserts,  will  be  Varanus  arenarius,  or  waran 
el-hard  of  the  present  familiar  language,  and  chardaun 
the  larger  copper-colored  species  above  noticed.  But  it 
is  evident  from  the  Arabic  authorities  quoted  by  Bo- 
chart, and  from  his  own  conclusions,  that  there  is  not 
only  confusion  among  the  species  of  lizard,  but  that  the 
ichneumon  of  EgjiDt  (Jlorpestes  rharaunis)  is  mixed  up 
with  the  historj'  of  these  saurians. 

We  come  next  to  the  group  of  lizards  more  properly 
so  called,  which  Hebrew  commentators  take  to  be  the 
ilNub,  letaah,  a  name  having  some  allusion  to  poison 
and  atlhesiveness.  The  word  occurs  only  once  (Lev.  xi, 
30),  where  saurians  alone  appear  to  be  indicated.  If 
the  Heb.  root  were  to  guiiie  the  decision,  letaah  would 
be  another  name  for  the  yecko  or  anaka/i,  for  there  is  but 
one  species  which  can  be  deemed  venomous ;  and  with 
regard  to  the  quality  of  adhesiveness,  though  the  geckos 
possess  it  most,  numerous  common  lizards  run  up  and 
down  perpendicular  walls  with  great  facility.  We 
therefore  take  i:'ain,  chomet,  or  the  sand  lizard  of  Bo- 
chart, to  be  the  true  lizard,  several  (probably  many) 
species  existing  in  myriads  on  the  rocks  in  sandy  places, 


we  place  the  Geckotians,  among  which  comes  Hpi  N,  ana- 
kah,  in  our  versions  denominated/e?7-e^,  but  which  is  with 
more  propriety  transferred  to  the  noisy  and  venomous 
abu-hurs  of  the  Arabs.  There  is  no  reason  for  admitting 
the  verb  p3X,  anak,  to  groan,  to  cry  out,  as  radical  for  the 
name  of  the  ferret,  an  animal  totally  unconnected  with 
the  preceding  and  succeeding  species  in  Lev.  xi,  29,  30, 
and  originally  found,  so  far  as  Ave  know,  only  in  West- 
ern Africa,  and  thence  conveyed  to  Spain,  prowling 
noiselessly,  and  beaten  to  death  without  a  groan,  though 
capable  of  a  feeble,  short  scream  when  at  play,  or  when 
suddenly  wounded.  Taking  the  interpretation  •'  to  cry 
out,"  so  little  applicable  to  ferrets,  in  conjunction  with 
the  whole  verse,  Ave  find  the  gecko,  like  all  the  species 
of  this  group  of  lizards,  remarkable  for  the  loud  i: rating 
noise  Avhicli  it  is  apt  to  i\tter  in  the  roofs  and  walls  of 
houses  all  the  night  through ;  one,  indeed,  is  sufficient 
to  dispel  the  sleep  of  a  Avhole  family.  The  particidar 
species  most  probably  meant  is  the  Lacerta  gecko  of 
Hasselquist,  the  Gecko  lobatus  of  GeoffroA',  distingidshed 
by  having  the  soles  of  the  feet  dilated  and  striated  like 
open  fans,  from  Avhich  a  poisonous  ichor  is  said  to  ex- 
ude, inflaming  the  human  skin,  and  infecting  food  that 
may  have  been  trod  upon  by  the  animal.  See  Fkreet. 
Hence  the  Arabic  name  of  abn-burs,  or  '•  father  of  lepro- 
sy," at  Cairo.  The  species  extends  northAvards  in  Syria, 
but  it  may  be  doubted AAhether  the  Gecko  Jascicularis,  or 
tarentola  of  South-eastern  Europe,  be  not  also  an  inhabi- 
tant of  Palestine;  and  in  that  case  the  ri^TZ^p,  sema- 
mith  of  Bochart,  Avould  find  an  appropriate  location.  To 
these  AA'e  add  the  Chameleons  proper;  and  then  folloAvs 
the  Scincus  (in  antiquity  the  name  of  Varanus  arena- 
rius), among  Avhicli  Lacerta  scincus,  Linn.,  or  Scincus 
officinedis,  is  the  El-adda  of  the  Arabs,  figured  by  Bruce, 
and  Avell  knoAA-n  in  the  old  pharmacy  of  Europe.  S. 
Cyprius,  or  Lacerta  Cypritis  scincoides,  a  large  greenish 
species,  marked  Avith  a  pale  line  on  each  tlank,  occurs 
also;  and  a  third,  <SV/«rKs  variegafus  or  ocillatus,  often 
noticed  on  account  of  its  round  black  spots,  each  marked 
Avitli  a  pale  streak,  and  commonly  haA-ing  likewise  a 
stripe  on  each  flank,  of  a  pale  color.  Of  the  species  of 
Seps,  that  is,  viviparous  serpent-lizards,  having  the  body 
of  snakes,  AA-ith  four  Aveak  limbs,  a  species  Avith  only 
three  toes  on  each  foot,  the  Lacerta  chaleides  of  Linn., 
appears  to  extend  to  Syria.— Kitto.  See  further  details 
in  the  Penny  CyclopcBclia,  s.  y.  Yaranida; ;  Wood,  £ible 
A  nimals,  p.  534  sq. 

From  this  examination,  it  appears  probable  that  the 
generic  name  for  the  lizard  among  the  HebreAvs  (being 
the  only  one  thus  rendered  in  the  Auth.  Version)  is  the 
nx::?,  letaah,  Avliich,  although  an  unclean  animal,  does 
not  usually  designate  a  poisonous  species.     Among  the 


LIZEL 


470 


LLORENTE 


various  kinds  with  which  the  East  abounds,  the  Lacerta 
stellio,  or  starry  Hzard,  may  be  selected  as  probably  af- 
fordinjij  the  best  type  of  the  scriptural  terms,  or  at  least 
oi  letaiih  in  general,  as  it  is  the  most  common  in  Egypt 
and  Palestine.  It  is  covered  with  tubercles,  and  is  of  a 
gray  color.  It  lives  in  the  holes  of  walls,  and  under 
stones,  and  covers  itself  with  dirt.     Belon  states  that  it 


Lcutita  'iUllio 


sometimes  attains  the  size  of  a  weasel.  This  is  said  to 
be  the  lizard  which  infests  the  Pyramids,  and  in  other 
countries  where  it  is  found,  harbors  in  the  crevices  and 
between  the  stones  of  old  walls,  feeding  on  flies  and  oth- 
er winged  insects.  This  may  be  the  species  intended 
by  Bruce  when  he  says, ''  The  number  I  saw  one  day,  in 
the  great  court  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Baalbek, 
amounted  to  many  thousands;  the  ground,  the  walls, 
the  stones  of  the  ruined  buildings,  were  covered  with 
them ;  and  the  various  colors  of  which  they  consisted 
made  a  verj^  extraordinary  appearance,  glittering  under 
the'  sun,  in  which  they  lay  sleeping  and  basking."  Lord 
Lindsay  also  describes  the  ruins  at  Jerash  (the  ancient 
Gerasa)  as  "absolutely  alive  with  lizards."  Near  Suez, 
he  speaks  of  "  a  species  of  gray  lizard ;"  and  on  the  as- 
cent towards  Mount  Sinai,  "  hundreds  of  little  lizards  of 
the  color  of  the  sand,  and  called  by  the  natives  scn-a- 
bandi,  were  darting  about."  In  the  Syrian  desert.  Ma- 
jor Skinner  says,  "  The  ground  is  teeming  with  lizards ; 
the  sun  seems  to  draw  them  from  the  earth,  for  some- 
times, when  I  have  fixed  my  eye  upon  one  spot,  I  have 
fancied  that  the  sands  were  getting  into  life,  so  many 
of  these  creatures  at  once  crept  from  their  holes."  Wil- 
kinson says,  '•  In  Egypt,  of  the  lizard  tribe,  none  but  the 
crocodile  seems  to  have  been  sacred.  Those  which  oc- 
cur in  the  hieroglyphics  are  not  emblematical  of  the 
gods,  nor  connected  with  religion."     See  Snail. 

Lizel,  Geoiig,  a  German  theologian,  was  born  at 
Ulm,  in  Wurtemberg,  Nov.  23,  1G94;  attended  succes- 
sively the  universities  of  Strasburg,  Leipsic,  Jena,  Halle, 
Wittenberg,  Altdorf,  and  Tubingen,  and  in  1735  became 
vicar  at  Weidenstettcn,  and  soon  after  pastor  at  Steinen 
Kirch;  but  in  173G,  ou  account  of  false  charges  against 
his  character,  he  lost  his  situation.  In  1737  he  was  ap- 
pointed subrector  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Ulm,  afterwards 
inspector  of  the  alumni  and  imperial  poet  laureate.  The 
Prussian  Koyal  Society  of  Duisburg,  and  the  German 
Society  of  Jena,  elected  him  a  member  of  their  respect- 
ive bodies.  He  died  jMar.  22, 17GI.  His  life  was  spent 
ill  the  investigation  of  science,  and  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion and  education.  While  at  the  universities  he  ex- 
plored numerous  antique  libraries,  and  the  results  he 
gave  to  the  jniblic  in  more  than  twenty  volumes.  As  a 
theologian  Lizel  was  faithful  to  his  Church,  and  con- 
fronted and  challenged  Romanism.  For  a  list  of  his 
works,  see  Diiring,  Gelehrte  T/ieol,  Deufsc/iL  vol,  ii,  s.  v. 

Llorente,  Don  Juan  Antonio,  the  noted  author 
of  a  historj'  of  the  Inquisition,  etc.,  was  borit  at  Eincon 
del  Soto,  near  Calahorra,  Spain,  March  30,  1756.  He 
studied  at  Tarascone  with  great  success,  and  received 
the  tonsure  when  but  fourteen  years  of  age.     In  1779 


he  was  ordained  priest,  and  took  his  degree  in  canon  law. 
At  tliis  time  the  liberal  ideas  prevailing  in  France  were 
beginning  to  make  their  way  into  Spain,  and  Llorente 
became  interested  in  them.  In  1781  he  was  named 
advocate  of  the  Council  of  Castile,  and  in  the  year  fol- 
lowing was  made  general  vicar  of  the  bishopric  of  Cala- 
horra. WhUe  in  this  position  he  appears  to  have  con- 
nected himself  with  the  Freemasons,  and,  although  this 
rumor  seems  to  have  been  generally  credited,  he  was 
nevertheless  appointed  commissary  of  the  Inquisition  in 
1785,  and  general  secretary  in  1789.  After  the  down- 
fall of  the  grand  inquisitor  he  attached  himself  to  the 
Liberal  minister  Jovellanos,  who  contemplated  a  relig- 
ious and  political  regeneration  of  Spain.  The  minister 
fell,  and  Llorente  was  involved  in  his  fall,  the  more 
surely  as  he  openly  expressed  his  sympathy  for  him. 
Suspected  by  his  superiors,  he  was  closely  watched.  He 
was  subjected  to  innumerable  petty  annoyances,  his  let- 
ters were  opened,  and,  without  any  reason  being  given 
for  the  measure,  was  deposed  from  his  situation,  and 
imprisoned  in  a  convent  for  one  month.  In  1805  he 
was  again  received  into  favor  as  the  reward  of  a  liter- 
ary service  of  a  very  questionable  character  which  he 
rendered  to  the  minister  Godoy.  The  latter  purposed 
abolishing  the  ancient  privileges  of  the  Basque  Prov- 
inces, and  carrying  out  in  Sixain  a  thorough  system  of 
centralization ;  to  accomplish  this,  he  deemed  it  advan- 
tageous to  prepare  the  way  by  means  of  a  historical  es- 
say, disproving  the  ancient  liberties  of  those  province*. 
The  mission  was  given  to  Llorente,  who  wrote  No- 
iicias  historicas  sohre  las  ires  provincias  Bascongadas 
(Madrid,  1806-8,  3  vols.  8vo),  a  work  not  in  any  way  re- 
markable for  historical  truthfidncss.  Llorente  was  now 
again  favored  with  several  high  offices.  His  tendency 
towards  the  French  ideas,  centralization  among  others, 
led  him  perhaps  to  accept  offers  which  he  would  other- 
wise have  rejected.  Upon  the  intrusion  of  the  French 
(1807),  Llorente  found  himself  placed  between  the  na- 
tional government  which  opposed  all  progress,  and  that 
of  a  foreign  sovereign  which  offered  both  political  and 
religious  liberty.  Unable  to  serve  at  once  the  cause  of 
the  hereditary  monarch  and  that  of  progress,  Llorente 
and  the  Josephinos  chose  the  latter;  but  the  accusation 
preferred  against  them  of  having  sold  themselves  to 
France  (Hefele,  in  Wetzer  und  Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon, 
vi,  557  sq.)  is  unsupported  by  proof,  and  unlikely ;  they 
simply  chose  a  foreign  master  rather  than  religious  and 
political  slavery.  In  1809  the  Spanish  Inquisition  was 
abolished  in  Spain,  and  Llorente  was  commissioned  to 
search  its  records  for  the  jnirpose  of  writing  a  history 
of  that  tribunal.  He  had  already,  as  early  as  1789,  be- 
gan to  collect  materials  for  this  purpose,  yet  two  more 
years  were  spent,  with  the  aid  of  several  assistants,  in 
compiling  the  voluminous  records.  AVhen  the  convents 
were  abolished  he  was  given  the  direction  of  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  charge  of  the  sequestered  goods,  as 
also  the  administration  of  the  national  properties,  an 
ungrateful  and  not  verj'  creditable  task,  for  these  prop- 
erties were  the  result  of  sequestration ;  yet  he  claimed 
afterwards  to  have  introduced  many  favorable  changes 
in  the  administration,  such,  for  instance,  as  that  of 
leaving  the  management  of  the  property  belonging  to 
parties  put  under  the  ban  to  the  members  of  their  fam- 
ily, and  the  many  distinguished  persons  of  Spain  to 
whom  he  appealed  in  corroboration  of  his  assertion  have 
never  denied  its  truth.  He  was,  however,  accused  of 
embezzlement  to  the  amount  of  11,000,000  reals,  and 
lost  his  position ;  but  the  accusation  not  being  substan- 
tiated, he  was  indemnitied  by  another  situation.  In  the 
mean  time  he  continued  to  advocate  the  cause  of  Joseph 
Bonaparte  both  by  his  pen  and  in  pubUc  addresses,  and 
when  the  celebrated  Constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  Cadiz 
was  proclaimed  he"  was  one  of  its  most  zealous  oppo- 
nents. When  Joseph  lost  the  Spanish  throne  (1814) 
Llorente  was  obliged  to  quit  the  country  in  haste.  Af- 
ter his  night,  banishment  was  pronounced  against  him, 
and  his  property,  and  his  hbrary  of  8000  volumes,  some 


LLOYD 


471 


LLOYD 


of  which  were  rare  and  costly  manuscripts,  were  seques- 
tered. After  stopping  a  short  time  in  London,  Llorente 
settled  in  Paris,  where  he  completed  the  work  of  which 
he  had  published  a  sketch  in  Spain :  Histoire  critique 
de  V Inquisition  cVEspaync  (4  vols.  8vo).  It  was  written 
in  Spanish,  but  was  immediately  translated  into  French 
by  Alexis  FelUer,  under  Llorente's  own  supervision  (Par. 
1817-18).  Translations  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
Europe  were  made  shortly  afterwards.  One  of  the  best 
English  editions  was  published  in  London  in  1826.  (For 
a  review,  see  British  Critic,  i,  119.)  Llorente  was  now 
the  outspoken  enemy  of  the  Church,  and  he  was  forbid- 
den to  officiate  as  priest  in  Paris,  and  thus  deprived  of 
his  regular  means  of  support.  He  next  attempted  to 
earn  a  living  by  teaching  Spanish,  but  the  University 
of  Paris  forbade  him  teaching  in  public,  and  he  became 
altogether  dependent  on  his  literary  labors  and  the  as- 
sistance of  his  masonic  brethren  for  a  support.  To 
what  straits  he  found  liimself  reduced  is  seen  in  the 
fact  that  he  translated  Faublas  into  Spanish.  In  1822 
he  published  his  Portraits  politiques  des  Fcqjes,  which 
still  increased  the  animosity  of  the  clergy  against  him, 
and  in  this  instance  it  must  be  granted  that  he  reck- 
lessly provoked  this  enmity  by  accepting  as  undoubted 
facts  such  legends  as  that  of  the  popess  Joanna,  etc., 
while  his  friends  were  obliged  to  admit  that  the  nature, 
tendencies,  and  even  the  tone  of  the  work  were  not  be- 
coming the  character  of  a  priest.  In  December  of  the 
same  year  (1822)  he  received  orders  to  leave  France 
within  three  days.  Exiled  from  the  land  of  his  adop- 
tion, he  returned  to  that  of  his  birth,  but  died  shortly 
after  (Feb.  5,  1823)  at  Madrid,  in  consequence  of  the 
hardships  he  had  undergone  during  his  journey. 

Llorente's  character  and  writings  have  been  the  object 
of  as  extravagant  praise  by  some  as  of  extravagant  cen- 
sure by  others.  He  lived  in  a  time  of  great  fermenta- 
tion, and  in  a  country  where  the  struggle  between  prog- 
ress and  conservatism  gave  rise  to  innumerable  par- 
ties: under  these  circumstances  he  remained  true  to 
progress,  and  if  he  did  not  remain  true  also  to  any  of 
the  divers  political  parties,  it  was  because  he  could  not 
maintain  his  tideUty  to  both.  When  writing  the  his- 
tory of  the  Inquisition,  he  was  j'et  a  fervent  Koman 
Catholic ;  and  in  attacking  an  institution  which  he  con- 
sidered and  proved  to  have  been  more  political  than  re- 
ligious, he  undeservedly  received  the  censure  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  Roman  CathoUc  world;  he  did  not 
mean  to  attack  the  Komish  Church,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
to  vindicate  it  from  the  imputation  of  having  been  sol- 
idly concerned  in  the  transaction  of  that  fell  tribunal. 
If  in  his  subsequent  works  he  went  further,  and  attack- 
ed the  Koman  Catholic  Church  itself,  the  reason  is  to  be 
found  in  the  persecutions  he  endured  at  the  hands  of 
that  Church.  Llorente  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a  his- 
torian; neither  his  literary  talents,  nor  his  historical 
knowledge,  nor  the  gift  of  correctly  combining  and  con- 
necting events,  gave  him  any  title  to  that  appellation. 
His  greatest  production,  the  Ci-itical  History  of  the  In- 
quisition, such  Protestant  historians  as  Prescott  and 
Kanke  judge  to  be  of  but  little  value,  because  of  its  par- 
tisan character,  and  the  exaggerations  in  which  it 
abounds,  and,  as  the  readers  of  this  Cyclopedia  must 
have  noticed,  in  the  article  Inquisition  (see  especially 
p.  603,  col.  1),  he  has  rarely  been  quoted.  His  only 
credit  in  the  work  is  that  lie  brought  together  much 
material  before  inaccessible.  We  might  say  Llorente 
was  a  good  and  diligent  compiler,  but  too  ardent  a  par- 
tisan to  be  aught  of  a  historian.  See  his  autobiography 
entitled  Notitia  biograjica  o  Memorias  para  la  Ilistoria 
de  su  Vidu  (1818) ;  IMahul,  A'o/ice  bior/raphique  siir  Don 
J.  II.  Llorente  (1823);  Prescott,  Hist,  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  i,  pt.  i ;  Ranke,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  i,  142,  272 ; 
ii,  293 ;  Monthly  Revieiv,  xci  (1820),  Append. ;  Revue  En- 
cyclopedique  (1823).     (J.  H.W.) 

Lloyd,  Charles  Hooker,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Feb.  21, 1833.  His 
early  life  was  spent  m  mercantile  pursuits  in  New  York 


City.  In  1856,  however,  purposing  to  become  a  mis- 
sionary to  the  heathen,  he  entered  New  York  Universi- 
ty ;  later  he  studied  divinity  in  the  theological  semina- 
ry at  Princeton,  N.J.,  and  graduated  in  1862.  He  was 
licensed  and  ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  New  York 
Presbytery  April  29, 1862,  and  appointed  (June  21, 1862) 
by  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions  to  South  Africa.  He  did  not,  however,  do 
much  eifective  mission  work,  as  he  died  Feb.  10, 1865. 
Mr.  Lloyd,  as  a  preacher,  was  eminently  wise  to  win  souls. 
He  was  gifted  with  a  strong  passion  for  music,  and  wrote 
and  arranged  many  chants  and  hjonns  for  the  African 
converts.    See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Imanac,  1867,  p.  169. 

Lloyd,  Thomas,  a  noted  Quaker  preacher,  was 
born  in  North  Wales  in  1619.  While  a  student  at  Ox- 
ford University,  he  visited,  during  a  vacation,  his  broth- 
er Charles,  who  had  been  imprisoned  for  Quakerism  at 
Welch-Pool,  and  by  the  latter's  influence  became  him- 
self a  convert  to  the  religion  of  the  Friends.  He  imme- 
diately left  Oxford,  suffered  with  the  Quakers  in  their 
persecutions,  and  became  an  "  instructor"  on  their  "  First- 
days."  On  account  of  persecution,  reproach,  and  loss  of 
property  for  his  religion's  sake,  he  emigrated  to  Penn- 
sylvania soon  after  the  first  settlement  of  that  province. 
He  died  July  10,  1691.  As  president  of  the  council, 
and  subsequently  as  deputy  governor  of  Pennsylvania, 
he  exercised  a  most  salutary  influence  upon  the  inter- 
ests and  progress  of  the  colony.  See  Januey's  History 
of  Friends,  ii,  ch.  xvii;  iii,  ch.  ii. 

Lloyd,  'William,  a  noted  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  Berksliire  in  1627,  and  was  educated  at  Oriel 
Coflcge,  Oxford.  In  1640  he  removed  to  Jesus  College, 
where  he  became  fellow  in  1646.  He  took  deacon's  or- 
ders from  Dr.  Skinner  at  the  time  of  Charles's  execution. 
In  1656  he  was  ordained  priest,  and  acted  as  tutor  of 
John  Backhouse,  son  of  Sir  Wm.  Backhouse,  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford.  In  1660  he  became  master  of  arts  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  also  made  a  prebendary  of  Ripon, 
in  Yorkshire.  In  1666  he  was  appointed  king's  chap- 
lain, and  in  1667  was  collated  to  a  prebend  of  Salisbury, 
and  proceeded  doctor  of  divinity  at  Oxford.  In  16(i8 
he  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Marj-'s,  in  Read- 
ing, and  also  installed  archdeacon  of  Merioneth,  in  the 
church  of  Bangor,  of  which  he  became  deacon  in  1672, 
besides  being  made  prebend  in  St.  Paul's  Church,  Lon- 
don. In  1674  he  was  made  residentiary  of  Salisburj', 
and  in  1676  promoted  to  the  see  of  Exeter,  the  vicarage 
of  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  Westminster.  In  1680  he 
was  appointed  bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  was  translated  to 
Lichfield  in  1692,  and  to  Worcester  m  1699-1700.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  troubles  between  the  Roman- 
ists and  Protestants  in  1678.  He  preached  the  funeral 
sermon  of  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  believed  to  have 
been  murdered  in  carrying  out  what  is  known  as  the 
popish  plot  for  overthrowing  Protestantism  in  England. 
In  1688,  with  six  other  bishops,  he  signed,  and,  as  spokes- 
man, presented  to  the  king,  a  memorial  against  the  pub- 
lication of  his  declaration  of  indidgence  to  Romanists 
and  Dissenters.  He  was  one  of  the  six  bishops  who, 
together  with  archbishop  Sancroft,  composing  the  illus- 
trious seven  bishops,  for  their  refusal  to  publish  the 
king's  declaration,  were  shortly  after  imprisoned  by 
James  II  in  the  Tower,  and,  after  trial,  acquitted,  to  the 
great  joy  of  aU  England.  He  became  almoner  to  Wil- 
liam III,  and  later  also  to  queen  Anne.  He  died  at 
Hartleburj'  Castle  Aug.  30, 1717.  Lloyd  furnished  val- 
uable materials  to  Burnet's  History  of  his  Oicn  Times, 
and  wrote  Considerations  touching  the  true  Way  to  sup- 
press Popery  in  this  Kingdom,  etc.  (Lond.  1684,  8vo,  2d 
edit.)  [a  work  which  was  attacked  by  JIacKenzie  {De- 
fence  of  the  A  ntiquity  of  the  Royal  Line  of  Scotland,  etc.), 
and  was  defended  by  bishop  Stillingfleet  {OriginesBrit.), 
who  reprinted  it,  with  Notes  by  T.  P.  Panton  (Oxford, 
1842,  2  vols.  8vo)]: — History  of  the  Government  of  the 
Church  of  Great  Britain  : — A  Dissertation  on  Daniel's 
Seventy  Weeks: — A  System  of  Chronology  (1712)  : — Har- 


LOAF 


472 


LOAX 


Tnomj  of  the  Gospels,  etc.,  etc.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of 
Brit,  and  Am.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Stoughton,  Eccles. 
II  1st.  {Restoi-ation),  i,  500;  ii,  5,  28, 141  sq.,  14G;  Strick- 
lainl.  Lives  of  the  Seven  Bishojis. 

Loaf  (properly  ^35,  Mkkar',  a  circle,  in  the  phrase 
Cn5  "133,  (I  1-ound  of  bread,  i.  e.  circular  cake,  being 
the  form  of  Oriental  bread,  or  rather  biscuit,  Exod. 
XXIX,  23 ,  Judg.  viii,  5 ,  1  Sam.  x,  3  ;  1  Chron.  xvi,  3  ; 
rendered  "  piece"  or  "  morsel"  of  bread  in  Prov.  vi,  26 ; 
Jer.  xxxvii,  21  ^  1  Sam.  ii,  2G;  sometimes  simply  CH^, 
le'chem,  bread,  Lev.  xxiii,  17 ;  1  Sam.  xvii,  17  ;  xxv,  18 ; 
1  Kings  xiv,  3;  2  Kings  iv,  42;  and  so  likewise  the 
(ireek  uoroc,  bread,  espec,  in  the  plural,  Matt,  xiv,  17, 
I'J,  XV,  34,  36;  xvi,  9, 10;  Mark  vi,  38,  41,  44,  52;  viii, 
5.6,14,19;  Lukeix,  13, 16;  xi,  5;  John  vi,  9, 11, 13,  26), 
a  round  cake,  the  usual  form  of  bread  among  the  an- 
cients. See  Shew-bkead.  The  bread  of  the  Jews  was 
either  in  small  loaves,  or  else  in  broad  and  thick  cakes, 
as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  East.  Bread  was  al- 
ways broken  into  such  portions  as  were  required,  and 
distributed  by  the  master  of  the  family.     See  Bread. 


Ancient  Roman  Bread  (from  a  painting  on  the  walls  of  the  Parthe- 
non). 


The  two  wave  loaves  mentioned  in  Lev.  xxiii,  17  are 
called  in  Hebrew  tlE^iri  CHt:,  le'chem  tenuphah',  sig- 
nifying the  act  of  waving  or  moving  to  and  fVo  before 
Jehovah,  a  ceremony  observed  in  the  consecration  of 
offerings ;  hence  applied  as  a  name  to  anything  conse- 
crated in  this  manner.     See  Offering. 

Lo-am'nii  {Wch.  Lo- A  mmi',  '^TZV  N?,  not  my  peo- 
ple,  as  it  is  explained  in  the  context,  Hos.  i,  9 ;  Sept, 
Ou  Xaiig  pov,\u]g.  Non  populus  meus ;  in  the  parallel 
passage,  Hos.  ii,  23,  ''IZ'^'t^,  Sept.  ov  \a<f  /joii,Vulg. 
mm  jKipulo  meo,  Auth.  Vers.  "  not  my  people"),  a  sym- 
bolical name  given  by  the  prophet  Hosea  at  the  divine 
instance  to  his  second  son,  in  tolien  of  Jehovah's  rejec- 
tion and  suVisequent  restoration  of  his  people,  alluding 
to  the  Babylonian  captivity  (Hos.  i,  9 ;  ii,  23 ;  comp.  ii, 
1).     B.C.  cir.  725.     See  Hosea. 

XiOan  (n5X'J,  sheelah';  1  Sam.  ii,  20,  a  petition  or 
request,  as  elsewhere  rendered).  The  law  of  jMoses  did 
not  contemplate  any  raising  of  loans  for  the  purpose  of 
obtaining  capital,  a  condition  perhaps  alluded  to  in  the 
parables  of  the  '•'  pearl"  and  "  hidden  treasure"  (Matt. 
xiii,  44, 45 ;  Michaelis,  Comm.  on  Latcs  of  Mo- 
ses, art.  147,  ii,  297,  edit.  Smith).  See  Com- 
merce. Such  persons  as  bankers  and  sure- 
ties, in  the  commercial  sense  (Prov.  xxii,  26 ; 
Neh.  V,  3),  were  unknown  to  the  earlier  ages 
(if  the  Hebrew  commonwealth.  The  INIosaic 
Laws  which  relate  to  the  subject  of  borrowing, 
h'nding,  and  repaying  are  in  substance  as  fol- 
lows :  If  an  Israelite  became  poor,  what  he  de- 
sired to  borrow  was  to  be  freely  lent  to  him, 
and  no  interest,  either  of  money  or  produce, 
could  be  exacted  from  him ;  interest  might  be 
taken  of  a  foreigner,  but  not  of  an  Israelite  by 
another  Israelite  (Exod.  xxii, 25;  Dent,  xxiii, 
19,  20 ;  Lev.  xxv,  35-38).  At  the  end  of  ev- 
er}' seven  years  a  remission  of  debts  was  or- 
dained ;  everj'  creditor  was  to  remit  what  he 
had  lent :  of  a  foreigner  the  loan  might  be  ex- 
acted, but  not  of  a  brother.  If  an  Israelite 
wislied  to  borrow,  he  was  not  to  be  refused  because  the 
year  of  remission  was  at  hand  (Dent,  xv,  1-11).  Pledges 
might  be  taken,  but  not  as  such  the  mill  or  the  upper 
millstone,  for  that  would  be  to  take  a  man's  life  in  pledge. 
If  the  pledge  was  raiment,  it  was  to  be  given  back  before 
sunset,  as  being  needful  for  a  covering  at  night.  The 
widow's  garment  could  not  be  taken  in  pledge  (Exod. 
xxii,  26,  27 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  6,  17).  The  law  thus  strictly 
forbade  any  interest  to  be  taken  for  a  loan  to  any  poor 
person,  either  in  the  shape  of  money  or  of  produce,  and 
at  tirst,  as  it  seems,  even  in  the  case  of  a  i'oreigner ;  but 
this  prohibition  was  afterwards  limited  to  Hebrews  only, 
from  whom,  of  whatever  rank,  not  only  was  no  usury 
on  any  pretence  to  be  exacted,  but  relief  to  the  poor  by 
way  of  loan  was  enjoined,  and  excuses  for  evading  this 
duty  were  forbidden  (Exod.  xxii,  25 ;  Lev.  xxv,  35, 37 ; 
Dent,  XV,  3,  7-10;  xxiii,  19,  20).  The  instances  of  ex- 
tortionate conduct  mentioned  with  disapprobation  in 
the  book  of  Job  probably  represent  a  state  of  tilings  pre- 
vious to  the  law,  and  such  as  the  law  was  intended  to 
remedy  (Job  xxii,  6;  xxiv,  3,  7).  As  commerce  in- 
creased, the  practice  of  usury,  and  so  also  of  suretyship, 
grew  uj),  but  tlie  exaction  of  it  from  a  Hebrew  appears 
to  have  been  regarded  to  a  late  period  as  <liscrr(litable 
(Prov.  vi,  1,  4;  xi,15;  xvii, 18;  xx,  16;  xxii,  26;  Psa, 
XV,  6;  xxvii,  13;  Jer.  XV,  10;  Ezek.  xviii,  13;  xxii,  12). 
Systematic  breach  of  the  law  in  this  respect  was  cor- 
rected by  Xeliemiah  after  the  return  from  captivity 
(Neh.  V,  1,  13;  see  jMichaelis,  ibid.  arts.  148,  151).  In 
later  times  tlie  practice  of  borrowing  money  appears 
to  have  prevailed  without  limitation  of  race,  and  to 
have  been  carried  on  upon  systematic  principles,  though 


Ancient  Egyptian  Bread.  (Tlie  tiist  two  fiffnres  are  from 
the  Monuments,  the  others  from  epecimens  in  the  Brit- 
isli  Museum.) 

The  word  nsn,  channh',"cake"  (2  Sam.  vi,  19),  of- 
ten refers  to  a  cake  of  oblation  (Exod.  xxix,  23;  Lev. 
viii,  26 ,  Numb,  vi,  15  ;  etc.),  from  the  root  hhri,  chalal, 

to  pierce  through,  because  they  were  pricked,  as  among  tlie  original  spirit  of  the  law"  was  approved  bv  our  Lord 
the  Arabians  and  Jews  of  the  present  day.  We  also  (^Matt.  v,  42;  xxv,  27;  Luke  vi,  35;  xix,  23).  The 
find,  on  the  paintings  in  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  rep-  I  money-changers  (/cfo/xa-iff-ni  and  KoWnjStcrTai),  who 
resentations  of  offerings  of  cakes  pricked.     See  Cake.     I  had  seats  and  tablcsin  the  Temple,  were  traders  whose 


LOAN 


473 


LOAN 


profits  arose  chiefly  from  the  exchange  of  money  "with 
those  who  came  to  pay  their  annual  half  shekel  (I'ol- 
lux,  iii,  84 ;  vii,  170 ;  Schlcusner,  Lex.  N.  T.  s.  v. ;  Light- 
foot, //o?-.  Ihhr.  at  jNIatt.  xxi,  12).     The  documents  re- 
lating to  loans  of  money  appear  to  have  been  deposited 
in  public  otlices  in  Jerusalem  (Josephus,  TFar,  ii,  17,  6). 
In  making  loans  no  prohibition  is  pronomiced  in  the 
law  against  taking  a  pledge  of  the  borrower,  but  certain 
limitations  are  prescribed  in  favor  of  the  poor.     1.  The 
outer  garment,  which  formed  the  poor  man's  principal 
covering  by  niglit  as  %\ell  as  by  day,  if  taken  in  pledge, 
was  to  be  returned  before  sunset.     A  bedstead,  how- 
ever, might  be  taken  (Exod.  xxii,  26,  27 ;  Deut,  xxiv, 
12,  13 ;  comp.  Job  xxii,  6 ;  Prov.  xxii,  27 ;  Shaw,  Trav. 
p.  224;  Burckhardt,  iVo^fs  on  Bed.  i,  47,  231;  Niebuhr, 
Descr.  de  I' A?:  p.  56;  Lane,  Mod.  Eg.  i,  57,  58;  Gesen. 
Thesaur.  p.  403 ;  Michaelis,  Laics  of  Moses,  arts.  143  and 
150).     2.  The  prohibition  was  absolute  in  the  case  of 
(o)  the  widow's  garment  (Deut.  xxiv,  17),  and  (6)  a 
millstone  of  cither  kind  (Deut.  xxiv,  6),     Michaelis 
(art.  150,  ii,  321)  supposes  also  all  indispensable  animals 
and  utensils  of  agriculture ;  see  also  Mishna,  Mauser 
Sheni,  i.     3.  A  creditor  was  forbidden  to  enter  a  house 
to  reclaim  a  pledge,  but  was  to  stand  outside  till  the 
borrower  should  come  forth  to  return  it  (Deut.  xxiv,  10, 
11).     4.  The  original  Komau  law  of  debt  permitted  the 
debtor  to  be  enslaved  by  his  creditor  until  the  debt  was 
discharged  (Livy,  ii,  23 ;  Appian,  liul.  p.  40) ;  and  he 
might  even  be  put  to  death  by  him,  though  this  ex- 
tremity does  not  appear  to  have  been  ever  practiced 
(Gell.  XX,  1,  45,  52;  Smith,  Lict.  of  Class.  Aniiq.  s.  v. 
Bonorum  Cessio,  Nexum).     In  Athens  also  the  creditor 
had  a  claim  to  the  person  of  the  debtor  (Plutarch,  Vit. 
Sol.  15).     The  Jewish  law,  as  it  did  not  forbid  tem- 
porary bondage  in  the  case  of  debtors,  yet  forbade  a 
Hebrew  debtor  to  be  detained  as  a  bondsman  longer 
than  the  seventh  year,  or  at  furthest  the  year  of  jubilee 
(Exod.  xxi,  2;  Lev.  xxv,  39,  42;  Deut.'xv,  9).     If  a 
Hebrew  was  sold  in  this  way  to  a  foreign  sojourner,  he 
might  be  redeemed  at  a  valuation  at  any  time  previous 
to  the  jubilee  year,  and  in  that  year  was,  under  any  cir- 
cumstances, to  be  released.     Foreign  sojourners,  how- 
ever, were  not  entitled  to  release  at  that  time   (Lev. 
xxv,  44,  46,  47,  54;  2  Kings  iv,  2;  Isa.  1,  1;  Iii,  3). 
Land  sold  on  account  of  debt  was  redeemable  either  by 
the  seller  himself,  or  by  a  kinsman  in  case  of  his  inabil- 
ity to  repurchase.      Houses  in  walled  towns,  except 
such  as  belonged  to  Levites,  if  not  redeemed  within  one 
year  after  sale,  were  alienated  forever.    Michaelis  doubts 
■whether  all  debt  was  extinguished  by  the  jubilee;  but 
Josephus's  account  is  very  precise  (^Ani.  iii,  12,  3;  comp. 
Lev.  xxv,  23, 34 ;  Ruth  iv,  4, 10 ;  see  Michaelis,  §  158,  ii, 
360).     In  later  times  the  sabbatical  or  jubilee  release 
was  superseded  by  a  law,  probably  introduced  by  the 
Romans,  by  which  the  debtor  was  liable  to  be  detained 
in  prison  until  the  full  discharge  of  his  debt  (Matt,  v, 
26).     Michaelis  thinks  this  doubtful.     The  case  imag- 
ined in  the  parable  of  the  unmerciful  servant  belongs 
rather  to  despotic  Oriental  than  Jewish  manners  (Matt, 
xviii,  34,  Michaelis,  ibid.  art.  149;  'French,  Parables,  \). 
141).     Subsequent  Jewish  ojiinions  on  loans  and  usury 
may  be  seen  in  the  Mishna,  Baba  Meziah,  c.  iii,  x.     See 

JUBILKE. 

These  laws  relating  to  loans  may  wear  a  strange  and 
somewhat  unreasonable  aspect  to  the  mere  modern  read- 
er, and  cannot  be  understood,  either  in  their  bearing  or 
their  sanctions,  unless  considered  from  the  Biblical  point 
of  view.  The  land  of  Canaan  (as  the  entire  world)  be- 
longed to  its  Creator,  but  was  given  of  God  to  the  de- 
scendants of  Abraham  under  certain  conditions,  of  which 
this  liberality  to  the  needy  was  one.  The  power  of 
getting  loans,  therefore,  was  a  part  of  the  poor  man's 
inheritance.  It  was  a  hen  on  the  land  (the  source  of 
all  property  with  agricultural  people),  which  was  as  valid 
as  the  tenure  of  any  given  portion  hy  the  tribe  or  fam- 
ily to  whose  lot  it  had  fallen.  This  is  the  light  in 
Which  the  Mosaic  polity  represents  the  matter,  and  in 


this  light,  so  long  as  that  polity  retained  its  force,  would 
it,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  regarded  by  the  o^vners  of 
property.  Thus  the  execution  of  this  particular  law 
was  secured  by  the  entire  force  with  which  the  consti- 
tution itself  was  recommended  and  sustained.  But  as 
human  seltishness  might  in  time  endanger  this  particu- 
lar set  of  laws,  so  INIoses  applied  special  support  to  the 
possibly  weak  part.  Hence  the  emphasis  Avith  which 
he  enjoins  the  duty  of  lending  to  the  needy.  Of  this 
emphasis  the  real  essence  is  the  sanction  supplied  by 
that  special  providence  which  lay  at  the  very  basis  of 
the  Mosaic  commonwealth,  so  that  lending  to  the  des- 
titute came  to  be  enforced  with  all  the  power  derivable 
from  the  express  will  of  God.  Nor  are  there  wanting 
arguments  sufficient  to  vindicate  these  enactments  in 
the  light  of  sound  political  economy,  at  least  in  the  case 
of  the  Jewish  people.  Had  the  Hebrews  enjoyed  a  free 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  the  permission  to  take 
usury  of  foreigners  might  have  had  the  effect  of  im- 
poverishing Palestine  by  affording  a  strong  inducement 
for  employing  capital  abroad ;  but,  under  the  actual  re- 
strictions of  the  Mosaic  law,  this  evil  was  impossible. 
Some  not  inconsiderable  advantages  must  have  ensued 
from  the  observance  of  these  laws.  The  entire  aliena- 
tion and  loss  of  the  lent  property  were  prevented  by 
that  pecidiar  institution  which  restored  to  every  man 
his  property  at  the  great  year  of  release.  In  the  in- 
terval between  the  jubilees  the  system  under  considera- 
tion would  tend  to  prevent  those  inequalities  of  social 
condition  which  alwa3's  arise  rapitUy,  and  which  have 
not  seldom  brought  disaster  and  ruin  on  states.  The 
affluent  were  required  to  part  with  a  portion  of  their 
affluence  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  needy,  without  ex- 
acting that  recompense  which  would  only  make  the  rich 
more  wealthy  and  the  poor  more  needy,  thus  superin- 
ducing a  state  of  things  scarcely  more  injurious  to  the 
one  than  to  the  other  of  these  two  parties.  There  was 
also  in  this  S3-stem  a  strongly  conservative  influence. 
Agiiculture  was  the  foundation  of  the  constitution. 
Had  money-lending  been  a  trade,  money-making  would 
also  have  been  eagerly  pursued.  Capital  would  be  with- 
drawn from  the  land;  the  agriculturist  would  pass  into 
the  usurer;  huge  inequalities  would  arise;  commerce 
would  assume  predominance,  and  the  entire  common- 
wealth be  overturned^ — changes  and  evils  which  were 
prevented,  or,  if  not  so,  certainly  retarded  and  abated 
by  the  code  of  laws  regarding  loans.  As  it  was,  the 
gradually  increasing  wealth  of  the  country  was  in  the 
main  laid  out  on  the  soil,  so  as  to  augment  its  produc- 
tiveness and  distribute  its  bounties.  The  same  regida- 
tions,  moreover,  prevented  those  undue  expansions  of 
credit  and  those  sudden  fluctuations  in  the  relative  value 
of  money  and  staple  commodities  which  have  so  often 
brought  on  financial  collapses  and  prostration  in  mod- 
ern communities.  AVliile,  however,  the  benign  tend- 
ency of  the  laws  in  question  is  admitted,  and  special  ob- 
jects may  be  adduced  as  attainable  by  them,  may  it  not 
be  questioned  whether  they  were  strictly  just  V  Such 
a  doubt  could  arise  only  in  a  mind  which  viewed  the 
subject  from  the  position  of  our  actual  society.  A  mod- 
ern might  plead  that  he  had  a  right  to  do  what  he 
pleased  with  his  own ;  that  his  property  of  every  kind 
— land,  food,  money  —  was  his  own;  and  that  he  was 
justified  to  turn  all  and  each  part  to  account  for  his 
own  benefit.  Apart  frotn  religious  considerations,  this 
position  is  impregnable.  But  such  a  view  of  property 
finds  no  support  in  the  Mosaic  institutions.  In  them 
property  has  a  divine  origin,  and  its  use  is  intrusted  to 
man  on  certain  conditions,  which  conditions  arc  as  valid 
as  is  the  tenure  of  property  itself.  In  one  sense,  in- 
deed, the  entire  land— all  property — was  a  great  loan,  a 
loan  lent  of  God  to  the  people  of  Israel,  who  might  well, 
therefore,  acquiesce  in  any  arrangement  which  rccpiircd 
a  portion — a  small  portion — of  this  loan  to  be  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  accessible  to  the  destitute.  'Ihis 
view  receives  confirmation  from  the  fact  that  interest 
might  be  taken  of  persons  wlio  were  not  Hebrews,  and 


LOAYSA 


474 


LOBETHAN 


therefore  lay  beyond  the  sphere  embraced  by  this  spe- 
cial arraiit(ement.  It  would  open  too  wide  a  field  did 
we  proceed  to  consider  liow  far  the  Mosaic  system  might 
be  applicable  in  the  world  at  large ;  but  this  is  very 
clear  to  our  mind,  that  the  theory  of  property  on  which 
it  rests— that  is,  making  property  to  be  divine  in  its  or- 
igin, and  therefore  tenable  only  on  the  fidlilmcnt  of  such 
conditions  as  the  great  laws  of  religion  and  morality 
enforce — is  more  true  and  more  philosophical  (except  in 
a  college  of  atheists)  than  the  narrow  and  baneful  ideas 
which  ordinarily  prevail. 

These  vie^vs  may  prepare  the  reader  for  considermg 
the  tloctrine  of  "  the  Great  Teacher"  on  the  subject  of 
loans.  It  is  found  forcibly  expressed  in  Luke's  Gospel 
(vi,  34, 35)  :  "  If  ye  lend  to  them  of  whom  ye  hope  to  re- 
ceive, what  thank  have  ye?  for  sinners  also  lend  to  sin- 
ners, to  receive  as  much  again;  but  love  ye  your  ene- 
mies, and  do  good,  and  lend,  hoping  for  nothing  again ; 
and  wiir  reward  shall  be  great,  and  ye  shall  be  the  chU- 
dron  of  the  Highest;  for  he  is  khid  unto  the  unthank- 
fid  and  to  the  evil."  The  meaning  of  the  passage  is 
distinct  and  full,  unmistakable,  and  not  to  be  evaded. 
He  commands  men  to  lend,  not  as  Jews  to  Jews,  but 
even  to  enemies,  without  asking  or  receiving  any  re- 
turn, after  the  manner  of  the  Great  Benefactor  of  the 
universe,  who  sends  down  his  rains  and  bids  his  sun  to 
shine  on  the  fields  of  the  unjust  as  well  as  of  the  just. 
To  attempt  to  view  this  command  in  the  light  of  reason 
and  experience  would  require  space  which  cannot  here 
be  given ;  but  we  must  add,  that  any  attempt  to  ex- 
plain the  injunction  away  is  most  unworthy  on  the  part 
of  professed  disciples  of  Christ ;  and  that,  not  impossi- 
bly at  least,  fidelity  to  the  behests  of  him  whom  we  call 
Lord  and  Master  would  of  itself  answer  all  doubts  and 
remove  aU  misgivings  by  practically  showing  that  this, 
as  every  other  doctrine  that  fell  from  his  lips,  is  indeed 
of  God  (Jolin  vii,  17). — Kitto;  Smith.  Yet,  while  we 
must  maintain  the  paramount  obligation  of  our  Sav- 
iour's precept,  corroborative — and,  indeed,  expansive — 
as  it  is,  of  the  essential  principle  of  the  Mosaic  economy, 
namely,  the  inculcation  of  universal  brotherly  love,  nev- 
ertheless common  sense,  no  less  than  sound  morality, 
dictates  at  least  the  following  co-ordinate  considera- 
tions, which  should  likewise  be  taken  into  the  account 
in  the  exercise  of  Christian  liberality,  in  loans  as  well  as 
in  gifts :  1.  Due  inquiry  should  be  instituted,  so  as  to 
satisfy  the  lender  of  the  moral  worthiness  of  the  cred- 
itor, lest  the  loan,  instead  of  being  a  benefaction,  should 
really  be  but  a  stimulus  to  vice,  or,  at  least,  an  encour- 
agement to  idleness.  2.  The  wants  of  one's  own  family 
and  nearer  dependents  must  not  be  sacrificed  by  ill- 
judged  and  untimely  generosity.  3.  Funds  held  in 
trust  should  be  carefully  discriminated  from  one's  own 
personal  property,  and  a  greater  degree  of  caution  exer- 
cised in  their  administration.  4.  We  have  no  right  to 
loan  what  is  already  due  for  our  own  debts — "We  must 
be  just  before  we  are  generous."  5.  In  tine,  the  great 
fact  that  Ave  arc  but  stewards  of  God's  bounty  should  be 
the  ruling  thought  in  all  oiur  benefactions,  whether  in 
the  form  of  loans  or  gifts,  and  we  should  therefore  dis- 
pense funds  so  as  to  contribute  most  to  the  divine  glory 
and  the  highest  good  of  the  recipients.  This  principle 
alone  is  the  true  corrective  of  all  selfishness,  whether 
parsimony  on  the  one  hand,  or  prodigaUty  on  the  other. 
See  Ijonuow;  LiiND,  etc. 

Loaysa,  (iuAci  a  de,  an  eloquent  Dominican  preach- 
er and  Spanish  cardinal,  was  born  in  1479  at  Talavera, 
Castile ;  entered  the  Dominican  Order  at  St.  Paul  de 
renneliel  in  141)5,  and  was  made  successively  professor 
of  philosophy,  next  of  theology,  director  of  studies,  rec- 
tor at  St.(iregory,  prior  of  the  convent  of  Avila  and  of 
Valladolid,  provincial  of  Spain  (151H),  and  finally  gen- 
eral of  his  order.  In  1532  he  was  chosen  confessor  to 
Charles  V,  of  whom  he  liad  previously  be6n  a  teacher. 
In  the  following  year  Charles  V  made  him  bishop  of 
Osma.  He  admitted  him  into  his  private  council,  and 
very  soon  made  him  president  of  the  Ivoyal  Council  of 


the  Indies,  and  president  of  the  Crusade.  Loaysa 
strongly  opposed  the  release,  without  ransom  or  condi- 
tion, of  Francis  I,  king  of  France,  made  prisoner  by 
Charles  at  Pavia.  Succeeding  events  proved  his  coun- 
sel good.  In  1530  Charles  V  obtained  a  cardinalship 
for  him  from  pope  Clement  YII,  and  also  the  title  St. 
Suzanne.  In  the  same  year  he  named  him  bishop  of 
Siguenza,  and  also  archbishop  of  Seville.  Loaysa  final- 
ly became  grand  inquisitor  of  Spain.  He  was  frequent- 
ly ambassador  for  Charles  V,  and  kept  up  a  private  cor- 
respondence with  him,  some  of  the  letters  of  which 
(from  1530  to  1.532),  embracing  Charles's  stay  in  Ger- 
many, the  most  important  period  in  the  history  of  the 
Reformation,  are  published  by  G.  Heine  from  the  ar- 
chives of  Simancas.  These  letters  prove  Loaysa  very 
bitter  against  the  "heretics."  Loaysa  died  April  21, 
154G,  at  IMadrid.  See  Antonio,  Bihlioth.  Hispana  Nova, 
iii,  514 ;  Echard,  Saiptores  Ordinis  PrcBdicatorum,  ii,  39 ; 
Le  P.  Touron,  Honinies  illustres  de  VOrdre  de  Saint-Dom- 
inique, iv,  93 ;  Table  du  Journ.  des  Savans,  vol. vi ;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Bioy.  Generale,  vol.  xxxi,  s.  v. ;  Vehse,  Memoirs  of 
the  Court  of  Austria,  \,  158  sq. ;  Thomas,  ZfiW.  of  Biog. 
and  Mytliol.  s.  v. 

Lobbes,  a  celebrated  convent  in  Hennegau,  near 
Liege,  in  Uelgium,  founded  by  St.Laudelin,  is  noted  par- 
ticularly because  it  educated,  and  at  one  time  had  as  its 
abbot,  the  celebrated  monk  Heriger,  Avho  fiourished  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  10th  century.  His  whole  history 
is  so  thoroughly  entangled  in  mythical  narratives  that 
it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  teU  when  Heriger  first 
came  to  Lobbes.  Yogel,  in  Herzog  {Iteal-Encyklopddie, 
V,  753),  thinks  it  probable  that  Heriger  entered  Lobbes 
in  9G0,  and  that  he  could  not,  because  of  the  low  condi- 
tion of  the  inmates  of  that  monaster}'  previous  to  this 
date,  have  been  educated  there.  Heriger  wrote  Vita  St. 
Ursmari: — Gesta  episcoporum  Tunrji-ensiuni  et  Leodien- 
sium  (about  A.D.  979) : — Vita  St.  Laudoaldi  (about  980), 
etc.     He  died  Oct.  31, 1007. 

Lober,  Gotthilf  Friedemann,  a  German  theolo- 
gian, was  born  at  Bonneburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Sachsen- 
Altenburg,  Oct.  22, 1722.  In  1738  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Jena,  where,  in  1741,  he  lectured  on  linguis- 
tics of  the  Old  and  New  Test.,  and  later  on  philosophy. 
Notwithstanding  liis  splendid  prospects  in  this  sphere, 
he  gave  up  academical  life  in  1743,  and  removed  to  Al- 
tenburg  as  assistant  court  preacher  (his  aged  father  was 
then  chief  court  preacher).  In  1745  he  became  assessor 
of  the  Consistory;  in  1747,  archdeacon;  in  1751,  preach- 
er of  a  foundation  and  councillor  of  the  Consistory ;  in 
17G8,  superintendent  general ;  in  1792,  privj''  councillor 
of  the  Consistory ;  in  the  following  year  he  celebrated 
his  jubilee  of  fifty  years  of  office.  He  died  August  22, 
1799.  By  reason  of  his  extensive  learning,  profound 
linguistic  attainments,  accurate  knowledge  of  all  the 
brandies  of  theologj',  and  great  piety,  he  is  considered 
one  of  the  greatest  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  18th 
centur\'.  Of  his  productions,  we  mention  Observationes 
ad  historiam  vita;  et  mortis  Jesu  Christi  in  ipsa  a;tatM 
fore  obitce  spectantes  (Altenburg,  1767,  8vo). — Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutscklands,  s.  v. 

Lobethan,  Johann  Konrad,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Hebel,  near  Homburg,  Sept.  29, 1G88.  In 
1705  he  entered  the  University  of  Marburg ;  later,  he 
spent  three  years  in  Cassel.  and  in  1711  went  to  Bremen 
to  continue  his  studies.  In  1714  he  accepted  a  call  to 
Weimar  as  court  preacher  of  the  duchess  dowager  Char- 
lotte Dorothea  Sophie ;  in  1720,  to  Ctithen,  as  chief  min- 
ister and  superintendent,  with  the  dignity  of  a  council- 
lor of  the  Consistory.  Subsequently  he  was,  for  several 
years,  tlie  first  minister  and  councillor  of  the  Consistory 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church  at  Magdeburg.  The 
latter  portion  of  liis  life  he  spent  at  Cothen,  where  he 
died  Nov.  29, 1735.  Lobethan  was  noted  as  an  eminent 
preacher ;  the  earnest  and  warm  mode  of  his  delivery 
always  captivated  the  attention  of  his  audience.  Of 
his  productions,  mostly  of  an  ascetical  character,  we 


LOBO 


47^ 


LOCAL  PREACHERS 


mention  Dissert,  de  mar/istaio  gi-atim  suh  Novo  Testam. 
(Bremse,  1711,  4to). — Dijring,  Gelehrte  Th,  Deutschl.  s.  v. 

Lobo,  Jeronimo,  a  noted  Portuguese  missionary 
of  the  Order  of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  at  Lisbon  in  1593. 
He  was  at  first  a  professor  in  the  Jesuits'  College  at 
Coimbra,  wlience  he  was  ordered  to  the  missions  in 
India,  and  removea  to  Goa  in  1G22.  In  16'23  he  vol- 
unteered for  the  mission  to  Abyssinia  to  Christianize 
tliat  countrj',  whose  sovereign,  by  Lobo  called  sultan 
Segued,  had  turned  Roman  Catholic  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  father  Paez,  who  in  1G03  had  gone  to  Abys- 
sinia (q.  v.).  Lobo  sailed  from  Goa  in  162-1,  and  landed 
at  Pate,  on  the  coast  of  Mombaza,  thinking  to  reach 
Abyssinia  by  land.  He  proceeded  some  distance  from 
Pat(i  to  the  northward  among  the  GaUas,  of  whom  he 
gives  an  account,  but,  finding  it  impracticable  to  pene- 
trate into  Abyssinia  by  that  way,  he  retraced  his  steps 
to  the  coast,  and  embarked  for  India.  In  1625  he  start- 
ed out  again,  this  time  in  company  with  Mendez,  the 
newly-appointed  patriarch  of  Etliiopia,  and  other  mis- 
sionaries. After  sailing  up  tlie  Red  iiea  they  landed  at 
Belur,  or  Belal  Bay  (13<^  14'  N.  lat.),  on  the  Dancali 
coast,  whose  sheik  was  tributary  to  Abyssinia,  and 
thence,  crossing  the  salt  plain,  Lobo  entered  Tigre  by  a 
mountain  pass,  and  arrived  at  Fremona,  near  Duan, 
where  the  missionary  settlement  was.  Here  he  spent 
several  years  as  superintendent  of  the  missions  in  that 
kingdom.  A  revolt  of  the  viceroy  of  Tigre,  Tecla 
Georgis,  put  Lobo  in  great  danger,  for  the  rebels  ^vere 
joined  by  the  Abyssinian  priests,  who  hated  tlie  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries,  and  indeed  represented  the  pro- 
tection given  to  them  by  the  emperor  Segued  as  the 
greatest  cause  of  complaint  against  him.  The  viceroy, 
however,  was  defeated,  arrested,  and  hanged ;  and  Lobo, 
having  repaired  to  tlie  emperor's  court,  was  afterwards 
sent  by  his  superiors  to  the  kingdom  of  Damot.  From 
Damot,  Lobo,  after  some  time,  returned  again  to  Tigre, 
where  the  persecution  raised  by  the  son  and  successor 
of  Segued  overtook  him.  All  the  Portuguese,  to  the 
number  of  400,  with  the  patriarch,  a  bishop,  and  eigh- 
teen Jesuits,  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  in 
1G34.  Lobo  now  sailed  for  Europe,  but  on  his  way  was 
shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Natal,  and  some  time 
elapsed  before  he  arrived  in  Portugal,  where  he  sought 
to  enlist  the  government  in  behalf  of  his  scheme,  the 
reclamation  of  Abyssinia  to  the  Romish  Church.  Nei- 
ther here  nor  at  the  court  of  Rome  did  his  plan  find 
favor,  and  he  left  in  1640  for  India,  and  became  provin- 
cial of  the  Jesuits  in  Goa.  In  1656  he  returned  to  Lis- 
bon, and  published  the  narrative  of  his  journey  to  Abys- 
sinia, entitled  Ilistoi-y  of  Ethiopia  (1659),  which  was 
afterwards  translated  into  French  by  the  abbe  Legrand, 
who  added  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  missions  in  Abyssinia  after  Lobo's  departure, 
and  also  an  account  of  the  expedition  of  Poncet,  a 
French  surgeon,  who  reached  that  countrj'  from  Egypt, 
and  a  subsequent  attempt  made  by  Du  Roule,  who  bore 
a  sort  of  di[)lomatic  character  from  the  French  court, 
but  was  murdered  on  his  way,  at  Sennaar,  in  1705. 
This  is  followed  by  several  dissertations  on  the  historj', 
religion,  government,  etc.,  of  Abyssinia.  The  whole 
was  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Johnson  in  1735. 
Lobo  died  at  Lisbon  in  1678. — Enrj.  Ci/cl.s.x, 

Lobstein,  Johanx  jMichael,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Lampertheim,  near  Strasburg,  May,  1740. 
In  1755  he  entered  the  university  of  his  native  place, 
went  to  Paris  in  1767,  and  at  the  expiration  of  nearly 
two  years  returned  to  Strasburg,  and  became  pastor  of 
the  French  Nicolai  Church.  In  addition  to  this  he  be- 
came, after  a  few  years,  preacher  of  the  German  Peter's 
Church,  and  assistant  at  the  Gymnasium.  In  1764  he 
obtained  a  position  as  assistant  of  the  philosophical  fac- 
ulty of  the  university  of  the  same  place.  In  1775  he 
accepted  a  call  to  the  University  of  tiiessen  as  prof.  ord. 
of  divinity  and  assessor  of  the  Consistory ;  in  1777  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinitj*,  and  was  ap- 


pointed inspector  and  first  preacher  at  Butzbach,  In 
1790  he  again  returned  to  Strasburg  as  professor  and 
preacher,  and  there  died,  June  29,  1794.  Lobstein's 
above-mentioned  stay  in  Paris  not  only  offered  him  the 
opportimity  of  hearing  some  of  the  best  Orientalists  of 
the  day  (a  fact  which  chiefly  contributed  to  his  exten- 
sive and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages), 
but  also  made  him  acquainted  with  many  great  men 
of  that  city.  Of  his  scholarly  productions  we  only 
mention  Diss,  de  dicinu  animi  pace,  sanctce  comite  (Ar- 
gentorati,  1766, 4to)  : — Commentatio  /listorico-jihiloloi/ica 
de  moniibusEbal  et  Garizim  (ibid.  1770, 4to)  : — Ohserva- 
tiones  criiicce  in  loca  Pentateuchi  illustria  (Gissae  et  Fran- 
cof.  1787, 8vo).  He  published  also  the  Samaritan  Codex, 
after  the  MSS.  of  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris. — Doring, 
Gelehrte  Theol,  JJeutsch.  a,  v. 

Lobwasser,  Ajibrosius,  a  German  Protestant  poet, 
was  born  at  Schneeburg,  in  Saxony,  April  4, 1515.  He 
studied  law,  and  became  chancellor  of  Misnia,  which  po- 
sition he  resigned  in  1563,  to  assume  the  duties  of  a  pro- 
fessorship at  the  University  of  Kcinigsberg.  He  died 
Nov.  25,  1585.  Lobwasser  exerted  great  influence  over 
the  religious  concerns  of  the  duchy  of  Prussia,  which, 
being  at  first  exclusively  Lutheran,  finally  came  to  be 
about  equally  divided  among  Lutherans  and  Calvinists, 
His  reputation  chiefly  rests,  however,  on  his  German 
version  of  the  Psalms  (based  upon  the  French  transla- 
tion of  Clement  Marot  and  Theodore  Beza),  published 
under  the  title  Die  I'salmen  Davids  nach  frunz.  ilelodey 
in  deiitsche  Reymen  f/tbracht  (Lpz.  1573,  8vo ;  Heidelb. 
1574;  Lpz.  1579;  Strasb.  1597,  Amsterd.  171' 4).  The 
translation  was  so  symmetrical  that  the  music  made  for 
the  French  by  Claude  Gondimel  was  exactly  adapted  to 
the  German.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  acknowl- 
edged that  it  is  entirely  devoid  of  poetical  merit,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  for  a  translation  from  a 
translation  can  seldom  have  any  of  the  original  spirit. 
These  Psalms  were  nevertheless  used  in  the  German 
Reformed  churches  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury, on  account  of  the  people's  aversion  against  sing- 
ing any  but  sacred  productions.  Lobwasser  wrote  also 
Summarien  aller  Kupitel  d.lieilif/en  Schrift,  in  deutschen 
Reimen  (Lpz.  1584,  8vo).  See  Jticher,  Gelehrten  Lexi- 
con ;  Koch,  Gesch.  d.  Kirche  ;  Herzog,  Real-Encyliop.  x, 
447  ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Gen.  xxxi,  428,     (J.  N.  P.) 

Local  Preachers.  The  term  "local,"  as  applied 
to  preachers  in  Methodist  churches,  is  used  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  term  '•itinerant"  or  "travelling," which 
designates  members  of  Annual  Conferences.  Local 
preachers  are  lay  preachers.  They  are  not  subject  to 
appointment  by  bishops  or  stationing  committees,  as 
are  itinerant  ministers.  Nevertheless,  they  are  formally 
licensed,  and  subject  to  the  direction  and  friendly  requi- 
sitions of  the  pastoral  authority  in  the  charge  in  which 
they  reside.  By  special  arrangement,  and  by  authority 
of  the  presiding  elder,  a  local  preacher  is  sometimes  ap- 
pointed preacher  in  charge  or  pastor  for  a  longer  or 
shorter  period. 

In  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  following  is 
the  process  of  the  appointment  of  any  person  as  a  local 
preacher.  1.  He  must  be  recommended  by  the  leaders' 
meeting  of  the  Church  to  which  he  belongs.  He  must 
be  elected  by  a  Quarterly  Conference  bel'ore  which  he 
has  been  examined  on  the  subject  of  doctrines  and  dis- 
cipline. 2.  An  election  by  the  Quarterly  Conference  at 
this  stage  appoints  a  candidate  to  the  oiiice  of  a  local 
preacher.  In  proof  of  his  appointment,  he  is  furnished 
with  a  license  signed  by  the  president  of  the  Confer- 
ence. The  license  is  given  for  one  year  only,  and,  in 
order  to  validity,  must  be  renewed  every  year  thereaf- 
ter. 3.  Subject  to  the  following  prerequisites,  a  local 
preacher  may  be  ordained:  (1.)  He  must  have  held  a 
local  preacher's  license  for  four  consecutive  years  before 
his  ordination.  (2.)  He  must  have  been  examined  in 
the  Quarterly  Conference  on  the  subject  of  doctrines 
and  discipline.     (3.)  He  must  have  received  a  "  testi- 


LOCAL  PREACHERS 


4V6   LOCI  COMMUNES  THEOLOGICI 


inonial"  from  the  Quarterly  Conference,  signed  by  the 
president  and  countersigned  by  the  secretary.  This 
testimrinial  must  recommend  the  apphcant  as  a  suitable 
person  to  receive  ministerial  orders.  (4.)  He  must  pass 
an  examination  as  to  character  and  accjuirements  before 
the  Annual  Conference,  and  obtain  its  approbation  and 
election  to  orders. 

Local  preachers  are  amenable  to  the  Quarterly  Con- 
ftrences  of  which  they  are  members.  An  ordained 
local  preacher  is  not  required  to  have  his  credentials  re- 
newed annually,  although  his  character  must  be  ap- 
proved each  year  by  the  Quarterly  Conference.  No 
person  is  eligible  to  admission  on  trial  in  an  Annual 
Conference  who  is  not  a  local  preacher,  and  specially 
recommended  by  the  Quarterly  Conference  as  a  suitable 
candidate  for  the  ''  travelling  connection."  Thus  the 
local  or  lay  preacher's  office  is  made  preparatory  to  the 
itinerant  or  fully-constituted  ministry.  Local  preachers 
are  subject  to  all  the  moral  and  religious  obligations  of 
the  regular  ministry.  Although  expected  to  devise  and 
execute  plans  for  doing  good  to  the  extent  of  their  in- 
dividual ability,  they  are  nevertheless  required  to  act 
under  the  direction  of  their  pastors  or  presiding  elders, 
who  are  on  their  part  required  by  the  Discipline  of  the 
Church  to  give  local  preachers  regular  and  systematic 
employment  on  the  Sabbath. 

On  large  circuits,  and  on  stations  embracuig  mission- 
ary work,  and  where  the  number  of  local  preachers  is 
considerable,  it  is  customary  to  arrange  and  print  a 
Plan  covering  all  the  appointments  of  a  quarter,  and 
designating  the  time  and  place  of  each  individual's  ser- 
vices. In  the  Wesleyan  jNIethodlst  Church  of  Great 
Britain  the  insertion  of  a  local  preacher's  name  on  the 
current  plan  of  the  charge  is  deemed  a  sufficient  license 
and  public  authentication  for  his  office.  In  his  meas- 
ures for  training  and  employing  lay  workers  in  the  Con- 
gregational Church,  Kev.  T.  Dewitt  Talraage,  of  Brook- 
lyn, has  adopted  the  system  of  mapping  out  the  work 
of  his  lay  preachers  in  a  printed  plan,  after  the  manner 
above  alluded  to. 

According  to  official  statistics,  the  number  of  local 
preachers  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  at  the 
close  of  1871  was  11,382,  a  number  greater  by  2G83  than 
that  of  the  itinerant  ministers  of  the  same  Church. 
The  number  of  local  preachers  in  the  eight  other  IMeth- 
odist  bodies  of  the  United  States  is  supposed  to  be  about 
10,000.  In  all  but  a  few  exceptional  cases,  the  individ- 
uals forming  this  great  body  of  evangelical  workers  ren- 
der their  services  to  churches  and  people  without  fee  or 
re\vard.  ilany  of  them  faithfully  and  zealously  obey 
the  commands  of  the  great  Teacher :  "  Go  out  quickly 
into  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city,  and  bring  in  hith- 
er the  poor,  and  the  maimed,  and  the  halt,  and  the 
blind;"  also,  "Go  out  into  the  highways  and  hedges, 
and  compel  them  to  come  in,  that  my  house  may  be 
filled."  While  preaching  laboriously  on  the  Sabbath, 
they  support  themsilves  bj'  diligence  in  business  during 
the  week. 

Witliin  a  few  years  past  a  spirited  effort  has  been 
made  among  the  local  preachers  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  for  mutual  improvement,  and  the  general 
increase  of  the  intellectual  and  spiritual  power  of  the 
boily.  A  National  I^ocal  Preachers'  Association  has  been 
formed,  which  has  held  public  sessions  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  ••  At  these  annual  gatherings  rep- 
resentatives from  all  parts  of  the  world  come  together 
for  counsel,  and  for  the  comparison  of  personal  experi- 
ence, and  observations,  and  methods  of  labor;  also  to 
discuss  (luestions  bearing  u|ion  their  worlc  generally." 
This  association  also  encourages  the  organization  of 
branch  associations  in  dilferent  sections  of  the  country. 
The  National  Association  referred  to  memorialized  the 
General  Conference  of  1872,  requesting  the  following 
legislation,  viz. : 

\l.)  To  organize  in  each  presiding  elder's  district  a  Dis- 
trict Conference,  to  be  composed  of  all  tlie  travelling  and 
local  preachers  in  the  district,  and  to  be  presided  over  by 
the  presiding  elder,  and  meet  semi-uunually. 


(2.)  To  give  this  District  Conference  authority  to  re- 
ceive, license,  try,  and  expel  local  preachers,  and  also  to 
recommend  suitable  persons  to  tue  Annual  Conference 
to  be  received  into  tlie  travelling  connection,  and  for  or- 
dination as  local  deacons  and  elders. 

(3.)  To  authorize  the  District  Conference  to  assign  each 
local  preacher  to  a  field  of  labor  for  the  quarter,  and  to 
hold  him  strictly  responsible  for  an  efiicieut  performance 
of  his  work. 

This  scheme  of  District  Conferences  being  analogous  to 
that  long  practiced  by  the  Wesleyans  of  Great  Britain, 
was,  with  sundry  additions  and  modifications,  adopted, 
but,  nevertheless,  made  subject  to  the  option  of  a  ma- 
jority of  the  (Quarterly  Conferences  in  any  given  dis- 
trict. The  local  preacher's  ofHce  may  be  considered  a 
feature  of  Methodist  churches,  in  all  their  branches  and 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  By  means  of  it  lay  preaching 
is  not  only  sanctioned,  but  regulated  and  made  auxil- 
iary to  regular  Church  and  missionary  movements.  In 
England  a  monthly  magazine  is  published,  entitled  The 
Local  Preacher's  Magazine,  to  furnish  lay  preachers 
material  for  study,  etc.,  since  1851.  See  also  J.  11.  Carr, 
The  Local  Ministi-y,  its  Character,  Vocation,  and  Position 
(Lond.  1851) ;  G.  iim\ih,Wesleijan  Local  Preacher's  Man- 
ual (Lond.  1861) ;  Mills,  ioc«^  or  Lay  Ministry  (Lond./ 
1851).     (D.P.K.) 

Lochman,  J.  George,  D.D.,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
widely  and  favorably  known,  was  bora  in  Philadelphia 
Dec.  2, 1773.  After  the  proper  preparation,  he  entered 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  which  he  was  grad- 
uated in  1789,  and  from  which  institution  he  subse- 
quently received  the  doctorate.  He  studied  theology 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Helmuth,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  the  Gospel  in  1794.  Soon  after,  he  accepted  a 
call  to  Lebanon,  Penn.,  where  he  remained  twenty-one 
years,  laboring  with  great  fidelity  and  the  most  satisfac- 
tory results.  In  1815  he  was  elected  pastor  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  at  Harrisburg,  Penn.  His  successful  la- 
bors here  were  terminated  by  death  July  10, 182(5.  Dr. 
Lochman  was  an  able  and  popular  preacher.  He  was 
held  in  high  estimation  by  the  Church,  and  exercised 
an  unbounded  infiuence.  See  Sprague,  A  nnals  A  m.  Pul- 
7;/V,  ix,110sq.     (M.  L.  S.) 

Loci  Communes  Theologici  is  the  name  giv- 
en to  expositions  of  evangelical  dogmatics  in  the  early 
times  of  the  Keformation.  It  originated  with  Jlelanc- 
thon,  and  was  retained  by  many  as  late  as  the  17th  cen- 
tury. INIelancthon  was  led  to  adopt  it  in  consequence 
of  its  classical  signification,  the  word  loci  being  then 
used  to  denote  the  fundamental  principles  of  any  system 
or  science,  and  he  considered  it  desirable  that  the  loci  of 
theology  should  also  be  regularly  established  and  de- 
fined :  "E  quibus  rerum  summa  pendeat,  ut  quorsum  di- 
rigenda  sint  studia  inteUigatur"  (/>o«  communes  s.  hypo- 
typoses  theolor/icce,  1521);  "  Prodest  in  doctrina  Christ, 
ordine  colligere  prsecipuos  locos  ut  inteUigi  possit ;  quid 
in  summa  profiteatur  doctrina  Christiana,  quid  ad  earn 
portineat,  quid  non  pertineat"  {Loci  communes,  1533, 
init.).  But,  as  the  very  first  principle  of  the  Keforma- 
tion was  the  Bible  as  a  source  of  saving  truth,  it  is  evi- 
dent the  Loci  communes  theologici  could  be  nothing  else 
than  the  Scriptures  themselves.  In  the  first  edition  of 
his  Loci  Melancthon  confined  himself  almost  exclusive- 
ly to  the  Epistle  to  the  Piomans,  in  the  exposition  of 
which  he  collected  the  Communissimi  rerum  thenlof/ica- 
nim  loci:  in  his  second  work  (1533)  he  extended  his 
field,  following  the  historical  ortier,  and  this  plan  has 
been  generally  adopted  since.  The  most  striking  prog- 
ress accomplished  by  this  method,  compared  with  the 
former  scholastic  treatment  of  dogmatics,  is,  as  Melanc- 
thon himself  pointed  out,  a  return  to  the  Bible  on  all 
points,  instead  of  to  the  sentences  of  Peter  Lombard, 
"(Jni  ita  reci tat  dogmata  ut  nee  muniat  lectorcm  Scrip- 
tune  testimoniis  nee  de  summa  Scriptura;  disputet." 
As  the  Keformation  restored  the  Bible  to  the  people,  it 
was  natural  that  the  Loci  theol.  also  should  be  less  scien- 
tific and  learned  works  than  such  as  could  help  the  peo- 
ple to  a  cleared  understanding  of  the  Scriptures.    Hence 


LOCK 


477 


LOCKE 


they  -were  published  in  German  by  Spalatin  (1521).  af-  I  has  small  pins,  made  to  correspond  with  the  holes,  into 


tenvards  by  J.  Jonas  (153G),  and  tiually  by  Melancthon 
himself  (1542),  and  designated  by  them  as  the  chief  ar- 
ticles and  principal  point  of  Scripture  (IhaqHartikel  u. 
fiirnehmste  Funkte  d.  ganzen  heil.  Svliri/t),  or  of  Chris- 
tian doctrine  {Hauptartikd  christlichcr  Lehrt).  Me- 
lancthon, however,  in  the  third  part  of  his  Loci  (1543- 
59),  gradually  withdrew  from  this  position,  and  adopted 
a  manner  of  treating  the  subject  more  akin  to  scholas- 
ticism. This  was  subsequently  the  case  with  the  Loci 
theohxjici  of  Abdias  Prffitorius  (Schulze)  (Wittemberg, 
15G9)  and  Strigel  (ed.  Fezel,  Neust,  1581),  who  held  the 
same  views,  as  well  as  with  those  of  Martin  Chemnitz 
(ed.  P.  Lysef,  Francf.  a.  M.  1591)  and  Hafenreffer  (Tlib. 
IGOO),  who  diflfered  from  him;  also  of  Leonard  Hlit- 
ter  (Wittemb.  1619),  who  went  on  an  entirely  different 
])rinciplc,  which  John  Gerhard  tried  to  soften  down  in 
his  renowned  Loci  theol.  (Jena,  1010),  while  A.  Calov, 
in  his  ASt/stema  locor.  theol.  (Wittemb.  1G55),  carried  it 
to  its  fidi  extreme.  After  this  time  the  expression  Loci 
t/ieolof/ici  ceased  to  be  used  in  Lutheran  dogmatics.  In 
the  IJeformed  Church  it  was  used  by  Hyperius  (Basle, 
15GG),W.  Muscidus  (Berne,  15G1),  Peter  Martyr  (Basle, 
1580),  J.  Maccov  (Franeker,  1G39),  and  D.  Chamier  (Ge- 
neva, 1653).  See  Gass,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Dogmatik  (1854, 
vol.  i)  ;  Heppe,  Dofpnatik  des  deutsch.  Protestantismus, 
etc.  (1857,  vol.  i) ;  C.  Schwarz,  Studitn  ii.  Ki-itiken  (1855, 
i,  and  1857,  ii). — Herzog,  Eeal-Encyklojmdie,  viii,  449. 
(J.N.  P.) 

IiOCk  (?"3,  nadV,  to  bar  up  a  door,  Judg.  iii,  23,  24 ; 
rendered  "  bolt,"  2  Sam.  xiii,  17,  18,  "  inclose,"  "  shut 
up,"  in  Cant,  iv,  12;  hence  Pl"3iO,  manul',  the  holt  or 
fastening  of  a  door,  Neh.  iii,  3,  6, 13, 14, 15;  Cant,  v,  5). 
The  doors  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  were  secured  by  bars 
of  wood  or  iron,  though  the  latter  were  almost  entirely 
appropriated  to  the  entrance  of  fortresses,  prisons,  and 
towns  (comp.  Isa.  xlv,  2).  Thus  we  find  it  mentioned 
in  1  Kings  iv,  13  as  something  remarkable  concerning 
Bashan  that  "  there  were  threescore  great  cities,  hav- 
ing walls  and  brazen  bars."  These  were  almost  the 
only  locks  known  in  early  times,  and  they  were  fur- 
nished with  a  large  and  clumsy  key,  which  was  applied 
to  tlie  bar  through  an  orifice  on  the  outside,  by  means 
of  which  the  bolt  or  bar  was  slipped  forward  as  in  mod- 
ern locks  (Judg.  iii,  24).  There  were  smaller  contri- 
vances for  inner  doors,  and  probably  projecting  pieces 
by  which  to  shove  the  bolt  with  the  hand  (Cant,  v,  5). 
See  Key.  Lane  thus  describes  a  modern  Egyptian  lock  : 
'■  Every  door  is  furnished  with  a  wooden  lock,  called 
ddhbeli,  the  mechanism  of  which  is  shown  by  a  sketch 
here  inserted.  No.  1  is  a  front  view  of  the  lock,  with 
the  bolt  drawn  back;  Nos.  2,  3,  and  4  are  back  views  of 
the  separate  parts  and  the  key.  A  number  of  small 
iron  pins  (four,  five,  or  more)  drop  into  corresponding 
holes  in  the  sliding  bolt  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  pushed 
into  the  hole  or  staple  of  the  door-post.     The  key  also 


r^ 


izz 


o 


f=^^^ 


Modern  Egyptian  wooden  Lock. 


which  they  are  introduced  to  open  the  lock,  the  former 
pins  being  thus  puslicd  up,  the  bolt  may  be  drawn  back. 
The  wooden  lock  of  a  street  door  commonly  has  a  slid- 
ing bolt  about  fourteen  inches  long ;  those  of  the  doors 
of  apartments,  cupboards,  etc.,  are  about  seven,  eight, 
or  nine  inches.  The  locks  of  the  gates  of  quarters,  pub- 
lic buildings,  etc.,  are  of  the  same  kind,  and  mostly  two 
feet  in  length,  or  more.  It  is  not  difficult  to  pick  this 
kind  of  lock"  {Mod.  Er/yptians,  i,  25).  Hence  they  were 
sometimes,  as  an  additional  security,  covered  with  clay 
(q.  v.),  and  on  this  a  seal  (q.  v.)  impressed  (conip.  Job 
xxviii,  14).  (See  KauwoUff,  Trav.  in  Eay,  i",  17;  Eus- 
seU.,  Aleppo,  i,  22;  Volnej',  Trav.  ii,  438;  Chardin,  Toy. 
iv,  123;  Wilkinson,  Anc.  Egypt.,  abridgment,  i,  15,  16.) 
See  UooR. 

The  other  terms  rendered  "lock"  in  the  Auth.Yers. 
refer  to  the  hair  of  the  head,  etc. ;  they  are  the  foUow- 
mg:  nis?)!'?,  viachlajjhoth' ,  braids  or  plaits,  e.  g.  of 
the  long  hair  of  Samson  (Judg.  xvi,  13,  19);  n'^II^Ii 
tsitsith',  the  Jo7-elock  of  the  head  (Ezek.  viii,  3;  also  a 
"  fringe"  or  tassel.  Numb,  xv,  38, 39 ;  comp.  Matt,  xxiii, 
5) ;  S'"nS,/)e'?-o,  the  locks  of  hair,  as  being  shorn  (Numb, 
vi,  5;  Ezek.  xliv,  20;  and  niSIp,  kevntstsoth' ,  thefoi-e- 
locks  or  sidelocks  of  a  man's  or  woman's  hair  (Cant,  v,  2, 
12;  comp.  Schidtens,  Op.  min.  p.  246);  but  tlS^,  tsam- 
muh',  is  a  veil  or  female  covering  for  the  head  and  face, 
usual  in  the  East  (Cant,  iv,  1,  3 ;  vi,  7 ;  Isa.  xlvii,  2). 
See  Hair. 

Locke,  George,  a  Methodist  preacher,  was  born 
in  Cannonstown,  Pa.,  June  8,  1797,  and  reared  in  Ken- 
tucky. His  early  educational  advantages  were  few, 
but  he  improved  all  opportunities  to  secure  knowledge. 
His  parents  were  Presbyterians,  but  George  was  made 
a  Methodist  through  the  preaching  of  Edward  Talbot 
when  a  saddler's  apprentice.  In  1817  he  was  licensed  to 
exhort,  and  soon  began  to  preach.  In  1819  he  entered 
Tennessee  Conference,  and  was  successively  appointed 
to  Little  Kiver  Circuit,  to  Powell's  Talley,  and  to  Bowl- 
ing Green  Circuit,  Ky.  In  1822  he  located  in  Shelby- 
ville,  and  engaged  in  secular  business.  His  conscience 
forced  him  to  re-enter  the  ministrj',  and  he  success- 
ively preached  on  Jefferson  Circuit  and  Hartford  Cir- 
cuit (Kentucky  Conference).  In  1826  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Corydon  Circuit,  Illinois  Conference.  In  1828 
he  labored  on  Charleston  Circuit,  and  was  the  means 
of  one  of  the  greatest  revivals  that  Southern  Indiana 
ever  witnessed.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed  pre- 
siding elder  of  Wabash  District,  which  embraced  an 
area  of  territory  in  Indiana  and  Illinois  of  at  least  100 
miles  from  east  to  west,  by  200  miles  from  north  to 
south,  on  either  side  of  the  Wabash  Eiver.  While  on 
this  district  he  contracted  the  consumption,  and  was 
obliged  to  become  supernumerarj'.  He  died  in  New 
Albany,  Ind.,  in  July,  1834.  See  Spraguc,  Annuls  of 
the  American  Pulpit,  vii,  608. 

Locke,  John,  the  most  notable  of  modem 
English  philosophers,  who  has  exercised  the  great- 
est influence  on  all  subsequent  speculation,  in  both 
psychology  and  politics,  and  whose  doctrines,  un- 
der various  modifications  or  exaggerations,  still 
contribute  largely  to  mould  the  opmions  of  the 
civilized  world.  He  has  in  great  measure  deter- 
mined the  complexion  of  British  psychologj^  As 
the  most  strenuous  antagonist  of  Cartesianism ; 
as  the  precursor  and  teacher  alike  of  the  French 
encyclopasdists  and  of  the  Scotch  school ;  as  the 
oracle  of  the  freethinkers,  the  target  of  Leib- 
nitz, and  the  stimulator  of  Hartley,  Berkeley,  and 
Hume,  Locke  must  always  attract  the  earnest  con- 
sideration of  the  student  of  metaphysics.  For 
nearly  two  centuries  his  name  has  been  a  battle- 
cry,  and  his  dogmas  have  been  fought  over  bj-  the 
shadowy  hosts  of  warring  ideologues  with  the  zeal 
and  the  fury  with  which  the  Greeks  and  the  Tro- 


LOCKE 


478 


LOCKE 


jans  contended  over  the  body  of  Patroclus.  His  labors 
ill  tlie  department  of  mental  ])lulosophy  constitute  only 
a  part  of  bis  claims  to  enduring  regard.  His  inquiries 
liavc  been  scarcely  less  fruitful  in  political  ]ilnlo.sopby 
and  political  economy.  In  the  former  he  is  the  acant- 
conrier  of  Kousseau;  in  the  latter  science,  of  Adam 
Smith;  and  in  each  he  has  laid  the  foundations  on 
wliich  later  theorists  and  later  statesmen  have  been  con- 
tent to  build. 

LiJ'e. — John  Locke  ^yas  born  Aug.  29, 1632,  at  Wring- 
ton,  Somersetshire,  and  was  educated  first  at  Westminster 
School,  and  later  at  Christ  Church  College, Oxford.  Here 
he  prosecuted  the  prescribed  studies  with  diUgence  and 
success,  but  deviated  from  the  beaten  path  by  devoting 
himself  to  the  discountenanced  writings  of  Des  Cartes, 
who  had  died  a  few  years  beibre.  He  obtained  the  bac- 
calaureate in  1G55,  and  the  master's  degree  in  1G58,  and 
then  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  medicine,  rather 
for  the  sake  of  knowledge  and  of  his  sickly  frame  than 
with  the  purpose  of  practicing  his  profession. 

In  1064  Locke  accompanied  the  embassy  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg  as  secretary  of  legation,  but  he  re- 
turned to  Oxford  within  the  year,  and  applied  him- 
self to  experimental  philosophy,  then  rising  mto  favor. 
An  accident  now  decided  his  course  of  life,  and  occa- 
sioned his  acquaintance  with  lord  Ashley — the  celebra- 
ted earl  of  Shaftesbury — with  whom  he  was  persuaded 
to  take  up  his  abode  the  next  year.  By  his  sldll  and 
good  luck  he  relieved  his  patron  of  an  abscess  which 
endangered  his  life,  and  was  induced  to  confine  his  med- 
ical practice  to  a  small  circle  of  the  lord's  friends,  and 
to  give  his  chief  attention  to  political  speculation  and 
questions  of  state.  He  thus  became  a  man  of  the  world 
before  he  became  a  philosopher.  In  1(508  Locke  ac- 
companied the  earl  and  countess  of  Northumberland  to 
France.  The  earl  proceeded  towards  Rome,  and  died 
on  the  way.  Locke  returned  with  the  countess  to  Eng- 
land, and  again  found  a  home  with  Ashley — chancellor 
of  the  exchequer  after  Clarendon's  fall.  The  future 
sage  was  employed  to  superintend  the  education  of  Ash- 
ley's heir,  a  feeble  boy  of  sixteen.  He  was  afterwards 
commissioned  to  select  a  wife  for  him,  and  did  so  satis- 
factorily. In  due  course  of  time  he  took  charge  of  the 
education  of  the  eldest  son  of  this  marriage,  the  author 
of  "  the  Characteristics."  "  To  such  strange  uses  may 
^ve  come  at  last !" 

Though  residing  with  lord  Ashley,  Locke  retained  his 
connection  with  Oxford,  which  he  frequently  visited. 
On  one  of  these  visits,  in  1670,  the  conversation  of  Dr. 
Thomas  and  other  friends  turned  his  thoughts  to  the 
difficult,  still  unsettled,  and  perhaps  insoluble  question 
of  the  nature  and  limits  of  human  knowledge.  This 
supplied  the  germ  of  the  L'ssay  on  the  Human  Uiuler- 
standimj,  though  nearlj^  twenty  years  elapsed  before  the 
completion  and  publication  of  the  work.  In  1672,  Ash- 
ley, the  master-spirit  in  Charles  H's  "  Cabal,"  was  cre- 
ated earl  of  Sliaftesbury,  and  soon  after  he  was  made 
lord  high  chancellor.  Locke  was  appointed  secretary 
of  Plantations.  Next  summer  Shaftesbury  surrendered 
the  great  seal,  and  became  president  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  and  Plantations.  Locke  was  named  secretary  of 
the  board.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  produced  for  his 
noble  friend  and  the  other  proprietors  the  Constitution 
of  the  Carolinas.  In  another  year  the  Commission  of 
Trade  was  dissolved,  Locke  lost  liis  post,  and  he  dreamt 
of  making  a  livelihood  by  Ids  profession.  But  his  health 
was  feeble,  and  he  travelled  in  France,  acquiring  at 
Montpellier  the  intimacy  of  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  to 
whom  lie  afterwanls  dedicated  his  "  KssaijP 

On  Sliaftesbury 's  restoration  to  office  as  lord  presi- 
dent of  the  council,  167'.>,  lie  sent  for  Locke,  but  the 
minister  was  dismissed  in  October  of  the  same  year. 
In  two  years  more  he  was  brought  to  trial  for  treason, 
but  the  grand  jurj-  ignored  the  indictment.  Shaftes- 
bury, however,  was  compelled  to  escape  secretly  to  Hol- 
land, where  he  died,  .luiie  21, 1683.  Locke  had  followed 
him,  and  wrote  an  affectionate  tribute  to  his  memory. 


The  hostile  testimony  of  bishop  Fell  proves  that 
Locke  had  held  himself  aloof  from  the  intrigues  in 
^\•hich  Shaftesbury  was  involved.  He  did  not  avoid 
tlie  malice  which  such  an  intimacy  invited.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  studentship  at  Christ  Church,  and  vain- 
ly attempted  to  regain  it  at  the  Kevolution.  On  the 
accession  of  James  II  his  surrender  was  demanded  from 
the  states'  general  on  the  charge  of  complicity  in  IMon- 
mouth's  insurrection.  He  was  concealed  by  his  Dutch 
friends.  AVilliam  Penn  offered  to  procure  his  pardon, 
but  the  office  was  nobly  declined.  During  this  exUe 
Locke  composed  his  first  Letter  on  Toleration,  and  pro- 
duced his  plan  of  "A  Commonplace  Book" — if  it  be  his 
— a  cumbrous  and  inadequate  device,  which  admits  of 
easy  improvement.  Dui.'jig  this  period — towards  the 
close  of  1687 — he  finished  the  Essay  concerninr/  the  Hu- 
man Umlerstandim/.  The  mode  of  its  composition  has 
left  painful  traces  on  the  completed  work,  as  was  appre- 
hended and  acknowledged  by  its  author. 

The  Kevolution  of  1688  restored  Locke  to  his  native 
land.  He  signalized  his  return  by  the  publication  of 
his  great  philosophical  work.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
prohibit  its  introduction  into  the  University  of  Oxford. 
In  1690  he  issued  his  two  treatises  On  Government.  They 
controverted  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of  kings, 
and  referred  the  origin  of  government  to  a  social  com- 
pact, which  is  equally  disproved  by  theory  and  by  his- 
tory. They  rendered  a  greater  service  by  recognising 
labor  as  the  foundation  of  property,  though  the  tenet 
was  pressed  too  far. 

Locke  continued  to  decline  diplomatic  honors,  but  ac- 
cepted the  place  of  Commissioner  of  Appeals,  with  the 
modest  salary  of  £200.  He  directed  his  regards  in 
these  years  to  the  coinage  of  the  realm,  which  was 
much  debased;  and  published  in  1691  his  Considerations 
on  the  Loiverinf)  of  Interest  and  Raisinfj  the  Value  of 
Money,  which  was  followed  in  1695  by  Further  Consid- 
erations on  liaising  the  Value  cfAfoney.  He  was  in  fre- 
quent consultation  with  the  earl  of  Pembroke  on  the 
subject  of  that  restoration  of  the  British  coinage  which 
was  brought  about  by  the  concurrent  action  of  lord 
Somers  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

In  1693  Locke  withdrew  from  the  dull,  heavy  atmos- 
phere of  London,  and  accepted  a  pleasant  retreat  for  his 
increasing  asthma  and  advancing  age  at  Oates,  in  Es- 
sex, the  seat  of  Sir  Francis  Masham,  who  had  married 
the  accomplished  daughter  of  Dr.  Cudworth.  It  had 
been  the  fortune  of  Locke  through  life  to  live  "quadris 
alienist  His  last  quarters  were  at  Oates.  This  was 
his  home  till  he  found  a  quieter  home  in  the  grave, 
where  he  waited  in  cold  abstraction's  apathy  lor  a  mir- 
acle to  reanimate  his  spirit,  according  to  the  dogma  of 
The  Reasonableness  of  Christianity  (produced  in  1G95). 
This  work  sought  the  union  of  aU  Christian  believers 
by  advancing  the  doctrine  that  the  only  necessary  arti- 
cle of  Christian  belief  is  comprised  in  the  acceptance  of 
Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  making  all  the  requirements  be- 
yond this  to  consist  of  2}7-acticfd  duties,  of  repentance  for 
sin,  and  obedience  to  the  moral  precepts  of  the  Gospel. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  king  William  HI,  of  Eng- 
land, entertained  the  design  of  uniting  Conformists  and 
Dissenters  on  some  common  ground,  and  to  further  this 
scheme  Locke  wrote  The  Reasonableness  of  Chi-istianity 
(comp.  Quarterly  Review,  Lond.  186-1,  July).  About  the 
time  of  his  retirement  from  the  city  Locke  published  his 
third  Letter  on  Toleration,  and  in  the  first  year  of  his  se- 
clusion wrote  his  little  tract  on  the  Education  of  Chil- 
dren. The  same  year  which  brought  out  his  exceed- 
ingly heterodox  essay  on  Christianit}'  was  marked  by 
his  philosophical  controversy  with  Dr.  Stillingtieet,  bish- 
op of  Worcester. 

Locke's  circumstances  were  now  rendered  perfectly 
easy  by  his  appointment  as  commissioner  of  Trade  and 
Plantations,  with  emoluments  amounting  to  £1000  per 
amium.  Locke,  however,  had  an  aptitude  for  losing  or 
dropping  the  gifts  of  the  fairies.  Increasing  debility 
made  him  resign  his  comfortable  sinecure  in  1700,  and. 


LOCKE 


479 


LOCKE 


four  years  later,  he  died  calmly  at  Gates,  Oct.  28, 1704. 
lie  was  buried  at  the  neighboring  church  of  High  La- 
yer, (^ueen  Caroline,  one  of  those  fommes  preeicitses 
who,  like  Christina  of  Sweden  or  Eider's  princess,  fol- 
lowed with  her  sympathies  the  studies  she  could  not 
understand,  placed  Locke's  bust  with  those  of  Bacon, 
Newton,  and  Clarke,  in  the  mausoleum  erected  by  her 
at  Kiehmond  Park  to  commemorate  the  glories  of  Eng- 
lish philosophy. 

Locke's  health  was  always  exceedingly  feeble,  and 
his  existence  was  prolonged  only  by  constant  vigilance 
and  care.  This  doubtless  contributed  to  his  abstinence 
from  any  energetic  vocation,  and  probably  influenced 
his  theories  as  well  as  his  character  and  conduct.  It 
rendered  his  existence  a  career  of  tranquil  and  learned 
leisure,  except  so  far  as  it  was  interrupted  by  the  suspi- 
cions and  malice  which  civil  discord  directs  against  ev- 
ery man  of  note.  The  self-regarding  habits  of  a  vale- 
tudinarian may  have  impelled  the  thoughts  of  the  phi- 
losopher to  tliat  continual  introspection  and  that  exag- 
geration of  personal  impressions  which  so  strongly  mark 
his  philosophy.  His  love  of  ease  and  security  showed 
itself  in  his  general  demeanor.  He  was  cautious  and 
retiring,  affable  and  genial  in  his  intercourse,  kindly 
and  affectionate  in  his  nature,  free  from  jiersonal  ani- 
mosities, notwithstanding  his  transitory  difference  with 
Newton  and  his  controversy  with  bishop  StiUingfleet. 
He  avoided  the  incumbrances  of  matrimony;  and  the 
delicient  experiences  of  an  old  bachelor — the  want  of 
that  most  suggestive  knowledge,  the  dawn  of  intelli- 
gence in  infancy — may  be  noted  in  his  whole  psychol- 
ogy. His  life  was,  however,  worthy  of  his  eminence, 
and  was  such  as  to  make  him  a  suitable  compeer  of 
thosejhrtunate  nimium — those  hapjn'  philosophic  dispo- 
sitions which  are  represented  by  Malcbranche,  Spinoza, 
Leibnitz,  Berkeley,  and  Hume. 

Pliilosophy. — The  philosophy  of  Locke  is  very  sim- 
ple, if  not  very  coherent,  and  very  unsystematic  in  its 
treatment  by  himself.  It  consists  rather  of  one  pro- 
litic  principle  and  its  explanations  than  of  any  complete 
and  orderly  scheme.  That  principle  furnishes  a  foun- 
dation for  a  distinctive  method,  which  was  only  im- 
perfectly and  inconsistently  developed  by  him.  That 
method  is  psychological,  and  Locke  has  been  too  hastily 
regarded  as  its  inventor,  whereas  he  only  applied  it  too 
exclusively  and  within  too  narrow  limits.  Locke's  con- 
troversial works  are  naturally  directed  to  the  removal 
of  the  numerous  objections  and  misapprehensions  to 
which  his  fundamental  tenet  and  its  applications  are 
obnoxious:  but  even  the  Essay  itself  is  mainly  employ- 
ed in  the  discussion  of  topics  which  illustrate  the  dog- 
ma rather  than  establish  a  formal  body  of  doctrine,  and 
which  belong  to  the  preliminaries  or  prolegomena  of 
philosojihy  much  more  than  to  philosophy  proper. 

An  examination  of  the  analysis  usually  prefixed  to 
the  "  Essay"  will  show  how  small  a  portion  of  the  work 
really  belongs  to  the  regular  exposition  of  a  metajihys- 
ical  system ;  how  much  is  occupied  with  the  anticipa- 
tion of  objections,  or  the  simplification  of  apprehended 
difficulties.  The  treatise  is  di\-ided  into  four  books. 
The  first  repudiates  the  Cartesian  doctrine  of  innate 
ideas,  and  is  therefore  controversial  and  negative.  It 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  verj^  highly  regarded  by 
Locke  himself.  The  second  is  an  inquiry  into  the  ori- 
gin and  limits  of  human  knowledge,  and  is  the  charac- 
teristic portion  of  Locke's  philosophy.  The  third  is 
given  to  the  consideration  of  words,  and  is  in  many  re- 
spects the  most  valuable  part  of  the  book,  affording  use- 
ful suggestions  for  guarding  against  the  multitudinous 
seductions  of  the  hlola  Fori.  It  is  dialectical  rather 
than  philosophical,  though  it  affords  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  confhrming  or  expounding  his  cardinal  tenet,  and 
many  of  exhibiting  its  inadequacj'.  The  fourth  book 
is  on  the  nature  of  knowledge  in  general,  and  does  little 
more  than  apply  the  conclusion  already  reached  to  the 
determination  of  the  degree,  extent,  and  quality  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  which  is  reduced  by  him  not  merely 


to  relativity,  but  to  a  beggarly  and  unsatisfactory  rela- 
tivity. 

The  circumstances  which  provoked  the  composition 
of  Locke's  celebrated  treatise  account  in  a  most  instruc- 
tive manner  for  the  character  of  his  doctrine.  His  ad- 
diction to  the  writings  of  Des  Cartes  in  his  college  days 
— his  rejection  of  his  postulates  and  conclusions — his 
fondness  for  the  physical  and  natural  sciences — his  ut- 
ter defect  of  poetic  sensibility — his  association  with  the 
great  and  with  the  beau  monde — his  political  and  prac- 
tical proclivities,  confined  his  attention  to  observed  phe- 
nomena, cramped  and  discouraged  the  criticism  of  those 
phenomena,  and  withdrew  his  thoughts  from  what  lay 
beyond,  and  was  required  for  the  intelligent  observation 
and  interpretation  of  the  phenomena  supposed  to  be  ob- 
served. Hence  he  was  led  to  ignore  the  spirit  of  hu- 
man thought  —  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  the 
words  which  served  for  the  counters  of  metaphysical 
speculation — to  make  much  of  his  philosophy  turn  upon 
the  precision  and  determinateness  of  terms,  and  to  con- 
sider that  a  scrupulous  recognition  of  their  import  in 
their  acceptance  and  employment  constituted  the  main 
part  of  philosophy.  Hence,  when  he  undertook  ■'  to  ex- 
amine our  own  abilities,  and  see  what  objects  our  under- 
standings were  or  were  not  fitted  to  deal  with,"  the  ex- 
amination scarcely  reached  to  that  primary  and  essen- 
tial problem  of  metaphysics,  but  revolved  tediously  and 
with  needless  prolixity  around  the  limits  of  the  mean- 
ings of  words.  He  thus  necessarily  arrived  at  an  ex- 
cessive, though  far  from  rigorous  nominalism. 

Locke's  point  of  departure  was  that  of  all  the  philoso- 
phers of  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  the  first  quarter 
of  the  18th  ccnturj' — Cartesianism.  The  influence  of 
the  suspected  doctrine  was  manifested  at  the  outset  of 
his  labors  by  his  proposition  to  substitute  the  phrase 
determinate  ideas  for  clear  and  distinct  ideas — though  a 
mere  change  of  name,  and  such  a  change,  could  effect 
little  in  producing  a  complete  reform  of  system.  It  is  a 
startling  commentary  on  the  insufficiency  of  this  sub- 
stitution that  no  writer  has  been  more  capricious  and 
vacillating  in  his  employment  of  terms  than  Locke  him- 
self, and  that  the  very  term  idea,  which  he  elaborately 
defines,  is  used  by  him  without  determinate  meaning, 
and  in  almost  every  possible. sense  except  its  true  one. 
He,  however,  furnished  neither  the  first  nor  the  solitary 
example  of  the  abuse  of  this  fine  Platonic  invention. 
Locke's  popularity  may  be  due  to  the  ease,  and  vigor, 
the  vivacity,  and  homeliness  of  his  style;  but  the  style 
is  rugged,  ambiguous,  conversational,  and  as  far  removed 
from  philosophical  propriety  as  it  is  from  literary  ele- 
gance. 

The  influence  of  Des  Cartes,  educing  antagonism, 
tempted  Locke  to  commence  his  investigations  by  an 
assault  on  the  hypothesis  of  innate  ideas,  which  ini- 
questionably  formed  the  latent  substratum  of  the  Car- 
tesian delusions.  Certainly  the  clear  and  distinct  ideas 
of  Des  Cartes  had  no  title  to  be  accepted  as  innate. 
Locke  had  thus  an  easy  task  in  refuting  the  Cartesian 
positions.  He  failed  to  recognise  that  the  incriminated 
doctrine  was  not  thereby  refuted.  The  "  tabula  7asu" 
of  Locke  was  just  as  much  an  assumption  and  as  much 
a  fallacy  as  the  innate  truths  of  his  opponent — unless  by 
the  tabula  7-asa  is  understood,  what  Locke  woidd  not 
have  understood,  the  sensitive  and  sympathetic  tablet 
ready  to  restore  in  the  sunlight  of  life  all  images  pre- 
sented to  it.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  distinct  concep- 
tions and  formulated  maxims  are  not  innate,  or  anterior 
to  all  excitation.  This  admission  does  not  disprove  the 
reality  of  congenital  and  constitutional  preadaptations 
of  the  intellectual  faculties  for  the  acceptance  of  such 
conceptions  and  propositions  when  suitably  presented  to 
the  mind  and  apprehended  by  it.  Locke's  doctrine  on 
this  point  has  consequently  been  surrendered,  and  the 
doctrine  opposed  by  him  has  been  accepted,  imder  juster 
limitations,  by  many  who  continue  to  entertain  the  pro- 
foundest  reverence  for  his  general  procedure.  The  Car- 
tesian postulate  compelled  the  assertion  of  a  divme  in- 


LOCKE 


480 


LOCKE 


flux  to  explain  the  operations  of  the  mind,  and  suggest- 
ed Malebraiic'he's  celebrated  thesis  of  "seeing  all  things 
in  God."  Locke,  who  had  assailed  the  heresiarch,  felt 
the  necessity  of  controverting  the  hazardous  moditica- 
tion  proposed  by  the  fervent  acolyte.  But  the  tenet  to 
which  Locke  was  himself  driven  by  the  compulsion  of 
his  own  erroneous  principles  was  equally  hazardous  and 
still  more  fallacious — that  our  idea  of  God  is  obtained 
by  sensation  and  reflection. 

Having  got  rid  of  innate  ideas — tenues  sine  corpore 
ritce — the  English  philosopher  proceeded  to  investigate 
the  origin  of  human  knowledge — the  avowed  object  of 
his  main  inquiry.  There  was  an  inversion  of  logical 
order,  as  Morell  has  observed,  in  seeking  the  ratio  es- 
sendi  of  the  phenomena  before  ascertaining  the  phenom- 
ena themselves ;  but  the  accidental  connection  between 
the  first  and  second  pairs  of  the  Essay  is  very  intimate. 
If  knowledge  be  not  deduced  ub  intra,  it  might  natural- 
ly appear  to  be  derived  ab  extra.  Hence  Locke  con- 
cluded that  all  knowledge  is  obtained  from  sensation 
and  reflection.  This  is  his  principle,  and  his  principle 
is  his  philosophy — the  curtain  is  the  picture.  The  dis- 
tinction between  the  sensation  and  its  intellectual  ap- 
preciation was  unsuspected  by  him ;  nor  did  he  observe 
that  if  sensation  and  reflection  upon  sensation  are  the 
exclusive  sources  of  knowledge,  the  knowledge  of  reflec- 
tion is  derivative  from  and  dependent  upon  sensation, 
and  all  knowledge  springs  from  sensation  alone.  This 
oversight  occasioned  his  very  inadequate  explanations 
of  space,  time,  power,  cause,  good  and  evil,  and  God ; 
it  furnished  Hume  with  his  cardinal  positions  in  regard 
to  impressions  and  ideas;  it  rendered  Locke  a  suitable 
patron  for  the  French  encyclopaedists  and  the  material- 
ists, and  created  the  belief  that  he  espoused  the  tenet 
^'  Xi/iil  in  intellectu  quod  non prius  in  sensu."  This  te- 
net was  held  by  neither  Aristotle  nor  Locke,  but  Locke's 
development  of  his  own  principle  often  seems  to  assert 
and  to  rest  upon  that  tenet,  and  both  provoked  and 
justitted  the  celebrated  response  and  refutation  off^ered 
by  Leibnitz  in  the  proposed  addition  to  the  maxim  of 
the  words  •'  ?iisi  intdlectus  ipse.''  Locke  might  have  ac- 
cepted that  addition,  but  it  was  not  declared  by  his  lan- 
guage, nor  clearly  indicated  by  his  teachings ;  and  its 
frank  acceptance  would  have  been  fatal  to  his  philo- 
sophical expositions ;  for,  if  reflection  be  considered  as 
a  source  of  knowledge  distinct  from  sensation,  it  must 
be  different  from  sensation,  and  must  be  a  contribution 
of  the  mind  itself  to  the  intellectual  product.  Locke's 
original  attitude  was  that  of  a  polemic  engaged  in  the 
refutation  of  Des  Cartes;  this  attitude  he  never  alto- 
gether abandoned ;  it  determined  his  habits  of  specula- 
tion, and  continually  misled  him.  Locke  was  still  fur- 
ther misled  by  the  looseness,  awkwardness,  obscurity, 
and  prolixity  of  his  style,  bj'  its  colloquial  negligence  of 
phrase,  by  that  wavering  of  expression  and  impalpabil- 
ity of  figurative  illustration  which  have  been  noted  by 
Sir  William  Hamilton,  iMaurice,  and  nearly  every  other 
student  of  his  works.  The  equivocation  of  the  terms 
employed  by  liim  escaped  his  recognition,  while  it  per- 
plexes his  readers,  and  producetl  much  the  same  effect 
upon  his  reasoning  as  was  produced  upon  Hume's  by  a 
similar  agency.  With  Locke  there  might  be  delusion ; 
there  was  no  sophistry ;  there  was  an  open,  manly  spir- 
it, a  candor  and  honesty  of  investigation  which  often 
slighted  or  ignored  consistency  in  the  determined  ap- 
]irehensioii  of  what  was  felt  instinctively  to  be  right. 
His  book  accordingly  exercises  a  most  wholesome  influ- 
ence even  when  tlie  developments  of  his  doctrine  are 
most  aberrant,  and  its  perversions  most  perilous.  The 
practical  character  of  his  own  disposition,  the  predilec- 
tion for  the  studies  of  observation,  and  the  innocence 
and  simplicity  of  his  own  nature,  guarded  him  from  the 
effects  as  well  as  from  thcperception  of  his  errors,  but 
at  the  same  time  rendered  those  errors  less  apparent  and 
more  setiuctive  to  others.  They  preserved  his  own  pie- 
ty, while  his  system  became  a  templum  impietatis. 

This  practical  appetency  of  Locke's  mind  was  so  en- 


grossing as  to  leave  him  utterly  without  imagination  or 
poetic  sensibility.  Poetry  he  discountenanced  from 
want  of  taste,  but  professetUy  for  the  more  ignoble  rea- 
son that  "  no  gold  was  found  at  the  roots  of  Parnassus." 
The  absence  of  imagination  was  a  very  serious  defect. 
It  was  not  true  in  his  case  that  omite  irpiotum  p)ro  mira- 
bili.  On  the  contrary,  the  wondrous  domain  of  the  un- 
known and  the  unapprehended  was  "  undreamt  of  in  his 
philosophy."  These  intellectual  peculiarities  became 
very  manifest  in  his  religious  and  political  treatises — 
sometimes  inducing  point,  perspicuity,  and  popularity; 
sometimes  generating  prosaic  assumptions  for  want  of 
penetrating  vision.  Thus  were  probably  occasioned  the 
denial  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  in  the  Reasoiuible- 
ness  of  Christianiti/ — the  ascription  of  all  value  to  labor 
originally  expended  in  his  economical  speculations — - 
the  allegation  of  a  social  contract  and  of  a  state  of  nature 
— pure  and  untenable  hypotheses — in  his  treatises  On 
Government,  and  other  less  prominent  vagaries.  These 
points  merit  careful  consideration,  but  they  can  be  onlj' 
notetl  here.  We  should  not,  however,  omit  to  mention 
that  Locke's  amiable  and  tolerant  disposition,  the  asso- 
ciations of  his  life,  the  tenor  of  his  philosophy,  his  love 
of  justice  and  freedom,  rendered  efficient  service  towards 
the  extension  of  civil,  political,  and  religious  liberty  at 
home  and  abroad,  and  entitle  him  to  reverential  regard 
as  one  of  the  chief  benefactors  of  humanity. 

Literature. — The  literature  illustrative  of  Locke's  phi- 
losophy is  endless.  It  includes  the  greater  part  of  the 
metaphysical  treatises  written  since  tlie  close  of  the  17th 
century.  It  must  suffice,  therefore,  to  mention  here  only 
the  works  of  most  direct  importance,  and  most  readily 
accessible.  Of  such  is  the  following  list  composed. 
Locke,  Worlds  (London,  182-i,  9  vols.  8vo) ;  Locke,  Philo- 
sophical Works,  by  J.  A.  St.  John  (London,  1854,  2  vols. 
12mo);  Leibnitz,  Nouveaux  Essais  sur  rEntendement 
Humain ;  .Joannes  Clericus,  Lockii  Vita ;  "  Life  of  John 
Locke,"  in  the  Biographica  Britannica ;  Lord  King,  The 
Life  of  John  Locke,  etc.  (Lond.  18.30,  2  vols.  8vo) ;  Fors- 
ter.  Original  I^etters  of  John  Locke,  etc.  (London,  1847)  ; 
Browne,  "  Life  of  John  Locke,"  in  the  Encyclop.  Britan- 
nica ;  Dugald  Stewart,  Supplement  to  the  Encyclop.  Bri- 
tannica; Sir  James  Mackintosh,  On  the  philosophical 
Genius  of  Bacon  and  Locke ;  Henry  Rogers,  Miscellanies 
(Lond.  1855, 3  vols.  8vo)  ;  Ritter,  Gesch.  d.  Christl.  Philos. 
vii,  449  sq. ;  V.  Cousin,  Hist,  de  la  Philosophic ;  Lewes, 
Biograph.  Hist,  of  Philosophy  (Lond.  1857,  2  vols.  8vo), 
ii,  237  sq. ;  Farrar,  Critical  Hist.  ofEree  Thought,  p.  124 
sq. ;  Blakey,  Hist.  Philosophy  of  Mind  (London,  1850,4 
vols.  8vo) ;  Morell,  Crit.  Histoi-y  of  Modern  Philosophy 
(Lond.  1847,  2  vols.  8vo);  Brit.  Quar.Rev.  1847  (May); 
North  Brit.  Rev.  1864  (July),  p.  37  sq. ;  Edinb.  Rev.  1864 
(April),  1854;  Lond.  Quar.  Review,  1864  (July),  p.  41  sq. 
(G.  F.  H.) 

Locke,  Nathaniel  C,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  min- 
ister, was  born  June  1, 1816,  at  Salem,  N.  J.,  graduated 
from  Middlebury  College,  Vt.,  in  1838;  from  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  New  York,  in  1844 ;  was  immediately 
licensed  by  the  New  York  Third  Presbytery,  and  soon 
after  entered  upon  the  duties  of  his  first  charge  at  East- 
ville,  Northampton  County,  Va. ;  accepted  a  call  to  the 
Central  Church,  Brooklyn,  in  1847;  three  years  later 
took  charge  of  the  Church  at  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  N.  Y., 
and  there  labored  until  1860,  when  failing  health  com- 
pelled him  to  seek  for  a  dismission.  Dr.  I^ocke  was  a 
member  of  the  General  Assembly  of  1860,  which  met  in 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  A  number  of  his  discourses  were  ]Hib- 
lished,  and  he  was  also  a  large  contributor  to  the  relig- 
ious press.  He  died  July  21,  1862.  He  was  gifted 
with  a  well-trained  and  well-stored  mind,  and  was  emi- 
nently genial  and  social  as  a  pastor  and  friend,  and  ear- 
nest and  eloquent  as  a  preacher.  See  Wilson,  Presbyte- 
rian Historical  Almanac.  1863,  p.  188.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Locke,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  noted  American  divine 
and  educator,  was  born  at  Woburn,  Mass.,  Nov.  23, 
1732,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  University  (class 
of  1755),     He  was  ordained  minister  of  the  Gospel  at 


LOCKE 


481 


LOCUST 


Sherburne,  Mass.,  Nov.  7,  1759,  and  remained  in  the 
ministry  until  17G9,  wlien  he  was  called  to  preside  over 
his  alma  mater,  and  was  inducted  to  the  office  March  21, 
1770.  Three  years  later  he  was  honored  by  the  college 
authorities  with  the  doctorate  of  divinity,  but  some 
troubles  must  have  arisen  shortly  after,  for  in  December 
of  this  self-same  year  Locke  resigned  his  position  at 
Harvard,  and  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retire- 
ment. He  died  at  Sherburne,  Mass.,  Jan.  15, 1788.  An 
estimate  of  the  man  we  find  in  t^vo  letters  written  by  Dr. 
Andrew  P^liot,  of  Boston,  to  Mr.  Hollis,  of  London,  the 
distinguished  benefactor  of  the  college,  about  the  time  of 
Locke's  election  to  the  presidency  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sit}^,  in  which  he  is  represented  as  "  a  clergyman  of  a 
small  parish  about  twentj"^  miles  from  Cambridge ;  of 
tine  talents — a  close  thinker,  having  when  at  college  the 
character  of  a  first-rate  scholar — of  an  excellent  spirit, 
and  generous,  catholic  sentiments — a  friend  to  liberty — 
his  greatest  defect  a  want  of  knowledge  of  the  world, 
having  lived  in  retirement,  and  perhaps  not  a  general 
acquaintance  with  books."  The  only  production  of  Dr. 
Locke's  that  exists  in  print  is  the  Convention  Sermon 
preached  in  1772.  "  His  manner  in  the  pulpit  is  said 
to  have  been  marked  by  great  dignity  and  impressive- 
ness."    See  The  N.  1'.  Observer,  March,  1865. 

Locke,  "William  E.,  a  minister  and  instructor, 
first  in  the  Baptist,  and  later  in  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
was  born  in  New  York  City,  where  he  received  a  good 
education  at  the  high  school,  in  which  he  subsequently 
became  an  assistant  teacher.  In  1832  he  took  charge 
of  the  Jlantua  Manual  Labor  Institute  in  New  York, 
and  in  1833  was  licensed  to  preach  in  the  Baptist 
Church.  He  entered  the  junior  class  of  Hamilton  In- 
stitute (now  Madison  University) ;  in  1835  he  accepted 
his  first  call  from  the  Church  in  Messina,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
ordained  Aug.  18,  1830.  He  remained  in  the  Baptist 
connection  until  1849,  when  his  views  concerning  bap- 
tism led  him  to  a  change  of  his  ecclesiastical  relations. 
He  was  called  in  1850  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Springfield,  N.  J.,  where,  because  of  impaired  health,  he 
quit  preaching.  He  subsequently  took  charge  of  the 
Female  Collegiate  Institute  in  Lancaster,  Pa.,  and  in 
August,  1857,  removed  to  Missouri,  and  took  charge  of 
the  Van  Kensselaer  Presbyterial  Academy.  At  the  end 
of  his  first  quarter  in  this  new  position  he  was  taken  ill, 
and  died  Nov.  15, 1858.  Mr.  Locke's  talents  as  a  teacher 
were  of  a  high  order,  and  Ln  the  various  places  in  which 
he  labored  he  made  manv  warm  friends.  See  Wilson, 
Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1860,  p.  73.      (J.  L.  S.) 

Lockyer,  Nicholas,  a  Presbyterian  divine  and 
pious  Nonconformist,  was  born  in  1612.  He  studied  at 
New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford,  and  became  provost  of  Eton 
College  in  1658,  but  was  ejected  at  the  Restoration.  He 
died  in  1681.  His  writings  show  him  to  have  been 
very  zealous  and  affectionate,  earnestly  bent  on  the  con- 
version of  souls.  Some  of  his  most  important  works 
are  the  following :  Baulme  for  bleeding  England  and  Ire- 
land, or  seasonable  Instructions  for  2'»ersecuted  Christians, 
delivered  in  several  sermons  [on  Col.  i,  11, 12]  (London, 
1644) : — Chrisfs  Communion  with  his  Church  militant 
[on  John  xiv,  18]  (5th  ed.  London,  1672, 12mo)  •.—Eng- 
land faithfully  waicht  with  her  Wounds,  or  Christ  as  a 
Father  sitting  vp  with  his  Children  in  their  sioooning 
State;  which  is  the  summe  of  several  Lectures  j)uinftdly 
preached  upon  Colossians  i  (Lond.  1646,  4to).  See  Alli- 
bone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Amer.  Auth.  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Cy- 
clop. Bibliogr.  a.  v. 

Locust,  a  well-known  insect,  which  commits  terri- 
ble (levastation  to  vegetation  in  the  countries  which  it 
visits.  In  the  following  account  we  shall  chiefiy  follow 
the  articles  on  the  subject  in  Kitto's  and  Smith's  Dic- 
tionaries,  with  additions  from  other  sources. 

I.  There  are  ten  Hebrew  words  which  appear  to  sig- 
nify locust  ill  the  Old  Testament,  while  in  the  Greek 
the  general  term  is  cikmq,  which  is  employed  in  the 
New  Testament.  It  has  been  supposed  that  some  of 
v.— H  H 


these  words  denote  merely  the  different  states  through 
which  the  locust  passes  after  leaving  the  cs^g,  viz.  the 
larva,  the  pupa,  ami  the  perfect  insect — all  which  much 
resemble  each  other,  except  that  the  larva  has  no  wings, 
and  that  the  pupa  possesses  only  the  rudiments  of  those 
members,  which  are  fully  developed  only  in  the  adult 
locust  (Michaelis,  Supplem.  ad  Lex.  Ilebr.  ii,  667, 1080). 
But  this  supposition  is  manifestly  wrong  with  regard  to 
several  of  these  terms,  because,  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  the  word 
iJi'Cp,  "after  his  kind,"  or  species,  is  added  after  each 
of  them  (compare  ver.  14, 15, 16).  It  is  most  probable, 
therefore,  that  all  the  rest  are  also  the  names  of  species. 
But  the  problem  is  to  ascertain  the  particular  species 
intended  by  them  respectively. 

(1.)  Arbeii'  (na'IX,  occurs  in  Exod.  x,  4 ;  Sept.  d/cpi- 
da  TToXX//!',  a  vast  flight  of  locusts,  or  perhaps  indica- 
ting that  several  species  were  emploj'ed,  Yulg.  locustam ; 
and  inverses  12, 13, 14, 19,  a/cpi'c  and  locusta,  Eng.  "lo- 
custs;" Lev.  xi,  22,  /Jpoi^xoi',  bruchus,  "locust;"  Deut. 
xxviii,  38,  uKpig,  locusta?,  "locust;"  Judg.  vi,  5;  vii,  12, 
aKpig,  locustarum,  "grasshoppers;"  1  Kings  viii,  87, 
(SpovXOQ,  locusta,  "  locust ;"  2  Chron.  vi,  28,  a/cp/c,  lo- 
custa, "locusts;"  Job  xxxix,  20,  oKpiSig,  locustas, 
"grasshopper;"  Psa.  Ixxviii,  46,  aKpiSt,  Symm.  aKwXr]- 
Ki,  locusta,  "locust;"  Psa.  cv,  34,  aKpiQ,  locusta,  "lo- 
custs;" Psa.  cix,  23,  uKpiStg,  locusta,  "locust;"  Prov, 
xxx,  27,  aKple;,  locusta,  "locusts;"  Jer.  xlvi,  23,  c'tKpica, 
locusta,  "grasshoppers;"  Joel  i,  4;  ii,  25,  ciKpi^,  locusta, 
"locust;"  Nah.  iii,  15,  (ipovxog,  bruchus,  "locusts;"  ver. 
17,  drTsXaj3og,  locustce,  "locusts").  In  almost  every 
passage  where  arbeh  occurs,  reference  is  made  to  its  ter- 
ribly destructive  powers. 

It  is  the  locust  of  the  Egyptian  plagues  described  in 
Exod.  X,  where,  as  indeed  everj'where  else,  it  occurs  in 
the  singular  number  only,  though  it  is  there  associated 
with  verbs  both  in  the  singular  and  plural  (ver.  5,  6),  as 
are  the  corresponding  words  in  the  Sept.  and  Vulgate. 
This  it  might  be  as  a  noun  of  multitude,  but  it  will  be 
rendered  probable  that  four  species  were  employed  in 
the  plague  on  Egypt,  of  which  this  is  named  first  (Psa. 
Ixxviii,  46,  47 ; .  cv,  34).  These  may  all  have  been 
brought  into  Egypt  from  Ethiopia  (which  has  ever  been 
the  cradle  of  all  kinds  of  locusts),  by  what  is  called  iu 
Exodus  "  the  east  wind,"  since  Bochart  proves  that  the 
word  which  properly  signifies  "east"  often  means 
"  south"  also.  The  word  cn-beh  may  be  used  in  Lev.  xi, 
22  as  the  collective  name  for  the  locust,  and  be  put  first 
there  as  denoting  also  the  most  numerous  species ;  but 
in  Joel  i,  4,  and  Psa.  Ixxviii,  46,  it  is  distinguished  from 
the  other  names  of  locusts,  and  is  mentioned  second,  as 
if  of  a  different  species;  just,  perhaps,  as  we  use  the 
^\ord  fly,  sometimes  as  a  collective  name,  and  at  others 
for  a  particular  species  of  insect,  as  when  speakuig  of 
the  hop,  turnip,  meat  fly,  etc.  When  the  Hebrew  word 
is  used  in  reference  to  a  particular  species,  it  has  been 
supposed,  for  reasons  which  will  be  given,  to  denote  the 
Gryllus  gregarius  or  migratorius.  Moses,  therefore,  in 
Exodus,  refers  Pharaoh  to  the  visitation  of  the  locusts, 
as  well  known  in  Egypt ;  but  the  plague  would  seem  to 
have  consisted  in  bringing  them  into  that  countrj'  in 
unexampled  numbers,  consisting  of  various  species  never 
previously  seen  there  (comp.  Exod.  x,  5,  6, 15). 

It  is  one  of  the  flying  creeping  creatures  that  were 
allowed  as  food  by  the  law  of  Moses  (Lev.  xi,  21).  In 
this  passage  it  is  clearly  the  representative  of  some  spe- 
cies of  winged  saltatorial  orthoptei'a,  which  must  have 
possessed  indications  of  form  sufficient  to  distinguish 
the  insect  from  the  three  other  names  which  belong  to 
the  same  division  of  orthoptera,  and  are  mentioned  in 
the  same  context.  The  opinion  of  Michaelis  (^Si/ppl. 
667,  910),  that  the  four  words  mentioned  in  Lev.  xi,  22 
denote  the  same  insect  in  four  different  ages  or  stages 
of  its  growth,  is  quite  untenable,  for,  whatever  particu- 
lar species  are  intended  by  these  words,  it  is  quite  clear 
from  verse  21  that  they  must  all  be  winged  orthopitera. 
The  Septuagint  word  fipoiJxog  there  clearly  shows  that 


LOCUST 


482 


LOCUST 


the  translator  uses  it  for  a  winged  species  of  locust,  con- 
trary tu  the  Latin  fathers  (as  Jerome,  Augustine,  Greg- 
ory, etc.),  who  all  dertne  the  bruc/ius  to  be  the  unfledged 
young  or  larva  of  the  locust,  and  who  call  it  utteUihus 
when  its  wings  are  partially  developed,  and  locnsta  wlien 
abli!  to  fly ;  although  both  Sept.  and  Vulg.  ascribe  flight 
to  the  bruc/ius  here,  and  in  Xah.  iii,  17.  The  Greek  fa- 
thers, on  the  other  hand,  uniformly  ascribe  to  the  j3pou- 
X(>(;  both  wings  and  flight,  and  therein  agree  with  the 
descriptions  of  the  ancient  Greek  naturalists.  Thus 
Theophrastus,  the  pupil  of  Aristotle,  who,  with  his  pre- 
ceptor, was  probably  contemporaneous  with  the  Septua- 
gint  translators  of  the  Pentateuch,  plainly  speaks  of  it 
as  a  distinct  species,  and  not  a  mere  state  :  "  The  aKpi- 
Cit;  (the  best  ascertained  general  Greek  word  for  the  lo- 
cust) are  injurious,  the  nrriXaiioi  still  more  so,  and 
those  most  of  all  which  they  call  l3povxoi"  (De  Anim). 
The  Sept.  seems  to  recognise  the  peculiar  destructive- 
ness  of  the  (ipovxpq  in  1  Kings  viii,  37  (but  has  merged 
it  in  the  parallel  passage,  2  Chron.),  and  in  Nah.  iii,  15, 
by  adopting  it  for  arbeh.  In  these  passages  the  Sept. 
translators  may  have  understood  the  G.  mif/ratorius  or 
gregarius  (Linn.),  which  is  usually  considered  to  be  the 
most  destructive  species  (from  i3pioaK(D,  I  devour).  Yet, 
in  Joel  i,  4 ;  ii,  25,  they  have  applied  it  to  the  yelel; 
which,  however,  appears  there  as  engaged  in  the  work 
of  destruction,  Hesychius,  in  the  3d  century,  explains 
the  lipovxog  as  "  a  species  of  locust,"  though,  he  ob- 
serves, applied  in  his  time  by  different  nations  to  differ- 
ent species  of  locusts,  and  by  some  to  the  rirrf  Xa/ioc. 
May  not  his  testimony  to  this  effect  illustrate  the  vari- 
ous uses  of  the  word  by  the  Sept,  in  the  minor  prophets? 
Our  translators  have  wrongly  adopted  the  word  "grass- 
hopper" in  Judges  and  Jer.  xlvi,  23,  where  "  locusts" 
•would  certainly  have  better  illustrated  the  idea  of  "  in- 
numerable miUtitudes  ;"  and  here,  as  elsewhere,  have 
departed  from  their  professed  rule  '"not  to  vary  from 
the  sense  of  that  which  they  had  translated  before,  if 
the  word  signiiied  the  same  in  both  places"  (translators 
to  the  reader,  ad  finem). 

The  Hebrew  word  in  question  is  usually  derived  from 
nS"!,  "to  multiply,"  op-"be  numerous,"  because  the  lo- 
cust is  remarkably  prohfic ;  which,  as  a  general  name,  is 
certainly  not  inapplicable  ;  and  it  is  thence  also  inferred 
that  it  denotes  the  G.  migratorius,  because  that  species 
often  appears  in  large  numbers.  However,  the  largest 
flight  of  locusts  upon  record,  calculated  to  have  extend- 
ed over  five  hundred  miles,  and  which  darkened  the  air 
like  an  eclipse,  and  was  supposed  to  come  from  Arabia, 
did  not  consist  of  the  G.  migratorius,  but  of  a  red  spe- 
cies (Kirby  and  Spence,  Iiitrod.  to  Entomology,  i,  210); 
and,  according  to  Forskal,  the  species  which  now  chiefly 
infests  Arabia,  and  which  he  names  G.  gregarius,  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  G.  migratorius  of  Linn.  {Encyc.  Brit.  art. 
Entomology,  p.  193).  Others  derive  the  word  from 
2'^X.  "to  lie  hid"  or  "in  ambush,"  because  the  newly- 
hatched  locust  emerges  from  the  ground,  or  because  the 
locust  besieges  vegetables.  Rosenmiiller  justly  remarks 
upon  such  etymologies,  and  the  inferences  made  from 
tliem  (Scholia  i/J  Jof?,  i,  4),  "How  precarious  truly  the 
reasoning  is,  derived  in  this  manner  from  the  mere  ety- 
mology of  the  word,  everybody  may  understand  for 
himself.  Nor  is  the  principle  otherwise  in  regard  to 
the  rest  of  the  species,"  He  also  remarks  that  the  ref- 
erences to  the  dcstructivcness  of  locusts,  which  are  of- 
ten derived  from  the  roots,  simply  concur  in  this,  that 
locusts  consume  and  do  mischief.  Illustrations  of  the 
[iropriety  of  his  remarks  will  abound  as  we  proceed. 
Still,  it  by  no  means  follows  from  a  coincidence  of  the 
Hebrew  roots,  in  this  or  any  other  meaning,  that  the 
fcarnwi  among  the  ancient  Jews  did  not  recognise  differ- 
ent species  in  the  different  names  of  locusts.  "The  Eng- 
lish wordy/y,  from  the  Saxmi  Jh'on,  the  Heb.  t\''J,  and 
its  representative  "fowl,"  in  the  English  version  (Gen.i. 
20,  etc.),  all  express  both  a  general  and  specific  idea. 
Even  a  modern  entomologist  might  speak  of  "  the  flies" 


in  a  room,  while  aware  that  from  fifty  to  one  hundred 
different  species  annually  visit  our  apartments.  The 
Scriptures  use  popular  language;  hence  "  the  multitude," 
"  the  devourer,"  or  "  the  darkener,"  may  have  been  the 
familiar  appellations  for  certain  species  of  locusts.  The 
common  Greek  words  for  locusts  and  grasshoppers,  etc., 
are  of  themselves  equally  indefinite,  yet  they  also  served 
for  the  names  of  species,  as  a/cpif,  the  locust  generally, 
from  the  tops  of  vegetables,  on  which  the  locust  feeds ; 
but  it  is  also  used  as  the  proper  name  of  a  particular 
species,  as  the  grasshopper:  TtTpaTrrtpvXXic,  "four- 
winged,"  is  applied  sometimes  to  the  grasshopper;  rpw^- 
aWig,  from  rpioyw,  "to  chew,"  sometimes  to  the  cater- 
pillar. Yet  the  Greeks  had  also  distinct  names  restrict- 
ed to  particidar  species,  as  ovog,  ^oXovpic,  /ctpicwn;,  etc. 
The  Hebrew  names  may  also  have  served  similar  pur- 
poses, 

(2,)  Gkb  (35,  Isa.  xxxiii,  4;  Sept.  nK-pitTtr,  Vulgate 
omits,  Engl,  "locusts"),  or  Gob  (3iii,  Amos  vii,  1,  tni- 
yovr)  aKpiC'UJv;  Aquila, /Sopci^ov  [voratrices],  locustce, 
"grasshoppers;"  1^&\\.\\\,V1 ,  ciTTiXajioc, locustce,  "grass- 
hoppers"). Here  the  lexicographers,  finding  no  Hebrew 
root,  resort  to  the  Arabic,  X35,  "  to  creep  out"  (of  the 
ground),  as  the  locusts  do  in  spring.  But  tliis  applies 
to  the  young  of  all  species  of  locusts,  and  Bochart's  quo- 
tations from  Aristotle  and  Plinj'  occur  unfortunately  in 
general  descriptions  of  the  locust,  Castell  gives  anoth- 
er Arabic  root,  3N3, "  to  cut"  or  "  tear,"  but  this  is  open 
to  a  similar  objection.  Parkhurst  proposes  35,  anj-thing 
gibbous,  curved,  or  arched,  and  gravely  adds,  "  The  lo- 
cust in  the  catei-jnllur  state,  so  called  from  its  shape  in 
general,  or  from  its  continually  hunching  out  its  back  in 
moving."  The  Sept.  word  in  Nahum,  ciTTtXajioc,  has 
already  been  shown  to  mean  a  perfect  insect  and  species. 
Accordingly,  Aristotle  speaks  of  its  parturition  and  eggs 
{/list.  Anim.  v,  29;  so  also  Plutarch,  iJe  JsiJ.  et  Osir.). 
It  seems,  however,  not  unlikely  that  it  means  a  wing- 
less species  of  locust,  genus  Podisnui  of  Latreille.  Grass- 
hoppers, which  are  of  this  kind,  he  includes  luider  the 
genus  Tettix.  Hesychius  defines  the  UTTtXa^ioq  as  "a 
small  locust,"  and  Pliny  mentions  it  as  "  the  smallest  of 
locusts,  without  wings"  (^Ilistor.  Kat.  xxix,  5).  Accord- 
ingly, the  Sept.  ascribes  only  leaping  to  it.  In  Nahum 
we  have  the  construction  '^315  315,  locust  of  the  locusts, 
which  the  lexicons  explain  as  a  vast  multitude  of  lo- 
custs. Archbishop  Newcome  suggests  that "  the  phrase 
is  either  a  double  reading  where  the  scribes  had  a  doubt 
which  was  the  true  reading,  or  a  mistaken  repetition  not 
expunged."  He  adds,  that  we  may  suppose  ''315  the 
contracted  plural  for  Q'^'^^'f  {Improved  Version  of  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets,  Pontefr.  1809,  p.  188).  Henderson  imder- 
stands  the  reduplication  to  express  "  the  largest  and  most 
formidable  of  that  kind  of  insect"  {Comment,  on  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets,  ad  lf)C.).  Some  writers,  led  by  this  pas- 
sage, have  believed  that  the  guh  represents  the  larva 
state  of  some  of  the  large  locusts;  the  haliit  of  halting 
at  night,  however,  and  encamping  under  the  hedges,  as 
described  by  the  prophet,  in  all  probability  belongs  to 
the  winged  locust  as  well  as  to  the  larvce :  see  Exod.  x, 
13 :  "  The  Lord  brought  an  east  wind  upon  the  land  aU 
that  day  and  all  that  night;  and  when  it  was  morning, 
the  east  wind  brought  the  locusts."  Mr.  Barrow  (i,  257 
S),  speaking  of  some  species  of  South  African  locusts, 
says  that  when  the  larv.T,  which  are  still  more  voracious 
than  the  parent  insect,  are  on  the  march,  it  is  impossible 
to  make  them  turn  out  of  the  way,  which  is  usually  that 
of  the  wind.  At  sunset  the  troop  halts  and  divides  into 
separate  groups,  each  occupying  in  bee-like  clusters  the 
neighboring  eminences  for  the  night.  It  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  the  gob  may  represent  the  l(i7Ta  or  nympha  state 
of  the  insect;  nor  is  the  passage  from  Nahum,  "When 
the  sun  ariseth  they  flee  away,"  any  objection  to  this 
supposition,  for  the  last  stages  of  the  larra  differ  but 
slight!}'  from  the  nyrnpha,  both  which  states  may  there- 
fore be  comprehended  under  one  name ;  the  gob  of  Nah. 


LOCUST 


483 


LOCUST 


iii,  17  may  easily  have  been  the  vymphm  (which  in  all 
the  A  vietabula  continue  to  Iced  as  in  their  larva  condi- 
tion) encamping  at  night  under  the  hedges,  and,  ob- 
taining their  wings  as  the  sun  arose,  are  then  represent- 
ed as  hying  away  (so  too  Kitto,  I'ict.  Bible,  note  on  Nah. 
iii,  17 ).  It  certainly  is  improbable  that  the  Jews  should 
have  had  no  name  for  the  locust  in  its  larva  or  nympha 
state,  for  they  must  have  been  quite  familiar  with  the 
sight  of  such  devourers  of  every  green  thing,  the  larva? 
being  even  more  destructive  than  the  imago ;  perhaps 
some  of  the  other  nine  names,  all  of  which  Bochart  con- 
siders to  be  the  names  of  so  many  species,  denote  the 
insect  in  one  or  other  of  these  conditions.  See  Grass- 
hopper. 

(3.)  Gazaji'  (QT5,  Joel  i,4;  ii,25;  Amos  iv,9;  in  all 
which  the  Sept.  reads  K«/i7r?/,  the  Vulg.  eruca,  and  the 
English  "palmer-worm").  Bochart  observes  that  the 
Jews  derive  the  word  from  T^S  or  tt3,  "to  shea?"  or 
"clip,"  though  he  prefers  CT!5,  "  to  cut,"  because,  he  ob- 
serves, the  locust  gnaws  the  tender  branches  of  trees  as 
well  as  the  leaves.  Gesenius  urges  that  the  Chaldee 
and  Syriac  explain  it  as  the  young  unhedged  hruchus, 
■which  he  consiflers  very  suitable  to  the  passage  in  Joel, 
where  the  gazam  begins  its  ravages  before  the  locusts  ; 
but  Dr.  Lee  justly  remarks  that  there  is  no  dependence 
to  be  placed  on  this.  Gesenius  adds  that  the  root  tTy 
in  Arabic  and  the  Talmud  is  kindred  with  DD3,  "to 
shear' — a  derivation  which,  however,  applies  to  most 
species  of  locusts.  Michaelis  follows  the  Sept.  and  Vul- 
gate, where  the  word  in  each  most  probably  means  the 
caterpillar,  the  larviB  of  the  lepidopterous  tribes  of  in- 
sects (iSupplem.  ad  Lex.  290,  compared  with  Recueil  de 
Quest,  p.  (53).  We  have,  indeed,  the  authority  of  Colu- 
mella, that  the  creatiu-es  which  the  Latins  call  erurxe 
are  by  the  Greeks  called  Kapirai,  or  caterpillars  (xi,  3), 
which  he  also  describes  as  creeping  upon  vegetables  and 
devouring  them.  Nevertheless,  the  depredations  as- 
cribed to  the  rjuzam,  in  Amos,  better  agree  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  locust,  as,  according  to  Bochart,  it 
was  understood  by  the  ancient  versions.  The  English 
word  ^•palmer-icorm,"  in  our  old  authors,  means  properly 
a  hairy  caterpillar,  which  wanders  like  a  palmer  or  pil- 
grim, and,  from  its  being  rough,  called  also  "  beareworm" 
(^Mouftet,  Insectoi-um  Theatrum,  p.  186).     See  Palmer- 

WOIiJI. 

(4.)  Chagab'  (SSn,  Lev.  xi,  22 ;  Numb,  xiii,  33  ;  Isa. 
xl,  22;  Eccles.  xii,  5,  and  2  Chron.  vii,  13,  in  all  which 
the  Sept.  reads  ri/cpi'e,  Vulg.  locnsta,  and  Engl,  "grass- 
hopper," except  the  last,  where  the  Engl,  has  "  locusts." 
The  manifest  impropriety  of  translating  this  word 
"  grasshoppers"  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  according  to  the  English 
acceptation  of  the  word,  appears  from  its  description 
there  as  being  winged  and  edible ;  in  all  the  other  ixi- 
stances  it  most  probably  denotes  a  species  of  locust. 
Our  translators  have,  indeed,  properly  rendered  it  "  lo- 
cust" in  2  Chron. ;  but  in  all  the  other  places  "  grasshop- 
per," probably  with  a  view  to  heighten  the  contrast  de- 
scribed in  those  passages,  but  with  no  real  advantage. 
Oedman  {Verm.  Samml.  ii,  90)  infers,  from  its  being  so 
often  used  for  this  purpose,  that  it  denotes  the  smallest 
species  of  locust ;  but  in  the  passage  iu  Chronicles  vo- 
racity seems  its  chief  characteristic.  An  Arabic  root, 
3?t^,  signifying  "  to  hide,"  is  usually  adduced,  because 
it  is  said  that  locusts  fly  in  such  crowds  as  to  hide  the 
sun;  but  others  sa}^,  from  their  hiding  the  ground  when 
they  alight.  Even  Parkhurst  demurs  that  "  to  veil  the 
sun  and  darken  the  air  is  not  peculiar  to  any  kind  of 
locust;"  and  with  no  better  success  proposes  to  under- 
stand the  cucuUated,  or  hooded,  or  veiled  species  of  lo- 
cust. Tychsen  {Comment,  de  Locust,  p.  7G)  supposes 
that  chagab  denotes  the  Gryllus  coronatus,  Lum. ;  but 
this  is  the  Acanthodis  corotiatus  of  And.  Serv.,  a  South 
American  species,  and  probal)ly  confined  to  that  conti- 
nent. Michaelis  (Siipplem.  CG8),  who  derives  the  word 
from  an  Arabic  root  signifying  "  to  veil,"  conceives  that 


chagab  represents  either  a  locust  at  the  fourth  stage  of 
its  growth,  "ante  quartas  exuvias  "quod  adhuc  velata 
est,"  or  else  at  the  last  stage  of  its  growth,  "  post  quar- 
tas exuvias,  quod  jam  volans  solem  calumque  obvelat." 
To  the  first  tlieory  the  passage  in  Lev.  xi  is  opposed. 
The  second  theory  is  more  reasonable,  but  chagab  is 
probably  derived  not  from  the  Arabic,  but  the  Hebrew. 
From  what  has  been  stated  above,  it  will  appear  better 
to  own  our  complete  inability  to  say  what  species  of  lo- 
cust chagab  denotes,  than  to  hazard  conjectures  which 
must  be  grounded  on  no  solid  foundation.  In  the  Tal- 
mud chagab  is  a  collective  name  for  many  of  the  locust 
tribe,  no  less  than  eight  hundred  kinds  of  chagabim  be- 
ing supposed  by  the  Talmud  to  exist !  (Lewysohn,  Zoo- 
log,  des  Talin.  §  384).  Some  kinds  of  locusts  are  beau- 
tifully marked,  and  were  sought  after  by  young  Jewish 
children  as  playthings,  just  as  butterflies  and  cockchaf- 
ers are  nowadays.  M.  Lewysohn  says  (§  384)  that  a 
regular  traffic  used  to  be  carried  on  with  the  chagabim, 
which  were  caught  in  great  numbers,  and  sold  after 
wine  had  been  sprinkled  over  them ;  he  adds  that  the 
Israelites  were  only  allowed  to  buy  them  before  the 
dealer  had  thus  prepared  them.     See  Grasshopper. 

(5.)  Ciianamal'  (^^il^I,  occurs  only  in  Psa.  Ixxviii, 
47  ;  Sept.  iraxviri ;  Aq.  iv  Kpvei ;  Vulg.  in  prui7ia  ;  Eng. 
"frost").  Notwithstanding  this  concurrence  of  Sept., 
Vulg.,  and  Aquila,  it  is  objected  that  "frost"  is  nowhere 
mentioned  as  having  been  employed  in  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  to  which  the  Psalmist  evidently  alludes ;  but 
that,  if  his  words  be  compared  with  Exod.  x,  5, 15,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  locusts  succeeded  the  hail.  The 
Psalmist  observes  the  same  order,  putting  the  devourer 
after  the  hail  (comp.  Mai.  iii,  11).  Hence  it  is -thought 
to  be  another  term  for  the  locust.  If  this  inference  be 
correct,  and  assuming  that  the  Psalmist  is  describing 
facts,  this  would  make  a  fourth  species  of  locust  era- 
ployed  against  Egj'pt,  two  of  the  others,  the  arbeh  and 
chasil,  being  mentioned  in  the  preceding  verse.  Pro- 
posed derivation,  tliPI,  to  seHle,  and  PI^O,  to  cut  off,  be- 
cause where  locusts  settle  they  cut  off  leaves,  etc.,  or  as 
denoting  some  non-migrating  locust  which  settles  in  a 
locality  (see  Bochart,  in  roc").  Michaelis  (Sujiplem. 
846)  suggests  the  signification  of  aitfs,  comparing  the 
Arabic  name  for  that  insect,  with  PI  prefixed.  Gesenius 
regards  it  as  a  quadriliteral,  and  argues  from  the  term 
1"i3,  hail,  in  the  parallel  member,  that  it  denotes  some- 
thing peculiarly  destructive  to  trees.     See  Frost. 

(6.)  Chasil'  (b'lOri,  1  Kings  viii,37 ;  2  Chron.  vi,  28 ; 
Psa.  Ixxviii,  46;  Isa.  xxiii,  4;  Joel  i,  4;  ii,  2,5;  Septuag. 
oKpiQ,  but  in  2  Chron.  l3povx(^i: ;  Vulg.  rubigo,  bruchiis, 
cerugo ;  Engl,  always  "caterpillar").  Gesenius  derives 
it  from  the  root  ^BH,  to  eat  off,  Deut.  xxxiii,  38.  It 
thus  points  to  the  same  generic  idea  of  destructiveness 
prominent  in  all  this  genus.     See  Caterpillar. 

(7.)  Chargol'  (PS'nn,  only  in  Lev.  xi,  22;  Septuag, 
60(o/(«%>;c,  Vulg.  ophivmachus,  Auth.  Vers,  "beetle"),  de- 
rived by  Gesenius  from  the  Arabic  quadriliteral  root 
by^n,  to  gallop  as  a  horse,  and  applied  by  the  Arabs  to 
a  flight  of  wingless  locusts,  but  thought  by  him  to  in- 
dicate in  Leviticus  a  winged  and  edible  locust.  Beck- 
mann  has  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  some  insect  of 
the  sphex  or  ichneumon  kind  was  meant  (apud  Bochart, 
a  Ilosenmiiller,  iii,  264).  The  genus  of  locusts  called 
Truxalis,  said  to  live  upon  insects,  has  been  thought  to 
answer  the  description.  But  is  it  a  fact  that  the  genus 
Truxalis  is  an  exception  to  the  rest  of  the  Acridites, 
and  is  pre-eminently  insectivorous?  ServiUe  {Orthop)t. 
p.  579)  believes  that  in  their  manner  of  living  the  Trux- 
alides  resemble  the  rest  oi  the.  Acridites,  but  seems  to 
allow  that  further  investigation  is  necessary.  Fischer 
(Orthop.  Europ.  p.  292)  says  that  the  nutriment  of  this 
family  is  plants  of  various  kinds.  It  is  some  excuse  for 
the  English  rendering  "  beetle"  in  this  place,  that  Plmy 
classes  one  species  of  gryllus,  the  house-cricket,  G. domes- 


LOCUST 


484 


LOCUST 


iicus,  under  the  scaraban  (Tlist.  Xaf.  xi,  8).  The  Jews 
interpret  charr/ul  to-mean  a  species  of  yrussJiopper,  Ger- 
man heuschrecke,  which  ]\[.  Lewysohn  identities  with 
Locusta  viridissima,  adopting  the  etymology  of  Bochart 
and  Gesenius.  The  Jewisli  women  used  to  carry  the 
eggs  of  the  charr/ul  in  their  ears  to  presence  them  from 
tiie  earache  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chuld.  et  Rabbin,  s.  v.  Char- 
gul).     See  Beetle. 

(8.)  Ye'lek  (pb)|',Psa.cv,3-i,/3por'xoc,i'"2'c7(«s,"  cat- 
erpillars ;"  Jer.  li,  14,  27,  ciKpiq,  hnichiis,  "  caterpillars  ;" 
and  in  the  latter  passage  the  Vulgate  reads  bruchus  acu- 
leatus,  and  some  copies  liorripilantes ;  Joel  i,  4 ;  ii,  25, 
^QovxoQ,  hruchus,  "canker-worm;"  Nah.  iii,  15,  16, 
aicniQ  and  /3poSxoe,  "  canker-worm").  Assuming  that 
the  Psalmist  means  to  say  that  the  ijdek  was  really  an- 
other species  employed  in  the  plague  on  Egypt,  the 
English  word  caterpillar  in  the  common  acceptation  can- 
not be  correct,  for  we  can  liardly  imagine  that  the  larvae 
of  the  Papilionidae  tribe  of  insects  could  be  carried  by 
'•  winds."  Canker-worm  means  any  icorm  that  preys  on 
fruit.  Bpoi'xoQ  could  hardly  be  understood  by  the  Sept, 
translators  of  the  minor  prophets  as  an  untledged  locust, 
fur  in  Nah.  iii,  10  they  give  tlie  lipovxoQ  flies  mcay.  As 
to  the  etymology,  the  Arabic  p5^,  to  be  white,  is  oifered ; 
hence  the  white  locust  or  the  chafer-worm,  which  is 
white  (Michaelis,  ^e«/«7  rfe  Quest,  y>.Q\;  Supp.ad  Lex. 
Hcb.  1080).  Others  give  pp5,  to  lick  off,  as  Gesenius, 
who  refers  to  Numb,  xxii,  4,  where  this  root  is  applied 
to  the  ox  "  licking"  up  his  pasturage,  and  which,  as  de- 
scriptive of  celerity  in  eating,  is  supposed  to  apply  to 
the  ytlek.  Others  suggest  the  Arabic  pp\  to  hasten,  al- 
luding to  the  quick  motions  of  locusts.  The  passage  in 
Jer.  li,  27  is  the  only  instance  where  an  epithet  is  ap- 
plied to  the  locust,  and  there  we  find  p5^  I^D,  "rough 
caterpillars."  As  the  noun  derived  from  this  descriptive 
term  ("1  ^DCO)  means  "  nails,"  "  sharp-pointed  spikes," 
Michaelis  refers  it  to  the  rough,  sharp-pointed  feet  of 
some  species  of  chafer  (iit  supra).  Oedman  takes  it  for 
the  G.  cristatus  of  Linn.  Tychsen,  with  more  proba- 
bility, refers  it  to  some  rough  or  bristly  species  of  locust, 
as  the  G.  hmnatopus  of  Linn.,  whose  thighs  are  cihated 
■with  hairs.  Many  grj-lli  are  furnished  with  spines  and 
bristles ;  the  whole  species  -4  cheta,  also  the  jjupa  species 
of  Linn.,  called  by  Degeer  Locusta  jnipu  s2)inosa,  which 
is  thus  described :  Thorax  ciliated  with  spines,  abdo- 
men tuberculous  and  spinous,  posterior  thighs  armed  be- 
neath with  four  spines  or  teeth ;  inhabits  Ethiopia.  The 
allusion  in  Jeremiah  is  to  the  ancient  accoutrement  of 
war-horses,  bristling  with  sheaves  of  arrows.    See  Can- 

KEK-WORil. 

(9.)  Salam'  (C"bO),  only  in  Lev.  xi,  22,  arra;«j,  at- 
facus,  "  the  bald  locust."  A  Chaldee  quadriliteral  root 
is  given  l)y  Bochart,  C^fba,  to  devour.  Another  has 
been  proposed,  vh'D,  a  rock  or  stone,  and  fib",  to  go  up; 
licnce  the  locust,  which  climbs  up  stones  or  rocks ;  but, 
as  Bochart  observes,  no  locust  is  known  answering  to 
this  characteristic.  Others  give  TpD,  a  stone,  and  Ca^, 
to  hide  under;  equally  futile.  Tychsen,  arguing  from 
what  is  said  of  the  salam  in  the  Talmud  (Tract,  Choliu), 
viz.  that  "  this  insect  has  a  smooth  head,  and  that  the 
female  is  without  the  sword-shaped  tail,"  conjectures 
that  the  species  here  intended  is  Gri/llus  eversor  (Asso), 
a  synonyme  that  it  is  difiicult  ti'  iilentify  with  any  re- 
corded si)ecies.  From  the  text  wliere  it  is  mentioned  it 
only  appears  that  it  was  some  species  of  locust  winged 
and  edilile. 

(10.)  Tsei-atsal'  (3S3:i,  as  the  name  of  an  insect 
only  in  Deut. xxviii, 42,  tpvaifit],  lubigo, "  locust").  The 
root  commonly  assigned  is  ?sS,  to  sound  (whence  its 
use  for  a  irkizzinr/  of  wings,  Isa.  xviii,  1 ;  fot  ci/tnbals,  2 
Sam.  vi,  5;  Psa.  cl,  5;  or  any  ringing  instrument,  as  a 
harj)oon,Joh  xli,  7);  hence,  says  Gesenius,  a  species  of 
locust  that  makes  a  shrill  noise.     Dr.  Lee  savs  a  tree- 


cricket  that  does  so.  Tychsen  suggests  the  G.  stridulus 
of  Linn.  The  song  of  the  gr;jllo-talp)a  is  sweet  and  loud. 
On  similar  principles  we,  might  conjecture,  although 
with  ])erhaps  somewhat  less  certainty,  a  derivation  from 
the  Chald.  Xs^,  to  pray,  and  thence  infer  the  Mantis  re- 
liyiosa,  or  Prier  Dieu,  so  called  from  its  singidar  atti- 
tude, and  wliich  is  found  in  Palestine  (Kitto's  Physical 
History,  p.  419).  The  words  in  the  Septuag.  and  Yulg. 
properly  mean  the  mildew  on  corn,  etc.,  and  are  there 
applied  metaphorically  to  the  ravages  of  locusts.  This 
mildew  was  anciently  believed  by  the  heathens  to  be 
a  divine  chastisement;  hence  their  religious  ceremony 
called  Kubigalia  (Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  xviii,  29).  The  word 
is  evidently  onomatopoietic,  and  is  here  perhajis  a  syn- 
onyme for  some  one  of  the  other  names  for  locust.  Mi- 
chaelis (^Supplem.  2094)  believes  the  word  is  identical 
with  chasil,  which  he  says  denotes  perhaps  the  mole- 
cricket,  Gryllus  talpiformis,  from  the  stridulous  sound 
it  produces.  Tychsen  (p.  79,  80)  identifies  it  witli  the 
Gryllus  stridulus,  Linnaeus  (=^Gi^dipoda  stridula.  And. 
Serv.).  The  notion  conveyed  by  the  Hebrew  word  will, 
however,  apply  to  almost  any  kind  of  locust,  and,  in- 
deed, to  many  kinds  of  insects;  a  similar  word,  ^*«/6'«fe(;, 
was  applied  by  the  Ethiopians  to  a  ti}^  which  the  Arabs 
called  zimb,  apparently  identical  with  the  tsetse  fly  of  Dr. 
Livingstone  and  other  African  travellers.  In  the  pas- 
sage in  Deuteronomy,  if  an  insect  be  meant  at  all,  it 
may  be  assigned  to  some  destructive  species  of  grass- 
hopper or  locust. 

(11.)  The  Greek  term  for  the  locust  is  aK-pi'c,  which 
occurs  in  Rev.  ix,  3,  7,  with  undoubted  allusion  to  the 
Oriental  devastating  insect,  which  is  represented  as  as- 
cending from  the  smoke  of  the  infernal  pit,  as  a  type  of 
the  judgments  of  God  upon  the  enemies  of  Christianity. 
They  are  also  mentioned  as  forming  part  of  the  food  of 
John  the  Baptist  (Matt,  iii,  4;  Mark  i,  6),  where  it  is 
not,  as  some  have  supposed,  any  plant  that  is  intended, 
but  the  insect,  which  is  still  universally  eaten  by  the 
poorer  classes  in  the  East,  both  in  a  cooked  and  raw 
state  (Hackett's  Illustra.  of  Script,  p.  97). 

IL  Locusts  belong  to  that  order  of  insects  known  by 
the  term  Orthoptera  (or  sti-aiykt-icinyed).  This  order 
is  divided  into  two  large  groups  or  divisions,  viz.  Cur- 
soria  and  Saltatoria.  The  first,  as  the  name  imports, 
includes  only  those  families  of  Orthopitera  which  have 
legs  ibrmed  for  creeping,  and  which  are  considered  un- 
clean by  the  Jewish  law.  Under  the  second  are  com- 
prised those  wliose  two  posterior  legs,  by  their  peculiar 
structure,  enable  them  to  move  on  the  ground  by  leaps. 
This  group  contains,  according  to  Serville's  arrange- 
ment, three  families,  the  Gryllides,  Locustariec,  and  the 
Acridites,  distinguished  one  from  the  other  by  some  jie- 
culiar  modifications  of  structure.  The  common  house- 
cricket  (Gryllus  domesticus,  Oliv.)  may  be  taken  as  an 
illustration  of  the  Gryllides ;  the  green  grasshopper 
(Locusta  viridissima,  Fabr.),  which  the  French  call 
Sauterelle  verfe,  will  represent  the  family  Locustarice ; 
and  the  Acridites  may  be  typified  by  the  common  mi- 
gratory locust  (Oulipoda  migratoi-ia,  Aud.  Serv.),  which 


OWpoda  Migratoria. 

is  an  occasional  visitor  to  Europe  (see  the  Gentleman's 
Magazine  Jidy.  174H,  p.  331,  414;  also  7'he  Times.  Oct. 
4,  1845).  Of  the  Gryllides,  G.  cerisyi  has  been  found 
in  Egypt,  antl  G.  domesticus,  on  the  authority  of  Dr. 
Kitto,  in  Palestine ;  but  doubtless  other  species  also  oc- 
cur in  tliese  countries.  Of  the  Locustariw,  Phaiierop- 
terafalcuta,  Serv.  (G.falc.  Scopoli),  has  also,  according 
to  Kitto,  been  found  in  Palestine,  Bradyporus  dasypus 
in  Asia  Minor,  Turkey,  etc.,  Saga  NatolicB  near  Smyr- 


LOCUST 


485 


LOCUST 


na.  Of  the  locusts  proper,  or  A  cridites,  four  species  of 
the  genus  Truxalis  are  recorded  as  having  been  seen  in 
Egypt,  Syria,  or  Arabia,  viz.  T.  nasiita,  T.  variabilis, 
T.  pi-oceni,  and  T.  miniata,  Tlie  following  kinds  also 
occur :  Opsomalu  pisciformis,  in  Egypt,  and  the  oasis 
of  Harrat;  J'a/dloreros  hicronhjphicus,  P.  hnfonius,  P. 
jmndicentris,  P.  vulcanus,  in  the  deserts  of  Cairo ;  De- 
ricoi-ys  albidula  in  Egypt  and  Mount  Lebanon.  Of  the 
genus  A  criiHum,  A .  mcestmn,  the  most  formidable  per- 
haps of  all  the  .-1  cridites,  A .  lineola  (  =  G.  ^Er/ypt.  Linn.), 


e 


'<<, 


Acridium  Lineola. 

which  is  a  species  commonly  sold  for  food  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Bagdad  (Ser\'.  Orthop.  G57),  A.  semifasciatum, 
A.jxregrinum,  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  the  spe- 
cies, and  A .  morbosum,  occur  either  in  Egypt  or  Arabia. 
Culliptamus  sei'opis  and  Chrotof/onus  lugiihris  are  found 
in  Egypt,  and  in  the  cultivated  lands  about  Cairo ;  Ere- 
viohia  curinuta,  in  the  rocky  places  about  Sinai.  E. 
cisli,  E.  pidchripennis,  (EkUpoda  octofasciata,  and  Cffd. 
migratoiia  (  =  6".  ?)wV/?'«^  Linn.),  complete  the  list  of 
the  Saltatorial  Orthoptera  of  the  Bible  lands.  Of  one 
species  M.  Olivier  {Voyage  dans  VEminre  Othoman,  ii, 
424)  thus  writes :  "  With  the  burning  south  winds  (of 
Syria)  there  come  from  the  interior  of  Arabia  and  from 
the  most  southern  parts  of  Persia  clouds  of  locusts 
(Auidiiim  2^etcg) mum),  whose  ravages  to  these  couii- 


A  eridiuni  Pcrccjrinum. 


tries  are  as  grievous  and  nearly  as  sudden  as  those  of 
the  heaviest  hail  in  Europe.  Wc  witnessed  them  twice. 
It  is  difficult  to  express  the  effect  produced  on  us  by  the 
sight  of  the  whole  atmosphere  filled  on  all  sides  and  to 
a  great  height  by  an  innumerable  quantity  of  these  in- 
sects, whose  flight  was  slow  and  uniform,  and  whose 
noise  resembled  tliat  of  rain :  the  sky  was  darkened, 
and  the  light  of  the  sun  considerably  weakened.  In  a 
moment  the  terraces  of  the  houses,  the  streets,  and  all 
the  fields  were  covered  by  these  insects,  and  in  two  days 
they  had  nearly  devoured  all  the  leaves  of  the  plants. 
Happily  they  lived  but  a  short  time,  and  seemed  to 
have  migrated  only  to  reproduce  themselves  and  die ; 
in  fact,  nearly  all  those  we  saw  the  next  day  had  paired, 
and  the  day  following  the  fields  ;vero  covered  with  their 
dead  bodies."  This  species  is  found  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Persia.  Tlie  ordinary  Syrian  locust 
greatly  resembles  the  common  grasshopper,  but  is  larger 
and  more  destructive.  It  is  usually  about  two  inches 
and  a  half  in  length,  and  is  chiefly  of  a  green  color,  with 
dark  spots.  It  is  provided  witli  a  pair  of  antennas  or 
"  feelers"  about  an  inch  in  length,  projecting  from  the 
head.  The  mandibles  or  jaws  are  black,  and  the  wing- 
coverts  are  of  a  bright  brown,  spotted  with  black.  It 
has  an  elevated  ridge  or  crest  upon  tlie  thorax,  or  that 


portion  of  the  body  to  which  the  legs  and  wings  are  at- 
tached. The  legs  and  thighs  of  these  insects  are  so 
powerful  that  they  can  leap  to  a  height  of  two  hundred 
times  the  length  of  their  bodies;  when  so  raised  they 
spread  their  wings,  and  fly  so  close  together  as  to  appeaj 
like  one  compact  moving  mass. 


Locust  flyinj; 


Locusts,  like  many  other  of  the  general  provisions  of 
nature,  may  occasion  incidental  and  partial  evil,  but, 
upon  the  whole,  they  are  an  immense  benefit  to  those 
portions  of  the  workl  which  they  inhabit ;  and  so  con- 
nected is  the  chain  of  being  that  we  may  safely  believe 
that  the  advantage  is  not  confined  to  those  regions. 
"  They  clear  the  way  for  the  renovation  of  vegetable 
productions  which  are  in  danger  of  being  destroyed  by 
the  exuberance  of  some  particular  species,  and  are  thus 
fulfilling  the  law  of  the  Creator,  that  of  all  which  he  has 
made  should  nothing  be  lost.  A  region  which  has  been 
choked  up  by  shrubs,  and  perennial  plants,  and  hard, 
half-withered,  impalatable  grasses,  after  having  been 
laid  bare  by  these  scourges,  soon  appears  in  a  far  more 
beautiful  dress,  with  new  herbs,  superb  lilies,  fresh  an- 
nual grasses,  and  young  and  juicy  shrubs  of  pereiniial 
kinds,  affording  delicious  herbage  for  the  wild  cattle 
and  game"  (Sparman's  Voyage,  i,  3(J7).  Meanwhile  their 
excessive  multiplication  is  repressed  by  numerous  causes. 
Contrary  to  the  order  of  nature  with  all  other  insects, 
the  males  are  far  more  numerous  than  the  females.  It 
is  believed  that  if  they  were  equal  in  number  they 
would  in  ten  j'ears  annihilate  the  vegetable  system. 
Besides  all  the  creatures  that  feed  upon  them,  rains  are 
very  destructive  to  their  eggs,  to  the  larvre,  pupte,  and 
perfect  insect.  When  perfect  they  always  fly  with  the 
\vinds,  and  are  therefore  constantly  carried  out  to  sea, 
and  often  ignorantly  descend  upon  it  as  if  upon  land. 
(See  below.  III.)  Myriads  are  thus  lost  in  the  ocean 
every  year,  and  become  the  food  of  fishes.  On  land 
they  afford  in  all  their  several  states  sustenance  to  count- 
less tribes  of  birds,  beasts,  reptiles,  etc. ;  and  if  their  of- 
fice as  the  scavengers  of  nature,  commissioned  to  remove 
all  superfluous  productions  from  the  face  of  the  earth, 
sometimes  incidentally  and  as  the  operation  of  a  general 
law,  interferes  with  the  labors  of  man,  as  do  storms, 
tempests,  etc.,  they  have,  from  all  antiquity  to  the  pres- 
ent hour,  afforded  him  an  excellent  supply  till  the  land 
acquires  the  benefit  of  their  visitations,  by  yielding  him 
in  the  mean  time  an  agreeable,  wholesome,  and  nutri- 
tious aliment. 

There  arc  different  ways  of  preparing  locusts  for  food : 
sometimes  they  are  ground  and  pounded,  and  then  mixed 
with  flour  and  water  and  made  into  cakes,  or  they  are 
salted  and  then  eaten ;  sometimes  smoked ;  boiled  or 
roasted;  stewed,  or  fried  in  butter.  Dr.  Kitto  {Pict. 
Bible,  note  on  Lev.  xi,  21),  who  tasted  locusts,  says  they 
are  more  like  shrimps  than  anything  else ;  and  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  some  years  ago,  cooked  some  of  the 
green  grasshoppers,  Locusta  viridissima,  boiling  them 
in  water  half  an  hour,  throwuig  away  the  head,  wings, 
and  legs,  and  then  sprinkling  them  with  pepper  and 


LOCUST 


486 


LOCUST 


salt,  and  adding  butter :  he  found 
tliem  excellent.  How  strange,  then, 
nay,  "  how  idle,"  to  quote  the  words 
of  Kirby  and  Spence  {Entom.  i,  305), 
"  was  the  controversy  concerning  the 
locusts  which  formed  part  of  the  sus- 
tenance of  John  the  Baptist,  .  .  .  and 
how  apt  even  learned  men  are  to  per- 
plex a  plain  question  from  ignorance 
of  the  customs  of  other  coimtries!" 
They  are  even  an  extensive  article  of 
commerce  (Sparman's  Voyage,  i,  367, 
etc.).  Diodorus  Siculus  mentions  a 
peojjle  of  Ethiopia  who  were  so  fond 
of  eating  them  that  they  were  called 
A  criJophagi, "  eaters  of  locusts"  (xxiv, 
3).  Whole  armies  have  been  relieved 
by  them  when  in  danger  of  perishing 
(Porphyrins,  De  Absiinentia  Carnis). 
We  learn  from  Aristophanes  and  Aris- 
totle that  they  were  eaten  by  the  in- 
habitants of  Greece  (Aristoph.  Achar- 

^''"W        '"'"■  ^^^^'  ^^^~'  ^^^^''"  ^™'^-'-'  Aristotle, 
"^rj^M*  Hist.  A  nim.  v,  30,  where  he  speaks  of 

them  as  delicacies).    (See  below,  III.) 
Dried  Locusts  on  That  they  were  eaten  in  a  preserved 
rods    borne    in   state  by  the  ancient  Assyrians  is  evi- 
pr.)cession    (On   j    ,t  f^  ^  j^g  monuments  (Layard, 
sculptures  fi-om    „   ,         ,  ,„         ,,^„,  ^     •'       ' 

K  o  u  y  u  n  j  i  k,  ^"O;  «««  ^  w.  p.  289). 
now  ill  the  Bi-it-  Birds  also  eagerly  devour  them 
ish  Mnsenm.)  (Russell,  Natural  History  of  Aleppo, 
p.  1'27  ;  Yolney,  Travels,  i,  237 ;  Kitto's  Physical  History 
of  Pal.  p.  410).  The  locust-bird  referred  to  by  travel- 
lers, and  which  the  Arabs  call  smurmur,  is  no  doubt, 
from  Dr.  Kitto's  description,  the  "rose-colored  starling," 
Pastor  roseiis.  The  Kev.  H.  B.  Tristram  saw  one  speci- 
men in  the  orange-groves  at  Jaffa  in  the  spring  of  1858, 


.^m. 


The  Ssniurmur,  or  Locust-eating  Bud 

l)Ut  makes  no  allusion  to  its  devouring  locusts.  Dr. 
Kitto  in  one  place  (p.  410)  says  the  locust-bird  is  about 
the  size  of  a  starling ;  in  another  place  (p.  420)  he  com- 
pares it  in  size  to  a  swallow.  The  bird  is  about  eiglit 
inches  and  a  half  in  length.  Yarrell  (British  Birds,  ii, 
51,  2d  ed.)  says  "it  is  held  sacred  at  Aleppo  because  it 
feeds  on  the  locust;"  and  Col.  Sykes  bears  testimony  to 
the  immense  flocks  in  which  they  fly.  He  says  (Cata- 
loffiie  of  the  Birds  of  Dnkhnn)  "they  darken  the  air  by 
their  numbers  .  .  .  forty  Oi'  fifty  liave  been  killed  at  "a 
shot."  But  he  says  "  they  prove  a  calamity  to  the  hus- 
bandman, as  they  are  as  destructive  as  locusts,  and  not 
much  less  numerous." 

Tlie  great  tliglits  of  locusts  occur  only  every  fourth 
or  fifth  season.  Those  locusts  which  come  in  the  first 
instance  only  fix  on  trees,  and  do  not  destroy  grain:  it 
is  the  young,  before  thej-  are  able  to  Hy,  %vhich  are 
chiefly  injurious  to  the  crops.  Nor  do  all  the  species 
feed  upon  vegetables ;  one,  comprehending  many  vari- 
eties, the  truxalis,  according  to  some  authorities,  feeds 
upon  insects.  Latreille  says^the  house-cricket  will  do 
so.  "Locusts,"  remarks  a  very  sensible  tourist,  "seem 
to  devour  not  so  much  from  a  ravenous  appetite  as  from 
a  rage  for  destroying."  Destruction,  therefore,  and  not 
food,  is  the  chief  impulse  of  their  devastations,  and  in 


this  consists  their  utility;  they  are,  in  fact,  omnivo- 
rous. The  most  poisonous  plants  are  indifferent  to 
them ;  they  wiU  prey  even  upon  the  crowfoot,  whose 
causticity  bums  the  very  hides  of  beasts.  They  simply 
consume  everythiny  without  jircdilection,  vegetable  mat- 
ter, linen,  woollen,  silk,  leather,  etc. ;  and  I'liny  does  not 
exaggerate  when  he  says,  "Fores  quocjue  tectorum," 
"  and  even  the  doors  of  houses"  (xi,  29),  for  they  have 
been  known  to  consume  the  very  varnish  of  furniture. 
They  reduce  everything  indiscriminately  to  shreds, 
which  become  manure.  It  might  serve  to  mitigate 
popidar  misapprehensions  on  the  subject  to  consider 
what  would  have  been  the  consequence  if  locusts  had 
been  carnivorous  like  wasps.  All  terrestrial  beings,  in 
such  a  case,  not  excluding  man  himself,  would  have  be- 
come their  victims.  There  are,  no  doubt,  many  things 
respecting  them  yet  unlinown  to  us  which  would  stiU 
further  justify  the  belief  that  this,  like  "every"  other 
"  work  of  God,  is  good" — benevolent  upon  the  whole 
(see  Dillon's  Ti-av,  in  Spain,  p.  256,  etc.,  London,  1780, 
4to). 

in.  The  general  references  to  locusts  in  the  Scrip- 
tures are  well  collected  by  Jahn  {Bibl.Archaol.  §  23), 
while  Wemyss  gives  many  of  the  symbolical  apjilica- 
tions  of  this  creature  {Claris  Symholica,  s.  v.).  It  is  well 
known  that  locusts  live  in  a  republic  like  ants.  Agur, 
the  son  of  Jakeh,  correctly  says,  "  The  locusts  have  no 
king."  But  Mr.  Home  gives  them  one  {Introduction, 
etc.,  1839,  iii,  76),  and  Dr.  Harris  speaks  of  their  having 
"  a  leader  whose  motions  they  invariably  observe"  {Xat. 
Hist,  of  the  Bible,  London,  1825).  See  this  notion  re- 
futed by  Kirby  and  Spence  (ii,  16),  and  even  by  Moufi'et 
{Theat.  Insect,  p.  122,  Lond.  1034).  It  is  also  worthy  of 
remark  that  no  Hebrew  root  has  ever  been  offered  fa- 
voring this  idea.  Our  translation  (Nah.  iii,  17)  repre- 
sents locusts,  "great  grasshoppers,"  as  "camping  in  the 
Ifldges  in  the  cold  day,  but  when  the  sun  ariseth  as 
fleeing  away."  Here  the  locust,  gob,  is  undoubtedly 
spoken  of  as  a  perfect  insect,  able  to  fly,  and  as  it  is  well 
known  that  at  evening  the  locusts  descend  from  their 
flights  and  form  camps  for  the  night,  may  not  the  cold 
day  mean  the  cold  portion  of  the  daj',  i.  e.  the  niglit,  so 
remarkable  for  its  coldness  in  the  East,  the  word  DTi 
being  used  here,  as  it  often  is,  in  a  comprehensive  sense, 
like  the  Gr.  ypipa  and  Lat.  dies  ?  Gesenius  suggests 
that  rms,  "hedges,"  should  here  be  understood  like 
the  Gr.  a'lpaaui,  shrubs,  brushwood,  etc.  (See  above, 
I,  2.)  With  regard  to  the  description  in  Joel  (chap,  ii), 
it  is  considered  by  many  learned  writers  as  a  figurative 
representation  of  the  ravages  of  an  invading  "  army"  of 
human  beings,  as  in  Rev.  ix,  2-12,  rather  tlian  a  literal 
account,  since  such  a  devastation  would  hardly,  they 
tliink,  have  escaped  notice  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles.  Some  have  abandoned  all  attempt  at  a  lit- 
eral interpretation  of  Lev.  xi,  22,  and  understand  by  the 
four  species  of  locusts  there  mentioned,  Shalmaneser, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  Antiochus,  and  the  Komans.  Theodo- 
ret  explains  them  as  the  four  Assyrian  kings,  Tiglath- 
pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherilj,  and  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
and  Abarbanel,  of  the  four  kingdoms  inimical  to  the 
Jews,  viz.  the  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Ko- 
mans (Pococke's  H'or/iVt,  i,  214,  etc.,  Lond.  1740;  Kosen- 
m tiller.  Scholia  in  Joel.  c.  i). 

From  the  Scriptures  it  appears  that  Egypt,  Palestine, 
and  the  adjacent  countries  were  frequently  laid  waste 
by  vast  bodies  of  migrating  locusts,  which  are  especial- 
ly represented  as  a  scourge  in  the  hand  of  divine  Prov- 
idence for  the  punishment  of  national  sins;  and  the 
brief  notices  of  the  inspired  writers  as  to  the  habits  of 
the  insects,  their  numbers,  and  the  devastation  they 
cause,  are  amply  borne  out  by  the  more  labored  details 
of  modem  travellers.  1.  Locusts  occur  in  great  num- 
bers, and  sometimes  obscure  the  sun  (Exod.  x,  15;  Jcr. 
xlvi,  23;  Judg.  vi,  5;  vii,  12;  Joel  ii,  10;  Nah.  iii,  15; 
compare  Livy,  xlii,  2 ;  ..-Elian,  A'.  .4 .  iii,  12 ;  Phnv,  X.  H. 
xi,  29 ;  Shaw,  Travels,  p.  187  [fol.  2d  ed.] ;  Ludolf,  JJist. 


LOD 


487 


LODGE 


^fJiiop.  i,  13,  and  De  Locusiis,  i,  4 ;  Volney,  Travels  in 
Sijriii,  i,  236).  2.  Their  voracity  is  alluded  to  in  Exod. 
X,  12, 15;  Joel  i,  4,  7, 12,  and  ii,3 ;  Dent.  xxviii,38;  Psa. 
Ixxviii,  46 ;  cv,  34 ;  Isa.  xxxiii,  4  (comp.  Shaw,  Travels, 
p.  187,  and  travellers  in  the  East,  passim).  3.  They  are 
compared  to  horses  (Joel  ii,4;  Kev.  ix,  7.  The  Italians 
call  the  locust  "  Cavaletta ;"  and  Ray  says,  "  Caput  ob- 
longum,  equi  instar  prona  spectans."  Compare  also  the 
Arab's  description  to  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  VA  rahie),  4. 
They  make  a  fearful  noise  in  their  flii>'ht  (Joel  ii,  5 ;  Rev. 
ix,  9;  comp.  Forskal,  Descr.  p.  81 :  "Transeuntes  grylli 
super  verticem  nostrum  sono  magnre  cataractaj  ferve- 
bant ;"  Yolney,  Trav.  i,  235).  5.  Their  irresistible  prog- 
ress is  referred  to  in  Joel  ii,  8,  9  (comp.  Shaw,  Trav.  p. 
187).  6.  They  enter  dwellings,  and  devour  even  the 
wood-work  of  houses  (Exod.  x,  G ;  Joel  ii,  9, 10 ;  comp. 
Pliny,  N.  H.  xi,  29).  7.  They  do  not  tiy  in  the  night 
(Nah.  iii,  17  ;  comp.  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  VA  rahie,  p.  173). 
8.  Tlio  sea  destroj-s  the  greater  number  (Exod.  x,  19: 
Joel  ii,  20  ;  compare  Pliny,  xi,  35 ;  Hasselquist,  Trav.  p. 
445  [Engl,  transl.  1766]  ;  also  Iliad,  xxi,  12).  9.  Their 
dead  bodies  taint  the  air  (Joel  ii,  20 ;  comp.  Hasselquist, 
Trav.  p.  445).  10.  They  are  used  as  food  (Lev.  xi,  21, 
22;  Matt,  iii,  4;  Mark  i,  6;  compare  Pliny,  iV. //.  vi,  35  ; 
xi,35;  Diod.  Sic.  iii,29;  Aristoph. -4e/;«r.  1116  ;  Ludolf, 
//.  ^-Ethiop.  p.  67  [Gent's  transl.J  ;  Jackson,  Morocco,  p. 
52 ;  Niebuhr,  Descr.  de  I'A  rahie,  p.  150  ;  Sparman,  Trav. 
i,  367,  who  says  the  Hottentots  are  glad  when  the  lo- 
custs come,  for  they  fatten  upon  them;  Hasselquist, 
Travels,  p.  232,419;  Kirby  and  Spence,  Eniom.  i,  305). 
There  are  people  at  this  day  who  gravely  assert  that 
the  locusts  which  formed  part  of  the  food  of  the  Baptist 
were  not  the  insect  of  that  name,  but  the  long,  sweet 
pods  of  the  locust-tree  (Ceratonia  siliqua),  Johannis 
brodt,''iit.  John's  bread,"  as  the  monks  of  Palestine  call 
it.  For  other  equally  erroneous  explanations,  or  unau- 
thorized alterations  of  ciKpiSic,  see  Celsii  Hieroh.  i,  74. 

IV.  The  following  are  some  of  the  works  which  treat 
of  locusts-:  Ludolf,  Dissertatio  de  Locustis  (Franco f.  ad 
Moen.  1694)  [this  author  believes  that  the  quails  which 
fed  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  were  locusts  (vid.  his 
Diutriba  qua  senfentiu  nova  de  Selavis  siv'e  Locusiis  de- 
fenditur,  Francof.  1694),  as  do  the  Jewish  Arabs  to  this 
day.  So  does  Patrick,  in  his  Comment,  on  Numbers.  A 
more  absurd  opinion  -(vas  that  held  by  Norrelius,  who 
maintained  that  the  four  names  of  Lev.  xi,22  were  birds 
(see  his  Schediasma  de  A  vibus  sacris,  A  I'heh,  Chagab, 
Solam,  et  Charrjol,  Upsal.  1746,  and  in  the  Bill.  Brem. 
iii,  36)]  ;  Faber,  De  Locusiis  Biblicis,  et  sir/illatim  de  A  vi- 
bus Quadrupedibus,  ex  Lev.  xi,  20  (Wittenb.  1710-11); 
Asso,  Abhaiullung  vnn  den  Heuschrecl-en  (Rostock,  1787  ; 
usually  containing  also  Tychsen's  Comment,  de  Locustis) ; 
Oedman,  Vermischte  Samndung,  vol.  ii,  e.  vii ;  Kirby  and 
Spence,  Introduction  to  Entomology,  i,  305,  etc. ;  Bochart, 
Hierozoicon,  iii,  251,  etc.,  ed.  Rosenmiiller ;  Kitto,  Plijjs. 
History  of  Palestine,  p.  419,420;  Harris,  Natural  Hist, 
of  the  Bible,  s.  v.  (1833);  Harmer,  Observations  (Lond. 
1797);  Fabricius,  Eiitomol.  System,  ii,  46  sq. ;  Credner, 
Joel,  p.  261  sq. ;  Thomson,  Land  and  Book,  ii,  102  sq. ; 
Tristram,  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  p.  306  sq. ;  Wood,  Bible 
Animals,  p.  596  sq. ;  Hackett. ///i/.f^/Y/.  of  Script,  p.  97; 
ServUle,  Monograph  in  the  Suites  a.  Buffon ;  Fischer,  Or- 
thoptera  Europwa ;  Suicer,  Thesaurus,  i,  169,  179;  Gu- 
therr,  De  Victu  .Johannis  (Franc.  1785);  Rathleb,  ^ ^rj- 
dotheolor/ie  (Hanover,  1748);  Rawlinson,  Eire  Ancient 
Monarchies,  ii,  299,  493  ;  iii,  144. 

IiOd  (1  Chron.  viii,  12;  Ezra  ii,  32;  Neh.  vii,37;  xi, 
35).     See  Lyuda. 

Lo-de'bar  (Heb.  Lo-Dehar,'  "ISI  J<b.  no  pasture, 
2  Sam.  xvii,  27,  Sept.  Awcafiao ;  written  "i^n  i>  in  2 
Sam.  ix,  4,  5,  Septuag.  Aw^apap),  a  town  apparently  in 
Gilead,not  far  from  ]\Iahanaim.the  residence  of  Ammiel, 
whose  son  Machir  entertained  Mephibosheth,  and  after- 
wards sent  refreshments  to  David  (2  Sam.  ix,  4,  5 ;  xvii, 
27).  It  is  probably  the  same  with  the  place  (see  Re- 
land,  Palcest.  p.  875)   called  Deisik  (or  rather  Lidhir', 


'13'7^,  Josh,  xiii,  26 ;  Sept.  Af/3i'p,  Vulg.  Dabir ;  for  the 
P  is  not  a  prefix,  but  a  part  of  the  name  [see  Keil's  Com- 
ment, ad  loc],  which  should  probably  be  pointed  "iSI'b 
Lodebar'),  on  the  (north-easteni)  border  of  Gad,  but  in 
which  direction  from  IMahanaim  is  uncertain,  perhaps 
north-west  (in  which  general  direction  the  associated 
names  appear  to  proceed),  and  not  far  from  et-Tayiheli. 

Lodensteiii,  Jonocis  von,  a  noted  Dutch  theo- 
logian, was  born  at  Delft  in  1620.  He  studied  under 
Voetius  at  Utrecht,  and  under  Cocceius  and  Amesius  at 
Franeker,  and  became  preacher  atZoetemer  in  1644;  at 
Sluys,  in  Flanders,  in  1650,  and  at  Utrecht  in  1652— in 
all  of  which  places  he  used  every  exertion  to  revive  the 
spirit  of  practical  piety  among  his  countrymen,  whom 
great  prosperity  had  rendered  worldly-minded  and  in- 
difierent.  When,  in  1672,  the  country  was  threatened 
by  the  invasion  of  the  French  under  Louis  XIV,  he  pro- 
claimed it  a  judgment  of  the  Lord,  and  called  on  them 
to  repent.  He  found  many  followers.  In  1665  he  ceased 
to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper,  from  conscientious  scru- 
ples. Laying  great  stress  on  purity  of  life  and  of  heart, 
he  feared  lest  he  might  administer  it  to  some  unworthy 
to  receive  this  sacred  ordinance.  The  number  of  his 
adherents  gradually  increased,  and  they  spread  over  the 
whole  Netherlands,  but  they  never  separated  from  the 
Reformed  Church  like  the  Labadists.  The  effect  of  Lo- 
denstein's  doctrines  in  Holland  was  like  that  following 
Spener's  labors  afterwards  in  Germany,  He  died  pastor 
of  Utrecht  in  1677.  He  wrote  Verfullenes  Christenthum 
(published  after  his  death  by  J.  Hofmann),  Reforma- 
tionss])iegel  (to  be  found  also  in  Arnold's  Kirchen  u.  Ket- 
zerhistorie),  and  a  number  of  hymns,  etc. — Herzog,^e«^- 
Encyldop.  x,  450.     (J.  N.  P.) 

Lodge  (properly  some  form  of  the  verb  "lb,  lun,  or 
'{^h,  Un,  to  stay  over  night,  avXllopai,  etc.).  See  Inn. 
In  Isa.  i,  8,  the  "  lodge  in  a  garden"  (n5!lb73,  melunah',  a 
lodging-place,  rendered  "  cottage"  in  Isa.  xxiv,  20)  sig- 
nifies a  shed  or  lodge  for  the  watchman  in  a  garden ;  it 
also  refers  to  a  sort  of  hanging  bed  or  hammock,  which 
travellers  in  hot  climates,  or  the  watchmen  of  gardens 
or  vineyards,  hang  on  high  trees  to  sleep  in  at  night, 
probably  from  the  fear  of  wild  beasts  (Isa.  xxiv,  20). 
The  lodge  here  referred  to  was  a  little  temporary  hut 
consisting  of  a  low  framework  of  poles,  covered  with 
boughs,  straw,  turf,  or  similar  materials,  for  a  shelter 
from  the  heat  by  day  and  the  cold  and  dews  by  night, 
for  the  watchmen  that  kept  the  garden,  or  vineyard, 
during  the  short  season  while  the  fruit  was  ripenjng 
(Job  xxvii,  18),  and  speedily  removed  when  it  had 
served  that  purpose.  It  is  usually  erected  on  a  slight 
artificial  mound  of  earth,  with  just  space  sufficient  for 
one  person,  who,  in  this  confined  solitude,  remains  con- 
stantly watching  the  ripening  crop,  as  the  jackals  dur- 
ing the  vintage  often  destroy  whole  vineyards,  and 
likewise  commit  great  ravages  in  the  gardens  of  cucum- 
bers and  melons.  This  protection  is  also  necessary  to 
prevent  the  depredations  of  thieves.  To  see  one  of  these 
miserable  sheds  standing  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  field  or 
on  the  margin  of  it,  occupied  by  its  solitarj-  watcher, 
often  a  decrepit  or  aged  person,  presents  a  striking  im- 
age of  dreariness  and  loneliness  (Hackett's  Illustra.  of 
Scripture,  p.  162).     See  Cottage. 

Lodge,  Nathan,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister, 
was  born  in  Loudon  County,  Va.,  August  20, 1788;  was 
converted  in  1804,  entered  the  Conference  at  Baltimore 
in  1810,  and  died  Nov.  27, 1815.  He  was  a  very  zeal- 
ous and  useful  minister,  and  many  souls  were  converted 
through  his  preaching.  He  was  greatly  lamented  by 
his  people,  among  whom  he  was  suddenly  cut  down. — 
Minutes  of  Conferences,  i,  278. 

Lodge,  Robert,  a  member  of  the  Societj'  of 
Friends,  was  b(jrn  at  jMasham,  Yorkshire,  about  1636. 
He  was  a  religious  youth,  and  became  a  Friend  about 
1660.  He  preached  and  suffered  for  the  Quaker  cause 
in  Ireland.     On  July  15,  1690,  he  died,  assuring  his 


LODUR 


488 


LOGIC 


friends,  "  Blessed  be  God,  I  have  heavenly  peace."  See 
Jauney,  Hist,  of  Friends,  ii,  43-i. 

Lodur,  one  of  the  three  Norse  divuiities  (Odin  and 
Haneri,  \\'ho,  walking  at  the  sea-shore,  created  the  first 
pair  of  men.     See  Loki. 

Loffler,  Friedrich  Simon,  a  German  Protestant 
theologian,  nephew  of  the  celebrated  philosopher  Leib- 
nitz, was  born  at  Leipzic  Aug.  9, 1GG9,  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  his  native  place.  In  1689  he  be- 
came magister  of  philosophy  and  bachelor  of  divinity. 
In  1G95  he  was  appointed  pastor  at  Probstheida,  and 
served  his  people  until  1745,  when,  on  account  of  age, 
he  was  made  emeritus  preacher.  He  died  in  1748.  He 
wrote  Specimen  exeges.  s.  de  operariis  in  vinea : — Diss, 
de  Utteris  Bellerophonteis ;  etc. 

Lofller,  Josias  Friedrich  Christian,  a  noted 
German  Protestant  theologian,  was  born  at  Saalfeld  Jan- 
uary 18, 1752.  Having  lost  his  father  in  17G3,  he  was 
educated  in  the  orphan  asylum  and  at  the  University 
of  Halle.  In  1774  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Teller,  and  in  1777  became  minis- 
ter of  one  of  the  churches  of  that  city.  He  now  made 
himself  known  as  a  writer  by  translating  Souverain's 
renowned  work  on  the  Platonism  of  the  fathers.  In 
1778  he  \vcnt  to  Silesia  as  chaplain  of  a  Prussian  regi- 
ment, but  returned  at  the  end  of  a  year  to  Berlin,  where 
he  resumetl  his  office,  devoting  also  part  of  his  time  to 
educational  pursuits.  In  1783  he  became  professor  of 
theology  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  and  minister  of  the 
principal  church  of  that  city.  Here  his  rationalistic 
views  made  him  many  enemies.  In  1787  he  was  ap- 
pointed general  superintendent  at  Gotha,  but  entered 
on  this  office  only  in  the  following  year.  The  Uni- 
versitv  of  Copenhagen  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
D.D.  in  1792.  He  died  February  4, 181G.  Hiffler  pub- 
lished a  number  of  separate  sermons,  dissertations,  and 
tracts,  and  was  after  1803  the  editor  of  the  continuation 
of  Teller's  Magazin  J'iir  Predifjer.  See  Doring,  Die 
deutsch.  Kanzelredner  des  18  and  19  Jahrh.  p.  223  ;  Her- 
zog,  Real-Encyklopadie,  viii,  451. 

IiOft  (jTrO'J,  aliguh',  vTTipiiiov),  the  upper  chamber, 
e.  g.  of  a  private  house  (1  Kings  xvii,  19;  Acts  xx,  9). 
Such  rooms  were  either  over  the  gate  (2  Sam.  xix,  1) 
or  built  on  the  fiat  roof  (2  Kings  xxiii,  12),  and  were 
especially  used  for  prayer,  conference,  or  public  meet- 
ings.    See  CiiAMBEu;  House;  Roof. 

Loftus.  Dudley  Field,  an  Irish  lawyer,  noted  as 
a  learned  Orientalist,  was  bom  at  liathfarnham,  near 
Dublin,  in  1G18.  He  rose  to  the  position  of  master  in 
Chancery  and  a  judge  of  the  Prerogative  Court,  He 
translated  the  Ethiopic  New  Testament  into  Latin  for 
Walton's  Polyglot ;  also  published  translations  from  the 
Syriac  into  Latin  and  EngUsh.  He  died  in  1G95.  See 
AVood,  .1  then.  O.ron. ;  Harris's  edition  of  Ware's  Ireland; 
Lodge's  Peerage  of  Ireland. 

Loftus,  'William  Kennett,  an  English  archte- 
ologist.  was  born  at  Kye  in  1820.  He  was  a  zealous 
traveller  and  discoverer,  and  explored  the  sites  of  sev- 
eral ancient  cities  on  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  In 
1857  he  published  a  work  entitled  Travels  and  Re- 
searches in  Chaldea.  and  Susiana ;  also  an  account  of 
Some  Kxcavaiions  at  Warka,  the  Erech  of  Ximrod,  and 
Shushav.  the  Palace  of  Esther,  in  1849-52.  He  died  in 
185s.  To  the  Biblical  student  Loftus's  work  is  of  spe- 
cial importance.  See  Thomas's  Diet.  Biog.  and  Mgthol. 
s.  V. 

Log  (5'5,  log,  prob.  a  deep  cavitg,  basin ;  Sept.  kotu- 
X>/,Vulg.  sextarius),  the  smallest  liquid  measure  (e.  g. 
of  oil)  among  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xiv,  10, 12.  15,  21,  24), 
containing,  according  to  the  ra'ubins  (see  Carpzov.  Aj)- 
parat.  p.  G85),  the  twelfth  part  of  a  "  hin,"  ,or  six  eggs, 
i.  e.  nearly  a  pint.     See  Measurk. 

Logan,  David  Swift,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1834,     His  literarj'  ed- 


ucation was  commenced  in  the  academy  of  Beaver,  and 
was  continued  in  Jeiferson  College  (class  of  1854).  In 
1857  he  entered  the  Western  Theological  Seminar^',  and, 
after  completing  the  regular  theological  course,  was  li- 
censed by  the  Presbytery  of  Alleghany  City,  and  after- 
wards ordained  as  an  evangelist  by  the  Presbytery  of 
SteubenviUe,  and  for  two  years  preached  in  the  churches 
of  New  Philadelphia  and  Urichville,  Ohio.  He  next 
labored  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Tiffin,  Ohio,  until 
ill  health  obliged  his  return  to  his  home  in  Bridgewa- 
ter.  Pa.,  where  he  died.  Sept,  15, 18G4.  Mr.  Logan  was 
endowed  -with  a  well-balanced  nature ;  no  single  facidty 
was  cultivated  at  the  expense  of  the  rest.  He  had 
method,  promptness,  assiduity,  thoughtfulness ;  he  was 
an  earnest  preacher  and  a  faithful  pastor.  See  Wilson, 
Preshgterian  Historical  Almanac,  1865,  p.  97.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Logan,  John,  a  noted  Scottish  divine,  was  born  at 
Fala,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh,  in  1748.  Though 
the  son  of  a  farmer,  he  was  eaily  d,estined  to  the  cleri- 
cal profession,  and  was  educated  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  Upon  graduation  he  became  tutor  to  Sir 
John  Sinclair.  In  1773  he  was  licensed  as  a  preacher 
in  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  and  was  shortly 
after  appointed  minister  at  Leith,  where  he  remained 
until  1785,  when  he  removed  to  London,  retaining  by 
agreement  a  part  of  his  clerical  income,  for  the  purpose 
of  devoting  himself  altogether  to  literary  labors.  He 
had  established  quite  a  reputation  as  a  sacred  poet. 
Logan,  if  not  a  learned  divine  or  a  very  profound  think- 
er, was  a  man  of  much  eloquence,  and  a  highly  pop- 
ular preacher.  But  his  poetical  endowments,  strongly 
lyrical  in  their  tendenc}-,  were  the  highest  he  possessed ; 
and,  unfortunately,  he  was  tempted  to  apply  these  in 
a  path  where  he  was  ill  calculated  to  shine,  and  the 
adoption  of  which  proved  fatal  not  only  to  his  profes- 
sional usefulness,  but  to  his  happiness.  In  1783  he 
printed  and  caused  to  be  acted  in  Edinburgh  a  tragedy 
called  Riinnamede,  which  had  been  rehearsed  at  Covent 
Garden,  but  refused  a  license  by  the  lord  chamberlain. 
This  publication  brought  on  him  the  anger  of  his  Pres- 
byterian associates;  and  these  and  other  annoyances, 
aggravated  by  a  hereditary  tendency  to  hypochondria, 
drove  him  to  intoxication  for  relief.  He  died  in  Lon- 
don Dec.  28, 1788.  His  friends,  Drs.  Blair,  Robertson, 
and  Hardy,  published  a  volume  of  his  sermons  m  1790, 
and  a  second  in  1791.  These  sermons  long  enjoyed  very 
great  popularity,  and  have  been  several  times  reprinted. 
They  are  among  the  most  eloquent  that  the  Scottish 
Church  has  produced.  A  third  edition  of  his  poems, 
with  an  account  of  his  life,  appeared  in  1805; -and  the 
poems  are  included  in  Dr.  Anderson's  collection.  Some 
of  his  hymns  are  annexed  to  the  psalmody  of  the  Scot- 
tish Church.     See  English  Cyclojncdia,  s.  v. 

Logic.  This  term,  derived  from  the  Greek  XiJyof, 
\oyiKi],  has  been  the  subject  of  numerous  definitions. 
By  different  authors  and  schools  it  has  been  defined  as 
the  art  of  convincing,  the  art  of  thmking,  the  art  of  dis- 
covering truth,  the  right  use  of  reason,  the  science  and 
art  of  reasoning,  the  science  of  deductive  thinking,  the 
science  of  the  laws  of  thought  as  thought,  and  the  sci- 
ence of  the  laws  of  discursive  thought.  These  specimen 
definitions  indicate  in  some  degree  the  diverse  concep- 
tions of  the  subject  which  have  prevailed  at  dilfcrent 
perioils  and  in  different  circles.  Aristotle,  whom  Sir 
William  Hamilton  extravagantly  calls  the  author  and 
finisher  of  the  general  science  under  consideration,  had 
no  single  name  for  it.  He  treated  of  its  principal  parts 
as  analgtic,  apodeictic,  and  topic.  In  the  latter  he  in- 
cluded the  dialectic  of  Plato  and  the  sophistic  of  tlie 
Sophists.  Notwithstanding  the  honor  credited  to  Aris- 
totle, he  himself  says  that  Zeno  the  Eleatic  was  the  in- 
ventor of  dialectics. 

Thus  we  are  taken  back  to  the  early  Greek  philoso- 
phers for  the  first  formal  discussions  of  what  is  now  uni- 
versally denominated  Logic.  They,  in  successive  gen- 
erations, developed  with  more  or  less  clearness  its  prin- 


LOGIC 


489 


LOGIC 


cipal  elements.  Socrates  illustrated  induction ;  Euclid, 
deduction.  Plato  treated  of  mental  images  as  the  re- 
sults of  sensation,  of  notions  as  the  pro(hict  of  the  un- 
derstanding, and  of  ideas  as  the  product  of  reason.  Aris- 
totle formulated  syllogisms,  anil  defined  their  principal 
laws.  He  taught  analysis.  He  devised  a  system  of 
categories.  He  enumerated  the  five  predicables,  genus, 
species,  difference,  property,  and  accident.  In  short,  he 
reduced  to  a  system  tlie  fragmentary  discoveries  in  the 
philosophy  of  mind  of  those  who  had  gone  before  him, 
and  embodied  them  in  works  destined  to  exert  a  great 
influence  upon  after  ages.  Like  many  other  great  men, 
Aristotle  was  but  indifferently  appreciated  by  his  con- 
temporaries. Even  after  his  death,  his  logical  system 
produced  but  little  intjuence  upon  his  countrymen  the 
Greeks.  Several  of  the  Christian  fathers,  however,  give 
evidence  of  having  profited  by  its  study,  and  of  de- 
siring to  use  the  knowledge  they  had  thus  acquired  in 
propagating  the  truth  of  Christianity.  Justin  Martyr, 
Tatian,  Athenagoras,  Clement,  and  otlicrs,  both  used  and 
defended  such  dialectics  as  they  had  learned  in  the  Gre- 
cian schools.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  same  style  of 
dialectics  had  been  closely  identified  with  the  pernicious 
vagaries  of  heathen  philosophy,  Tertullian,  Iremvus,  Ar- 
nobius,  and  Lactantius  considered  its  use  as  unfavorable 
to  the  interests  of  Christianity,  and  destructive  of  true 
science  and  wisdom.  Augustine  also  wrote  in  the  same 
spirit  against  the  academicians. 

Nevertheless,  speculative  studies  held  a  relative  prom- 
inence in  the  learning  of  Greece  and  Home  during  the 
early  Christian  centuries ;  and  when,  owing  to  the  bar- 
barian irruptions,  learning  and  civilization  declined,  di- 
alectical science  remained  in  more  general  cultivation 
than  almost  any  other  of  the  higher  species  of  knowl- 
edge. Having  its  subject  matter  in  the  human  mind, 
it  was  not  dependent  for  perpetuity  upon  those  external 
circumstances  which  influenced  the  conditions  of  gen- 
eral literature.  Boethius,  who  has  been  called  the  last 
of  the  ancient  philosophers,  and  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  classical  and  the  mediteval  age,  made  a  trans- 
lation of  Aristotle's  categories  into  Latin.  His  contem- 
poraries of  the  (jth  century,  Cassiodorus.Capella,  and  Isi- 
dore of  Seville,  together  with  several  Byzantine  ivriters, 
e.  g,  George  Pachymera,  Theodorus  Metachita,  and  Mi- 
chael Psellus,  formed  meagre  compendiums  of  logic  and 
rhetoric,  without  any  clear  distinction  between  the  two. 
These  manuals  superseded  or  rather  substituted  the  use 
of  the  ancient  authors  on  both  these  subjects,  and,  im- 
perfect as  they  were,  became  the  oracles  of  that  long 
and  dismal  period  in  which  the  trivium  (grammar,  log- 
ic, and  rhetoric)  and  quadrivium  (music,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  astronomy)  were  the  chief  topics  of  study 
and  instruction.  The  ignorance  consequent  upon  such 
a  condition  of  things  continued  for  the  long  period  of 
five  centuries  without  material  variation. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  11th  centun,^  commenced  a 
period  of  literary  awakening  known  to  history  as  the 
first  a.'ra  of  scholasticism.  See  Scholasticism.  This 
movement  was  characterized  by  attempts  to  construct 
systems  of  theology  on  the  traditional  basis  with  strict 
dialectical  form  and  method.  Paris  was  the  chief  seat 
of  the  movement.  Anselm,  aii  abbot  at  Bee  in  1078, 
and  late  in  life  an  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  made  the 
first  vigorous  attempt  in  harmony  with  logical  forms, 
on  the  basis  of  credo  ut  intelli/^am.  Abelard  opposed 
kim,  on  the  principle  that  understanding  should  precede 
faith.  This  was  the  period  of  Nominalism  and  Realism, 
and  also  of  the  foundation  of  universities.  Among  the 
most  prominent  of  the  great  names  of  this  period  is  that 
of  Eoscelinus  of  Compcigne,  who  is  celebrated  as  having 
been  tlie  first  to  revive  the  question  of  the  reality  of 
universal  ideas,  and  William  of  Cliampeaux,  who  open- 
ed a  school  of  logic  in  I'aris  in  1100.  The  fame  of  the 
latter  was  soon  eclipsed  by  that  of  Peter  Abelard,  who 
was  able  to  invest  logical  disputation  with  such  fascina- 
tions as  to  make  it  the  favorite  occupation  of  the  most 
intelligent  minds  for  generations  following. 


Tlie  1.3th  century  is  counted  as  the  second  period  of 
scholasticism,  during  which  the  leading  dialecticians 
^vere  Bonaventura,  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Duns  Scotus.  During  this  period  scholasticism 
reached  its  climax.  The  14th  centur}-,  as  the  third  pe- 
riod of  scholasticism,  witnessed  its  sensible  decline  un- 
der the  protracted  but  bitter  wranglings  of  the  Thomists 
(Realists)  and  Scotists  (Nominalists). 

Notwithstanding  an  attempt  by  the  Medici  of  Flor- 
ence to  revive  the  Platonic  philosophy  in  opposition  to 
that  of  Aristotle,  the  latter  prevailed  in  the  chief  uni- 
versities of  Europe,  and  the  corruptions  of  it  which  had 
been  countenanced  by  scholasticism  began  to  pass  away 
under  the  influence  of  more  intelligent  discussion.  In 
the  16th  century,  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
logical  and  philosophical  works  of  the  Stagirite  were  is- 
sued in  a  purer  text  and  more  accurate  versions,  and 
largely  engaged  public  criticism. 

The  authority  of  Aristotle  had  been  so  long  supreme 
in  the  continental  universities,  and  the  union  between 
what  passed  for  his  philosophy  and  the  errors  of  the 
Church  of  Rome  had  been  so  long  established,  that  it 
was  only  natural  for  Luther  and  Melancthon,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Reformation,  to  inveigh  strongly  against 
the  Aristotelian  logic  and  metaphysics.  As  time  passed 
on,  however,  it  became  apparent  that  the  work  of  the 
Reformers  had  largely  to  be  done  through  the  agency 
of  that  same  Aristotelian  logic.  Melancthon  was  not 
slow  to  perceive  this,  and  subsequently  became  an  ac- 
knowledged follower  of  Aristotle  as  to  dialectics,  and 
even  influenced  Luther  to  retract  some  of  his  severer  ut- 
terances. He  introduced  into  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, to  which  Protestant  Germany  looked  up,  a  scheme 
of  dialectics  and  physics  founded  upon  the  Aristotelian 
theory.  He  also  imitated  the  Stagirite  philosopher  by 
teaching  logic  with  constant  reference  to  rhetoric.  The 
advocacy  and  influence  of  Melancthon  secured  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  Aristotelian  dialectics  in  the  Protes- 
tant schools  of  (iermany  for  more  than  a  centur}'. 

About  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  a  formidable 
opposition  to  the  authority  of  Aristotle  sprang  up  at  the 
University  of  Paris,  under  the  leadership  of  Peter  Ra- 
mus, a  scholar  of  great  natural  acutenoss,  and  of  an  in- 
trepid, though  somewhat  arrogant  spirit.  He  jmblished 
his  Ins/if titumes  Lialectica:  in  1543.  His  system,  found- 
ed with  much  ingenuity  on  the  writings  of  Plato,  not- 
withstanding violent  opposition,  prevailed  so  far  as  to 
greatly  weaken  the  influence  of  the  Aristotelian  philos- 
ophy. The  heads  of  the  university,  alarmed  at  this  in- 
novation, made  complaint  against  Ramus  to  Parliament. 
The  king  himself  interl'ered,  and  appointed  a  public  trial 
of  the  rival  systems  of  logic.  As  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, a  majority  of  the  judges  favored  the  established 
system.  Ramus  was  consequently  ordered  to  desist  from 
teaching,  and  an  order  passed  for  the  suppression  of  his 
book.  That  order  was  subsequently  removed,  and  Ra- 
mus again  became  popular  as  a  teacher.  He  treated 
logic  as  merely  the  art  of  arguing,  and  \vas  \cxy  severe 
on  the  dry  and  tedious  formalities  of  the  schoolmen. 
His  system  embraced  invention  and  proofs,  and  thus 
blended  with  rhetoric.  In  1551,  through  the  influence 
of  the  cardinal  of  Lorraine,  Ramus  became  royal  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  and  philosophy,  in  which  capacity  he 
made  many  proselytes.  Having  adhered  to  the  Hu- 
guenot party,  he  was  killed  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. But  he  had  already  travelled  and  taught  in 
Germany,  where  his  system  found  no  little  favor.  In 
Italy  it  secured  a  few  disciples,  but  many  more  in  France, 
England,  and  Scotland.  Andrew  jMelville  int,rotUiccd 
the  logic  of  Ramus  at  Glasgow,  and  it  ultimately  be- 
came popular  in  all  the  Scottish  universities.  The  log- 
ical writings  of  the  remainder  of  the  IGth  century,  and 
somewhat  later,  were  filled  with  the  Ramist  and  anti- 
Ramist  controversy,  which,  though  of  little  permanent 
importance,  doubtless  prepared  the  way  for  a  better  com- 
prehension of  the  true  principles  and  processes  of  logic 
in  later  periods. 


LOGIC 


490 


LOGIC 


In  the  17th  centurj'  the  writings  of  lord  Bacon  formed 
another  e])och  in  the  history  of  logic.  See  Bacon. 
Logic,  according  to  lord  Bacon,  comprised  the  sciences 
of  invention,  judging,  retaining,  and  delivering  the  con- 
cept i<iiis  of  tlie  mind.  We  invent  or  discover  new  arts 
and  arguments.  "We  judge  hy  induction  or  syllogism, 
and  we  may  improve  memory  by  artificial  modes.  The 
first  book  of  the  Xovum  Orrjanum  developed  his  celebra- 
ted and  peculiar  division  of  fallacies,  viz.  idola  trihus, 
idola  specus,  ichlafuri,  and  idola  theatri.  The  second 
book  sought  to  apply  the  principles  of  induction  to  the 
interpretation  of  nature.  Although,  from  a  defective 
knowledge  of  natural  phenomena  incident  to  his  times, 
the  author's  illustrations  were  far  from  perfect,  and  al- 
though many  logicians  have  disputed  the  correctness  of 
his  principles,  it  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  Baconian 
logic  and  method  of  study  exerted  a  powerful  influence 
upon  his  own  and  after  times  in  stimulating  thought 
and  discovery.  The  remaining  authors  of  the  17th 
century  whose  writings  influenced  the  study  and  meth- 
ods of  logic  were  Des  Cartes,  Arnauk',  author  of  UA  rt 
de  Peiiser,  and  Locke,  of  England.  Probably  the  most 
influential  treatise  on  the  direct  subject  was  Arnaidd's 
^4  )■/  of  Thinking,  commonly  called  the  Port-Royal  Logic. 
It  attacked  the  Aristotelian  system,  and,  being  written 
in  a  modern  language,  had  the  advantage  over  the  heavy 
Latinity  of  previous  books.  In  this  respect  it  became 
ail  examjile  to  subsequent  writers,  who,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century,  were  numerous  if  not  influen- 
tial. But,  with  all  that  was  written  respecting  it,  the 
study  of  logic  failed  to  command  general  attention.  It 
had  few  attractions  for  the  popular  mind,  and  its  special 
devotees  were  seldom  able  to  place  it  in  successful  com- 
petition with  philosophy,  natural  science,  and  general 
literature.  Although  prescribed  in  every  system  of  aca- 
demic study,  and  at  once  the  agency  and  topic  of  cease- 
less wrangling  among  professed  scholars,  yet  its  influ- 
ence upon  human  life  and  public  opinion  was  infinitesi- 
mally  small. 

The  limits  of  this  article  do  not  admit  of  a  detailed 
notice  of  all  the  logicians  and  logical  systems  of  modern 
times,  but  only  of  allusion  to  a  few  of  the  most  influen- 
tial. In  tJermany,  more  than  in  all  other  countries,  the 
study  of  logic  has  within  the  last  hundred  years  assumed 
new  phases  and  developed  new  doctrines,  more  especial- 
ly in  connection  with  the  various  s\'stems  of  idealistic 
philosophy.  Of  that  philosophy  Immanuel  Kant  [see 
Kant]  maj^  be  considered  the  inaugurator,  and  Ids  first 
philosophical  production  commenced  with  the  study  of 
logic.  As  early  as  17li2  he  published  a  treatise  on  the 
'•False  Subtlety  of  the  Four  Syllogistic  Figures,"  in 
which  he  maintained  that  only  the  first  is  pure,  and  the 
others  rutiucinia  htjbrida.  From  this  point  he  went  on 
developing  his  system,  till  in  1781  he  published  his  Krit- 
ik  of  Pure  Reason,  to  which  in  1790  he  added  his  Kritik 
of  ihf  Judijmtnf.  Kant  claimed  to  have  subjected  the 
hiunan  mind  to  a  new  analysis,  from  which  he  deter- 
minetl  the  three  comprehensive  functions  of  sense,  un- 
derstanding, and  reason.  His  general  scheme  is  sum- 
med uj)  as  follows  : 

I.  Dociiine  of  tlie  transcendental  elements  of  knowledge. 

A.  Transcendental  a'sthetics. 
Jj.  Transcendental  loLiic. 

a.  Transcenilenlal  analytics. 

b.  Transcendental  dialectics. 

II.  The  transcendental  method. 

Not  to  mention  the  numerous  defenders  and  modifiers 
of  the  Kantian  system,  we  ]iass  to  (1.  AV.  F.  Hegel  [see 
Hkcki.],  the  publication  of  whose  U'iifscn.^c/Kift  dcr  Lor/ik 
in  181 2_  marks  another  epoch  in  German  metajdiysics. 
Hegel  emplo\'cd  the  term  logic  in  a  very  extended 
sense.  Not  confining  it  to  abstract  forms  of  thought 
and  the  laws  of  ideas,  he  consiilered  it  the  science  of  the 
self-sidlicient  and  self-determining  idea — the  science  of 
truth  and  reality.  From  his  fundamental  principle  that 
thought  and  substance  are  identical,  it  followed  tiiat 
what  is  true  of  one  is  true  also  of  the  other,  and  that 
the  laws  of  logic  are  ontologicaL     His  svstem  claimed 


to  develop  the  idea  of  the  absolute  by  antagonisms 
through  all  its  successive  stadia.  With  him  the  pri- 
mary element  of  logic  consisted  in  the  oneness  of  the 
subjective  and  objective.  Instinctive  knowledge  oidy 
regards  the  object  without  considering  itself.  But  con- 
sciousness, besides  the  former,  contains  a  perception  of 
itself,  and  embraces,  as  three  stages  of  progress,  con- 
sciousness, self-consciousness,  and  reason.  Pure  logic, 
according  to  Hegel,  is  divided  into,  1.  The  logic  of  be- 
ing ;  2.  The  logic  of  qualified  nature ;  3.  The  logic  of 
the  idea. 

In  1825,  Richard  "Whately,  afterwards  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  published  an  article  in  the  Knajdopctdia  Mttro- 
polilana,  which,  having  been  expanded  and  printed  as 
his  Elements  of  Logic,  was  soon  after  extensively  adopt- 
ed as  a  text-book  both  in  England  and  America.  This 
publication  has  justly  been  considered  as  constituting 
an  a^ra  in  the  study  of  logic  in  English-speaking  coun- 
tries. The  principles  of  Kant's  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason 
were  not  extensively  introduced  into  Great  Britain  until 
after  1836,  when  Sir  WiUiam  Hamilton  began  his  lectures 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  See  Hamilton.  Al- 
though Hamilton  took  opposite  ground  to  Whateh'  in 
reference  to  the  essential  character  of  logic,  yet  both 
were  admirers  and  exponents  of  the  A  nalytic  ef  Aristotle. 
Thus  the  reawakened  taste  tor  logical  studies  during 
the  current  century  arose  from  a  restoration,  by  different 
methods,  of  the  old  logic  which  had  come  down  from  the 
early  ages,  and  survived  all  the  opposition  and  ridicule 
of  the  modern  centuries.  It  is  worthy  of  especial  note 
that  none  of  the  systems  put  forth  by  Ramus,  Descar- 
tes, Locke,  or  Condillac,  and  their  several  modifiers,  has 
been  able  to  stand  the  test  of  time  like  that  of  the  old 
philosophers  and  schoolmen.  This  fact  may  be  accept- 
ed as  proving  that  the  syllogism  indicates  substantially 
the  process  which  takes  place  in  all  minds  in  tlie  act  of 
reasoning.  Notwithstanding  this  small  demonstration, 
and  a  few  other  points  of  general  concurrence,  the  sci- 
ence of  logic,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  human 
study  for  more  than  two  thousand  years,  remains  still 
incomplete.  Many  of  its  principles  and  processes  are 
yet  in  continued  and  active  dispute.  Since  Whately 
and  Hamilton,  Mr.  John  Stuart  Mill  has  written  an 
elaborate  work  in  which  he  depreciates  the  syllogism 
and  magnifies  induction.  But  his  theories  in  reference 
to  both  bear  the  stamp  of  Comte's  empirical  positivism. 

The  chief  logical  discussion  of  the  present  day  re- 
volves around  tlie  "  New  Analytic  of  Logical  Forms,"  or 
the  quantification  of  the  predicate  introduced  by  Sir 
William  Hamilton.  This  new  analytic,  which  is  chiefly 
valuable  for  its  enlargement  of  the  hitherto  narrow 
sphere  of  formal  logical  praxis,  is  an  emanation  from 
the  metaphysics  of  Kant,  being  grounded  upon  certain 
principles  of  the  Kritik  of  Pure  Reason.  Its  theor\-, 
although  illustrated  by  an  ingenious  system  of  notation, 
was  left  in  a  somewhat  crude  state  by  Hamilton,  hut  has 
been  ably  elaborated  by  jNIansel  and  Thomson,  of  Eng- 
land, and  Bowen  and  Mahan.  of  America.  While  these 
writers  seem  to  think  that  they  have  attained  the  end 
of  all  logical  perfection.  Dr.  M'Cosh,  of  Princeton,  charges 
their  whole  system  with  fundamental  error  in  presup- 
posing "that  there  areTorms  in  the  mind  which  it  im- 
poses on  objects  as  it  contemplates  them."  To  explode 
this  error  is  the  avowed  object  of  Jl'Cosh's  recent  trea- 
tise, in  which,  while  he  falls  back  for  confirmation  upon 
the  old  logic,  he  claims  to  unfold  laws  which  were  not 
noticed  by  the  old  logicians.  The  characteristic  of  his 
work  is  a  more  elaborate  treatment  of  the  notion  than 
has  taken  place  since  the  publication  of  the  Port-Royal 
Logic.  Thus  logic  seems  destined  to  pass  down  to  com- 
ing centuries  as  it  has  descended  from  the  past,  a  sub- 
ject of  endless  debate,  but  one  from  which  each  success- 
ive generation  derives  its  advantage  in  the  very  process 
of  debate. 

See  Hallam's  Lite  rut  U7-e  of  Europe ;  Blakey's  Tlisto?-- 
ical  Sketch  of  L.ogic ;  Kant's  Ki-itik;  Hegel's  U'isseri- 
scluift  der  Logik  ;   Whately 's  Elements  of  Logic ;   Sir 


LOGOS 


491 


LOGOS 


William  Hamilton's  Lectures  on  Logic;  Mansel's  Prole- 
(joim-na  Lotjica  ;  Thomson's  7>a2('s  of  Thought ;  Elements 
of  Logic,  by  H.  P.  Tappan,  by  W.  D.  AVilson,  by  C.  K. 
True,  by  H.  Coppeo,  by  J.  K.  Boyd,  by  H.  N.  Day,  by 
A.  Schuyler,  by  L.  H.  Atwater;  System  of  Logic,  by  John 
Stuart  Mill ;  Science  of  Logic,  by  Asa  Mahan  ;  Formal 
Logic,  by  James  M'Cosh,      (D.  P.  K.) 

Logos  (Adyoc,  a  tcord,  as  usually  rendered),  a  spe- 
cial term  in  Christology,  in  consequence  of  its  use  as 
such  by  the  apostle  John,  especially  in  the  opening  ver- 
ses of  his  Gospel.  We  base  the  former  part  of  our  arti- 
cle on  the  subject  upon  the  brief  but  lucid  exposition 
found  in  Bcngel's  Gnomon  (Amer.  edit,  by  Profs.  Lewis 
and  Vincent,  p.  53G  sq.). 

1.  Rendering. — The  general  meaning  of  Logos  in  ev- 
ery such  connection  is  the  Word,  said  s\'mbolically 
of  the  law-giving,  creative,  revealing  activity  of  God. 
This  is  naturally  suggested  here  by  the  obvious  refer- 
ence to  Gen.  i,  1,3. 

Many  have  seen  in  this  terra  but  a  bold  personifica- 
tion of  the  wisdom  or  reason  of  God,  as  in  Prov.  viii,  22. 
But  this  sense  oi  Logos  does  not  occur  in  the  New  Test., 
and  is  excluded  by  the  reference  to  the  history  of  crea- 
tion. Besides,  the  repeated  "with  God"  (verses  1,  2) 
compels  us  to  distinguish  the  Logos  from  God ;  the 
words  •'  became  flesh"  (ver.  14)  cannot  be  said  of  an  at- 
tribute of  God;  and  the  Baptist's  testimony,  verse  15,  in 
direct  connection  with  this  introduction  (compare  also 
such  sayings  of  Christ  as  in  ch.  viii,  58;  xvii,  5).  show 
clearly  that  John  attributes  personal  pre-existence  to  the 
Logos.  Similarly,  every  attempt  to  explain  away  this 
profound  sense  ofL^ogos  is  inadequate,  and  most  are  un- 
grammatical.     See  Wisdom. 

Thus  the  fundamental  thought  of  this  introduction  is, 
that  the  original,  all-creating,  all-quickening,  and  all-en- 
lighteiiiiig  Logos,  ox piersonal  dirine  icord,  became  man  in 
Jesus  Christ.     See  Incaunation. 

2.  Origin  and  History  of  the  Idea. — (1.)  John  uses 
the  terra  Logos  without  explanation,  assuming  that  his 
readers  know  it  to  bear  this  sense.  Accordingly,  we 
find  this  conception  of  it  not  new  with  him,  but  a  chief 
element  in  the  development  of  the  Old-Test.  the(.l:igy. 
In  the  iMosaic  account,  God's  revelation  of  himstlf  in 
the  creation  was,  in  its  nature,  spirit  (Gen.  i,  2),  in  con- 
trast with  matter,  and  in  its  form,  a  icoi-d  (Gen.  i,  4),  in 
contrast  with  everj'  involuntary  materialistic  or  panthe- 
istic conception  of  the  creative  act.  The  real  signifi- 
cance, under  this  representation,  of  the  invisible  God's 
revelation  of  hiraself  by  sj)eech  became  the  germ  of  the 
idea  of  the  Logos.  With  this  thought  all  Judaism  was 
pervaded ;  that  God  does  not  manifest  himself  immedi- 
ately, but  mediately;  not  in  his  hidden,  invisible  es- 
sence, but  through  an  appearance — an  attribute,  emana- 
tion, or  being  called  the  angel  of  the  Lord  (Exod.  xxiii, 
21,  etc.),  or  the  voi-d  of  the  Lord.  Indeed,  to  the  latter 
are  ascribed,  as  his  work,  all  divine  light  and  life  in  na- 
ture and  historj' ;  the  law,  the  promises,  the  prophecies, 
the  guidance  of  the  nation  (compare  Psa.  xxxiii,  6,  9 ; 
evii,  20;  cxlvii,  18;  cxlviii,  8;  Isa.  ii,  1,3;  Jer.  i,  4,  11, 
13,  etc.  Even  such  poetic  personifications  as  Psa.  cxlvii, 
15;  Isa.lv,  11,  contain  the  germ  of  the  doctrinal  person- 
ality of  the  Word).     See  Angel. 

(2.)  Another  important  element  of  Hebrew  thought 
was  the  visdom  of  God.  The  consideration  of  it  be- 
came prominent  only  after  the  natural  attributes  of  God 
— omnipotence,  etc. — had  long  been  acknowledged.  The 
chief  passages  are  Job  xxviii,  12  sq. ;  Prov.  viii  and  ix. 
Even  the  latter  is  a  poetic  personification :  but  this  is 
based  on  the  thought  that  SV'isdom  is  not  shut  up  at 
rest  in  (iod,  but  active  and  manifest  in  the  world.  It  is 
viewed  as  the  one  guide  to  salvation,  comprehending  all 
revelations  of  God,  and  as  an  attribute  embracing  and 
combining  all  his  other  attributes.  This  view  deeply 
influenced  the  development  of  the  Hebrew  idea  of  God. 
At  that  stage  of  religious  knowledge  and  life.  Wisdom, 
revealing  to  pious  faith  the  harmony  and  unity  of  pur- 
pose in  the  world,  appeared  to  be  his  most  attractive 


and  important  attribute — the  essence  of  his  being.  One 
higher  step  remained;  but  the  Jew  could  not  j'et  see 
that  God  is  love. 

(3.)  In  the  apocryphal  books  of  Sirach  (chap,  i  and 
xxiv)  and  Baruch  (iii,  and  iv,  1-4),  this  view  of  AVisdora 
is  developed  yet  more  clearly  and  fully.  The  book  of 
Wisdom  (written  at  least  B.C.  100)  praises  wisdom  as 
the  highest  good,  the  essence  of  right  knowledge  and 
virtue,  and  as  given  by  God  to  the  pious  who  pray  for  it 
(ch.  vii  and  viii)  ;  see  especially  vii,  22  sq.,  where  Wis- 
dom has  divine  dignity  and  honors,  as  a  holy  spirit  of 
light,  proceeding  from  God,  and  penetrating  all  things. 
But  this  book  seems  rather  to  have  viewed  it  as  anoth- 
er name  for  the  whole  divine  nature  than  as  a  person 
distinct  from  God.  And  nowhere  does  it  connect  this 
Wisdom  with  the  idea  of  Messiah.  It  shows,  however, 
the  influence  of  both  Greek  and  Oriental  philosophy  on 
Jewish  theology,  and  marks  a  transition  from  the  Old- 
Test,  view  to  that  of  Philo,  etc.    See  Wisdom,  book  of. 

(4.)  In  Egypt,  from  the  time  of  Ptolemy  I  (B.C.  300), 
there  were  Jews  in  great  numbers,  their  head-quarters 
being  at  Alexandria  (Philo  estimates  them  at  a  million 
in  his  time,  A.D.  50),  and  there  they  gradually  came  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Egyptian  civilization  of  that 
age,  a  strange  mixture  of  Greek  and  Oriental  customs 
and  doctrines.  See  Alexandrian  Schools.  Aristob- 
ulus,  about  150  B.C.,  seems  to  have  endeavored  to  unite 
the  ancient  doctrines  of  Wisdom  and  the  Word  of  God 
with  a  form  of  Greek  philosophy.  This  effort,  the  lead- 
ing feature  of  the  Jewish-Alexandrian  school,  culmina- 
ted in  Philo,  a  contemporary  of  Christ,  who  strives  to 
make  Judaism,  combined  with  and  interpreted  by  the 
Platonic  philosophy,  do  the  work  of  the  idea  of  Messiah, 
affording  by  the  power  of  thought  a  complete  substitute 
for  it.  This  attempt  to  harmonize  heathen  and  Jewish 
elements,  while  it  led  in  him  to  a  sort  of  anticipation  of 
certain  parts  of  Christian  doctrine,  explains  how  he  him- 
self vacillates  between  opposite  and  irreconcilable  views. 
See  Platoxism. 

(5.)  Philo  represents  the  absolute  God  as  hidden  and 
unknown,  but  surrounded  by  his poice?-s  as  a  king  by  his 
servants,  and,  through  these,  as  present  and  ruling  in 
the  world.  (These  powers,  c^i'J'hjkhc,  are,  in  Platonic 
language,  ideas ;  in  Jewish,  angils.}  Tliese  are  different 
and  innumerable  ;  the  original  principles  of  things;  the 
immaterial  world,  the  type  of  which  the  material  is  an 
image.  The  two  chief  of  these  in  dignity  arc  the  Qeog, 
God,  the  creative  power,  and  the  Kvpioc,  Lord,  or  gov- 
erning power  of  the  Sciiptures.  But  all  these  powers 
are  essentially  one,  as  God  is  one  ;  and  their  unity,  both 
as  they  exist  in  God  and  as  they  emanate  from  him,  is 
called  the  Logos.  Hence  the  Logos  appears  under  two 
relations  :  as  the  reason  of  God,  lying  in  him — the  di- 
vine thought ;  and  as  the  outspoken  word,  proceeding 
from  him,  and  manifest  in  the  world.  The  former  is,  in 
reality,  one  with  God's  hidden  being;  the  latter  com- 
prehends all  the  workings  and  revelations  of  God  in  the 
world,  affords  from  itself  the  ideas  and  energies  by  which 
the  world  was  framed  and  is  upheld,  and,  filling  all 
things  with  divine  light  and  life,  rules  them  in  wisdom, 
love,  and  righteousness.  It  is  the  beginning  of  crea- 
tion ;  not  unoriginated,  like  God,  nor  made,  like  the 
world,  but  the  eldest  son  of  the  eternal  Father  (the 
world  being  the  younger) ;  God's  image ;  the  creator 
of  the  world;  the  mediator  between  God  and  it;  the 
highest  angel ;  the  second  God ;  the  high-priest  and 
reconciler. 

(6.)  Liicke  concludes  that,  such  being  the  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  when  John  wrote,  al- 
though there  is  no  evidence  that  he  borrowed  his  views 
from  Philo,  yet  it  is  impossible  to  doubt  the  direct  his- 
torical connection  of  his  doctrine  with  the  Alexandrian. 
jMeyer  thinks  that  if  we  suppose  John's  doctrine  entire- 
ly unconnected  with  the  Jewish  and  Alexandrian  phi- 
losophy, we  destroy  its  historic  meaning,  and  its  intelli- 
gibleness  for  its  readers.  It  must  be  admitted  that  the 
term  Logos  seems  to  be  chosen  as  already  associated  iu 


LOGOS 


492 


LOHE 


many  minds  with  a  class  of  ideas  in  some  degree  akin 
to  the  writer's,  and  as  furnishing  a  common  point  of 
tliouglit  and  interest  with  tliose  speculative  idealists 
ulm  constantly  used  it  while  presenting  them  with  new 
trutli. 

(7.)  But  any  connection  amounting  to  doctrinal  de- 
peiuknce  of  John  upon  Philo  is  utterly  contrary  to  the 
tenor  of  Philo's  own  teaching;  for  he  even  loses  the 
crowning  feature  of  Hebrew  religion,  the  moral  energy 
expressed  in  its  view  of  Jehovah's  holiness,  and  with  it 
the  moral  necessity  of  a  divine  teacher  and  Saviour. 
He  becomes  entangled  in  the  physical  notions  of  the 
heathen,  forgets  the  wide  distinction  between  God  and 
the  world,  and  even  denies  the  independent,  absolute 
being  of  God,  declaring  that,  were  the  universe  to  end, 
God  would  die  of  loneliness  and  inactivity.  The  very 
universality  of  the  conception,  its  immediate  working 
on  all  things,  would  have  excluded  to  Philo  the  belief 
that  the  whole  Lo(jos,  not  a  mere  part  or  effluence  of 
his  power,  became  incarnate  in  Christ.  "Heaven  and 
earth  cannot  contain  me,"  cries  his  Logos,  "  how  muck 
less  a  hum  in  btiuf/.''  On  the  whole,  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  I'hilo  ever  meant  formally  to  repre- 
sent the  Logos  as  a  person  distinct  from  God.  All  the 
titles  he  gives  it  may  be  explained  by  supposing  it  to 
mean  the  ideal  world,  on  which  the  actual  is  modelled. 
At  most,  we  can  say  that  he  goes  beyond  a  mere  poetic 
personification,  and  prepares  the  way  for  a  distinction 
of  persons  in  the  Godhead.     See  Philo. 

(8.)  John's  connection  with  the  doctrines  of  the  later 
Jews,  though  less  noticed,  is  at  least  as  important  as  that 
with  Philo.  In  the  apocryphal  books,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  idea  of  the  Logos  was  overshadowed  by  that  of  the 
divine  Wisdom;  but  it  reappears,  jirominently  and  def- 
initely, in  the  Targums,  especially  that  of  Onkelos. 
Tliese  were  written,  indeed,  after  John's  Gospel  (Onke- 
los, the  earliest,  wrote  not  later  than  the  '2d  century 
A.D.),  yet  their  distinguishing  doctrines  certainly  rest 
upon  ancient  tradition.  They  represent  the  Word  of 
God,  the  Memrah,  iTiTS^^  or  Dihur,  TlHI,  as  the  per- 
sonal self-revealed  God,  and  one  with  the  Shekinah, 
HD'^D":?,  which  was  to  be  manifested  in  Messiah.  But 
it  would  be  absurd  to  claim  that  John  borrowed  his  idea 
of  Jlessiah  from  the  Jews,  who  in  him  looked  for,  not  a 
spiritual  revelation  of  God  in  clearer  light,  to  save  men 
from  sin  by  suffering  and  love,  but  a  national  deliverer, 
to  gratify  their  worldly  and  carnal  desires  of  power; 
not  even  for  the  divine  Word  become  Jksh,  and  dwell- 
ing among  men,  but  for  an  appearance,  a  vision,  a  mere 
display,  or,  at  most,  an  unreal,  docetic  humanity. 

(9.)  The  contrast  between  John's  Logos  and  Philo's 
appears  in  several  further  particulars.  The  Logos  here 
is  the  real  personal  God,  the  Word;  who  did  not  begin 
to  be  when  Christ  came,  but  was  originally,  before  the 
creation,  "  with  God,  and  was  God."  He  made  idl  things 
(ver.  3).  Philo  held  to  the  original  independent  exist- 
ence of  matter,  the  stujf,  v\i],  of  the  world,  before  it  was 
framed.  John's  Logos  is  holy  light,  which  shines  in 
moral  darkness,  though  rejected  by  it.  Philo  has  no 
such  height  of  mournful  insight  as  this.  This  Logos 
became  man  in  the  person  of  Christ,  the  Son  of  God. 
Philo  conceives  of  no  incarnation.  Thus  John's  lofty 
doctrine  of  the  Messiah  is  not  in  any  way  derived  from 
Jewish  or  (inostic  speculations,  but  rests  partly  on  pure 
(Jhl-Testament  doctrine,  and  chieliy  on  what  he  learned 
from  Christ  liimself.  His  testimony  to  this  forms  the 
historical  part  of  his  Gospel. 

3.  Theological  Bearing  of  the  Term The  word  '•  Lo- 
gos" is  therefore  evidently  '•  employe<l  bj^  the  evangelist 
John  to  designate  the  mediatorial  character  of  our  Re- 
deemer, with  special  reference  to  his  revelation  of  the 
character  and  will  of  tlie  Fathij.  It  appears  to  be  used 
as  an  abstract  for  the  concrete,  just  as  we  find  the  same 
writer  employing  light  for  enlightener,  life  for  life-giver, 
etc.;  so  that  it  ])roperh'  signities  the  speaker  or  inter- 
pretcr,  than  which  nothing  can  more  exactly  accord 


with  the  statement  made  (John  i,  18),  'No  man  hath 
seen  God  at  any  time;  the  only-begotten,  who  is  in  the 
bosom  of  the  Father,  hath  declared  him,'  i.  e.  communi- 
cated to  us  the  true  knowledge  of  his  mind  and  charac- 
ter. That  the  term  is  merely  expressive  of  a  divine  at- 
tribute, a  position  which  has  been  long  and  variously 
maintained  by  Socinians,  though  abandoned  as  untena- 
ble by  some  of  their  best  authorities,  is  in  total  repug- 
nance to  all  the  circumstances  of  the  context,  which 
distinctly  and  expressly  require  personal  subsistence  in 
the  subject  which  it  describes.  He  whom  John  styles 
the  Logos  has  the  creation  of  all  things  ascribed  to  him ; 
is  set  forth  as  possessing  the  country  and  people  of  the 
Jews ;  as  the  only-begotten  (Son)  of  the  Father ;  as  as- 
suming the  human  nature,  and  displaying  in  it  the  at- 
tributes of  grace  and  truth,  etc.  Such  things  could 
never,  with  the  least  degree  of  propriety,  be  said  of  any 
mere  attribute  or  quality.  Nor  is  the  hypothesis  of  a 
personification  to  be  reconciled  with  the  universally  ad- 
mitted fact  that  the  style  of  John  is  the  most  simply 
historical,  and  the  furthest  removed  from  that  species 
of  composition  to  which  such  a  figure  of  speech  proper- 
ly belongs.  To  the  Logos  the  apostle  attributes  eter- 
nal existence,  distinct  personality,  and  strict  and  proper 
Deity — characters  which  he  also  ascribes  to  him  in  his 
first  epistle — besides  the  possession  and  exercise  of  per- 
fections which  absolutely  exclude  the  idea  of  derived 
or  created  being"  (Buck,  s.  v.).     See  Chhistology. 

4.  Literature. — 'I'he  following  are  the  princijial  mono- 
graphs on  this  subject:  Sandius,  De  Aoyi^  (in  his  In- 
terp.  Paradox,  Amsterd.  1G70)  ;  Saubert,  De  voce  Aoyog 
(Altdorf,  1687) ;  Carpzov,  De  A6yi[>  Philonis  (Helmstadt, 
1749);  Bryant,  P/;i7o's  Adyoc  (1797);  Upham,  Letters 
on  the  L^ogos  (Boston,  1828) ;  Bucher,  JoA(m««.  Lehre  vom 
Logos  (Schaffh.  18oG).  For  others,  see  Danz,  Worte?-- 
buch,  s.  V. ;  Darling,  Cyclojxedia,  col.  1059 ;  Lange's  Com- 
mentarg  (Am.  ed.,  Introd.  to  John's  Gospel).  Comp.  also 
the  Meth.  Qua?:  Revieio,  July  and  Oct.  1851 ;  Jan.  1858 ; 
Christian  Examiner,  Jan.  1863  ;  A  m.  Presh.  Review,  Jan. 
1840 ;  July,  1864 ;  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1830,  iii,  672  ;  1833,  ii, 
355 ;  1868,  ii,  299.     See  John,  Gospel  of. 

Logotheta  (XoyoSrirrjg,  q.  d.  chancellor)  is  the  ti- 
tle given  in  the  (ireek  Church  to  the  member  of  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  holding  the  imperial  seal  to  be  ap- 
pended to  their  edicts.     See  Greek  Church. 

Loguo  is,  m  the  mythology  of  the  Caribbeans,  the 
name  of  the  first  man,  who  descended  from  his  celestial 
abode  to  the  soft,  shapeless  mass  of  which  the  earth  was 
formed  by  his  creative  power.  He  first  imparted  to  it 
shape  and  motion;  the  sun  rendered  it  dry  and  hard. 
Loguo,  after  his  death,  reascended  to  heaven.  See  Voll- 
mer,  Mythol.  Worterb.  s.  v. 

Xiohdius,  Carl  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Grlinberg,  near  Waldheim,  Dec.  13,  1748, 
and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Leipsic,  where, 
in  1774,  he  obtained  the  degree  of  A.M.  and  the  privi- 
lege of  lecturing  on  theology.  He  became  soon  after 
morning  preacher  at  the  university.  In  1780  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  Grimma  as  dean,  and  in  1782  to  Dres- 
den. He  died  there  August  4.  1809.  Of  his  scholarly 
productions  we  only  mcHtion  Delineatur  imago  doctriniB 
de  conditione  animipost  mortem  eo,  quo  Chri^tus  et  Apos- 
toli  rixerunt,  scecido,  diss,  i  et  ii  (Lipsife,  1790, 4to).  See 
Dijring,  Gelehrte  Theol.  Deutschlands,  s.  v. 

Lohe,  JoHANN  KoNRAi)  AViLHELM.  a  German  Lu- 
theran minister,  was  born  at  Fiirth,  in  Bavaria,  Feb.  17, 
1808,  and  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Erlangen, 
which  he  entered  in  1826.  After  serving  at  various 
places  as  minister  of  Lutheran  churches,  he  settled  in 
1837  at  Neuendettclsau  as  pastor  of  a  flourishuig  Church. 
Zealously  devoted  to  the  cause  of  his  Master,  he  studied 
the  ways  and  means  of  promoting  the  Christian  religion 
among  the  masses  of  the  (Jerman  people,  and  in  1849 
founded  to  this  end  a  society  for  Inner  Missions  (q.  v.), 
and  in  1854,  following  the  example  of  the  immortal 
Fliethier  ((j.  v.),  of  Kaiserswerth,  established  a  Deacon- 


LOHESH 


493 


LOLLARDS 


esses'  Institute  [see  Deaconess],  which  in  our  clay  is 
known  in  nearly  all  the  civilized  world.  Liihe  labored 
here  laithlully  and  successful!}'  until  his  death,  Jan.  28, 
187"2.  He  wrote  Der  evancjdische  GeistUche  (2d  edition, 
Stuttg.  18GG,  2  vols.  8vo)  : — Lehenslavf  cUt  heilig.  Magd 
Gottes  aus  dem  PJ'arrstande  (3d  ed.  Nurerab.  1809, 8vo) : 
— Gnsfliclwr  Tiujedaiif  (3d  ed.  Nuremb.  1870,  8vo)  : — 
A  vs  drr  Gesckichte  d.  Dial:onissenanstnlt  Neuendettelsau 
(Nuremb.  1870,  8vo) ;  etc.  See  Schena,  Z^eu^sc/f-zlme?-- 
ikun.  Conv.  Lexikon,  vi,  589. 

Lohesh.     See  Hal-lohesh. 

Loin  (usually  in  the  dual,  D'l'^srt,  chalatsa'yim,  as 
the  seat  of  strength,  spoken  of  as  the  place  of  the  girdle. 
Job  xxxviii,  3  ;  xl,  7  ;  Isa.  v,  27  ["  reins,"  xi,  5]  ;  xxxii, 
11 ;  or  as  a  part  of  the  body  generally,  Job  xxxi,  20; 
Jer.  XXX,  G  [so  the  Chald.  plur.  "p^J"!!!,  Dan.  v,  6] ;  by 
euphemism  for  the  generative  power.  Gen.  xxxv,  11 ;  1 
Kings  viii,  19;  2Chron.  vi,  9;  alao 'U'^'^T}^,  moihna'yim, 
as  the  seat  of  strength,  Gr.  oa^vQ,  which  are  the  other 
terras  properly  so  rendered,  and  refer  to  that  part  of  the 
body  simply;  but  D"'5D3,  kesalim',  Psa.  xxxviii,  7, 
means  the  flanks,  as  elsewhere  rendered,  prop,  the  in- 
ternal muscles  of  the  loins,  near  the  kidneys,  to  which 
the  fat  adheres;  while  C^'^'?)  put  in  Gen.  xlvi,  26; 
Exod.  i,  5 ;  comp.  Judg.  viii,  30,  by  euphemism  for  the 
seat  of  generation,  properly  signifies  the  thir/Ii,  as  else- 
where rendered,  being  plainly  distinguished  from  the 
true  loin  in  Exod.  xxviii,  42),  the  part  of  the  back  and 
side  between  the  hip  and  the  ribs,  which,  as  being,  as  it 
were,  the  pivot  of  the  body,  is  most  sensibly  affected  by 
pain  or  terror  (Dent,  xxxiii,  11 ;  Job  xl,  16 ;  Psa.  xxxviii, 
7 ;  Ixix,  23 ;  Isa.  xxi,  8 ;  Jer.  xxx,  (5 ;  Ezek.  xxi,  6 ; 
xxix,  7;  Dan.  V,  6;  Nah.  ii,  1,  10).  This  part  of  the 
body  was  especially  girt  with  sackcloth,  in  token  of 
mourning  (Gen.  xxxvii,  34;  1  Kings  xx,  31,  32;  Psa. 
Ixvi,  11;  Isa.  xx,  2;  xxxii,  11;  Jer.  xlviii,  37;  Amos 
viii,  10).  The  term  is  most  frequently  used  with  allu- 
sion to  the  girdle  which  encompassed  this  part  of  the 
body,  i.  q.  the  traisf ;  especially  in  the  phrase  to  •'  gird 
up  the  loins,"  i.  e.  prepare  for  vigorous  effort,  either  lit- 
erally (1  Kings  xviii,  46;  2  Kings  iv,  29;  ix,  1;  Prov. 
xxxi,  17),  or  oftener  as  a  metaphor  borrowed  from  the 
loose  and  flowing  dress  of  Orientals,  which  requires  to 
be  gathered  closely  at  the  waist,  or  even  to  have  the 
skirts  tucked  up  into  the  belt  before  engaging  in  any 
exertion  or  enterprise  (Job  xxxviii,  3 ;  xl,  7 ;  Jer.  i,  1 7 ; 
Luke  xii,  35 ;  1  Pet.  i,  13).     See  Girdle. 

Lo'is  (Awic,  perh.  agi-eeable),  the  grandmother  of 
Timothy,  not  by  the  side  of  his  father,  who  was  a  Greek, 
but  by  that  of  his  mother.  Hence  the  Syriac  has  ''thy 
mother's  mother."  She  is  commended  by  the  apostle 
I'aul  for  her  faith  (2  Tim.  i,  5  ) ;  for,  although  she  might 
not  have  known  that  the  Christ  had  come,  and  that  .Je- 
sus of  Nazareth  was  he,  she  yet  believed  in  the  jMessiah 
to  come,  and  died  in  that  faith.  Ante  A.D.  64.  See 
Timothy. 

Loki  or  Loke,  in  Scandinavian  mytlujlogy,  is  the 
princi|)le  of  evil,  an  impious,  mischievous  wretch,  au- 
thor of  all  intrigue,  vice,  and  crime;  father  of  the  most 
abominable  monsters,  of  the  wolf  Fenris.  the  midgard 
snake,  and  Hela  (blue  Hel ),  the  goddess  of  death  ;  the 
"spirit  of  evil,"  as  it  were,  mingling  freely  with,  yet 
essentially  opposed  to  the  other  inhabitants  of  the  Norse 
heaven,  very  much  like  the  Satan  of  the  book  of  Job. 
He  is  called  the  son  of  the  giant  Farbante,  and  is  mar- 
ried to  the  giantess  Angerbode.  Sometimes  he  is  called 
A  S(t-Loki,  to  distinguish  him  from  Utgarda-Loki,  a  king 
of  the  giants,  whose  kingdom  lies  on  the  uttermost 
bounds  of  the  eiirth  ;  but  these  two  are  occasionally  con- 
founded. It  is  quite  natural,  considering  the  character 
of  Loki,  that  at  a  later  period  he  should  have  become 
identified  with  the  devil  of  Christianity,  who  is  called 
in  Norway  to  the  present  day  Laakr.  See  Yollmer,  J/y- 
tkol.  Wurterb.  s.  v.;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v.;  Weiuhold, 


Die  Sagen  v.  Loki  in  Hanpt,  Zeiischrift  fur  deutsches 
Alterth.  vol.  vii;  Thorpe,  North.  Mythol.  vol.  i  (see  In- 
dex) ;  and  the  excellent  article  in  Thomas,  Biogr.  and 
Mythol.  Diet.  (Phila.  1872),  s.  v. 

IiOkman  is  represented  in  the  Koran  and  by  later 
Arabian  tradition  as  a  celebrated  jjhilosopher,  contem- 
porary with  David  and  Solomon,  with  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  frequentl}'  conversed.  He  was,  we  are  told,  an 
Arabian  of  the  ancient  tribe  of  Ad,  or,  according  to  an- 
other account,  the  king  or  chief  of  that  tribe;  and,  when 
his  tribe  perished  by  the  Seil  el-Arim,  he  was  preserved 
on  account  of  his  wisdom  and  piety.  Other  accounts, 
drawn  mostly  from  Persian  authorities,  state  that  Lok- 
man  was  an  Abyssinian  slave,  and  noted  for  his  personal 
deformity  and  ugliness,  as  for  his  wit  and  a  peculiar  tal- 
ent for  composing  moral  fictions  and  short  apologues. 
He  was  considered  to  be  the  author  of  the  well-known 
collection  of  fables,  in  Arabic,  which  still  exist  under 
his  name.  There  is  some  reason  to  suppose  that  Lok- 
man  and  /Esop  were  the  same  individual,  and  this  view 
is  of  late  gaining  ground.  See  the  excellent  articles  in 
the  English  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  and 
Hammcr-Purgstall,  Litcraturgesch.  der  Araher,  i,  31  sq. 

Lollards  or  Lol(l)hards,  originally  the  name  of 
a  monastic  society  which  arose  at  Antwerj)  about  1300, 
and  the  me'mbers  of  wh.ich  devoted  themselves  to  the 
care  of  the  sick  and  dying  with  pestilential  disorders 
(see  Cellites),  was  afterwards  applied  to  those  who, 
during  the  closing  part  of  the  14th  and  a  large  part  of 
the  succeeding  century,  were  credited  with  adhering  to 
the  religious  views  maintained  by  "\^'ickliffe  (q.  v.). 

Origin  of  the  Name, — Great  diversity  of  opinion  ex- 
ists among  scholars  on  the  origin  of  the  name  Lollard. 
Some  have  supposed  that  there  existed  a  person  of  such 
a  name  in  Germany,  who,  differing  in  many  points  from 
the  Church  of  Rome,  made  converts  to  his  peculiar  doc- 
trines, and  thus  originated  an  independent  sect  about 
1315  (see  Gen.  Biog.  Diet.  art.  Lollard,  Walter),  and  for 
this  heretical  step  was  burned  alive  at  Cologne  in  1322. 
It  is  more  than  probable,  however,  that  this  leader  re- 
ceived his  name  from  the  sect  than  gave  a  name  to  it, 
just  as  in  the  Prognosticatio  of  Johannes  Lychtenberger 
(a  work  very  popular  in  Germany  towards  the  close  of 
the  15th  century^  great  weight  is  attached  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  one  Reynard  Lollard  (Reynhardus  Lolhardus), 
who  was,  no  doubt,  so  called  from  the  sect  to  which  he 
belonged.  Others  believe  that  it  was  applied  to  the 
Cellites  because  of  their  practice  of  singing  dirges  at 
funerals — the  Low-German  word  lollcn  or  lullen  signi- 
fying to  sing  softly  or  slo\vly.  Another  derivation  of 
the  word  is  that  which  makes  it  an  epithet  of  reproach. 
In  papal  bulls  anil  other  documents  it  is  used  as  synon- 
j-mous  virtually  with  lollia,  the  tares  commingled  with 
the  wheat  of  the  Church.  In  this  sense  we  meet  with 
it  (A.D.  1382)  even  before  Wickliffes  death.  Still  an- 
other suggestion  comes  from  a  correspondent  of  '•  Notes 
and  Queries"  (March  27, 1852),  who,  quoting  from  a  pas- 
sage of  Heda's  history,  cites  a  statement  to  the  effect 
that  bishop  Florentius  de  Wevelichoven  "caused  the 
bones  of  a  certain  Matthew  LoUaert  to  be  burned,  and 
his  ashes  to  be  dispersed,"  etc.  The  correspondent  re- 
marks that  from  a  note  on  this  passage,  where  reference 
is  made  to  Prateolus  and  AValsingham,  it  is  evident  that 
Heda  is  speaking  of  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Lol- 
lards. The  name  Lollaert  would,  of  course,  indicate  that 
the  name  of  the  English  sect  was  derived  from  a  Dutch 
heretic,  buried  at  Utrecht,  and  well  known  in  the  neigh- 
boring region.  With  much  more  reason  the  origin  of 
the  word  Lollard  has  been  traced  of  late  to  the  Latin 
lollardus,  by  a  comparison  of  the  Liter  English  iMllard 
with  the  old  English  loUer,  used  by  Chaucer  and  Lange- 
land.  Says  Wliitaker  (in  his  edition  of  Piers  Ploiv- 
man,  p.  154  sq.)  :  "Any  reader  of  early  English  knows 
that  Lollard  is  the  late  English  spelling  of  the  Latin 
lollardus.  But  what  is  lollardus?  It  is  a  Latin  spell- 
ing of  the  old  English  lolle?;  used  by  Chaucer  and 


LOLLARDS 


494 


LOLLARDS 


Langelaml.  The  real  meaning  of  loller  is  one  who  lolls 
about,  a  vagabond;  and  it  was  equally  applied,  at  fir^f, 
to  the  \\'ickliffites  and  to  the  lier/f/iiir/ //-{a rs  ....  [Beg- 
hiiins  ((|.  V. )].  But,  before  long,  lulkr  was  purposelj 
confused  with  the  Latin  lolium,  by  a  kind  of  pun.  The 
derivation  of  loller  from  to  loll  rests  on  no  slight  au- 
thority. It  is  most  distinctly  discussed  and  explained, 
and  its  etymology  declared  by  no  less  a  person  than 
Langcland  himself,  who  lived  at  the  time  it  came  into 
use." 

English  LoUarcls. — Whatever  be  the  derivation  of 
the  word  Lollard,  certain  it  is  that  bj'  this  name  alone 
the  followers  of  John  Wickliffe  (q.  v.)  were  always  desig- 
nated, who,  in  the  early  stage  of  the  reformatory  move- 
ments of  the  bold  English  churchman  (about  A.D.  13G0), 
consisted  of  the  "  Poor  Priests"  (q.  v.),  a  class  called  to- 
gether by  Wickliffe  to  carry  the  glad  tidings  of  the 
(Jospel  into  the  remotest  hamlets,  and  to  counteract  the 
influence  of  the  begging  friars  (see  Beghards),  who 
were  then  strolling  over  the  country,  preaching  instead 
of  the  Word  the  legends  of  the  saints  and  the  history  of 
the  Trojan  War  (compare  D'Aubigne,  Hist,  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, V,  91  sq.).  For  some  time  the  mendicant  or- 
ders, which  had  tirst  entered  England  in  the  early  part 
of  the  preceding  century,  had  been  the  object  of  attack, 
both  by  the  people  and  the  clergy,  for  their  rapacious 
and  shameless  conduct.  Indeed,  so  much  wa's  the  coun- 
try disturbed  by  the  violence  and  vices  of  swarms  of 
these  sanctimonious  vagabonds  that  the  ancient  records 
often  speak  of  their  arrest.  Wickliffe's  opposition  to 
such  a  class  of  persons  could  not  but  have  secured  him 
the  general  respect  and  commendation  of  the  people. 
Not  so,  however,  when,  to  counteract  the  influence  of 
the  mendicants,  he  instituted  the  "  Poor  Priests,"  who, 
not  content  with  mere  polemics,  preached  the  great  mys- 
tery' of  godliness,  and  became  so  greatly  the  favorites  of 
the  people  that  the  clergy  were  threatened  to  be  left 
without  any  attendants  at  their  churches,  preference  be- 
ing shown  to  the  poor  priests,  preaching  in  the  fields, 
in  some  church-yard,  or  in  the  market-places.  It  wr.s 
not,  however,  until  alter  Wickliffe's  appointment  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  that  any  of  the  doctrines  whi,  h 
the  Lollards  as  a  sect  afterwards  maintained,  and  which 
caused  his  prosecution  by  the  papists,  were  advocated 
and  propagated.  It  is  true,  even  as  early  as  1357,  Wick- 
lirte  had  published  a  work  against  the  covetousness  of 
Rome  (The  last  Age  of  the  Church),  and  in  13G5  had 
vindicated  Edward  Ill's  resistance  to  the  claim  of  LTr- 
ban  Y  of  the  arrears  of  the  tribute  granted  to  the  pa- 
(lacy  l)y  king  John  (see  Urban  V;  Esgi^and);  but  it 
was  not  until  (in  1372)  he  had  taken  the  degree  of  D.D., 
and  entered  upon  his  work  at  Oxford  University  by  able 
and  em])hatic  testimony  against  the  abuses  of  the  pa- 
pacy, that  he  drew  upon  himself  the  enmity  of  the  Eng- 
lish prelates,  and,  in  consequence,  came  to  stand  forth 
the  advocate  of  reform  and  the  leader  of  a  movement 
for  tliis  purpose.  Nor  did  the  success  of  his  course 
slacken  in  the  least  after  his  withdrawal  from  the  uni- 
versity and  his  retirement  to  the  small  parish  of  Lut- 
terworth. Ever3'where  those  persons  who  had  come 
under  his  intluence  or  been  converted  by  his  writings 
were  busily  engaged  in  disseminating  the  doctrines 
which  he  taught.  His  followers  were  to  be  found 
among  all  classes  of  the  ))iipulation.  Some,  like  the 
(hike  of  Lancaster,  lord  Percy,  and  Clifford,  may  have 
l)een  attached  to  Wickliffe's  views  mainly  by  their  po- 
litical sympathies,  but  the  great  mass  of  his  adherents 
were  such  upon  religious  grounds.  The  examinations 
of  those  wlio,  during  the  generation  that  followed  his 
death  (13H4),  were  arrested  or  punished  as  heretics,  indi- 
cate tlie  common  doctrinal  |)ositiou  which  they  almost 
uniformly  maintained.  It  was  sulistantially  identical 
witli  that  taken  by  Wickliffe  in  his  writings.  The  su- 
preme authority  of  the  Scripfures  in  religious  matters, 
the  rejection  of  transubstantiation,  the  futile  nature  of 
pilgrimages,  auricular  confession,  etc.,  the  impiety  of 
image-worship,  the  identilication  of  the  papal  hierarchy 


with  Antichrist,  the  entire  sufficiency  of  Christ  as  a 
Saviour,  without  the  need  of  priestly  offices  in  the  mass, 
or  any  elaborate  ceremonial — such  were  the  points  upon 
Avhich  they  were  pronoiuiced  heretical,  and,  aa  such,  per- 
secuted and  condemned. 

Up  to  1382,  through  the  events  of  the  time,  the  great 
schism  of  the  papacy,  the  indignation  excited  in  Eng- 
land by  papal  encroachments,  the  scandalous  conduct  of 
many  among  the  prelates  and  clergy,  Wickliffe,  as  well 
as  his  follo^vers,  had  been  left  comparatively  unmolest- 
ed, and  he  himself  even  escaped  altogether.  Not  so, 
however,  his  followers,  who  were,  near  the  time  of  his 
death,  rapidly  augmenting  all  over  England.  The  tes- 
timony of  Knighton  and  Walsingham  indicates  the  rapid 
spread  of  Wickliffe's  opinions,  though  there  may  be  some 
exaggeration  in  the  remark  of  the  former  to  the  effect 
that  "  nearly  every  other  man  in  England  was  a  Lol- 
lard." In  1382,  however,  more  decided  action  was  taken 
on  the  part  of  the  ecclesiastics,  and  resulted  in  the  con- 
vening of  a  council  by  archbishop  Courtney.  By  it  ten 
of  Wickliffe's  articles  were  condemned  as  heretical,  and 
twenty-four  as  erroneous.  The  archbishop  issued  his 
mandate,  forbidding  any  man,  "  of  what  estate  or  condi- 
tion soever,"  to  hold,  teach,  preach,  or  defend  the  aforesaid 
heresies  and  errors,  or  any  of  them,  or  even  allow  them 
to  be  preached  or  favored,  publicly  or  privately.  Each 
bishop  and  priest  was  exhorted  to  become  an  "  inquisi- 
tor of  heretical  pravity,"  and  the  neglect  of  the  man- 
date was  threatened  with  the  severest  censures  of  ex- 
communication. This  measure  took  effect  at  Oxford, 
where  the  chancellor,  Robert  Rygge,  was  inclined  to  fa- 
vor Wickliffe's  opinions,  and  the  proctors,  John  Hunt- 
man  and  Walter  Dish,  were  in  sympathy  with  him.  A 
sermon  by  Pliiliii  Reppyngdon,  which  they  had  allowed, 
and  in  which  ^\■icklif^e's  views  were  defended,  subjected 
them  to  suspicion.  They  were  summoned  before  the 
archbishop,  and  with  some  difficulty  escaped  on  sub- 
mission. The  chancellor  was  required  to  put  Wickliffe's 
adherents  to  a  purgation  or  cause  them  to  abjure,  pub- 
lishing before  the  university  the  condemnation  of  his 
conclusions.  His  reply  was  that  he  durst  not  do  it  for 
fear  of  death.  '•  What !"  exclaimed  the  archbishop,  "  is 
Oxford  such  a  nestlcr  and  favorer  of  heresies  that  the 
catholic  truth  cannot  be  published  ?"  At  the  same  time, 
by  the  archbishop's  authority,  Nicholas  Hereford.  Phil- 
ip Reppyngdon,  John  Ashton,  and  Lawrence  Betlemen, 
whose  names  were  associated  with  Wicklift'e's,  ^\■ere  de- 
nied the  privilege  of  preaching  before  the  university, 
and  suspended  from  every  scholastic  act.  The  chancel- 
lor himself  was  addressed  as  "  somewhat  inclined  and 
still  inclining  to  the  aforesaid  conclusions  so  condemn- 
ed," and,  under  pain  of  the  greater  excommunication,  he 
was  enjoined  to  permit  no  one  in  the  universitj-  to  teach 
or  defend  the  obnoxious  doctrines.  The  injunction  of 
the  archbishop  was  enforced  by  the  command  of  the 
royal  council. 

In  the  early  months  of  1382  the  king  had  favored 
the  persecution  of  heretics.  On  the  petition  of  the 
archbishop,  he  had  allowed  him  and  his  suffragans  "  to 
arrest  and  imprison,  either  in  their  own  prisons,  or  any 
other  if  they  please,  all  and  every  such  person  and  per- 
sons as  shall  either  privily  or  openly  preach  or  main- 
tain" the  condemned  conclusions.  The  persons  thus  ar- 
rested mii;ht,  moreover,  be  detained  "till  such  time  as 
they  shall  repent  them  and  amend  them  of  sucii  errone- 
ous and  heretical  pravities."  The  officers  and  subjects 
of  the  king  were  also  required  to  obey  and  humbly  at- 
tend the  archbishop  and  his  suffragans  in  the  execution 
of  their  process.  But  the  king  declined  to  interfere. 
Even  this,  however.did  not  satisfy  the  archbishop.  The 
excommunicated  Hereford  had  escaped  from  prison,  and 
the  prelate,  disappointetl  of  his  victim,  asked  the  king 
to  issue  letters  for  his  apprehension.  On  Ashton's  trial 
in  London,  the  citizens  Itroke  open  the  doors  of  the  con- 
clave, forcing  the  archbisliop  to  complete  his  process 
elsewhere.  But  popular  sympathy  was  weak  to  resist 
the  organized  efforts  of  a  powerful  hierarchy,  largely  oc- 


LOLLARDS 


495 


LOLLARDS 


cupying  the  most  responsible  posts  of  Gjovernraent,  and 
bold  enough  (Hannay's  Rep.  Gov.)  to  forge  or  interpo- 
late parliamentary  records,  of  which  they  had  the  con- 
trol. Some  of  the  accused,  like  Keppyngdon  and  Here- 
ford, recanted,  and  became  the  most  virulent  persecu- 
tors of  their  former  sympathizers.  Others,  according 
to  Walden,  who  mentions  William  Swinderby,  Walter 
Brute,  William  Thorpe,  and  others,  whose  names  figure 
in  Fox's  '•  Martyrs,"  tied  the  realm.  If  Swinderby  was 
one  of  the  refugees,  he  soon  returned.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  he  or  his  associates  went  farther  than  to  AVales 
or  Scotland.  In  1389  he  was  arraigned  before  the  bish- 
op of  Lincoln,  and  charged  with  heresy.  Forced  to  re- 
cant, he  withdrew  to  the  diocese  of  Hereford.  Here  he 
was  again  arrested  as  a  "  truly  execrable  oftender  of  the 
new  sect  vulgarly  called  Lollards."  The  issue,  so  far 
as  episcopal  authority  was  concerned,  could  not  remain 
doubtful.  Swinderby  was  found  guilty,  pronounced  a 
heretic,  and  to  be  shunned  by  all.  From  this  sentence 
he  appealed  to  the  king  and  council. 

W'e  have  no  subsequent  record  of  Swinderby.  Foxe 
supposes  him  to  have  been  burned  in  lo'J9.  In  1393, 
Walter  Brute,  another  Lollard,  a  layman,  was  arrested, 
and,  after  a  tedious  trial,  was  forced  to  recant.  In  1395 
the  alarm  of  heresy  was  again  sounded.  There  was  an 
apprehension  that  Parliament  would  take  some  action 
in  behalf  of  the  persecuted  Lollards.  A  bidl  of  Boni- 
face IX  was  issued,  inciting  the  bishop  of  Hereford 
against  the  obnoxious  sect,  and  urging  him  to  stimu- 
late the  orthodox  zeal  of  the  king.  The  king  was  at 
the  time  absent  in  Ireland,  but  Tindale  states  that  intel- 
ligence of  what  had  transpired  was  sent  him,  and  his 
immediate  return,  with  a  view  to  repress  the  boldness 
of  the  Lollards,  was  strenuously  urged.  Nor  was  the 
king  backward  in  responding  to  the  petitions  of  the 
archbishop  and  the  exhortations  of  the  pope.  Reciting 
his  former  commission  to  the  bishops  and  their  suffra- 
gans, giving  them  authority  to  arrest  and  imprison,  he 
extended  this  authority,  by  which  the  bishop  of  Hereford 
was  allowed  to  arrest  William  Swinderby  and  Stephen 
Bell,  who  had  tied  to  the  borders  of  Wales ;  while  sev- 
eral of  the  leading  members  of  Parliament  were  direct- 
ed to  have  it  proclaimed,  wherever  they  thought  meet, 
that  no  man  of  any  condition  within  the  said  diocese 
should,  imder  pain  of  forfeiture  of  all  he  had,  "  make 
or  levy  any  conventicles,  assemblies,  or  confederacies  by 
any  color,"  and  that,  if  any  one  shoiUd  transgress  this 
rule,  he  should  be  seized,  imprisoned,  and  safely  kept 
till  surrendered  to  the  order  of  the  king  and  council. 

During  this  time,  while  special  attention  was  drawn 
to  the  danger  apprehended  from  Parliament,  the  Lol- 
lards were  spreading  their  doctrines  in  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom.  At  Leicester  and  its  neighborhood  they 
had  made  such  progress  that  several  of  their  leaders, 
eight  of  whom  are  mentioned  by  Foxe  by  name,  were 
denounced  to  the  archbishop  on  his  visitation  as  here- 
tics. They  were  summoned  the  next  day  to  appear 
before  him  and  answer  to  the  charge.  But  they  ''  hid 
themselves  away  and  appeared  not."  They  were  there- 
fore publicly  denouiwed  as  excommunicate  in  several  of 
the  parish  churches.  Nor  was  this  all.  The  whole 
town  of  Leicester,  and  all  the  churches  in  the  same, 
were  interdicted  so  long  as  any  of  the  excommunicated 
shoidd  remain  within  the  same,  and  "till  all  the  Lol- 
lards of  the  town  should  return  and  amend  from  such 
heresies  and  errors,  obtaining  at  the  said  archbishop's 
hands  the  benefit  of  absolution." 

The  compact  between  the  leading  representatives  of 
the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power  which  marked  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  IV  to  the  throne  was  soon  sealed  by 
parliamentary  legislation.  To  prevent  the  spread  of 
the  L<illards,  and  to  suppress  their  meetings,  which  were 
described  as  confederacies  to  stir  up  sedition  and  insur- 
rection (Crabb's  History  of  Kmjlhh  Lau;  p.  33-1),  it  was 
ordained  that  if  persons,  sententially  convict,  refused  to 
abjure  their  opinions,  such  persons  were  to  be  left  to  the 
secular  arm.     In  such  cases  evidence  was  to  be  given 


to  the  diocesan  or  his  commissarj',  and  the  eher'ff,  may- 
or, and  bailiff"  were,  after  sentence  promulgated,  to  re- 
ceive them,  and  in  a  high  yilace,  before  the  people,  to 
cause  them  to  be  burnt.  The  law  did  not  remain  a 
dead  letter.  It  was  not  long  before  a  victim  was  found. 
The  ecclesiastics  were  only  too  zealous  for  an  example 
that  might  strike  terror  among  the  people,  and  espe- 
cially the  Londoners,  who  were  "  not  right  believers  in 
God,  nor  in  the  traditions  of  their  forefathers;  sustain- 
ers  of  the  Lollards,  depravers  of  religious  men,  with- 
holders  of  tythes,"  etc.  The  victim  selected  was  "  one 
William  Sautre,  a  good  man  and  a  faithful  priest,  in- 
flamed with  zeal  for  true  religion,"  who  in  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1401  required  that  he  might  be  heard  for  the 
commodity  of  the  whole  realm.  The  suspicions  of  the 
bishops  were  excited,  and  he  was  summoned  before  the 
ecclesiastical  court.  His  views  were  in  substance  those 
of  the  Lollards.  He  was  at  first  induced  to  recant,  but 
after  his  previous  trial  before  the  bishop  of  Norwich  was 
known,  as  well  as  his  submission  and  subsequent  re- 
lapse, there  was  no  disposition  to  show  him  mercy.  By 
the  king's  order,  "  in  some  public  and  open  place  within 
the  liberties  of  the  city"  of  London,  he  was  "  committed 
to  the  fire."  So  bold  a  measure,  not  frequent  in  Eng- 
lish history,  naturally  terrified  the  Lollards.  They  kept 
themselves  secret  from  the  eyes  of  the  bishops.  To  the 
king  they  could  no  longer  look  with  confidence  or  the 
hope  of  relief.  The  son  of  AYickliffe's  patron  had  be- 
come the  tool  of  the  bishops.  His  usurped  power  was 
sustained  by  their  alliance.  As  the  hopes  of  relief  from 
the  burdens  of  taxation  which  had  been  inspired  by  the 
promises  made  at  his  accession  began  to  die  out,  his  pop- 
ularity waned.  Complaints  were  heard  from  various 
quarters.  The  old  partisans  of  Eichard  II  began  to 
murmur,  and,  to  retain  his  throne  in  security,  Henry 
IV  was  compelled  to  throw  himself  more  and  more  into 
the  arms  of  the  Church,  and  concede  everything  which 
the  prelates  might  demand.  The  "  cruel  constitution" 
of  archbishop  Arundel  was  the  fitting  ecclesiastical  coun- 
terpart of  the  civil  statute  that  legalized  the  burning 
of  the  Lollards.  It  forbade  any  one  to  preach,  "  whether 
within  the  Church  or  without,  in  English,"  except  by 
episcopal  sanction.  Schoolmasters  and  teachers  were 
to  intermingle  with  their  instructions  nothing  contrary 
to  the  determination  of  the  Church.  No  book  or  trea- 
tise of  Wickliffe  was  to  be  read  in  schools,  halls,  hospi- 
tals, or  other  places  whatsoever.  No  man  hereafter,  by 
his  own  authority,  shoidd  translate  any  text  of  the 
Scripture  into  English  or  an}'  other  tongue,  by  way  of  a 
book,  tract,  or  treatise.  No  one  should  presume  to  dis- 
pute upon  articles  determined  bj'  the  Church  contained 
in  the  decrees,  decretals,  etc.  Every  warden,  provost, 
or  master  of  every  college,  or  principal  of  every  hall 
within  the  Universit}'  of  Oxford,  was,  at  least  once  ev- 
ery month,  to  inquire  diligently  in  the, college  with 
which  he  was  connected  whether  any  scholar  or  inhab- 
itant thereof  had  proposed  or  defended  anything  con- 
trarj'  to  the  determinations  of  the  Church,  and  the  fail- 
ure of  duty  in  this  respect  was  to  be  visited  by  depriva- 
tion, expulsion,  and  the  greater  excommunication. 

But  all  the  precautions  of  the  bishops  and  the  se- 
verity of  persecuting  laws  were  ineff'ectual  to  suppress 
the  hated  opinions.  Fox  narrates  the  examination  of 
William  Thorpe  (1407)  and  the  burning  of  John  Badby 
(1409).  The  latter  event  seems  to  have  created  sym- 
pathy for  the  Lollards  on  the  part  of  the  Commons.  In 
the  eleventh  year  of  Henry  IV  (1410)  they  prayed  that 
persons  arrested  under  the  obnoxious  statute  might  be 
bailed  and  make  their  purgation,  and  that  they  might 
be  arrested  by  none  but  sheriffs  and  lay  officers.  This 
petition,  however,  did  not  secure  the  ro_yal  approval. 
The  influence  and  support  of  the  Church  wouhl  doubt- 
less have  been  lost  to  the  king  if  he  had  j-ielded  to  the 
wishes  of  the  Commons.  Other  measures  which  they 
proposed,  designed  to  set  limits  to  ecclesiastical  usurpa- 
tion, while  they  gave  unequivocal  evidence  of  the  un- 
changed spirit  of  the  nation,  met  with  Uttle  more  succesa 


LOLLARDS 


496 


LOLLARDS 


In  1413  Henry  IV  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Henry 
Y.  The  change,  however,  did  not  open  any  brighter 
prospect  to  the  persecuted  Lollards.  The  beginning 
of  tliis  reign  was  signalized  by  a  new  triumph  of  the 
Church.  The  king  surrendered  his  friend,  Sir  John  Old- 
castle,  lord  Cobham,  to  the  machinations  of  his  perse- 
cutors. He  was  arrested,  imprisoned,  arraigned  before 
the  archbishop  and  his  assessors,  pronounced  a  heretic, 
and  excommunicated.  His  offence  was  regarded  as  of 
the  most  aggravated  character.  He  was  not  only  him- 
self hcretically  inclined,  but  he  had  employed  his  wealth 
and  influence  to  support  Lollard  preachers,  and  tran- 
scribe and  disperse  heretical  books.  So  powerful  and 
bold  was  the  organized  conspiracy  of  the  priesthood 
against  him  that  the  king  did  not  venture  to  interfere 
in  his  behalf.  He  was  abandoned  to  his  fate,  but  by 
some  means  escaped  from  prison,  and  only  some  years 
later  was  arrested,  and  subjected  to  the  tardy  but  sure 
vengeance  of  his  persecutors.  It  was  not  only  by  his 
surrender  of  lord  Cobham  that  the  new  monarch  signal- 
ized his  subservience  to  the  interests  of  the  hierarchy. 
In  his  first  Parliament  a  law  was  enacted  against  the 
Lollards,  who  were  considered  as  the  principal  disturb- 
ers of  the  peace  not  only  of  the  Church,  but  of  the  whole 
kingdom,  uniting,  as  the  preamble  of  the  act  states,  in 
confederacies  to  destroy  the  king  and  aU  other  estates 
of  the  realm.  Hence  aU  magistrates,  from  the  chancel- 
lor to  the  sheriffs  of  cities  and  towns,  were  required,  on 
entering  office,  to  take  an  oath  that  they  would  use 
their  whole  power  and  diligence  to  destroy  all  heresies 
and  errors,  commonly  called  loUardies,  and  assist  the 
ordinaries  and  their  commissaries  as  often  as  required 
by  them.  It  was  moreover  enacted  "  that  whatsoever 
they  were  that  should  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  mother 
tongue  (which  was  then  called  Wickliffe's  learning) 
should  forfeit  land,  cattle,  body,  life,  and  goods  from 
their  heirs  forever,  and  so  be  condemned  for  heretics  to 
God,  enemies  to  the  crown,  and  most  arrant  traitors  to 
the  land."  No  sanctuary  or  privileged  ground  within 
the  realm,  though  permitted  to  thieves  and  murderers, 
should  shelter  them.  In  case  of  relapse  after  pardon 
they  should  be  hanged  as  traitors  against  the  king,  and 
then  burned  as  heretics  against  God. 

The  terror  inspired  bj'  such  executions  and  enact- 
ments drove  man}''  into  exile.  They  fled,  says  Fox, 
'■  into  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  into  the 
wilds  of  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  working  there 
many  marvels  against  their  fiilse  kingdom  too  long  to 
write."  It  was,  of  course,  the  most  distinguished  mem- 
bers of  the  sect  who  had  most  to  apprehend,  and  who 
were  the  first  to  flee.  Those  who  remained  behind  be- 
longed very  largely  to  the  middle  or  the  lower  class. 
From  time  to  time  we  meet  with  the  name  of  some 
more  eminent  offender,  and,  from  the  precautions  taken 
by  their  persecutors,  we  may  form  some  idea  of  the  con- 
tinued energy  as  well  as  existence  of  the  Lollards.  Lech- 
ler,  in  the  Zeitschriftfur  Hist.  Thtol.  (1853,  vol,  iv),  has 
traced  the  evidences  of  their  presence  and  influence  in 
England  down  to  the  date  of  the  Lutheran  Keformation, 
The  precious  legac}^  of  the  Lollard  faith  was  transmit- 
ted, along  with  MS.  translations  of  the  Scriptures  and 
Lollard  books,  from  generation  to  generation ;  and  among 
the  English  martyrs,  just  before  as  well  as  after  the 
commencement  of  the  Iveformation,  there  were  several 
who  might  most  appropriately  be  denominated  Lollards. 
The  prevalence  of  their  views  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century  is  attested  by  the  elaborate  effort 
which  Ileginald  Peacock,  successively  bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  and  of  Chichester,  made  to  refute  them.  His 
earlier  years  had  been  spent  in  London,  in  the  work  of 
instruction,  and  here  he  had  become  familiar  with  the 
work  of  the  LoUards,  and  the  arguments  by  which  they 
were  maintained.  With  great  ingenuity,  and"  with  a 
commendable  patience,  he  umlertook  their  refutation, 
giving  to  this  method  the  decided  preference  over  chains, 
prison,  and  the  stake.  Convicted  at  length  himself  of 
holding  heretical  opinions,  and  removed  from  the  epis- 


copal office,  he  spent  the  last  three  years  of  his  life  in 
prison,  and  by  some,  although  unwarrantat)ly,  was  re- 
garded as  a  Lollard.  On  some  points  his  views,  indeed, 
approximated  to  those  of  the  hated  sect,  but  his  writ- 
ings derive  their  historical  value  from  the  exhibition 
which  they  make  of  the  doctrines  maintained  by  the 
Lollards,  or  "  I3ible-men,"  as  he  sometimes  calls  them, 
and  the  evidence  which  they  afford  of  their  extensive 
acceptance.  Here  we  see  that  for  nearly  two  full  gen- 
erations the  same  doctrinal  views  which  had  been  ac- 
cepted by  the  immediate  followers  of  Wickliffe  were  still 
retained  by  their  successors,  and  during  the  two  gener- 
ations which  followed  they  underwent  no  material 
change.  Thus,  when  the  English  Reformation  of  the 
IGth  century  commenced,  it  derived  a  new  impulse  from 
the  earlier  Lollard  movement  which  it  was  destined  to 
absorb  into  itself.  Nor  is  it  a  mere  fancy  which  has  led 
writers  like  Lechler  to  assert  an  important  and  vital 
connection  between  the  LoUardism  of  the  15th  and  the 
Puritanism  of  the  IGth  century.      (E.  H.  G.) 

Scottish  Lollards. — LoUardism  was  by  no  means  con- 
fined to  the  southern  portion  of  the  British  Islands.  It 
penetrated  also  into  Scotland,  and  in  the  real  home  of 
the  Culdees  (q.  v.) — the  land  where  a  simple  and  prim- 
itive form  of  Christianity  had  been  established,  while 
among  her  southern  neighbors  Eome  presented  a  vast 
accumulation  of  superstitions,  and  was  arrayed -in  her 
well-known  pomp — received  the  countenance  of  those 
whose  position  and  influence  were  well  calculated  to  aid 
in  its  dissemination  among  a  people  that  had  freely  im- 
bibed the  spirit  of  religious  reformation  so  prevalent 
among  the  English  in  the  1-lth  century-,  especially  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II,  at  the  time  of  the  passage  of 
the  statute  of  prmmunire  (A.D.  1389).  More  particu- 
larly rapid  was  the  spread  of  the  reformatory  spirit  iu 
Scotland  in  the  western  districts,  those  of  Kyle,  Carrick, 
and  Cunningham,  and  hence  the  surname  for  the  Scotch 
LoUards,  Lollards  ofKijle,  as  they  were  oftentimes  call- 
ed. The  clergy,  aware  of  the  danger  that  threatened 
their  state  of  profligacy  and  ease,  at  last,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  15th  century,  made  open  war  upon  these  si- 
lent antagonists.  The  first  to  suffer  from  the  persecu- 
tion which  they  inaugurated  was  a  certain  John  Resb}', 
an  English  priest  who  had  fled  northward  from  perse- 
cution, and  in  the  land  of  refuge  also  was  fast  making 
converts  to  his  cause.  The  leading  authority  and  influ- 
ence in  the  land  was  at  this  time  the  see  of  St.  Andrews 
(compare  Dean  Stanley's  Lectures  on  the  Eccles.  History 
of  Scotland,  p.  45),  over  which  bishop  Henry  AVardlaw 
was  now  presiding.  By  his  interference  Eesby  was  tried 
before  Dr.  Laurence  de  Lindoris,  afterwards  professor  of 
common  law  at  St.  Andrews,  and  on  his  refusal  to  re- 
tract his  views  about  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  au- 
ricular confession,  transubstantiation,  etc.,  was  burnt  at 
Perth  in  1405  or  1407,  According  to  Pinkerton.  such  a 
scene  was  unknown  before  in  Scotland,  The  burning 
of  Resby  is  given  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  the  fif- 
teenth book  of  the  Scotichronicon.  StiU  these  opinions 
continued  to  extend,  especially  in  the  south  and  west 
of  Scotland,  The  regent,  Robert,  duke  of  Albany,  was 
known  to  be  opposed  to  the  Lollards;  and  though  king 
James  I  was  by  no  means  blind  to  prevailing  abuses  in 
the  Church,  an  act  of  Parliament  was  passed  during  his 
reign,  in  14-25,  by  which  bishops  were  required  to  make 
inquisition  in  their  dioceses  for  heretics,  in  order  that 
they  might  undergo  condign  punishment.  This  act 
was  soon  to  be  put  in  force.  In  1433  another  victim 
for  the  stake  was  secured  in  the  person  of  Paul  Craw  or 
Crawar,  a  physician  of  Prague,  who  had  sought  refuge 
from  persecution  in  Scotland,  As  he  made  no  secret  of 
his  Lollard  or  Hussite  opinions,  he  v.  as  arraigned  before 
Lindoris  and  condemned  to  the  flames.  After  this  time 
we  hear  but  little  ni  LoUardism  for  (piite  a  long  period. 

With  the  closing  years  of  the  century,  however,  to 
judge  from  the  energy  of  the  papists,  it  must  have  been 
apparent  again  in  a  more  prominent  manner,  and  from 
this  period  dates  one  of  the  severest  of  religious  perse  ■ 


LOMBARD  (US) 


497 


LOMENIE 


cutions.  In  1494,  Robert  Blacater,  the  first  archbishop 
of  Glasgow,  sought  to  display  his  zeal  for  the  Church 
by  a  wholesale  attack  on  the  pious  followers  of  Lollard- 
ism.  Accordingly,  thirty  suspected  persons,  both  male 
and  female,  were  summoned  before  the  king  (James  IV) 
and  the  great  council.  Among  them  were  Reid  of  Bar- 
skimming,  Campbell  of  Cessnock,  Campbell  of  Newmills, 
Shaw  of  I'olkemmet,  Helen  Chalmers,  lady  Polkillie,  and 
Isabel  Chalmers,  lady  Stairs.  According  to  Knox  (Ilis- 
iory  oftlic  Reformation,  p.  2),  their  indictment  contained 
thirty-four  different  articles,  which  he  informs  us  are 
preserved  in  the  Register  of  Glasgow.  Among  the  chief 
of  these  were,  that  images,  relics,  and  the  Virgin  are 
not  proper  objects  of  worship ;  that  the  bread  and  wine 
in  the  sacrament  are  not  transubstantiated  into  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ;  that  no  priest  or  pope  can 
grant  absolutions  or  indulgences;  that  masses  cannot 
protit  the  dead;  that  miracles  have  ceased;  and  that 
jiriests  may  lawfidly  marry.  Providentially  for  the 
Lollards  of  Kyle,  king  James  IV, "  a  monarch  who,  with 
all  his  faidts,  had  yet  too  much  of  manliness  and  can- 
dor to  permit  his  judgment  to  be  greatly  swayed  by  the 
mahgnity  of  the  prelates,"  declined  to  be  a  persecutor 
of  any  of  his  people  for  such  moderate  reason,  and  dis- 
missed the  prisoners  with  an  admonition  to  beware  of 
new  doctrines,  and  to  content  themselves  with  the  faith 
of  the  Chiu-ch.  It  is  by  many  believed,  however,  that 
one  particular  reason  why  king  James  IV  abstained  from 
intlicting  any  punishment  on  these  Lollards  of  Kyle  was 
their  influence  and  the  wide  spread  of  the  doctrines  they 
adhered  to,  and  that  "  divers  of  them  were  his  great  fa- 
miliars'' (compare  Lea,  Hist.  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  p.  508 ; 
lictberington,  Hist.  Ch.  of  Scotland,  i,  34  sq.). 

Literature. — IMuch  information  concerning  the  Lol- 
lards may  be  derived  from  tlie  lives  of  Wickliffe  by 
Lewis,  Le  Bas,  and  especially  Vaughan.  Fox,  in  his 
Martyrolo(jij,  often  presents  very  disconnected  docu- 
ments exceedingly  valuable.  Walsingham  {Chronica), 
Knighton,  and  Walden  have  contributed  important  evi- 
dence, although  by  no  means  favorable,  which  subse- 
quent \vriters  have  used.  The  fuller  histories  of  Eng- 
land, as  Rapin,  for  instance,  present  some  leading  facts 
concerning  the  LoUards  in  connection  with  contempo- 
rary political  movements.  The  most  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  the  later  Lollards  is  found  in  articles  by  Lech- 
ler  in  the  Histor.  Zeitschrift  for  1853  and  1854.  He  has 
given  citations  from  works  hitherto  unpublished,  which 
he  examined  in  the  libraries  of  the  English  universities. 
See  also  Wilkins,  Concilia  Magna  Britimnica  (London, 
1737,  iii) ;  Turner,  Hist07-y  of  England  during  the  Middle 
Ages;  Weber,  Gesch.d.  Kirchen  Ref  in  Grossbritannien 
(1856),  vol.  i;  Neander,  C/i. -ffw/o?-^,  v,  141  sq. ;  Milman, 
Hist,  of  Lai.  Christianity,  vii,404  sq. ;  Mosheim,  Eccles. 
Hist.  13th  cent.  p.  323 ;  14th  cent.  p.  381,  392,  etc. ;  15th 
cent.  p.  438  sq. ;  Shoberly,  Persecutions  of  Popery,  i,  135 
sq. ;  LTllmann,  Reform,  before  the  Reformation,  ii,  11, 14; 
Ebrard,  Kirchen  xind  Dogmengesch.  ii,  3G0,  450,  462  sq. ; 
Gillett,  Life  and  Times  of  John  Huss,  i,  370  sq.,  628,  In- 
dex for  'Wickliffe ;  Punchard,  IHst.  of  Congregationalism 
(N.  Y.  1865,  2  vols.  12mo),  i,  237  sq. ;  Butler  (C.  M.),  Ec- 
cles. Hist,  second  series  (Philadel.  1872,  8vo),  p.  365  sq., 
378, 381  sq.,  388 ;  Lea,  Hist,  of  Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  p.  379 
sq. ;  Reichel,  Hist,  of  the  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
p.  571  sq. ;  Studien  u.  Kritiken,  1845,  iii,  594  sq. ;  1848,  i, 
169  sq.;  Chr.  Rev.  vo\.\\n;  Christ.  Remem.  1853  {Oct.), 
p.  415 ;  Ladies'  Rejws.  1870  (Sept.),  p.  189  sq. 

Lombard(us),  Peter,  a  very  noted  scholastic  the- 
ologian, derived  his  name  from  the  province  in  which  he 
was  born,  near  Novara,  in  Lombardy,  about  the  opening 
of  the  12th  century.  He  studied  at  Bologna,  Rheims, 
and  afterwards  at  Paris.  Here  he  acquired  a  great  rep- 
utation, was  made  first  professor  of  theology  in  the  mii- 
versity,  and  subsequently  (in  1159)  appointed  bisliop. 
He  died  in  the  French  capital  in  1164.  Lombardus  was 
considered  one  of  the  best  scholars  of  his  day,  and  a  zeal- 
ous priest.  His  principal  work,  Sententiarum  libri  qua- 
'uor,  is  a  collection  of  passages  from  the  fathers,  of 
v.— Ii 


which  he  attempted  to  conciliate  the  apparent  contra- 
dictions, somewhat  in  the  manner  in  which  Gratian  at- 
tempted it  in  his  Decret.  He  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  author  who  collected  theological  doctrines  into  a 
complete  system,  and,  whatever  the  faults  of  his  work, 
it  is  the  foimdation  of  scholastic  theology,  and  shows 
much  care  and  system.  It  became  the  text-book  in  the 
schools  of  philosophy,  obtained  for  him  the  title  of 
"Master  of  Sentences"  {M agister  Sententiarum),  and 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  scholastic  divines.  The 
work  was  first  published  at  Venice  (1477,  fol.)  in  four 
parts,  each  divided  into  different  headings.  After  his 
death,  one  of  the  propositions  contained  in  it  ("  Christus, 
secimdum  quod  est  homo,  non  est  aliquid")  was  con- 
demned by  pope  Alexander  III.  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
others  have  written  commentaries  on  the  book.  He 
also  wrote  Commenfaire  sur  les  Psainnes  (Paris,  1541, 
fob): — Commentaire  sur  les  EjAti-es  de  St. Paul  (1537, 
fol.).  His  complete  works  were  published  at  Nurem- 
berg in  1478,  and  at  Basle  in  1486.  An  able  editor  was 
foimd  in  Aleaume,  who  published  Peter  the  Lombard's 
works  at  Louvain  in  1546.  The  best  edition  of  the  Sen- 
tences is  by  Antouie  Ghenart  (Louvain,  1567, 4to).  See 
Herzog,  Real-EncyMop.  s.  v.;  Neander,  Hist,  of  Chi'istian 
Dogmas  (Bohn's  edit.),  vol.  ii  (see  Index) ;  Hcfele,  Con- 
ciliengesch.  v,  545,  639,  785;  Renter,  Alexander  TIL,  vol. 
iii ;  Dupin,  Nouv.  Biblioth.  des  aniiq.  Ecclesiastiques,  xvi, 
45  sq. ;  'Wetzer  mid  'Welte,  Kirchen-Lexikon,  vi,  583  sq. 
(J.H.-W.) 

Lombards.     See  Loxgobardi. 

Lombardy  is  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  North- 
ern Italy  which  formed  the  "  nucleus"  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  I^ongobardi  (q.  v.).  Incorporated  in  774  into 
the  Carlovingian  possessions,  it  became  an  independent 
kingdom  again  in  843,  though  it  was  not  entirely  sev- 
ered from  the  Frankish  monarchy  until  888.  It  now 
consisted  of  the  whole  of  Italy  north  of  the  Peninsula, 
with  the  exception  of  Savoy  and  Venice.  In  961  it  was 
annexed  to  the  German  empire,  and  its  territory  there- 
after gradually  lessened  bj'  tlie  formation  of  several 
small  but  independent  duchies  and  republics.  Through- 
out the  Middle  Ages  the  Lombards  were  compelled  to 
league  together  with  their  neighbors  to  retain  their  in- 
dependence from  the  German  emperors.  The  assump- 
tions of  Frederick  Barbarossa  they  successfully  defeated 
in  1176,  and  so  also  those  of  Frederick  II.  But  by  in- 
ternal dissensions  they  were  gradually  weakened,  and 
in  1540  Spain  finall}^  took  possession  of  Lombardy,  and 
held  it  until  about  1706,  when  it  fell  to  Austria,  and 
was  designated  "Austrian  Lombard}-."  In  1796  it  be- 
came part  of  the  Cisalpine  republic,  but  in  1815  it  was  re- 
stored to  Austria,  and  annexed  politically  to  the  newly- 
acquired  Venetian  territory  under  the  name  of  the  Lom- 
bardo- Venetian  kingdom.  This  union  was  dissolved  in 
1859  by  the  Italian  "War,  Lombardy,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Venetian  territory  (finally  also  given  to  Italy  in 
1866),  falling  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy.  There  is 
now  no  political  division  called  Lombardy,  the  coimtry 
having  been  parcelled  out  into  the  provinces  of  Berga- 
mo, Brescia,  Como,  Cremona,  Milan,  Pavia,  and  Son- 
drio.  Its  total  area  was  8264  English  square  miles,  witli 
a  population,  at  the  time  of  its  overture  to  the  kingdom 
of  Italy,  of  nearly  three  and  a  quarter  millions,  mostly 
Roman  Catholics.     See  Italy. 

Lombroso,  Jacob,  a  noted  Jewish  writer  and  rab- 
bi of  Spanish  descent,  flourished  in  Venice,  Italj',  in  the 
first  half  of  the  17th  centun,-.  He  published  in  1639  a 
beautiful  edition  of  the  Old  Test,  in  Hebrew,  with  val- 
uable comments,  and  a  Spanisli  translation  of  the  most 
difficult  passages,  entitled  nn3  wl3  xb'^JD  («  Handful 
of  Quiet).  He  also  wrote  a  polemic  against  Christianity. 
See  Jost,  Gesch.  des  Judenth.  u.  s.  Sekten,  iii,  227;  Fiirst, 
Biblioth.  Judaica,  ii,  254. 

Lomenie  de  Brienne,  I^tiexxe  Charles  de,  a 
very  celebrated  French  prelate,  was  born  at  Paris  in 


LOMUS 


498 


LONGEVITY 


1727.  He  renounced  his  primogeniture  and  the  rig- 
ors of  military  glory  for  the  easy  honors  of  the  Church, 
and  became  a  great  and  powerful  opponent  of  the  Brot- 
cstants.  Promoted  in  17()3  to  the  archbishopric  of  Tou- 
louse, he  aspired,  it  would  seem,  to  the  part  of  a  Maza- 
rin  or  a  Richelieu  in  the  state,  without  possessing  either 
tlie  ability  or  tlie  unscrupulous  daring  necessary  to  it. 
Upon  the  coronation  of  Louis  XVI  in  1775,  he  took  par- 
ticular pains  to  strike  against  the  Protestants,  but  it  was 
not  until  1787  that  he  gained  prominence  in  state  af- 
fairs. In  this  year,  after  tiguring  in  a  commission  for 
tlie  reform  of  the  clergy,  and  coquetting  with  the  phi- 
losophy of  D'.Vlembert  and  the  encyclopaedists,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Notables,  and,  hav- 
ing headed  the  party  by  whom  the  administration  of 
Calonne  was  overthrown,  he  succeeded  that  unfortunate 
as  minister,  adopted  his  plans,  and  proved  himself  just 
as  incapable  of  executing  them.  An  excited  contest 
arose  between  the  king  and  Parliament,  and  resulted  in 
the  dismissal  of  the  latter  by  force  of  arms.  In  1788  he 
was  made  prime  minister,  and  was  also  promoted  to  the 
rich  archbishopric  of  Sens.  In  1791  he  was  offered  a 
cardinal's  hat,  but,  knowing  the  opposition  of  the  peo- 
ple against  the  clergy,  he  declined  this  distinction.  In 
July,  1788,  he  was  compelled  by  the  dissatisfaction  of 
the  people  to  proceed  to  the  Convocation  of  the  states- 
general  for  the  month  of  May  following,  and  on  the  '24th 
of  August  he  retired  to  private  life.  He  resided  for  a 
time  at  Nice,  but  the  cardinal's  hat  which  Pius  VI  be- 
stowed on  him  he  now  gratefully  accepted.  He  was 
one  of  those  who  took  the  oath  as  a  constitutional  bish- 
op, on  account  of  which  he  was  deprived  of  the  cardi- 
nal's hat.  He  was  nevertheless  arrested  February  15, 
1794,  and  died  of  apoplexy  the  same  night.  See  Heroes, 
'Philosophers,  and  Courtiers  of  the  Time  of  Louis  XVI 
(London,  18G3,  2  vols.  12mo) ;  Lacroix's  Pressense,  Ee- 
liyioii  and  the  Reign  of  Terror,  p.  43, 124 ;  Droz,  Hist,  du 
regne  de  Louis  XVI ;  Hoefer,  A'oiti'.  Biog.  Gener.  xxxi, 
632  sq.     (J.H.W.) 

Lonaus,  in  Hindil  mythology,  is  the  first  created  be- 
ing, formed  by  Brahma  when  he  commenced  to  exist. 
He  immediately  concluded  to  devote  himself  only  to  the 
contemplation  of  divine  things,  and,  in  order  to  be  un- 
disturbed, buried  himself  in  the  ground.  This  pleased 
the  gods  so  much  that  they  loaded  him  with  favors,  in- 
creased and  fixed  his  power  and  piety,  and  assured  him 
a  duration  of  life  surpassingeven  that  of  Brahma  (q.v.). 
Lomus,  said  to  be  twenty  miles  long,  and  covered  with 
liair  all  over,  draws  out  a  hair  after  the  lapse  of  each 
cycle  Brahma  has  gone  through,  and  dies  only  after  the 
last  hair  is  drawn.  See  VoUmer,  Mythol.  Worterh.  s.  v. 
(C.B.) 

Lon,  JoHANN  Michael,  a  Ciorman  Protestant  jurist 
and  theologian,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-JIain  in 
1695.  He  studied  jurisprudence  at  Marburg,  became 
soon  known  as  an  essayist  on  questions  of  morals,  phi- 
losophy, and  theology,  which  he  treated  with  great  ease 
and  brilliancy,  although  occasionally  inaccurate  in  his 
statements,  and  was  finally  appointed  president  of  the 
Council  of  Lingen  and  Teeklenburg.  He  died  in  177G. 
He  is  especially  known  for  his  efforts  to  bring  about  a 
union  of  the  different  Christian  churches,  or,  at  least,  of 
the  evangelical  denominations.  He  sought  to  unite 
them  all  into  one,  to  carry  out  indifferentism  towards 
dogmatics  to  its  full  extent.  With  this  object  in  view, 
he  wrote,  under  the  name  of  (iottlob  von  Friodenheim, 
Evangelischer  Friedenstempel  nach  d.  A  rt  d.  ers/en  Kirche 
(1724)  : — Von  Vereinigung  d.  Protestanten  (1748)  -.—  Die 
einzig  wahre  Religion  (1750).  These  works  brought 
him  into  a  long  controversy  with  Hoffmann,  Weickh- 
mann,  Brenner,  etc.,  and  his  attempts  at  establishing  a 
union  proved  fruitless. — Herzog,  Real-EncyUhpddie,  viii, 
452 ;  Pierer,  Unirersal-Lexifcon,  x,  463.    .(J.  N.  P.) 

London  Missionary  Society.  See  Mission- 
ary SOCIETIKS. 

Long,  Jacques  Le.    See  Le  Long. 


Long,  Roger,  D.D.,  an  English  divine,  noted  as 
an  astronomer,  was  born  in  Norfolkshire  in  1680,  and 
was  educated  at  Pembroke  Had,  Cambridge  University, 
and  became  M.A.  in  1733.  He  was  honored  with  the 
chair  of  astronomy  by  his  alma  mater  in  1749,  and 
shortly  after  secured  the  rectory  of  BradwcU.  He  died 
Dec.  16, 1770.  Besides  his  Sermons  (1728  sq.),  he  pub- 
lished and  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Asti-onomy  (2  vols.  4to ;  vol.  i,  1742 ;  vol.  ii,  1764).  See 
Allibone,  Did.  of  Brit,  and  American  Authors,  ii,  s.  v. ; 
Thomas,  Biog.  and  Mythol.  Did.  s.  v. 

Long,  Thomas,  an  English  Nonconformist,  was 
born  at  Exeter  in  1621.  He  was  educated  at  Exeter 
College,  and  about  1660  became  prebendarv-  of  Exeter 
cathedral,  from  which  he  was  ejected  in  1688  for  refus- 
ing to  take  the  oath  to  William  and  Mar\'.  He  died  in 
1700.  Mr.  Long  published  a  Vindication  of  the  Primitive 
Christians  in  Point  of  Obedience  to  their  Prince  (1683): — 
A  nswer  to  Locke's  first  Letter  on  Toleration  (1689) : — ■  Vox 
Cleri  on  A  Iteratioiis  in  the  Liturgy  (1690)  ;  and  a  Review 
of  Dr.  Walker's  Account  of  the  Author  ofEikon  Basilike. 
See  Wood,  A  then.  Oxon. ;  Thomas,  Dictionary  of  Biogra- 
phy and  Mythology,  s.  v. 

Long  Brothers,  The  Four.  Among  the  leading 
men  of  the  spiritualists,  the  four  "  Long  Brothers"  must 
not  be  overlooked :  Dioscorus,  Ammonius,  Eusebius,  and 
Euthymius,  who  were  as  distinguished  by  their  influ- 
ence as  they  were  eminent  in  stature.  The  secret  of 
their  power  was  in  their  inflexible  honesty,  combined 
with  hearty  and  miflinching  faith  in  the  system  of  their 
choice.     See  each  name. 

Longevity.  The  Biblical  narrative  plainly  as- 
cribes to  many  individuals  in  the  earUer  historj^  of  the 
race  lives  far  longer  than  what  is  held  to  be  the  present 
extreme  limit,  and  we  must  therefore  carefully  consider 
the  evidence  upon  which  the  general  correctness  of  the 
numbers  rests,  and  any  independent  evidence  as  to  the 
length  of  life  at  this  time.  The  statements  in  the  Bible 
regarding  longevity  may  be  separated  into  two  classes — 
those  given  in  genealogical  lists,  and  those  interspersed 
with  the  relation  of  events. 

1.  To  the  former  class  virtually  belong  all  the  state- 
ments relating  to  the  longevity  of  the  patriarchs  before 
Abraham.  These,  as  given  by  Moses  in  the  Hebrew 
text,  are  as  follows : 


Shem Gen.  si,  10, 11  600 

Arphaxad    "         1-2,13  438 

'  ■  "  14,15  433 

10, 17  464 

IS,  10  239 

20, 21  239 

22, 23  230 

24,  25  143 

32  205 

ssv,  7  175 


Adam Gen, 

Seth " 

Enos " 

Cninan " 

Mahalaleel...  " 

Jared " 

Enoch " 

Methuselah  ..  " 

Lamech " 

Noah " 


Years. 
V,  5    93(1 


8 
11 
14 
17 
20 
23 
27 
31 
ix,  2!) 


Salah. 

Eber 

Peleg 

Ren 

^ernt; 

Xahor. . .. 
Terah . . . . 
Abraham. 


Infidelity  has  not  failed,  in  various  ages,  to  attack 
revelation  on  the  score  of  the  supposed  absurdity  of  as- 
signing to  any  class  of  men  this  lengthened  term  of  ex- 
istence. In  reference  to  this,  Josephus  (.4^^^  i.  3,  3)  re- 
marks :  "  Let  no  one,  upon  comparing  the  lives  of  the 
ancients  with  our  lives,  and  with  the  few  years  which 
we  now  live,  think  that  what  we  say  of  them  is  false, 
or  make  the  shortness  of  our  lives  at  present  an  argu- 
ment that  neither  did  they  attain  to  so  long  a  duration 
of  life."  When  we  consider  the  comiicnsating  process 
which  is  going  on,  the  marvel  is  that  the  human  frame 
should  not  last  longer  than  it  does.  Some,  however, 
have  supposed  that  the  years  above  named  are  lunar, 
consisting  of  about  thirty  days;  but  this  supposition, 
with  a  view  to  reduce  the  lives  of  the  antediluvians  to 
our  standard,  is  replete  with  difiiculties.  At  this  rate, 
the  whole  time  from  the  creation  of  man  to  the  flood 
would  not  be  more  than  about  140  years;  and  Methuse- 
lah himself  would  not  have  attained  to  the  age  which 
many  even  now  do,  whilst  many  must  have  had  chil- 
dren when  mere  infants !  Moses  must  therefore  have 
meant  solar,  not  lunar  years  —  averaging  as  long  as 
ours,  although  the  ancients  generally  reckoned  twelve 


LONGEVITY 


499 


LONGEVITY 


months,  of  thirty  days  each,  to  the  year.  "Nor  is 
there,"  obsfirves  St.  Augustine  {T)e  Civ.  Dei,  xv,  12), 
"  any  care  to  be  giv'en  unto  those  who  think  that  one 
of  our  ordinary  years  would  make  ten  of  the  years  of 
these  times,  being  so  sliort ;  and  therefore,  say  they,  900 
years  of  theirs  are  90  of  oiu-s — their  10  is  our  1,  and  their 
100  our  10.  Thus  think  they  that  Adam  was  but  20 
years  old  when  he  begat  Seth,  and  he  but  20i  when  he 
begat  Enos,  whom  the  Scriptures  caU  (the  Sept.  ver.) 
205  years.  For,  as  these  men  hold,  the  Scripture  di- 
vided one  year  into  ten  parts,  calling  each  part  a  year ; 
and  each  part  had  a  sixfold  quailrate,  because  in  six 
days  God  made  the  world.  Now  6  times  6  is  3G, 
which,  midtiplied  by  10,  makes  360 — i.  e.  twelve  lunar 
months."  Abarbanel,  in  his  Comment,  on  Gen.  v,  states 
that  some,  professing  Christianity,  had  fallen  into  the 
same  mistake,  viz.  that  Moses  meant  lunar,  and  not  so- 
lar years.  Ecclesiastical  history  does  not  inform  us  of 
this  fact,  except  it  be  to  it  that  Lactantius  refers  (ii,  12) 
when  he  speaks  of  one  Varro :  "  The  life  of  man,  though 
temporary,  was  yet  extended  to  1000  years ;  of  this  Yar- 
ro  is  so  ignorant  that,  though  known  to  aU  from  the 
sacred  writings,  he  would  argue  that  the  1000  years  of 
Moses  were,  according  to  the  Egyptian  mode  of  calcu- 
lation, only  1000  months !" 

That  the  ancients  computed  time  differently  we  learn 
from  Pliny  {Hist.  Xut.  vii),  and  also  from  Scaliger  (Z>e 
Emend.  Temporum,  i) ;  stiU  this  does  not  alter  the  case 
as  above  stated  (see  Heidegger,  De  Anno  Pairiarcha- 
rum,  in  his  Hist.  Patr.  Amst.  1C88,  Zur.  1729). 

But  it  is  asked,  if  Closes  meant  solar  years,  how  came 
it  to  pass  that  the  patriarchs  did  not  begin  to  beget 
children  at  an  earlier  period  than  they  are  reported  to 
have  done?  Seth  was  105  years  old,  on  the  lowest  cal- 
culation, when  he  begat  Enos,  and  Methuselah  187  when 
Lamech  was  born !  St.  Augustine  (i,  15)  explains  this 
ditHculty  in  a  twofold  manner  by  supposing,  1.  Either 
that  the  age  of  puberty  was  later  in  proportion  as  the 
lives  of  the  antediluvians  were  longer  than  ours,  or,  2. 
That  Closes  does  not  record  the  first-born  sons  but  as  the 
order  of  the  genealogy  required,  his  object  being  to  trace 
the  succession  from  Adam,  through  Seth,  to  Abraham. 

While  the  Jews  have  never  questioned  the  longevitj^ 
assigned  by  Moses  to  the  patriarchs,  they  have  yet  dis- 
puted, in  man}'  instances,  as  to  whether  it  was  common 
to  all  men  who  lived  up  to  the  period  wlicn  human  life 
was  contracted.  Jlaimonides  {More  Nehochim,  ii,  47) 
takes  this  view.  With  this  opinion  Abarbanel,  on  Gen. 
V,  agrees;  Nachmanides,  however,  rejects  it,  and  shows 
that  the  life  of  the  desceiulants  of  Cain  must  have  been 
quite  as  long  as  that  of  the  Sethites,  though  not  noticed 
by  Moses ;  for  only  seven  individuals  of  the  former  filled 
tip  the  space  v/hich  intervened  between  the  death  of 
Abel  and  the  flood,  whereas  ten  of  the  latter  are  enu- 
merated. We  have  reason,  then,  to  conclude  that  lon- 
gevity was  not  confined  to  any  peculiar  tribe  of  the 
ante  or  post  diluvian  fathers,  but  was  vouchsafed,  in  gen- 
era], to  aU.  Irenaeus  (Adrersus  Iheret.  v)  informs  us 
that  some  supposed  that  the  fact  of  its  being  recorded 
that  no  one  of  the  antediluvians  named  attained  the 
age  of  1000  years,  was  the  fulfilment  of  the  declaration 
(Gen.  iii),  '•  In  the  day  thou  catest  thereof  thou  shalt 
surely  die ;"  grounding  the  opinion,  or  rather  conceit, 
upon  Psa.  xc,  4,  namely,  that  God's  day  is  1000  years. 

As  to  the  probable  reasons  why  God  so  prolonged  the 
life  of  man  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  and  as  to 
the  subordinate  means  by  which  tliis  might  have  been 
accomplished,  Josephus  says  {A  nt.  1.  c.)  :  "  For  those  an- 
cients were  beloved  of  God,  and  lately  made  by  God 
himself;  and  because  their  food  was  then  fitter  fbr  the 
proliingation  of  life,  they  might  well  live  so  great,  a 
number  of  years;  and  because  God  afforded  them  a  lon- 
ger time  of  life  on  account  of  their  virtue  and  the  good 
use  they  made  of  it  in  astronomical  and  geometrical  dis- 
coveries, which  would  not  have  afforded  the  time  for 
foretelling  the  periods  of  the  stars  unless  they  had  lived 
COO  years ;  for  the  great  year  is  completed  in  that  in- 


terval." To  this  he  adds  the  testimony  of  many  cele- 
brated profane  historians,  who  affirm  that  the  ancients 
lived  1000  years.  In  the  above  passage  Josephus  enu- 
merates/oMr  causes  of  the  longevity  of  the  earlier  patri- 
archs. 1.  As  to  the  first,  viz.,  their  being  dearer  to  God 
than  other  men,  it  is  plain  that  it  cannot  be  maintained ; 
for  the  profligate  descendants  of  Cain  were  equally  long- 
lived,  as  mentioned  above,  with  others.  2.  Neither  can 
we  agree  in  the  second  reason  he  assigns ;  because  we 
find  that  Noah  and  others,  though  born  so  long  subse- 
quently to  the  creation  of  Adam,  yet  lived  to  as  great 
an  age,  some  of  them  to  a  greater  age  than  he  did.  3. . 
If,  again,  it  were  right  to  attribute  longevity  to  the  su- 
perior quality  of  the  food  of  the  antediluvians,  then  the 
seasons,  on  which  this  depends,  must,  about  Moses's 
time — for  it  was  then  that  the  term  of  human  existence 
was  reduced  to  its  present  standard— have  assumed  a 
fixed  character.  But  no  change  at  that  time  took  place 
in  the  revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  by  which  the 
seasons  of  heat,  cold,  etc.,  are  regulated :  heiice  we  must 
not  assume  that  it  was  the  nature  of  the  fruits  they  ate 
which  caused  longevity.  4,  How  far  the  antediluvians 
had  advanced  in  scientific  research  generally,  and  in  as- 
tronomical discovery  particularly,  we  are  not  informed ; 
nor  can  we.  place  any  dependence  upon  what  Josephus 
says  about  the  two  inscribed  pillars  which  remained 
from  the  old  world  (see  A  nt.  i,  2,  9).  We  are  not,  there- 
fore, able  to  determine,  with  any  confidence,  that  God 
permitted  the  earlier  generations  of  man  to  live  so  long 
in  order  that  they  might  arrive  at  a  high  degree  of 
mental  excellence.  From  the  brief  notices  which  the 
Scriptures  afford  of  the  character  and  habits  of  the  ante- 
diluvians, we  should  rather  infer  that  they  had  not  ad- 
vanced very  far  in  discoveries  in  natural  and  experi- 
mental philosophy.  See  Antediluvians.  We  must 
suppose  that  they  did  not  reduce  their  language  to  al- 
phabetical order;  nor  was  it  necessary  to  do  so  at  a 
time  when  human  life  was  so  prolonged  that  the  tra- 
dition of  the  creation  passed  through  only  two  hands  to 
Noah.  It  would  seem  that  the  book  ascribed  to  Enoch 
is  a  work  of  postdiluvian  origin  (see  Jurieu,  Crit.  Hist.' 
i,  41).  Possibly  a  want  of  mental  employment,  togeth- 
er with  the  labor  they  endured  ere  they  were  able  to 
extract  from  the  earth  the  necessaries  of  life,  might 
have  been  some  of  the  proximate  causes  of  that  degen- 
eracy which  led  God  in  judgment  to  destroy  the  old 
world.  If  the  antediluvians  began  to  bear  children  at 
the  age  on  an  average  of  100,  and  if  they  ceased  to  do 
so  at  000  years  (see  Shuckford's  Connect,  i,  36),  the  world 
might  then  have  been  far  more  densely  populated  than 
it  is  now.  Supposing,  moreover,  that  the  earth  was  no 
more  productive  antecedently  than  it  was  subsequently 
to  the  flood,  and  that  the  antediluvian  fathers  were  ig- 
norant of  those  mechanical  arts  which  so  much  abridge 
human  labor  now,  we  can  easily  understand  how  diffi- 
cult they  must  have  found  it  to  secure  for  themselves 
the  common  necessaries  of  life,  and  this  the  more  so  if 
animal  food  was  not  allowed  them.  The  prolonged  life, 
then,  of  the  generations  before  the  flood  would  seem  to 
have  been  rather  an  evil  than  a  blessing,  leading  as  it 
did  to  the  too  rapid  peopling  of  the  earth.  'We  can 
readily  conceive  how  this  might  conduce  to  that  a^vful 
state  of  things  expressed  in  the  words,  "  And  the  wliole 
earth  was  filled  with  violence."  In  the  absence  of  any 
well-regulated  system  of  government,  we  can  imagine 
what  evils  must  have  arisen :  the  unprincipled  would  • 
oppress  the  weak,  the  crafty  would  outwit  the  unsus- 
pecting, and,  not  having  the  fear  of  God  before  their 
eyes,  destruction  and  miserj'  would  be  in  their  ways. 
Still  we  must  admire  the  providence  of  God  in  the  lon- 
gevity of  man  immediately  after  the  creation  and  the 
flood.  After  the  creation,  when  the  world  was  to  be 
peopled  by  one  man  and  one  woman,  the  age  of  the 
greatest  part  of  those  on  record  was  900  and  upwards. 
But  after  the  flood,  when  there  were  three  couples  to  re- 
people  the  earth,  none  of  the  patriarchs  except  Shem 
reached  the  age  of  500,  and  only  the  first  three  of  hij 


LONGINUS 


500 


LONGLEY 


line,  viz.  Arphaxad,  Selah,  and  Eber,  came  near  that 
age,  which  was  in  the  first  centnn-  after  the  flood.  In 
the  second  century  we  do  not  find  tliat  any  attained  tlie 
age  of  2-10;  and  in  the  third  century  (about  the  latter 
end  of  which  Abraham  was  born),  none,  except  Terah, 
arrived  at  200,  by  which  time  the  world  was  so  well 
peopled  that  they  had  built  cities,  and  were  formed  into 
distinct  nations  under  their  respective  kings  (see  Gen. 
XV;  see  also  Usher  and  Petavius  on  the  increase  of 
mankind  in  the  first  three  centuries  after  the  flood). 

2.  The  statements  as  to  the  length  of  the  lives  of 
Abraham  and  his  nearer  descendants,  and  some  of  his 
later,  are  so  closely  interwoven  with  the  historical  nar- 
rative, nol  alone  in  form,  but  in  sense,  that  their  general 
truth  and  its  cannot  be  separated.  Abraham's  age  at 
the  birth  of  Isaac  is  a  great  fact  in  his  history,  equally 
attested  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the  New.  Again, 
the  longevity  ascribed  to  Jacob  is  confirmed  by  the 
question  of  Pharaoh  and  the  patriarch's  remarkable  an- 
swer, in  which  he  makes  his  then  age  of  130  years  less 
than  the  years  of  his  ancestors  (Gen.  xlvii,  9),  a  minute 
point  of  agreement  with  the  other  chronological  state- 
ments to  be  especially  noted.  At  a  later  time,  the  age 
of  Moses  is  attested  by  various  statements  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  in  the  New  Test,  on  St.  Stephen's  authority, 
though  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  mention  of  his  hav- 
ing retained  his  strength  to  the  end  of  his  120  years 
(Deut.  xxxiv,  7)  is,  perhaps,  indicative  of  an  unusual  lon- 
gevity. In  the  earlier  part  of  the  period  following  we 
notice  similar  instances  in  the  case  of  Joshua,  and,  in- 
ferentially,  in  that  of  Othniel.  Nothing  in  the  Bible 
could  be  cited  against  this  evidence,  except  it  be  the 
common  explanation  of  Psa.  xc  (esp.  ver.  10),  combined 
with  its  ascription  to  Moses  (see  title). 

That  the  common  age  of  man  has  been  the  same  in 
all  times  since  the  world  was  generally  repeopled  is 
manifest  from  profane  as  well  as  sacred  histor}'.  Plato 
lived  to  the  age  of  81,  and  was  accounted  an  old  man ; 
and  those  whom  Pliny  reckons  up  (vii,  48)  as  rare  ex- 
amples of  long  life  may  for  the  most  part  be  equalled  in 
modern  times.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  all 
the  supposed  famous  modern  instances  of  verj-  great 
longevity,  as  those  of  Parr,  Jackson,  and  the  old  count- 
ess of  Desmond,  have  utterly  broken  down  on  examina- 
tion, and  that  the  registers  of  coimtries  where  records  of 
such  statistics  have  been  kept  i^-ove  no  greater  extreme 
than  about  110  years.  We  may  fortunately  appeal  to 
at  least  one  contemporary  instance.  There  is  an  Egj-p- 
tian  hieratic  papyrus  in  the  Bibliotheque  at  Paris  bear- 
ing a  moral  discourse  by  one  Ptah-hotp,  apparently  eld- 
est son  of  Assa  (B.C.  cir.  1910-18G0),  the  fifth  king  of 
the  fifteenth  dynasty,  which  was  of  shepherds.  Sec 
Egypt.  At  the  conclusion,  Ptah-hotp  thus  speaks  of 
himself:  '-I  have  become  an  elder  on  the  earth  (or  in 
the  land) ;  I  have  traversed  a  hundred  and  ten  years  of 
life  by  the  gift  of  the  king  and  the  approval  of  the  el- 
ders, fullillhig  my  duty  towards  the  king  in  the  place  of 
favor  (or  blessing)"'  {Facsimile,  d'lui  Papyrus  Egyptian, 
par  E.  Prisse  d' Avenues,  pi.  xix,  lines  7,  8).  The  natu- 
ral inferences  from  this  passage  are,  that  Ptah-hotp 
wrote  in  the  full  possession  of  his  mental  faculties  at 
the  age  of  110  years,  and  that  his  father  was  still  reign- 
ing at  the  time,  and  therefore  had  attained  the  age  of 
about  130  years,  or  more.  The  reigns  assigned  by  Ma- 
netho  to  the  shepherd-kings  of  this  dynasty  seem  in- 
dicative of  a  greater  age  than  that  of  tlie  Egyptian  sov- 
ereigns (Cory,  Ancient  Fragments,  2d  ed.,  p^lU,  136),— 
Kitto:  Smith,     See  CnRONOLOGV. 

Longinus,  Dionysius  Cassius,  a  noted  Greek  phi- 
losopher and  rhetorician,  was  born  probably  in  Syria, 
and  tiourished  in  the  od  century  of  our  a^ra.  He" was 
educated  at  Alexandria  under  Ammonius  and  Origen, 
and  became  an  earnest  discijile  of  Platonism,  To  ex- 
pound this  system  and  to  teach  rhetoric,  he  opened  a 
school  at  Athens,  and  there  soon  acquired  a  great  repu- 
tation. His  knowledge  was  immense,  and  to  him  was 
first  applied  the  phrases,  often  repeated  since,  '•  a  living 


librar}'"  and  "  a  walking  museum."  His  taste  and  crit- 
ical acuteness  also  were  no  less  wonderful.  He  was 
probably  the  best  critic  of  all  antiquity.  Flourishing  in 
an  age  when  Platonism  was  giving  place  to  the  semi- 
Oriental  mysticism  and  dreams  of  Neo-Platonism,  Lon- 
ginus stands  out  conspicuously  as  a  genuine  disciple  of 
the  great  master.  Clear,  calm,  rational,  yet  lofty,  he 
despised  the  fantastic  speculations  of  Plotinus  (q,  v,).  In 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Zenobia  to  undertake  the  education  of  her  children  at 
Palmyra ;  but,  becoming  also  her  prime  jwlitical  adviser, 
he  was  beheaded  as  a  traitor,  by  command  of  the  em- 
peror Aurelian,  A,D.  273.  Longinus  was  a  heathen, 
but  generous  and  tolerant.  Of  his  works,  the  only  one 
extant  (in  parts  only)  is  a  treatise,  Tltpi  "Yi^oi'c  (On 
the  Sublime).  There  are  many  editions  of  it ;  those  by 
Moms  (Leips.  17G9),  Toupius  (Oxford,  1778 ;  2d  edition, 
1789;  3d  edit.,  1806J,\Veiske  (Leipsic,  1809),  and  Egger 
(Paris,  1837)  being  among  the  best.  Translations  have 
been  made  of  it  into  French  by  Boileau,  into  German  by 
Schlosser,  and  into  English  by  W.  Smith.  See  Kuhn- 
ken,  Dissertatio  de  Vita  et  Scrijitis  Longini  (1776); 
Smith,  Diet.  ofGr,  and  Rom,  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Chambers,  Cy- 
clop, s,  V, 

Longley,  Charles  Thomas,  D,D,,  the  last  pri- 
mate of  all  England,  was  born  in  Westmeathshire  in 
1794,  and  was  educated  at  "Westminster  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  distinguished  himself  as  a 
first-class  scholar  in  classics.  After  graduating,  he  re- 
mained for  some  time  connected  with  the  miiversity  as 
college  tutor,  censor,  and  public  examiner.  He  became 
perpetual  ciu-ate  of  Cowley  in  1823,  and  rector  of  West 
Tytherley  in  1827,  and  head  master  of  Harrow  School 
in  1829.  In  1836  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Ripon, 
and  in  1856  was  translated  to  Durham,  in  1860  to  the 
archbishopric  of  York,  and  in  1862  to  that  of  Canter- 
bur}'.  Over  this  see,  by  virtue  of  which  he  was  primate 
of  the  Church  of  England,  and  first  of  all  the  Anglican 
bishops  of  the  world,  he  presided  untU  his  death,  October 
27,  1868.  "Archbishop  Longley  belonged  ecclesiasti- 
cally to  the  old  school  of 'moderate'  Establishment  di- 
vines, but  in  the  last  three  years  of  his  administration 
his  amiable  temper,  co-operating  with  his  instinctive 
hyper-conser%-atism,  led  him  to  temporize  with  the  reck- 
less and  audacious  policy  of  bishop  Wilberforce  and  the 
High-Anglicans,  and  he  became  a  most  inadequate  stand- 
ard-bearer for  the  English  Church  in  her  supreme  hour. 
Incapable  of  bold  and  persistent  action,  the  latter  por- 
tion of  his  primacy  ^vas  marked  by  a  series  of  disastrous 
vacillations  and  blunders.  He  first  gave  his  counte- 
nance to  the  bishop  of  Capetown  in  his  revolutionary 
action  in  South  Africa,  and  then  withdrew  that  counte- 
nance. In  an  interval  of  reason  he  encoiu-aged  lord 
Shaftesbury  to  introduce  his  anti-ritualistic  resolutions, 
and  then  he  shiveringly  v.-ithdrew  his  approval  when 
they  came  up  for  action."  The  most  important  event 
during  his  administration  was  the  so-called  "Pan-An- 
glican" Synod,  a  meeting  of  all  the  bishops  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  churches  in  communion 
with  her,  convened  in  1867,  a  measure  instigated,  it  is 
said,  by  bishop  Willierforce  (q.  v.),  to  stop  the  tide  of 
ritualism,  and  to  bring  about,  if  possible,  a  union  with 
the  Greek  Church  (see  Appleton's  A  nmial  Cyclo]}.  18C7, 
p.  42  sq.).  In  this  synod  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury 
proved  entirely  untrustworthy.  Himself  inclining  to- 
wards ritualism,  he  moderately  rebuked  the  l!itu;ilists 
in  pulilic,  while  iirivately  he  favored  their  promotion, 
and  was  instrumental  in  their  appointment  to  colonial 
bisho]irics.  He  was  decidedly  a  High-Churchman,  and, 
though  in  person  amiable,  devout,  dignified,  and  court- 
eous, he  showed,  in  his  disastrous  primacy,  how  mifitted 
are  mere  moderation,  and  a  desire  simply  for  compro- 
mise and  peace,  to  guide  the  Church  in  times  when  her 
foundations  arc  assailed.  We  will  onh-  add  that  arch- 
bishop Longley  died  as  he  had  lived,  a  man  of  profoundly 
pious  feeling  that  fell  a  little  too  much  into  formula. 
He  referred  to  words  of  Hooker's  some  three  or  four 


LOXGOBARDI 


501 


LOXGOBARDI 


davi?  before  his  death  as  containing  the  faith  in  which 
he  "  wished  to  die" — words  expressive  of  liis  sense  of 
guilt  and  his  faith  in  Christ's  blood  to  cleanse  him  from 
that  guilt.  See  London  Spectator,  1808,  Oct.  31,  p.  1272 ; 
N.  Y.  Tribune,  Oct.  29, 18G8.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Longobardi  (otherwise  called  Lombards),  a  Teu- 
tonic people  of  the  Suevic  race,  who  maintained  a  do- 
minion in  Italy  from  A.D.  568  to  774. 

The  name  Lombards  is  derived  from  the  Latin  LMvgo- 
bardi  or  Lungobardi,  a  form  in  use  since  the  r2th  centu- 
ry, and  generally  supposed  to  have  been  given  in  refer- 
ence to  the  long  beards  of  this  people;  although  some 
derive  it  rather  from  a  woxAparta  or  6a?te,  which  sig- 
nifies a  battle-axe. 

The  first  historical  notices  present  them  as  a  people 
small  in  number,  having  their  original  seat  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Lower  Elbe,  in  a  territory  extending  some 
sixty  miles  southward  from  Hamburg.  They  advanced 
into  Moravia  and  Hungary,  the  abode  of  the  Kugi,  be- 
fore 500,  and  contjuereil  the  Heruli,  and  were  invited 
by  Justinian  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  Danube  in 
the  year  52G.  They  afterwards  crossed  into  Panno- 
nia,  where,  though  at  first  in  alliance  with  the  Gepida?, 
they  subsequently  (A.D.  5(JG  or  5G7)  subdued  the  peo- 
ple, yielding  in  turn  to  the  Avars,  and  in  5G9  crossed 
the  Alps  into  Italy  under  Alboin,  having  been  invited 
thither  by  Narses,  as  it  is  said,  out  of  revenge  against 
the  province  and  the  emperor.  This  was  fourteen  years 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  kingdom,  and  the  ex- 
hausted state  of  the  country  left  Northern  Italy  an  easy 
prey.  The  Goths  were  Arians,  and  religious  ilifferences 
with  both  the  Koman  and  Greek  churches  went  far  to 
prevent  the  acceptance  of  their  rule,  and  the  establish- 
ment at  that  time  of  a  united  government  in  Italy,  for 
the  want  of  which  the  country  has  so  many  centuries 
suffered.  The  Lombards  succeeded  no  better  in  secur- 
ing entire  dominion.  They,  however,  extended  their 
power,  estabhshing  the  duchies  of  Frioul,  Spoleto,  and 
Benevento,  until  only  the  districts  of  Rome  and  Naples, 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  Venice,  and 
the  east  coast  from  the  Po  to  Ancona,  with  Ravenna  as 
the  city  of  the  exarchs,  remained  under  the  power  of 
the  Greek  emperor.  The  conduct  of  the  Lombards  as 
conquerors  has  been  severely  characterized  on  the  au- 
thority of  early  writers  of  the  Romish  Church.  Gregorj"- 
the  Great,  in  his  epistles  and  dialogues,  draws  a  fright- 
ful picture  of  their  oppressions,  as  does  Paulus  Diaco- 
nus  of  the  unquestionably  lawless  sway  of  the  thirty- 
five  dukes,  who  were  the  only  rulers  in  the  interregnum 
after  the  death  of  Clcph,  till,  by  the  threatening  ap- 
proach of  the  Franks,  they  were  compelled  to  elect  a 
king  in  the  person  of  Autharis.  Now  for  the  first  time 
(584-590)  an  orderly  constitution  was  established.  Pau- 
lus Diaconus  speaks  with  great  praise  of  the  new  state 
of  things.  "  Wonderful  was  the  state  of  the  Lombard 
kingdom  :  violence  and  treachery  were  alike  unknown ; 
no  one  was  oppressed,  no  one  plundered  another ;  thefts 
and  robberies  ivere  unheard  of;  the  traveller  went  wher- 
ever he  would  in  perfect  security"  (Paul.  Diac.  iii,  16). 

A  general  idea  of  their  political  constitution  may  be 
found  in  the  edict  of  king  Rothari  (63G-652),  a  kind  of 
Bill  of  Rights,  which  was  promulgated  Nov.  22,  643, 
and  IS  memorable  as  having  become  the  foundation  of 
constitutional  law  in  the  (icrmanic  kingdoms  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  was  revised  and  extended  by  subse- 
quent Lombard  kings,  but  suljsisted  in  force  for  several 
centuries  after  the  Lombard  kingdom  had  passed  away. 
The  edict  recognises,  as  among  all  German  nations, 
three  classes— the  free,  the  semi-free,  and  slave  or  vas- 
sal. Among  the  free  were  the  nobiles.  The  army  se- 
cured the  national  unity,  civil  officers  being  regarded 
as  rendering  military  service.  The  king  was  elective, 
and  among  the  dukes  he  represented  the  nation.  He  was 
commander  of  the  army,  head  of  all  poHce  power,  chief 
judge,  and  general  ward.  There  were  courtiers  of  va- 
rious ranks.  The  dukes  were  also  called  judges,  or /;/- 
dices  civitatis.    Under  each  judex  were  many  local,  j  udi- 


cial,  police,  and  military'  authorities.  The  cities  chosen 
by  the  dukes  severally  as  their  residences  were  centres 
of  the  Lombard  government.  There  woidd  seem  to  be 
but  little  room  for  the  old  Roman  municipal  constitu- 
tions. Concerning  the  relation  of  the  Lombard  rule  to 
the  continuance  of  the  Roman  law  and  the  rights  of  the 
conquered  people  there  are  differences  of  opmion.  Len- 
der the  Goths  the  former  laws  and  customs  remained 
largely  unaffected;  but  it  has  been  maintained  (as  by 
Leo)  that  under  the  Lombards  the  personal  liberty, 
right  of  property,  and  municipal  constitutions  of  tlie 
conquered  people  were  abolished.  The  subject  was 
much  discussed  by  the  Italians  in  the  last  century;  and 
in  this  century  the  historians  Savigny,  Leo,  Bandi  di 
Vesme,  Fossati,  Troya,  Bethmann-HoUweg,  etc.,  present 
conflicting  or  somewhat  varied  views.  The  Lombard 
laws  themselves  give  but  little  precise  information  on  this 
point.  The  Romans  at  least  lost  all  united  nationality. 
Koman  law  seems  to  have  been  first  distinctively  brought 
into  use  under  Luitprand.  The  feeling  of  enmity  which, 
for  a  long  time  at  least,  existed  between  the  people  and 
their  conquerors,  was  increased  by  religious  differences, 
and  on  this  account  the  new  power  was  specially  obnox- 
ious to  the  authorities  of  the  Roman  Church.  A  state 
of  war  generally  prevailed  between  the  two  powers. 
The  Church  writers  are  constant  and  bitter  in  their 
complaints  of  Lombard  impiety  and  oppressions — at  least 
during  the  earlier  period  of  their  dominion — in  the  wast- 
ing of  churches  and  monasteries,  and  the  treatment  of 
ecclesiastics.  The  Lombard  clergy  themselves,  how- 
ever, do  not  seem  to  be  charged  as  active  participants 
in  these  deeds.  Gregory  the  Great  discerns  in  the 
times  signs  of  the  approaching  judgment.  "  What  is 
happening  in  other  parts  of  the  world,"  he  says, "  we 
know  not ;  but  in  this  the  end  of  all  things  not  merely 
announces  itself  as  approaching,  but  shows  itself  as  act- 
ually begun"  {Dial.  iii).  Such  representations  of  the 
spirit  and  course  of  the  conquerors  must  be  taken  with 
considerable  qualification.  Still  more  untrustworthy  are 
the  accounts  given,  especially  by  Gregory,  of  numerous 
miracidous  interferences  in  behalf  of  the  true  faith. 

The  Lombards  were  Arians.  Unlike  the  Franks, 
who  became  by  religious  sympathy  the  natural  defend- 
ers of  the  pope,  they,  with  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Bur- 
gundians,  and  Suevians,  had  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, about  the  end  of  the  5th  century,  by  Arian  mis- 
sionaries. Such  was  the  case  with  the  German  tribes 
generally  on  the  lower  Danube.  But  there  ^vere  among 
them  many,  some  of  whom  entered  Italj^,  who  were  still 
heathens,  and  Avorshipped  their  gods  Odin  and  Freia 
south  of  the  Alps.  There  were  probably  also  some 
Catholic  Pannonians  and  Noricans  who,  with  their  bish- 
ops, had  joined  the  expedition.  The  first  influence  ex- 
erted by  Rome  for  the  conversion  of  the  Lombards  was 
through  the  wife  of  Alboin,  a  niece  of  Clovis,  who  was 
a  good  Roman  Catholic,  and  had  been  enjoined  by  the 
bishop  of  Treves  to  convert  her  husband  from  his  Arian 
heresy.  Theodolinda  of  Bavaria  also  exerted  a  like  in- 
fluence Hjion  her  husband  Autharis,  and  under  his  reign 
the  Catholic  faith  made  considerable  progress.  On  the 
death  of  Autharis  (590),  Theodolinda  married  Agilidf, 
and  imder  his  government  also  she  continued  to  labor 
for  the  advancement  of  the  Catholic  Church,  hoping 
thereby  to  refine  the  manners  of  her  own  people.  The- 
odolinda persuaded  Agilulf  to  restore  a  portion  of  their 
property  and  dignities  to  the  Catholic  clergy,  and  to  have 
his  own  son  baptized  according  to  the  Catholic  rites — 
an  example  which  was  followed  by  multitudes.  Her 
brother  Gundwald,  duke  of  Asti,  she  influenced  to  build 
the  magnificent  Basilica  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  at  ]Mon- 
za,  near  IMilan,  in  which  in  subsequent  times  was  kept 
the  Lombard  crown,  called  the  Iron  Crown;  indeed,  she 
improved  any  and  evcrv'  opportunity  to  advance  the  in- 
terests of  the  Catholics,  and  thus  hastened  the  success- 
ful establishment  of  their  religion  among  the  Lombards, 
Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  founder  of  the  papacy, 
maintained  frequent  correspondence  with  the  queen  in 


LONGOBARDI 


502 


LONGUEVAL 


a  friendly  relation,  similar  to  that  existing  between 
Gregory  VII  and  the  coiuitess  Matilda.  On  the  occa- 
sion of  the  baptism  of  her  children  she  received  a  pres- 
ent from  Gregory.  Earlier  he  had  sent  her  foiur  Books 
of  Dialogues,  "  because  he  knew  that  she  was  true  to 
the  faith  in  Christ,  and  strong  m  good  works"  (Paul. 
Diac.  iv,  5). 

If  the  Koman  Church  had  met  with  material  losses 
by  the  Lombard  invasion,  it  now  gained  much  for  the 
power  of  the  papacy  in  the  more  complete  dependence 
with  which  all  parts  of  Itah'  began  to  look  to  Rome  for  a 
common  defence  of  their  faith.  Rome  became  a  certain 
centre  of  national  life  through  the  diffused  power  of  its 
bishops,  and  what  the  Roman  Empire  had  lost  by  arms 
the  Roman  Church  was  to  regain  by  peaceful  means. 
After  Gregory's  death  Agilulf  received  the  monk  Co- 
lumban  with  great  favor,  and  allowed  him  to  settle 
where  he  would.  At  IMilan  he  wrote  against  Arianism. 
He  founded  the  powerful  monastery  of  Bobbia,  which 
was  subsequently  very  influential  in  the  conversion  of 
the  Lombards.  Grundeberg,  daughter  of  Theodolinda, 
married  successively  the  kings  Ariowald  and  Rotharis. 
Under  the  latter  there  was  a  Catholic  and  Arian  bishop 
in  each  city.  Aribert  (653-661),  the  son  of  duke  Gun- 
dnald,  was  the  first  Catholic  king.  DiiUinger  says  of 
him,  '-Rex  Horibertus,  plus  et  catholicus,  Arrianorum 
abolevit  liKresem  et  Christianam  fidem  fecit  crescere." 
The  Lombards  became  now  enthusiastic  churchmen ; 
many  monasteries  and  churches  were  founded  and  rich- 
ly endowed.  There  was  always,  however,  a  certain  de- 
gree of  independence  manifest  among  them.  At  the 
Lateran  Council  of  649,  summoned  by  Martin  I,  Milan 
and  Aquileia  were  not  represented.  A  certain  patri- 
archal and  metropolitan  prerogative  was  allowed  the 
pope,  with  a  due  reservation  of  national  liberty.  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  7th  century  internal  contests  for 
the  Lombard  crown  secured  a  greater  degree  of  attach- 
ment to  the  Church,  while  tlie  disputes  of  Rome  with 
Constantinople  brought  the  Lombards  to  the  defence  of 
the  former.  In  the  8th  century  the  powerful  king  Luit- 
prand  (713-35),  who  raised  the  Lombard  kingdom  to  its 
highest  pirosperity,  sought  anxiously  to  complete  the 
conciuest  of  all  Italy,  and  before  800  it  may  be  said  that 
the  national  unity  of  Italy  was  complete.  Each  subject 
was  called  a  Lombard.  See  Luitpkaxd.  The  Church 
was  subject  to  the  state.  Though  its  clergy  and  bish- 
ops obtained  increasing  power,  it  was  not  of  a  political 
character  as  in  France.  The  bishops  wore  subject  to  the 
king,  and  the  inferior  clergy  to  the  subordinate  judges. 
The  bishops  were  chosen  by  the  people.  The  cloisters 
were  subject  to  magisterial  power.  But  the  prospect 
looming  up  before  the  popes  of  soon  becoming  themselves 
subject  to  the  rule  of  the  barbaric  Lombards,  they  now 
entered  upon  that  Machiavelian  policy  which  they  long 
incessantly  pursued,  of  laboring  to  prevent  a  union  of  all 
Italy  under  one  government,  in  order  to  secure  for  them- 
seh-es  the  greater  power  in  the  midst  of  contending  par- 
ties. This,  with  the  disputes  which  arose  concerning  the 
succession  to  the  Lombard  throne,  led  to  the  downfall 
of  the  Lombard  kingdom  within  no  long  time  after  it 
had  reached  its  utmost  greatness.  Gregory  III,  in  his 
distress,  fixed  his  gaze  on  the  youthful  greatness  of  a 
transalpine  nation,  the  Franks,  to  afford  him  the  nec- 
essary assistance  in  the  struggle  now  ensuing.  The 
movement  against  the  Lombards  was  initiated  at  the 
election  of  Zachary,  by  discanhng  the  customary  form 
of  olitaining  the  consent  of  the  exarchate's  authority, 
at  tills  time  vested  in  the  Lombard  king;  and  .Ste- 
phen II  made  way  for  Pepin,  after  having  anointed  him 
to  tlie  patriciate,  i.  c.  the  governorship  of  Rome,  to  make 
war  ui)on  Aistulf,  the  successor  of  Luitprand.  Natu- 
rally enough,  Pepin's  military  successes  were  all  turned 
to  the  advantage  of  the  pofie  in  securing  to  him  the  ex- 
archate and  Pentai)olis.  New  causes  of  hostility  be- 
tween the  Frank  and  Lombard  monarchs  arose  when 
Charlemagne  sent  back  to  her  father  his  wife,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Lombard  king  Desiderius  (754-774).     In  the 


autumn  of  773  Charlemagne  invaded  Italy,  and  in  l\Iay  of 
the  following  year  Pavia  was  conquered,  and  the  Lom- 
bard kingdom  was  overthrown.  In  803  a  treaty  between 
Charlemagne,  the  western,  and  Nicephorus,  the  eastern 
emperor,  confirmed  the  right  of  the  former  to  the  Lom- 
bard territorj-,  with  Rome,  the  Exarchate,  Ravenna,  Is- 
tria,  and  part  of  Dalmatia;  while  the  Eastern  empire 
retained  the  islands  of  Venice  and  the  maritime  towns 
of  Dalmatia,  with  Naples,  Sicily,  and  part  of  Calabria. 
See  T lirk,  Z'te  Longobardeyi  nnd  ihr  Volksrecht  (Rost. 
1835)  ;  Flegler,  Das  Konigreich  dei-  LoTUjoharden  in  Ital- 
ien  (Leipz.  1851) ;  Abel,  Der  Untergang  d.  Longobarden- 
reichs  in  Italien  (Gott.  1858) ;  Leo,  Gesch,  d,  ital.  Staaten 
(1829), vol.i ;  Hautleville, Ilist.des Communes Lomhai-des 
depuis  leur  origine  jusqu'u  la  Jin  du  xiii  Si'ecle  (Paris, 
1857),  vol.  i ;  Reichel,  liomun  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p, 
50  sq. ;  Milvaan,  Hist,  of  Latin  Christianity, i,A~2;  ii,  39 
sq.     See  Lombardy,     (E.  B.  O.) 

Longobardi,  Niccoi.b,  a  Jesuit  missionarj-,  was 
born  in  Switzerland  in  1565.  He  went  to  China  as  mis- 
sionary in  1596,  and  died  in  1655  at  Pekin.  He  wrote 
De  Confucio  ejusque  Docfrina  Tracfatus.  See  Leibo- 
ritz's  notes  to  a  recent  edition.  See  Hoefer,  Koui\  Biog. 
Generale,  s.  v. 

Longuerue,  Louis  nu  Four,  abhe  de,  an  eminent, 
learned  French  ecclesiastic,  born  at  Charleville  Jan.  6, 
1652,  was  the  son  of  a  Norman  nobleman.  When  but 
four  years  old  he  was  generally  known  as  a  learned 
prodigy.  At  foiu-teen  he  understood  several  Oriental 
languages,  and  undertook  to  get  a  complete  Iviiowledge 
of  the  holy  Scriptures  by  making  diligent  study  of  the 
fathers  and  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  commentators. 
The  Sorbonne,  which  he  sometimes  visited,  only  gave 
him  a  distaste  for  scholastic  theology ;  he  preferred  to 
reconstruct  positive  theology  from  the  original,  after  the 
manner  of  P.  Petau,  where  he  found  more  exactness  and 
stability.  In  1674  he  was  pro\aded  with  the  abbotship 
of  St.  Jean-du-jard,  near  Melun,  and  in  1684  with  that 
of  Sept-Fontaines,  in  the  diocese  of  Rheims.  After  re- 
ceiving orders  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  St.  iNIagloire, 
and  shut  himself  up  there  in  complete  solitude  for  fif- 
teen years.  When  he  re-entered  the  world  he  opened 
his  house  to  learned  men,  and  kept  up  with  them  a 
regular  correspondence,  and  manifested  a  great  eager- 
ness to  instruct  those  who  considted  him.  Longuerue 
consecrated  his  whole  life  to  labor ;  he  knew  no  other 
rest  except  that  of  change  of  occupation.  No  part 
of  the  domain  of  learning  was  strange  to  him,  but  he 
much  preferred  history.  His  constitution  and  memory 
were  good.  In  conversation  he  was  lively,  satirical, 
critical,  humorous,  and  cynical.  He  took  no  part  in 
religious  controversj-.  He  died  in  1732.  Among  his 
works  of  interest  to  us  are  Traite  dun  auteiir  de  la  com- 
munion Romaine  touchant  la  transubstantiation,  ou  ilfait 
voir  que  selon  les  principes  de  son  Eglise  ce  dogme  nepeut 
etre  un  article  defoi  (London,  1686)  : — Dissertations  tou- 
chant les  Antiquites  des  Chaldeeiis  et  des  Egyptiens  (in 
the  Lettres  choisies  of  Richard  Simon) : — Dissertation 
sur  le  passage  de  Flavins  Josephe  en  J'aveur  de  Jesus- 
Christ  (in  the  Bibl.  ancienne  et  moderne  of  Le  Clerc,  vii, 
237-288) : — Rertiarques  sur  la  vie  du  cardinal  Wolsey 
contraires  a  ceux  qui  ont  ecrit  contre  sa  reputation  (in 
the  Me  moire  de  Litterat.  of  P.  Desmolets).  See  Hoefer, 
Noui\  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of  Biogr.  and 
Mijthol.  s.  V. ;  General  Biogivphical  Dictionary,  s.  v. 

Longueval,  Jacques,  a  learned  French  Jesuit,  was 
born  in  the  suburbs  of  Peronne  iNIarch  18.  1680.  At  the 
age  of  nineteen  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  af- 
terwards taught  rhetoric  and  theology  in  different  col- 
leges of  his  order.  On  account  of  a  violent  work  pub- 
lished upon  the  religious  quarrels  of  the  period,  he  was 
first  exiled,  but  later  recei\'ed  permission  to  reside  at  the 
house  of  professed  Jesuits  in  Paris.  He  died  January 
11,  1735.  Among  his  published  works  are  Traite  du 
.Schisme  (Brussels,  1718)  [a  Refutation  of  this  work  was 
published  in  the  same  year  by  Mcganck] : — Dissertation 


LONSDALE 


503 


LORD 


sur  les  Miracles  (Paris,  1730, 4to) : — Eistoire  de  VEglise 
Gallicune  (Paris,  1730-1749,  18  vols.  8vo) ;  Longueval 
wrote  only  the  tirst  eight  volumes,  reaching  the  year 
1138;  the  others  have  been  written  by  Fontenay,  Bru- 
moy,  and  Berthier.  I'hc  work  has  been  reprinted  at 
Nlmes  (1782)  and  at  Paris  (1825).  Longueval  is  also 
the  author  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Reflexions  J\  I  or  ales, 
an  appendix  to  the  Nouveau  Testament  of  P.  Lallemant. 
See  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s. v. ;  Thomas,  Diet,  of 
Bior/r.  and  Mythol.  s.  v.;  Fontenay, i'%e  de  Longueval, 
in  VUistoire  Gallicane,  vol.  ix. 

Lonsdale,  John,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
prelate,  was  born  at  Newniillerdam,  near  Waketield,  Jan- 
uary 17, 1788,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Rev.  John  Lons- 
dale, vicar  of  Durtield  and  incumbent  of  Chapelthorpe. 
Young  Lonsdale  entered  Eton  College  at  the  age  of  11, 
and  completed  his  studies  finally  at  King's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  got  nearly  all  the  prizes,  and  took 
the  B.A.  in  1811.  He  then  studied  law  for  a  time,  but 
changing  for  theology,  he  was  ordained  priest  in  1815. 
Shortly  after  he  was  made  examining  chaplain  to  arch- 
bishop Sutton  and  assistant  preacher  at  the  temple. 
In  1821  he  was  appointed  to  the  office  of  Christian  ad- 
vocate to  Cambridge  University,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  domestic  chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. From  1831  to  1813  he  was  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's ;  from  1839  to  1813,  principal  of  King's  College, 
London,  and  rector  of  Southtleet,  Kent.  He  was  also 
archdeacon  of  Midtllesex  during  1812  and  1813,  and 
was  for  some  time  chaplain  at  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1814, 
finally,  he  was  appointed,  by  Sir  Robert  Peel,  bishop  of 
Lichfield.  He  died  at  Erdeshall  Castle,  Staffordshire, 
Oct.  19, 1867.  Bishop  Lonsdale  was  greatly  celebrated 
in  the  English  pulpit;  while  yet  in  the  infancy  of  his 
ministry,  two  courses  of  his  miiversity  sermons,  as  weU 
as  several  occasional  discourses,  were  asked  for  and  re- 
ceived by  the  public  (London,  1820, 1821).  In  1849  he 
published,  with  archbishop  Hale,  a  volume  oi  Annota- 
tions on  the  Gospels  (see  Hale).  He  is  spoken  of  as  "  a 
man  of  remarkable  humility,  averse  to  controversy,  and 
never  willing  to  enter  into  a  public  discussion  of  great 
questions  in  theology,  from  the  belief  that  others  were 
better  qualified  than  he  to  handle  them  ;  but,  withal,  he 
was  unrtinching  in  his  adherence  to  what  he  believed  to 
be  right."  He  was  greatly  beloved,  not  only  by  his  own 
Church,  but  by  the  Dissenters  also.  See  Appleton's 
Ann.  Cyclop.  1867,  p.  451 ;  Am.  Ch,  Rev.  1868,  p.  G75. 

Looking-glass.     See  Mirror. 

Loop  (only  in  the  plural  7^^V^h ,luladth' ,  windings ; 
Sept.  rtyicuAof,  Vulg.  anhda>),  an  attachment  or  knotted 
"f^e,"  probably  of  cord,  corresponding  to  the  knobs  or 
"  taches"  (D^plp)  in  the  edges  of  the  curtains  of  the 
tabernacle  for  joining  them  into  a  continuous  circuit, 
fifty  to  a  curtain,  and  formed  of  blue  material  (Exod. 
xxvi,  4,  5, 10, 11 ;  xxxvi,  11, 12, 17),     See  Tabernacle. 

Loos  (Callidius),  Cornelius,  a  German  Roman 
Catholic  theologian,  was  born  at  Gonda,  Holland,  in 
1546,  and  was  educated  at  Louvain.  He  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  was  made  doctor  of  theology  at  IMentz, 
where,  in  a  sojourn  of  several  years,  he  composed  most 
of  his  works.  He  afterwards  became  archbishop  of 
Treves;  but,  on  account  of  his  opinions  upon  magic,  pub- 
lished in  a  book  styled  Be  vera  etfcdsa  magia  (1592), 
he  was  forced  to  remove  from  his  diocese,  though  he 
retracted  his  heretical  views.  He  went  to  Brussels,  and 
there  exercised  the  humble  functions  of  vicar  of  the  par- 
ish. He  was  soon  accused  of  falling  back  into  his  old 
opinions,  and  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  He  was 
about  to  be  accused  a  third  time,  when  he  died  at  Brus- 
sels, Feb.  3, 1595.  Loos  was  very  zealous  against  Prot- 
estants. Among  his  works  the  following  are  of  theo- 
logical and  general  interest:  Defensio  adversus,  Chr, 
Franckeniuin  caterosqiie  sectarios panis  adorationem  im- 
pie  asscrmtes  (Mayenee,  1581)  ■.—Thurihulum  aureum 
iaiKiarumprecationum  (ibidem,  1581)  :—Illustrium  Ger- 


nianice  Scriptorum  Catalogus  (ibidem,  1581)  : — Ecclesice 
Venatus  (Cologne,  1585) : — Annotationes  in  Ferum  su- 
per Joannem,  often  reprinted.  See  Sweert,  A  thence  Bel- 
gicce;  Foppens,  Bihlioth.  Belgica ;  Martin  Delrio,  Dis- 
quisit.  magicce,  liv.  v ;  Bayle,  Diet.  Hist,  et  Crit.  (Callid- 
ius) ;  Niceron,  Memoires;  Paquot,  Memoires;  Hoefer, 
Nouv.  Biog.  Generale,  s.  v. 

Lope  de  Vega.     See  Vega. 

Lope  de  Vera  y  Alarc.vn,  a  Christian  convert 
to  Judaism,  suffered  martyrdom  for  his  apostasy  bj'  the 
hands  of  the  inquisitors'  tribunal  of  Spain.  The  de- 
scendant of  a  noble  Spanish  family,  he  had,  while  a  stu- 
dent at  Salamanca,  interested  himself  in  the  study  of 
Jewish  literature  and  Judaism,  and  finally  made  a  pub- 
lic confession  of  his  belief  in  Judaism  as  the  only  re- 
vealed religion.  He  was  imprisoned  at  Valladolid,  and, 
persisting  in  his  decision,  was  condemned  to  death  at 
the  stake,  July  25, 1644.  He  was  at  the  time  of  his 
death  only  about  twenty-five  years  old,  and  had  suffered 
imprisonment  for  nearly  five  years.  See  Griitz,  Gesch, 
der  Juden,  x,  101. 

Loqui,  Martix.     See  Taborites. 

Lorance,  James  Houston,  a  Presbyterian  minis- 
ter, was  born  at  Mount  Pleasant,  Tenn.,  June  1,  1820. 
He  was  educated  in  Princeton  College,  N.  J.,  and  in  di- 
vinity in  the  Princeton  Theological  Seminary  (class  of 
1846),  and  was  licensed  by  New  Brunswick  Presbytery, 
commenced  active  work  at  Whitesville,  Ala.,  and  sub- 
sequently was  ordained  by  PalmjTa  Presbytery  as  pas- 
tor at  Hannibal,  Mo.  He  removed  to  Courtland,  Ala., 
in  1851,  and  there  continued  his  pastoral  labors  until  his 
death,  June  1, 1862.  Mr.  Lorance  was  an  able  and  em- 
inent preacher,  pleasing  and  affable  in  manners,  and  firm 
but  not  obstinate  in  his  conscientious  attachment  to  the 
doctrines  and  polity  of  the  Church  of  his  fathers.  See 
Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1867,  p.  444,     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lord  is  the  rendering  in  the  A.  V.  of  sever."!  Heb. 
and  Greek  words,  which  have  a  very  different  import 
from  each  other,  "  Lord"  is  a  Saxon  word  signifying 
ruler  or  governor.  In  its  original  form  it  is  hlaford, 
which,  by  dropping  the  aspiration,  became  laford,  and 
afterwards,  by  contraction,  lord. 

1,  ilTiT^,  Yehovah',  Jehovah,  the  proper  name  of  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews,  M-hich  should  always  have  been 
retained  in  that  form,  but  has  almost  invariably  been 
translated  in  the  English  Bible  by  Lord  (and  printed 
thus  in  small  capitals),  after  the  example  of  the  Sept, 
(Kvpioc)  and  Vulg.  (Dominus).     See  Jehovah. 

2.  'jITX,  adun',  one  of  the  early  words  (hence  in  the 
early  Phcenico- Greek  Adonis')  denoting  the  most  abso- 
lute control,  and  therefore  most  fitly  represented  by  the 
English  word  lord,  as  in  the  A.  V.  (Sept,  Kvpiog,  Vulg. 
dominus).  It  is  not  properly  a  divine  title,  although 
occasionally  applied  to  God  (Psa.  cxiv,  7 ;  properly  with 
the  art.  in  this  sense,  Exod.  xxiii,  13),  as  the  supreme 
proprietor  (Josh,  iii,  13) ;  but  appropriately  denotes  a 
master,  as  of  slaves  (Gen.  xxiv,  4,  27 ;  xxxix,  2,  7),  or 
a  king,  as  ruler  of  subjects  (Gen.  xlv,  8  ;  Isa.  xxvi,  13), 
a  husband,  as  lord  of  the  wife  (Gen.  xviii,  12).  It  is 
frequently  a  term  of  respect,  like  our  Sir,  but  with  a 
pronoun  attached  ("my  lord"),  and  often  occurs  in  the 
plural.     See  Master. 

A  modified  form  of  this  word  is  A  donay'  C^nX ;  Sept. 
KvpioQ,  lord,  master),  "  the  old  plural  form  of  the  noun 
')ilN,  adon,  similar  to  that  with  the  suffix  of  the  first 
person,  used  as  the  pluralis  excelleniice,  by  way  of  dig- 
nity, for  the  name  of  Jehovah.  The  similar  form  with 
the  suffix,  is  also  used  of  men,  as  of  Joseph's  master  (Gen, 
xxxix,  2,  3  sq.),  of  Joseph  himself  (Gen.  xlii,  30,  33 ;  so 
also  Isa.  xix,  4).  The  Jews,  out  of  superstitious  rever- 
ence for  the  name  Jehovah,  alwaj-s,  in  reading,  pro- 
nounce .1  donai  where  Jehovah  is  written,  and  hence  the 
letters  (lltT^  are  usually  written  with  the  points  be- 
longing to  Adonai,  Jehovah.'  The  view  that  the  word 


LORDLY 


504 


LORD 


exhibits  a  pliiral  termination  without  the  affix  is  that 
of  Gesc'iiius  (Thesaur.  s.  v.  "|"n),  and  seems  just,  though 
rather  (iisapproved  by  professor  Lee  (^Lex.  in  "jI'lX).  The 
latter  adds  that  'oiu:  English  Bibles  generally  translate 
riTI"'  by  LORD,  in  capitals;  when  preceded  by  "I'l'lXn; 
they  translate  it  God;  when  mXSiJ,  tzahaoth,  follows, 
by  Loan,  as  in  Isa.  iii,  1, '  The  Lord,  the  Lord  of  Hosts.' 
Tlie  copies  now  in  use  are  not,  however,  consistent  in 
this  respect"  (Kitto).  "  In  some  instances  it  is  difficidt, 
on  account  of  the  pause  accent,  to  say  whether  Adonai 
is  the  title  of  the  Deity,  or  merely  one  of  respect  ad- 
dressed to  men.  These  have  been  noticed  by  theMaso- 
rites,  who  distinguish  the  former  in  their  notes  as  'holy,' 
and  the  latter  as  '  profane.'  (See  Gen.  xviii,  3 ;  xix,  2, 
18 ;  and  compare  the  Masoretic  notes  on  Gen.  xx,  13 ; 
Isa.  xix,  4)"  (Smith.)     See  Adonai. 

3.  Kvpiog,  the  general  Greek  term  for  supreme  mas- 
tery, Avhether  royal  or  private ;  and  thus,  in  classical 
Greek,  distinguished  from  Oeoc,  which  is  exclusively 
applied  to  God.  The  "Greek  Kvpwg,  indeed,  is  used 
iu  much  the  same  way  and  in  the  same  sense  as  Lord. 
It  is  from  Kvpog,  authority,  and  signifies  'master'  or 
'  possessor.'  In  the  Septuagint,  this,  like  Lord  m  our 
version,  is  invariably  used  for  '  Jehovah'  and  '  Adonai ;' 
while  Btdf,  like  God  iu  our  translation,  is  generally  re- 
served to  represent  the  Hebrew  '  Elohim.'  Kvpiog  in 
the  original  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  Lord  in  our 
version  of  it,  are  used  in  much  the  same  manner  as  in 
the  Septuagint;  and  so,  also,  is  the  corresponding  title, 
Dominus,  in  the  Latin  versions.  As  the  Hebrew  name 
Jehovah  is  one  never  used  with  reference  to  any  but 
the  Almighty,  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  Septuagint, 
imitated  by  our  own  and  other  versions,  has  represented 
it  by  a  word  which  is  also  used  for  the  Hebrew  'Ado- 
nai,' which  is  applied  not  only  to  God,  but,  like  our 
'  Lord,'  to  creatures  also,  as  to  angels  (Gen.  xix,  2 ;  Dan. 
X,  16,  17),  to  men  in  authority  (Gen.  xlii,  30,  33),  and 
to  proprietors,  owners,  masters  (Gen.  xlv,  8).  In  the 
New  Testament,  Kvpiog,  representing '  Adonai,'  and  both 
represented  by  Lord,  the  last,  or  human  application  of 
the  term,  is  frequent.  In  fact,  the  leading  idea  of  the 
Hebrew,  the  Greek,  and  the  English  words  is  that  of  an 
owner  or  proprietor,  whether  God  or  man ;  and  it  occurs 
in  the  inferior  application  with  great  frequency  in  the 
New  Testament.  This  application  is  either  literal  or 
complimentary  :  literal  when  the  party  is  really  an 
owner  or  master,  as  in  Matt,  x,  2-1 ;  xx,  8 ;  xxi,  40 ;  Acts 
xvi,  IC,  10 ;  Gal.  iv,  1,  etc. ;  or  when  he  is  so  as  having 
absolute  authority  over  another  (Matt,  ix,  38 ;  Luke  x, 
2),  or  as  being  a  supreme  lord  or  sovereign  (Acts  xxv, 
26) ;  and  complimentary  when  used  as  a  title  of  address, 
especially  to  superiors,  like  the  English  Master,  Sir; 
the  French  Sieur,  Monsieur;  the  German  Herr,  etc.,  as 
in  Matt,  xiii,  27;  xxi,  20;  Mark  vii,  8;  Luke  ix,  54" 
(Kitto).     See  Winer,  Z)e  voce  Kiipiog  (Erlang.  1828). 

4.  5:^'3,  hii'ul,  master  in  the  sense  oi  domination,  ap- 
ydied  to  only  heathen  deities,  or  else  to  human  relations, 
as  husband,  etc.,  and  especially  to  a  person  skilled  or 
chief  in  a  trade  or  profession  (like  the  vulgar  boss). 
To  this  corresponds  the  Greek  devTroTijg,  whence  our 
"despot."     See  Baal. 

The  remaining  and  less  important  words  in  the  orig- 
inal, thus  rendered  in  the  common  Bible  (usually  with- 
out a  capital  initial),  arc:  ""^Hii,  gebii-',  prop,  denoting 
physical  strength  or  martial  prowess;  "lb,  sar,  a  title 
of  nobility ;  b^b'j,  shulish',  a  military  officer  (see  Cap- 
tain); and  '\^p,,  se'ren,  a  Philistine  term;  also  the 
Cliald.  N']'2,  mark',  an  official  title  (hence  the  Syriac 
mar, or  bishop) ;  and  y^,  rah,  a  general  n&mz—jir effect, 
with  its  reduplicate  '2"13'^,  rahrehati',  and  its  Greek 
equivalent  pa^^oi'i, "  Rabbonl.'' 

Lordly  occurs  in  the  A.  Y.  only  in  the  expression 
C^T''nX  ^ED,  se'phel  addirim',  howl  o/'[the]  nobles,  i. 


e.  a  large  vessel  fit  to  be  used  for  persons  of  quality 
(Judg.  V,  25).     See  Disii. 

Lord,  Benjamin,  D.D.,  a  Congregational  minister, 
was  born  in  1693  at  Saybrook,  Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale 
College  in  1714,  was  chosen  tutor  in  1715,  was  ordained 
pastor  Nov.  20,  1717,  in  Norwich,  and  there  preaclied 
until  his  death,  March  31, 1784.  He  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  Yale  College  coqioration  in  1740,  and  remained 
such  till  1772.  Dr.  Lord  published  True  Christianity  ex- 
plained and  exposed,  wherein  are  some  Observations  re- 
specting Conversion  (1727)  : — Two  Sermons  on  the  Ne- 
cessity of  Ref/eneration  (1737)  : — Believers  in  Christ  only 
the  true  Children  of  God,  and  hoi-n  of  him  alone,  a  ser- 
mon (1742)  : — God  glorified  in  the  Worhs  of  Providence 
and  Grace :  a  remarkable  Instance  of  it  in  the  various 
and  signal  Deliverances  that  evidently  appear  to  he 
wrought  for  Mercy  Wheeler,  lately  restored  from  extreme 
Impotence  and  Confinement  (1743) ;  and  several  occa- 
sional sermons. — Sprague,  A  nnals,  i,  297. 

Lord,  Daniel  Minor,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  April  0, 1800,  at  Lyme,  Conn.,  and  was  educa- 
ted at  Amherst  College  and  at  the  Theological  Seminar}' 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  and  in  April,  1834,  was  licensed  by 
the  Second  I'resbytery  of  Long  Island,  and  subsequently 
ordained  at  Southampton.  In  1835  the  Presbytery  dis- 
missed him  to  the  Suffolk  Soutli  Association.  Soon 
after  he  became  pastor  of  the  Boston  Jlariners'  Church. 
In  August,  1848,  he  became  the  tirst  pastor  of  the  Shelter 
Island  Church,  where  he  remained  until  his  death,  Aug. 
26, 1861.  Mr.  Lord  published  7'Ae  History  of  Pitcairn's 
Island;  also  various  articles  on  The  moral  Claims  of 
Seamen  stated  and  enforced,  and  for  several  years  was 
editor  and  almost  sole  writer  and  publisher  of  a  review, 
in  which  he  ably,  logically,  and  clearly  discussed  pro- 
found theological  questions.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist. 
A  Imanac,  1863,  p.  305.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lord,  Eleazer,  an  American  theological  writer, 
was  born  in  1798.  With  an  excellent  preparatory  edu- 
cation, improved  by  close  study  to  such  a  degree  that 
in  1821  Dartmouth  College,  and  in  1827  Williams,  con- 
ferred on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  A.M.,  he  devoted 
a  portion  of  his  time  during  an  active  business  life  as  a 
merchant,  president  of  an  insurance  company,  and  for 
some  years  of  the  Erie  Railway  Company,  to  the  study 
of  theological  science.  In  1866  he  received  from  the 
University  of  New  York  the  degree  of  LL.D.  Blind- 
ness saddened  his  latter  years,  but  his  treasured  learn- 
ing comforted  him.  He  died  at  Piermont,  N.  Y.,  June 
3,1871. 

Lord,  Isaiah,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  in  Pharsalia,  Chenango  Coimty,  N.  York,  July  16, 
1834,  was  converted  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and,  join- 
ing the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  at  once  began  to 
preach.  In  1854,  while  employed  as  a  teacher,  his  gen- 
tle bearing  and  godly  admonitions  led  many  to  the 
cross  and  salvation.  In  1855  he  joined  the  Oneida  Con- 
ference, and  labored  in  the  following  places  with  accep- 
tability and  success:  Summer  Hill,  Harford,  Borodino, 
Smyrna,  Union  Valley,  Amber,  Freeville,  East  Homer, 
and  Georgetown,  where  he  died  Aug.  21, 1870.  "  He  was 
a  man  of  stern  integrity  and  sterling  worth,  fuUy  com- 
mitted to  all  the  great  moral  enterprises  of  the  day.  .  .  . 
His  mission  was  lovingly  and  fearlessly  executed.  His 
piety  was  deep  and  real,  and  his  death  was  but  the  be- 
ginning of  everlasting  life."— Con/;  Minutes,  1871. 

Lord,  James  Cooper,  a  philanthropic  New  York 
merchant  and  iron  manufacturer  of  our  day,  deserves  a 
place  here  for  his  great  efforts  to  advance  the  interests 
of  his  fellow-men.  He  founded  in  1860  "The  First 
Ward  Industrial  School;"  later,  a  free  reading-room,  a 
library-,  and  erected  two  churches  for  the  benefit  of  his 
workingmen  and  their  neighbors.    He  died  Feb.  9, 1869. 

Lord,  Jeremiah  S.,  D.D.,  a  Reformed  (Dutch) 
minister  of  note,  was  born  at  Brookhni,  N.  York,  about 
1817,  and  was  educated  at  Union  College,  class  of  1836. 


LORD 


505 


LORD'S  DAY 


He  entered  the  ministrj'  in  1843  at  IMontville,  N.  J., 
•where  he  labored  until  1847,  when  he  assumed  the 
charge  of  tlie  Keformed  Church  of  (jriggstown,  N.  Jer- 
sey. In  the  year  following,  however,  he  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Keformed  Church  in  Harlem,  and  there 
he  labored  until  his  death,  April  2, 1869.  '•  Few  minis- 
ters of  our  denomination,"  says  the  Intelligencer  (April  8, 
18G9),  "were  more  highly  esteemed  by  their  brethren, 
or  enjoyed  in  a  higher  measure  the  confidence  and  af- 
fection of  their  people,  than  did  tliis  most  excellent 
brother.  The  Lord  blessed  him  in  his  work,  and  gave 
him  many  soids  as  seals  to  his  ministry.  .  .  .  His 
preaching  was  characterized  by  great  earnestness  and 
solemnity.  The  love  of  Christ  in  the  gift  of  himself 
■was  the  central  theme  of  his  discourses.  His  style  was 
clear,  compact,  and  persuasive.  His  was  indeed  a  most 
usefid  life,  and  his  example  of  faithfidness,  earnest  zeal, 
and  self-sacrificing  devotion  to  the  duties  of  his  high 
and  holy  calling  is  a  rich  legacy  to  all  his  surviving 
brethren  in  the  ministry." 

Lord,  John  King,  a  Congregational  minister,  was 
born  ^larch  'ii,  1819,  at  Amherst,  N.  H.  He  graduated 
at  Dartmouth  College  in  18(33,  entered  the  ministry  in 
1841,  and  was  ordained  pastor  in  Hartford.,  Yt.,  Novem- 
ber, 1841,  Avhere  he  remained  three  years.  October  21, 
1848,  he  was  installed  pastor  in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where 
he  died,  Jidy  13, 1849.  A  volume  of  his  sermons  was 
published  in  1850. — Sprague,  Annak,  ii,  7C1. 

Lord,  Nathan,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  American 
divine  and  educator,  was  born  at  South  Berwick,  Me., 
Nov.  28, 1793 ;  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College  (class 
of  1809),  and  studied  theology  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary,  where  he  graduated  in  1815.  After  quitting 
the  college  he  acted  as  assistant  in  PhiUips  Exeter  Acad- 
emy. Now  a  theologian,  he  at  once  entered  the  active 
work  of  the  ministry  as  pastor  of  the  Congregationalists 
at  Amherst,  N.  H.,  the  only  church  he  ever  served.  He 
remained  with  his  people  until  1828,  when  he  was  called 
to  the  responsible  position  of  president  of  Dartmouth 
College,  where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1870. 
Possessed  of  the  highest  attainments  of  scholarship, 
great  executive  ability,  a  winning  address,  equanimity 
of  temper,  remarkable  "  firmness  of  character  and  devo- 
tion .to  principle,  and  unwearied  application  to  labor,  Dr. 
Lord  made  Dartmouth  College  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  our  higher  educational  institutions:  1824  students 
■were  graduated  from  its  halls  during  his  presidency. 
As  a  theologian  he  was,  like  Edwards,  Hopkins,  and  Bel- 
lamy, of  the  school  advocating  a  strictly  liberal  interpre- 
tation of  prophecy,  but  he  has  left  us  ievf  remains  in 
print.  He  occasionally  contributed  to  our  theological 
quarterlies,  and  published  several  sermons  and  essays. 
The  following  deserve  notice :  Letter  to  the  Rev.  David 
BaiKi,  D.D.,  on  Prof.  Park's  Theology  of  Neiv  England 
{New  Engl.  1852) ;  On  the  dlillenniiim  (1854) ;  and  Letters 
to  jMiniste7-s  of  the  Gospel  of  all  Denominations  on  Slavery 
(1854-5),  in  which  he  defended  the  institution  of  slavery 
as  sanctioned  by  the  Bible,  thereby  greatly  provoking 
opposition  and  criticism  from  Northern  divines.  See 
Drake,  Diet.  A  mer.  Biog.  s.  v. ;  Neio  Amer.  Cycloji.  s.  v. ; 
also  the  Annual  for  1870. 

Lord,  Nathan  L.,  a  Baptist  missionarj'  and  phy- 
sician, was  born  in  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  December,  1821, 
was  educated  at  the  Western  Eeserve  College  (class  of 
184(),  and,  after  completing  a  theological  course,  was 
employed  for  a  time  as  agent  and  financial  secretary  of 
the  college.  Having  decided  to  devote  himself  to  the 
missionary  work,  he  was  ordained  in  October,  1852,  and 
sailed  with  his  wife  for  Ceylon,  After  six  years  of  faith- 
ful labor,  the  failure  of  his  health  compelled  him  to  re- 
turn to  this  count  rA-,  where  he  remained  nearly  four  years, 
during  a  portion  of  which  time  he  performed  with'great 
acceptance  the  duties  of  a  district  secretary'  of  the  Board 
of  Missions  in  the  southern  districts  of  the  West.  He 
also  attended  several  courses  of  medical  lectures,  receiv- 
ing the  degree  of  JI.D.  at  Cleveland,  Ohio.    In  1863  he 


sailed  with  his  wife  and  children  for  the  Madura  Mis- 
sion of  the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign 
Missions,  but  the  climate  of  India  proving  unfavorable 
to  his  health,  he  retm-ned  in  June,  1867.  He  died  Jan, 
24, 1868. 

Lord's  Day.  The  expression  so  rendered  in  the 
Authorized  English  Version  {tv  ry  KvpiaKij  t'lfiep^)  oc- 
curs only  once  m  the  New  Testament,  viz.,  in  Eev.  i,  10, 
and  is  there  unaccompanied  by  any  other  words  tending 
to  explain  its  meaning.  It  is,  liowever,  ■n-ell  known 
that  the  same  phrase  was,  in  after  ages  of  the  Christian 
Chiu-ch,  used  to  signify  the  first  day  of  the  week,  on 
which  the  resurrection  of  Christ  was  commemorated. 
Hence  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  same  name  was  giv- 
en to  that  day  during  the  time  of  the  apostles,  and  ■was 
in  the  present  instance  used  by  St.  John  in  this  sense, 
as  referring  to  an  institution  well  kno^nn,  and  therefore 
requiring  no  explanation.  This  interpretation,  howev- 
er, has  of  late  been  somewhat  questioned.  It  will  be 
proper  here,  therefore,  to  discuss  this  point,  as  well  as 
the  early  notices  of  this  Christian  observance,  leaving 
the  general  subject  to  be  treated  under  Sabbath.  In 
doing  this,  -we  avail  ourselves  of  the  articles  in  the  dic- 
tionaries of  Kitto  and  Smith. 

I.  Interpretation  of  the  Phrase  "LoirTs  Dag"  in  the 
Passage  in  question. — The  general  consent  both  of  Chris- 
tian antiquitj^  and  of  modern  divines  has  referred  it  to 
the  weekly  festival  of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  and  iden- 
tified it  with  "  the  first  day  of  the  week,"  on  which  he 
rose,  with  the  patristical  "eighth  day,"  or  "day  which 
is  both  the  first  and  the  eighth" — in  fact,  with  »/  roit 
'RXiov  'UiJ.(pa,  the  " Solis  dies,"  or  "Sunday"  of  every 
age  of  the  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  following 
different  explanations  have  been  proposed. 

1.  Some  have  supposed  St.  John  to  be  speaking,  in 
the  passage  above  referred  to,  of  the  Sabbath,  because 
that  institution  is  called  in  Isaiah  Iviii,  13,  by  the  Al- 
mighty himself,  "  My  holy  day."  To  this  it  is  replied : 
If  St.  John  had  intendecl  to  specify  the  Sabbath,  he 
would  surely  have  used  that  ■word,  which  was  by  no 
means  obsolete,  or  even  obsolescent,  at  the  time  of  his 
composing  the  book  of  the  Revelation.  It  is  added, 
that  if  an  apostle  had  set  the  example  of  confoimding 
the  seventh  and  the  first  days  of  the  week,  it  would 
have  been  strange  indeed  that  every  ecclesiastical  wri- 
ter for  the  first  five  centuries  shoidd  have  avoided  any 
approach  to  such  confusion.  They  do  avoid  it ;  for,  as 
Ildf5j3arov  is  never  used  by  them  for  the  first  daj',  so 
KvpiaKi'i  is  never  used  by  them  for  the  seventh  day. 
See  Sabbath. 

2.  A  second  opinion  is,  that  St.  John  intended  by  the 
"  Lord's  day"  that  on  which  the  Lord's  resurrection  was 
annually  celebrated,  or,  as  we  now  term  it,  Easter  day. 
On  this  it  need  only  be  observed,  that  though  it  was 
never  questioned  that  the  weekly  celebration  of  that 
event  should  take  place  on  the  first  daj'  of  the  hebdom- 
adal C3xle,  it  was  for  a  long  time  doubted  on  ■what  day 
in  the  annual  cycle  it  shoidd  be  celebrated.  T^vo 
schools,  at  least,  existed  on  this  point  until  considerably 
after  the  death  of  St.  John.  It  therefore  seems  unlikely 
that,  in  a  book  intended  for  the  whole  Church,  he  would 
have  employed  a  method  of  dating  which  was  far  from 
generally  agreed  upon.  It  is  to  be  added  that  no  pa- 
tristical authority  can  be  quoted,  either  for  the  interpre- 
tation contended  for  in  this  opinion,  or  for  the  employ- 
ment of  7/  KvpiaKT]  'HfXfpa  to  denote  Easter  day.  See 
Eastek. 

3.  Another  theory  is,  that  by  "  the  Lord's  day"  St= 
John  intended  '•  the  day  of  judgment,"  to  which  a  large 
portion  of  the  book  of  Kevelation  may  be  conceived  to 
refer.  Thus,  "  I  was  in  the  spirit  on  the  Lord's  day" 
(t-yf »-•('/( )jv  iv  -KVlvpaTi  tv  ti)  KvpiaKij  H/jipa)  wiiuld 
imply  that  he  was  rapt,  in  spiritual  vision,  to  the  date 
of  that  "great  and  terrible  day,"  just  as  St,  Paul  repre- 
sents himself  as  caught  up  locally  into  Paradise.  ISow, 
not  to  dispute  the  interpretation  of  the  passage  from 
which  the  illustration  is  drawn  (2  Cor.  xii,  4),  the  abet- 


LORD'S  DAY 


506 


LORD'S  DAY 


tors  of  this  view  seem  to  have  put  out  of  sight  the  fol- 
lowing considerations.  In  the  preceding  sentence  St. 
John  had  mentioned  the  place  in  which  he  was  writing 
— Patmos — and  tlie  causes  which  had  brought  liim  thith- 
er.  It  is  but  natural  that  he  should  further  particular- 
ize the  circumstances  under  which  his  mysterious  work 
was  composed,  by  stating  the  exact  daj^  on  which  the 
revelations  were  communicated  to  him,  and  the  employ- 
ment, spiritual  musing,  in  which  he  was  then  engaged. 
To  suppose  a  mixture  of  the  metaphorical  and  the  lit- 
eral would  be  strangely  out  of  keeping.  Though  it  be 
conceded  that  the  day  of  judgment  is  in  the  New  Test, 
spoken  of  as  'H  tov  Kvpiov  'Hjiipa,  the  employment  of 
the  adjectival  form  constitutes  a  remarkable  difference, 
■which  was  observed  and  maintained  ever  afterwards 
(comp.  1  Cor.  i,  8,  U ;  v,  5 :  1  Thess.  v,  2 ;  2  Thess.  ii,  2 ; 
Luke  xvii,  24;  2  Pet.  iii,  10).  There  is  also  a  critical 
objection  to  this  interpretation,  for  yh'ia^ai  tv  I'mipi}  is 
not— diem  agere  (comp.  Rev.  iv,  2).  This  third  theorj-, 
then,  which  is  sanctioned  by  the  name  of  Augusti,  must 
be  abandoned. 

4.  As  a  less  definite  modification  of  this  last  view  we 
may  mention,  finally,  that  others  have  regarded  the 
phrase  in  question  as  meaning  simply  "  the  day  of  the 
Lord,"  the  substantive  being  merely  exchanged  for  the 
adjective,  as  in  1  Cor.  xi,  20 :  icvptaKov  otinvov,  "the 
Lord's  Supper,"  which  woidd  make  it  merely  synony- 
mous with  the  generally  expected  temporal  appearance 
of  Christ  on  earth :  })  y'lfiepa  Kvpiov,  "  the  day  of  the 
Lord"  (1  Thess.  v,  2).  Such  a  use  of  the  adjective  be- 
came extremely  common  in  the  following  ages,  as  we 
have  repeatedly  in  the  fathers  the  corresponding  ex- 
pressions Dominicte  crucis, "  the  Lord's  cross ;"  Domin- 
ican nativitatis, "  the  Lord's  nativity"  (Tertullian,  De  Idol. 
p.  5) ;  \oyiu)v  KvpiaKMV  (Eusebius,  Histor.  Eccles.  iii,  9). 
According  to  their  view,  the  passage  would  mean, "  In 
the  spirit  I  was  present  at  the  day  of  the  Lord,"  the 
word  "day"  being  used  for  any  signal  manifestation 
(possibly  in  allusion  to  Joel  ii,  31\  as  in  John  viii,  56: 
"Abraham  rejoiced  to  see  my  day."  The  peculiar  use 
of  the  word  I'lfifpa,  as  referring  to  a  period  of  ascenden- 
cy, appears  remarkably  in  1  Cor.  iv,  3,  where  dvSrpu)- 
irivriQ  I'jp'fpaQ  is  rendered  "man's  judgment."  Never- 
theless, this  interpretation,  besides  the  objection  of  its 
vagueness  as  a  date,  is  clogged  with  all  the  dilHculties 
that  attach  to  the  preceding  one. 

All  other  conjectures  upon  this  point  maybe  permit- 
ted to  confute  themselves,  but  the  following  cavil  is  too 
curious  to  be  omitted.  In  Scripture  the  first  day  of  the 
week  is  called  ?)  fiia  aaliliaTwv,  in  post-scriptural  writ- 
ers it  is  called  j)  Kypia/cj)  'Ufikpa  as  well;  therefore 
the  Itook  of  Revelation  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  an  apos- 
tle, or,  in  other  words,  is  not  part  of  Scripture.  The 
logic  of  this  argument  is  only  surpassed  by  its  boldness. 
It  says,  in  effect,  because  post-scriptural  writers  have 
these  two  designations  for  the  first  day  of  the  week, 
thervfore  scriptural  writers  must  be  confined  to  one  of 
them.  It  were  surely  more  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  adoption  by  post-scriptural  writers  of  a  phrase  so 
pre-eminently  Christian  as  >)  Y^vpiiiK))  'Hufpa  to  denote 
the  first  day  of  the  week,  and  a  day  so  especially  mark- 
ed, can  be  traceable  to  nothing  else  than  an  apostle's  use 
of  that  phrase  in  the  same  meaning. 

II.  Jun-l^  XoHces  of  this  Christian  Observance. — Sup- 
posing, then,  that  //  Ki'pmKi)  'Hpi-pn  of  St.  John  is  the 
Lord's  day,  as  now  applied  to  the  first  day  of  the  mod- 
ern week,  we  have  to  inquire  here,  What  do  we  gather 
from  holy  Scripture  concerning  that  institution  ?  How 
is  it  s]i()ken  of  by  early  writers  up  to  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine?  What  change,  if  any,  was  brought  upon  it 
by  the  celebrated  edict  of  that  emperor,  whom  some 
have  declared  to  have  been  its  originator  V 

1.  Scripture  says  very  little  concerning  it,  but  that 
little  seems  to  indicate  that  tlie  divinely-inspired  apos- 
tles, by  tiieir  practice  and  by  their  precepts,  marked  the 
first  day  of  the  week  as  a  day  for  meeting  together  to 
break  bread,  for  communicating  and  receiving  instruc- 


tion, for  laying  up  offerings  in  store  for  charitable  pur- 
poses, for  occupation  in  holy  thought  and  prayer.  The 
first  day  of  the  week  so  devoted  seems  also  to  have  been 
tlie  day  of  the  Lord's  resurrection,  and  therefore  to  have 
been  especially  likely  to  be  chosen  for  such  purposes  by 
those  who  "  preached  Jesus  and  the  resurrection." 

The  Lord  rose  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (ry  fita 
aajijiuTiov),  and  appeared,  on  the  very  day  of  bis  rising, 
to  his  followers  on  five  distmct  occasions — to  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, to  the  other  women,  to  the  two  disciples  on  the 
road  to  Emmaus,  to  St.  Peter  separately,  to  ten  apostles 
collected  together.   After  eight  days  {jitd'  I'lfiipacj  oktw'), 
that  is,  according  to  the  ordinary  reckoning,  on  the  first 
day  of  the  next  week,  he  appeared  to  the  eleven  (John 
XX,  2G).    He  does  not  seem  to  have  appeared  in  the  in- 
terval— it  may  be  to  render  that  day  especially  notice- 
able by  the  apostles,  or  it  may  be  for  other  reasons. 
But,  however  this  question  be  settled,  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost, which  in  that  year  feU  on  the  first  day  of  the 
week  (see  Bramhall,  Disc,  of  the  Sabbath  and  Lord's 
Day,  in  Works,  v,  51,  Oxford  edition),  "they  were  all 
with  one  accord  in  one  place,"  had  spiritual  gifts  con- 
ferred on  them,  and  in  their  turn  began  to  communicate 
those  gifts,  as  accompaniments  of  instruction,  to  others. 
At  Troas  (Acts  xx,  7),  many  years  after  the  occurrence 
at  Pentecost,  when  Christianity  had  begun  to  assume 
something  like  a  settled  form,  St.  Luke  records  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances :  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  ar- 
rived there,  and  "  abode  seven  days,  and  upon  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  when  the  disciples  came  together  to 
break  bread,  Paul  preached  unto  them."    From  the  state- 
ment that  "  Paul  continued  his  speech  till  midnight,"  it 
has  been  inferred  by  some  that  the  assembly  commenced 
after  sunset  on  the  Sabbath,  at  which  hour  the  first  day 
of  the  week  had  commenced,  according  to  the  Jewish 
reckoning  ( Jahn's  Bibl.  A  niiq.  §  398),  which  would  hard- 
ly agree  with  the  idea  of  a  commemoration  of  the  res- 
urrection.    But  further,  the  words  of  this  passage,  'Ev 
Si  Ty  fiiif  Tiov  aajijidTOiv,  awriy^iivwv  tuiv  fia^rjriov 
roi}  KXaaai  dprov  ....  have  been  by  some  considered 
to  imply  that  such  a  weekly  observance  was  then  the 
established  custom ;  yet  it  is  obvious  that  the  mode  of 
expression  would  be  just  as  applicable  if  they  had  been 
in  the  practice  of  assembling  daily.    Still  the  whole  aim 
of  the  narrative  favors  the  reference  to  what  is  now 
known  as  Sunday.     In  1  Cor.  xvi,  1,2,  St.  Paul  -smtes 
thus :  "  Now  concerning  the  collection  for  the  saints,  as 
I  have  given  order  to  the  churches  in  Galatia,  even  so 
do  ye  :  Upon  the  first  day  of  the  week,  let  every  one  of 
you  lay  by  him  in  store,  as  God  hath  prospered  him, 
that  there  be  no  gatherings  when  I  come."    This  direc- 
tion, it  is  true,  is  not  connected  with  any  mention  of  pub- 
lic worship  or  assemblies  on  that  day.     But  this  has 
naturally  been  inferred;  and  the  regulation  has  been 
supposed  to  have  a  reference  to  the  tenets  of  the  Jewish 
converts,  who  considered  it  unlawful  to  touch  money  oa 
the  Sabbath  (Vitringa,  De  Synagof/d,  translat.  by  Ber- 
nard, p.  75-167).     In  consideration  for  them,  therefore, 
the  apostle  directs  the  collection  to  be  made  on  the  fol- 
lowing day,  on  which  secular  business  was  lawful ;  or, 
as  Cocceius  observes,  they  regarded  the  day  "non  ut 
festum,  sed  ut  tpyacriyuoi'"  (not  as  a  feast, but  as  a  work- 
ing day ;  Yitringa,  p.  77).     Again,  the  phrase  pia  tCjv 
aajilSdriov  is  generally  understood  to  be,  according  to 
the  Jewish  mode  of  naming  the  days  of  the  \vcek,  the 
common  expression  for  the  first  day.     Yet  it  has  been 
differently  construed  by  some,  who  render  it  "  upon  oTie 
of  the  days  of  the  week"  (I'lacfsfor  the  Times,  ii,  1,  16). 
In  Ileb.  X,  25,  the  correspondents  of  the  writer  are  de- 
sired "not  to  forsake  the  assembling  of  themselves  to- 
gether, as  the  manner  of  some  is,  but  to  exhort  one  an- 
other," an  injunction  which  seems  to  imply  that  a  reg- 
ular day  for  such  assembling  existed,  and  was  well 
known;  for  otherwise  no  rebuke  would  lie.     Lastly,  in 
the  passage  given  above,  St.  John  describes  himself  as 
being  in  the  Spirit "  on  the  Lord's  day." 
Taken  separately,  perhaps,  and  even  all  together,  these 


LORD'S  DAY 


507 


LORD'S  DAY 


passages  seem  scarcely  adequate  to  prove  that  the  dedi- 
cation of  the  first  day  of  the  week  to  the  purposes  above 
mentioned  was  a  matter  of  apostolic  institution,  or  even 
of  apostolic  practice.  But,  it  may  be  observed,  that  it 
is,  at  any  rate,  an  extraordinary  coincidence,  that  almost 
as  soon  as  we  emerge  from  Scripture  we  find  the  same 
day  mentioned  in  a  similar  manner,  and  directly  asso- 
ciated with  the  Lord's  resurrection ;  and  it  is  an  ex- 
traordinar}'  fact  that  we  never  find  its  dedication  ques- 
tioned or  argued  about,  but  accepted  as  something  equal- 
ly apostolic  with  confirmation,  with  inj'unt  baptism,  with 
ordination,  or  at  least  spoken  of  in  the  same  way.  As 
to  direct  support  from  holy  Scripture,  it  is  noticeable 
that  those  other  ordinances  which  are  usually  consider- 
ed scriptural,  and  in  support  of  which  Scripture  is  usu- 
ally cited,  are  dependent,  so  far  as  mere  quotation  is 
concerned,  upon  fewer  texts  than  the  Lord's  day  is. 
Stating  the  case  at  the  very  lowest,  the  Lord's  day  has 
at  least  "  probable  insinuations  in  Scripture"  (Bp.  San- 
derson), and  so  is  superior  to  any  other  holy  day,  wheth- 
er of  hebdomadal  celebration,  as  Friday  in  memory  of 
the  crucifixion,  or  of  annual  celebration,  as  Easter  day 
in  memory  of  the  resurrection  itself.  These  other  days 
may  be,  and  are,  defensible  on  other  grounds,  but  they 
do  not  possess  anything  like  a  scriptural  authority  for 
their  observance.  If  we  are  inclined  still  to  press  for 
more  pertinent  scriptural  proof,  and  more  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  institution,  for  such  we  suppose  it  to  be,  in 
the  writings  of  the  apostles,  we  must  recollect  how  little 
is  said  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  how  vast 
a  difference  is  naturally  to  be  expected  to  exist  between 
a  sketch  of  the  manners  and  habits  of  their  age,  which 
the  authors  of  the  holy  Scriptures  did  not  write,  and 
hints  as  to  life  and  conduct,  and  regulation  of  known 
practices,  which  they  did  write. 

2.  On  quitting  the  canonical  writings  we  turn  natu- 
rally to  Clement  of  Rome.  He  does  not,  however,  di- 
rectly mention  "  the  Lord's  day,"  but  in  1  Cor.  i,  40,  he 
says,  TTavTa  rain  Tzoitiv  rxptiXojxtv,  and  he  speaks  of 
wpia/ievoi  Kciipol  Kai  iopai,  at  which  the  Christian  Tj-poa- 
^opal  Kal  XiiTovpyiai  should  be  made. 

Ignatius,  the  disciple  of  St.  John  (ad.  Magn.  c.  9), 
contrasts  Judaism  and  Christianit}',  and,  as  an  exempli- 
fication of  the  contrast,  opposes  aajijiaTii,iiv  to  living 
according  to  the  Lord's  life  (jcara  rijv  Ji.vptaK7)v  i^w)]v 

The  epistle  ascribed  to  St.  Barnabas,  which,  though 
certainly  not  written  by  that  apostle,  was  in  existence 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  2d  century,  has  (c.  15)  the  fol- 
lowing words:  "We  celebrate  the  eighth  day  with  joy, 
on  which,  too,  Jesus  rose  from  the  dead." 

A  pagan  document  now  conies  into  view.  It  is  the 
well-known  letter  of  Pliny  to  Trajan,  written  (about  A. 
D.  100)  while  he  presided  over  Pontus  and  Bithynia. 
"The  Christians  (sa^-s  he)  affirm  the  whole  of  their 
guilt  or  error  to  be  that  they  were  accustomed  to  meet 
together  on  a  stated  day  {stctto  die),  before  it  was  light, 
and  to  sing  hymns  to  Christ  as  a  g(xl,  and  to  bind  them- 
selves by  a  sacrameniunu  not  for  any  wicked  purpose, 
but  never  to  commit  fraud,  thelt.  or  adultery;  never  to 
break  their  word,  or  to  refuse,  when  called  upon,  to  de- 
liver up  any  trust;  after  which  it  was  their  custom  to 
separate,  and  to  assemble  again  to  take  a  meal,  but  a 
general  one,  and  without  guiltj-  purpose"  (h'pisf.  x,  97). 

A  thoroughly  Christian  authority,  Justin  Martyr, 
who  flourished  A.D.  140,  stands  next  on  the  list.  He 
writes  thus:  "On  the  day  called  Sunday  (ri)  rov  j'/A/oi; 
Xtyo/ih'j/  I'ljispq)  is  an  assembly  of  all  who  live  either 
in  the  cities  or  in  the  rural  districts,  and  the  memoirs 
of  the  apostles  and  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
read."  Then  he  goes  on  to  describe  the  particulars  of 
the  religious  acts  which  are  entered  upon  at  this  assem- 
bly. They  consist  of  prayer,  of  the  celebration  of  the 
holy  Eucharist,  and  of  collection  of  alms.  He  after- 
wards assigns  the  reasons  which  Christians  had  for 
meeting  on  Sunday.  These  are,  "because  it  is  the 
First  Day,  on  which  God  dispelled  the  darkness  (jb 


gkotoq)  and  the  original  state  of  things  {ri]v  I'Xjji'),  and 
formed  the  world,  and  because  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour 
rose  from  the  dead  upon  it"  {Apol.  i,  67),  In  another 
work  {Dial.  c.  Tryj)h.)  he  makes  circumcision  furnish  a 
type  of  Sunday.  "  The  command  to  circumcise  infants 
on  the  eighth  day  was  a  type  of  the  true  circumcision 
by  which  we  are  circumcised  from  error  and  wickedness 
through  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  rose  from  the  dead 
on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (jy  iii(i  caftjiaTitiv) ;  there- 
fore it  remains  the  chief  and  first  of  days."  As  for 
aajSlSaTiCeiv,  he  uses  that  with  exclusive  reference  to 
the  Jewish  law.  He  carefidly  distinguishes  Saturday 
(>)  Kpoi'iKt'i),  the  day  after  which  our  Lord  was  cruci- 
fied, from  Sunday  (//  furd  r})v  KpoviKi]v  i'jriQ  iariv  i) 
Toij  'UXiov  iin'ipa),  upon  which  he  rose  from  the  dead. 
If  any  surprise  is  felt  at  Justin's  employment  of  the 
heathen  designations  for  the  seventh  and  first  days  of 
the  week,  it  may  be  accounted  for  thus.  Before  the 
death  of  Hadrian,  A.D.  138,  the  hebdomadal  division 
(which  Dion  Cassius,  writing  in  the  3d  century,  derives, 
together  with  its  nomenclature,  from  Egypt)  had,  in 
matters  of  common  life,  almost  universally  superseded 
in  Greece,  and  even  in  Italy,  the  national  divisions  of 
the  lunar  month.  Justin  Martyr,  writing  to  and  for 
heathen,  as  well  as  to  and  for  Jews,  employs  it,  there- 
fore, with  a  certainty  of  being  understood. 

The  strange  heretic,  Bardesanes,  who,  however,  de- 
lighted to  consider  himself  a  sort  of  Christian,  has  the 
following  words  in  his  book  on  "  Fate,"  or  on  "  the  Laws 
of  the  Countries,"  which  ho  addressed  to  the  emperor 
M.  Aurelius  Antoninus:  "What,  then,  shall  we  say  re- 
specting the  new  race  of  ourselves  who  are  Christians, 
whom  in  every  country  and  in  everj'  region  the  Messiah 
established  at  his  coming ;  for,  lo !  wherever  we  be,  all 
of  us  are  called  by  the  one  name  of  the  Messiah,  Chris- 
tians; and  upon  one  day,  which  is  the  first  of  the  week, 
we  assemble  ourselves  together,  and  on  the  appointed 
days  we  abstain  from  food"  (Cureton's  Translation). 

Two  A'ery  short  notices  stand  next  on  our  list,  but 
they  are  important  from  their  casual  and  unstudied 
character.  Dionysius,  Liskop  of  Corinth,  A.D.  170,  in  a 
letter  to  the  Church  of  Kome,  a  fragment  of  which  is 
preserved  by  Eusebius  {Eccles.  Hist,  iv,  23),  says,  t>iV 
(Tijfiepov  ovv  KvpiaK)]v  ayiav  I'jfiipav  Su]yayofiiv,  iv 
7J  dviyviojuv  v^iwv  ti)i'  'fwiaroXiiv.  And  Melito,  bish- 
op of  Sardis,  his  contemporary,  is  stated  to  have  com- 
posed, among  other  works,  a  treatise  on  the  Lord's  day 
(o  TTipl  rijg  KvpiaKijc  XoyoQ), 

The  next  writer  who  may  be  quoted  is  Irenaeus,  bish- 
op of  Lyons,  A.D.  178.  He  asserts  that  the  Sabbath  is 
abolished ;  but  his  evidence  to  the  existence  of  the 
Lord's  day  is  clear  and  distinct  (De  Orat.  23 ;  De  Idol. 
14).  It  is  spoken  of  in  one  of  the  best-known  of  his 
Fragments  (see  Beaven's  Irenmus,  p.  202).  But  a  rec- 
ord in  Eusebius  (v,  23,  2)  of  the  part  which  he  t£)ok  in 
the  Quarta-Deciman  controversy'  shows  that  in  his  time 
it  was  an  institution  beyond  dispute.  The  point  in 
question  was  this :  Should  Easter  be  celebrated  in  con- 
nection with  the  .Jewish  Passover,  on  whatever  day  of 
the  week  that  might  happen  to  fall,  with  the  church- 
es of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  or  on  the 
Lord's  day,  with  the  rest  of  the  Christian  world?  The 
churches  of  Gaul,  then  under  the  superintendence  of 
Irenipus,  agreed  upon  a  synodical  epistle  to  Victor,  bish- 
op of  Rome,  in  which  occurred  words  somewhat  to  this 
effect :  "  The  mystery  of  the  Lord's  resurrection  may 
not  be  celebrated  on  any  other  day  than  the  Lord's  day, 
and  on  this  alone  should  we  observe  the  breaking  off  of 
the  paschal  fast,"  This  confirms  what  was  said  above, 
that  while,  even  towards  the  end  of  the  2d  century,  tra- 
dition varied  as  to  the  yearly  celebration  of  Christ's  res- 
urrection, the  veekly  celebration  of  it  was  one  upon 
which  no  diversity  existed,  or  was  even  hinted  at. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  A.D.  194,  comes  next.  One 
does  not  expect  anything  very  definite  from  a  writer  of 
so  mystical  a  tendency,  but  he  has  some  things  quite  to 
our  purpose.     In  his  Utrom.  (iv,  3)  he  speaks  of  t-j/v  ap~ 


LORD'S  DAY 


508 


LORD'S  DAY 


Kctl  TrpwT>ii'  rip  ojTi  (ptiJTOQ  y'iviaiv,  K.  T.  \., words  which 
bishop  Kaye  interprets  as  contrasting  the  seventh  day 
of  the  Law  -with  the  eightli  day  of  the  (iospel.  As  the 
same  learned  prelate  observes, "  When  Clement  says  that 
the  (inostic,  or  transcendental  Christian,  does  not  pray 
in  any  fixed  place,  or  on  any  stated  days,  but  through- 
out his  whole  life,  he  gives  us  to  understand  that  Chris- 
tians in  general  did  meet  together  in  fixed  places  and 
at  appointed  times  for  prayer."  But  we  are  not  left  to 
mere  inference  on  this  important  point,  for  Clement 
speaks  of  the  Lord's  day  as  a  well-known  and  customary 
festival  {Strom,  vii),  and  in  one  place  gives  a  mystical 
interpretation  of  the  name  {Strom,  v). 

Tertullian,  whose  date  is  assignable  to  the  close  of 
the  'lA  century,  may,  in  spite  of  his  conversion  to  Mon- 
tanism,  be  quoted  as  a  witness  to  facts.  He  terms  the 
first  day  of  the  week  sometimes  Sunday  (Dies  Solis), 
sometimes  Dies  Dominicus.  He  speaks  of  it  as  a  day 
of  joy  ("Diem  Solis  loetitiae  indulgemus,"  Apol.  c.  16), 
and  asserts  that  it  is  wrong  to  fast  upon  it,  or  to  pray 
standing  during  its  continuance  ("Die  Dominico  jejuni- 
um  nefas  ducimus,  vel  de  geniculis  adorare,'" De  Cor. c. 3). 
Even  business  is  to  be  put  off,  lest  we  give  place  to  the 
devil  ("  Ditferentes  etiam  negotia,  ue  quem  Diabolo  lo- 
cum demus,"  De  Orat.  c.  13). 

Origen  contends  that  the  Lord's  day  had  its  superi- 
ority to  the  Sabbath  indicated  by  manna  having  been 
given  on  it  to  the  Israelites,  while  it  was  withheld  on 
the  Sabbath.  It  is  one  of  the  marks  of  the  perfect 
Christian  to  keep  the  Lord's  day. 

Minucius  Felix  (A.D.  210)  makes  the  heathen  inter- 
locutor, in  his  dialogue  called  Octavius,  assert  that  the 
Christians  come  together  to  a  repast  "  on  a  solemn  day" 
(solenni  die). 

Cyprian  and  his  colleagues,  in  a  sjmodical  letter  (A.D. 
253),  make  the  Jewish  circumcision  on  the  eighth  day 
prefigure  the  newness  of  life  of  the  Christian,  to  which 
Christ's  resurrection  introduces  him,  and  point  to  the 
Lord's  day,  which  is  at  once  the  eighth  and  the  first. 

Commodian  (circ.  A.D.  290)  mentions  the  Lord's  day. 

Yictorinus  (A.D.  290)  contrasts  it,  in  a  very  remark- 
able passage,  with  the  Parasceve  and  the  Sabbath. 

Lastly,  Peter,  bishop  of  Alexandria  (A.D.  300),  says 
of  it, "  \\'e  keep  the  Lord's  day  as  a  day  of  joy,  because 
of  him  who  rose  thereon.'' 

The  results  of  our  examination  of  the  principal  writ- 
ers of  the  two  centuries  after  the  death  of  St.  John  may 
be  thus  summed  up.  The  Lord's  day  (a  name  which 
has  now  come  out  more  prominently,  and  is  connected 
more  explicitly  with  our  Lord's  resurrection  than  be- 
fore) existed  during  these  two  centuries  as  a  part  and 
parcel  of  apostolical,  and  so  of  scriptural  Christianity. 
It  was  never  defended,  for  it  was  never  impugned,  or,  at 
least,  only  impugned  as  other  things  received  from  the 
apastles  were.  It  was  never  confounded  with  the  Sab- 
bath, but  carefully  distinguished  from  it  (though  we 
have  not  (juoted  nearly  all  the  passages  by  which  this 
point  might  be  proved).  It  was  not  an  institution  of 
severe  sabbatical  character,  but  a  day  of  joy  {xapfto- 
avvij)  and  cheerfulness  (£i''0po(T(')r>;), rather  encouraging 
than  forbidding  relaxation.  Rehgiously  regarded,  it 
was  a  day  of  solemn  meeting  for  the  holy  Eucharist, 
for  united  prayer,  for  instruction,  for  almsgiving;  and 
though,  being  an  institution  under  the  law  of  liberty, 
work  does  not  appear  to  have  been  formally  interdicted, 
or  rest  formally  enjoined,  Tertullian  seems  to  indicate 
that  the  character  of  the  day  was  oi)posed  to  worldly 
business.  I'inally,  whatever  analogy  may  be  supposed 
to  exist  between  the  Lord's  day  and  the  Sabbath,  in  no 
[lassage  that  has  come  down  to  us  is  the  fourth  com- 
mandment appealed  to  as  the  ground  of  the  obligation 
to  observe  the  Lord's  day.  Ecclesiastical  writers  reiter- 
ate again  and  again,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  words, 
"  Let  no  man,  therefore,  judge  you  in  respect  of  an  holi- 
day, or  of  the  new  moon,  or  of  the  Sabbath  days"  (Col. 
ii,  16).    Nor,  again,  is  it  referred  to  any  sabbatical  foun- 


dation anterior  to  the  promulgation  of  the  IMosaic  econ- 
omy. On  the  contrary,  those  before  the  Jlosaic  sera  are 
constantly  assumed  to  have  had  neither  knowledge  nor 
observance  of  the  Sabbath.  As  little  is  it  anywhere  as- 
serted that  the  Lord's  day  is  merely  an  ecclesiastical  in- 
stitution, dependent  on  the  post-apostolic  Church  for  its 
origin,  and  by  consequence  capable  of  being  done  away, 
should  a  time  ever  arrive  when  it  appears  to  be  no  lon- 
ger needed. 

If  these  facts  be  allowed  to  speak  for  themselves,  they 
indicate  that  the  Lord's  day  is  a  purely  Christian  insti- 
tution, sanctioned  by  apostolic  practice,  mentioned  in 
apostolic  writings,  and  so  possessed  of  whatever  divine 
authority  all  apostolic  ordmances  and  doctrines  (which 
were  not  obviously  temporary,  or  were  not  abrogated  by 
the  apostles  themselves)  can  be  supposed  to  possess. 

3.  But,  on  whatever  grounds  "  the  Lord's  day"  may  be 
supposed  to  rest,  it  is  a  great  and  indisputable  fact  that 
four  years  before  the  CEcumenical  Council  of  Nictea,  it 
was  recognised  by  Constantine,  in  his  celebrated  edict, 
as  "  the  venerable  Day  of  the  Sun."  The  terms  of  the 
document  are  these : 

" Imperator  Constantimis  Avg.Eclpidio. 

"Omnesjndioes  urbanieque  plebes  et  cunctarnm  artinm 
offlcia  veuerabili  Die  Solis  quiescaut.  Ruri  tameu  positl 
agroruni  cuUnra;  liber6  licenlerque  inserviaut,  quoniatn 
frequenter  evenit  ut  non  aptius  alio  die  frumeuta  sulcis 
aut  vinefe  scrobibus  mandeutnr,  ne  occasione  momenti 
pereat  commoditas  coelesti  provisione  concessa." — Bat. 
A'on.  Mart.  Crispo  II  et  Constantino  II  Coss. 

Some  have  endeavored  to  explain  away  this  docu- 
ment by  alleging,  1st.  That "  Solis  Dies"  is  not  the  Chris- 
tian name  of  the  Lord's  day,  and  that  Constantine  did 
not  therefore  intend  to  acknowledge  it  as  a  Christian 
institution.  2d.  That,  before  his  conversion,  Constan- 
tine had  professed  himself  to  be  especially  under  the 
guardianship  of  the  sun,  and  tliat,  at  the  very  best,  he 
intended  to  make  a  religious  compromise  between  sun- 
worshippers,  properly  so  called,  and  the  worshippers  of 
the  "Sun  of  Righteousness,"  i.  e.  Christians.  ScUy.  That 
Constantine's  edict  was  purely  a  calendarial  one,  and 
intended  to  reduce  the  number  of  public  holidays,  "Dies 
Nefasti"  or  "Feriati,"  which  had,  so  long  ago  as  the 
date  of  the  "  Actiones  Verrinse,"  become  a  serious  im- 
pediment to  the  transaction  of  business;  and  that  this 
was  to  be  effected  by  choosing  a  day  which,  while  it 
would  be  accepted  by  the  paganism  then  in  fashion, 
would,  of  course,  be  agreeable  to  the  Christians.  4tlily. 
That  Constantine  then  instituted  Sunday  for  the  first 
time  as  a  religious  day  for  Christians.  The  fourth  of 
these  statements  is  absolutely  refuted,  both  by  the  quo- 
tations made  above  from  Avriters  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
turies, and  by  the  terms  of  the  edict  itself.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  Constantine,  accepting  as  facts  the  existence 
of  the  "  Solis  Dies,"  and  the  reverence  paid  to  it  by  some 
one  or  other,  docs  nothing  more  than  make  that  rever- 
ence practically  universal.  It  is  "  venerabilis"  already. 
It  is  probable  that  this  most  natural  interpretation 
would  never  have  been  disturbed  had  not  Sozomen  as- 
serted, without  warrant  from  either  the  Justinian  or  the 
Theodosian  Code,  that  Constantine  did  for  the  sixth  day 
of  the  week  what  the  codes  assert  that  he  did  for  the 
first  {Eccles.  Hist.  i,8 ;  comp.  Eusebius,  17/.  Const,  iv,  18). 
The  three  other  statements  concern  themselves  rather 
with  -what  Constantine  meant  than  with  what  he  did. 
But  with  such  considerations  we  have  little  or  nothing 
to  do.  He  may  have  purposely  selected  an  ambiguous 
appellation.  He  may  have  been  only  half  a  Christian, 
wavering  between  allegiance  to  Christ  and  allegiance  to 
Mithras.  He  may  have  affected  a  religious  syncretism. 
He  ma)'  have  wished  his  people  to  adopt  such  syncre- 
tism. He  may  have  feared  to  offend  the  pagans.  He 
may  have  hesitated  to  avow  too  openly  his  inward  lean- 
ings to  Christianity.  He  may  have  considered  that 
community  of  religious  days  might  lead  by-and-by  to 
community  of  religious  thought  and  feeling.  He  may 
have  had  in  view  the  rectification  of  the  calendar.  But 
all  this  is  nothing  to  the  purpose.     It  is  a  fact,  that  in 


LORD'S  PRAYER 


509 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


the  year  A.D.  321,  in  a  public  edict,  which  was  to  apply 
to  Christians  as  well  as  to  pagans,  he  put  especial  honor 
upon  a  clay  already  honored  by  the  former — judiciously 
calling  it  by  a  name  which  Christians  had  long  employ- 
ed without  scruple,  and  to  which,  as  it  was  in  ordinary 
use,  the  pagans  could  scarcely  object.  What  he  did  for 
it  was  to  insist  that  worldly  business,  whether  by  the 
functionaries  of  the  law  or  by  private  citizens,  should 
be  intermitted  during  its  continuance.  An  exception, 
indeed,  was  made  in  favor  of  the  rural  districts,  avow- 
edly from  the  necessity  of  the  case,  covertly,  perhaps,  to 
prevent  those  districts  where  paganism  (as  the  word 
pagus  would  intimate)  stUl  prevailed  extensively  from 
feeling  aggrieved  by  a  sudden  and  stringent  change.  It 
need  only  be  added  here  that  tlie  readiness  with  which 
Christians  acquiesced  in  the  interdiction  of  business  on 
the  Lord's  day  affords  no  small  presumption  that  they 
had  long  considered  it  to  be  a  day  of  rest,  and  that,  so 
far  as  circumstances  admitted,  they  had  made  it  so  long 
before. 

AV'ere  any  other  testimony  wanting  to  the  existence 
of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  Christian  worship  at  this  period, 
it  might  be  supplied  by  the  Council  of  Nicxa,  A.D.  325. 
The  fathers  there  and  then  assembled  make  no  doubt 
of  the  obligation  of  that  day — do  not  ordain  it — do  not 
defend  it.  They  assume  it  as  an  existing  fact,  and  only 
notice  it  incidentally  in  order  to  regulate  an  indifferent 
matter — the  posture  of  Christian  -worshippers  upon  it 
{Cone.  Nic.  canon  20). 

Chrysostom  (A.D.  3G0)  concludes  one  of  his  Homilies 
by  dismissing  his  audience  to  their  respective  ordinary 
occupations.  The  Council  of  Laodicea  (A.D.  364),  how- 
ever, cnjdined  Christians  to  rest  (cr;y;o\«4fij')  on  the 
Lf)rd's  day.  To  the  same  effect  is  an  injunction  in  the 
forgery  called  the  Ajiosiolical  Constitutions  (vii,24:),  and 
varidus  other  enactments  from  A.D.  GOO  to  A.D.  1100, 
tliougli  by  no  means  extending  to  the  prohibition  of  aU 
secular  business. 

See  Pearson,  ()m  the  Creed,  ii,  341,  edit.  Oxf. ;  Jortin, 
Remarks  on  Eccles.  Hist,  iii,  230 ;  Baxter,  On  the  Divine 
Appoiiitment  of  the  Lord's  Day,  p.  41,  ed.  1071 ;  Hessey, 
Bumpton  Lecture  for  1860;  Giltillan,  YVie  Sabbath,  p.  8. 
See  Si'xnAY. 

Lord's  Prayer,  the  common  title  of  the  only  form 
given  by  Jesus  Christ  to  his  disciples.  Jlatthew  inserts 
it  as  part  of  the  Sermon  on  the  INIount  (JMatt.  vi,  9-13) ; 
nor  is  it  inappropriate  to  the  connection  there,  for  the 
general  topic  of  that  part  of  the  discourse  is  prayer. 
Luke,  however,  explicitly  assigns  the  occasion  for  its 
delivery  as  being  at  the  request  of  the  disciples  (Luke 
xi,  2-4) ;  and  we  cannot  reasonably  suppose  either  that 
they  liad  forgotten  it,  if  previously  given  them,  or  that 
our  Lonl  would  not  have  referred  to  it  as  already  pre- 
scribed. The  following  analysis  exhibits  its  compre- 
hensive structure : 


Grada- 

LOGUE. 

Body  of  the  Pkaver. 

[Epilogue. 

A  ddnss. 

Homaye. 

Petitimu. 

Doxohjgij. 

Illation,  \ 

Fa- 
ther 

of 

who  art 
in  heaven, 

Hallowed  be 
thy  name  ! 

Thy  kingdom 

Thy  will  be  done 

on  earth,  as  it  is 

in  heaven ! 

Give  ua  this 
day  our  needful 

bread ; 
and  forgive  ns 
our  debts,  as  we 
forgive  our  debt- 

nnd  lead  us  not 

into  temptation, 

but  deliver  us 

from  evil : 

for  thine  - 

is  the 
kingdom, 

and  the 
power, 

and  the 
Slofy, 

■iz. 

Attestation.— Amen.] 

The  closing  doxology  is  omitted  by  Luke,  and  is  proba- 
bly spurious  in  Matthew,  as  it  is  not  found  there  in  any 
of  the  early  MSS.  The  prayer  is  doubtless  based  upon 
expressions  and  sentiments  already  familiar  to  the  Jews ; 
indeed,  parallel  phrases  to  nearly  all  its  contents  have 
been  discovered  in  the  Talmud  (see  Schottgcn  and 
Lightfoot,  s.  v.).  This,  however,  does  not  detract  from 
its  beauty  or  originality  as  a  whole.  The  earliest  ref- 
erence found  to  it,  as  a  liturgical  formula  in  actual  use, 
is  in  the  so-called  Ajiostolical  Constitutions  (q.  v.),  which 


give  the  form  entire,  and  enjoin  its  stated  use  (vii,  44), 
but  solely  by  baptized  persons,  a  rule  which  was  after- 
wards strictly  observed.  The  Christian  fathers,  espe- 
cially Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Origen,  are  loud  in  its 
praise,  and  several  of  them  wrote  special  expositions  or 
treatises  upon  it.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  is  the  first  writer 
who  expressly  mentions  the  use  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  at 
the  administration  of  the  holy  Eucharist  (Catech.  Myst. 
v).  St.  Augustine  has  also  alluded  to  its  use  on  this 
solemn  occasion  {Horn.  Ixxxiii).  The  Ordo  liomanus 
prefixes  a  preface  to  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  date  of  which 
is  imcertain.  It  contains  a  brief  exposition  of  the  prayer. 
All  the  Roman  breviaries  insist  upon  beginning  divine 
service  with  the  Lord's  Prayer;  but  it  has  been  satisfac- 
torily proved  that  this  custom  Avas  introduced  as  late  as 
the  13th  century  by  the  Cistercian  monks,  and  that  it 
passed  from  the  monastery  to  the  Church.  The  ancient 
homiletical  writings  do  not  afford  any  trace  of  the  use 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer  before  sermons  (see  Kiddle,  Man- 
ual of  Christian  Antiquities).  Its  absurd  repetition  as 
a  Pater  Nosier  (q.  v.)  by  the  Eomanists  has  perhaps  led 
to  an  undue  avoidance  of  it  by  some  Protestants.  In  all 
liturgies  (q.  v.)  of  course  it  occupies  a  prominent  place, 
and  it  is  usual  in  many  denominations  to  recite  it  in 
public  services  and  elsewhere.  That  it  was  not  de- 
signed, however,  as  a  formula  of  Christian  prayer  in 
general  is  evident  from  two  facts :  1.  It  contains  no  al- 
lusion to  the  atonement  of  Christ,  nor  to  the  offices  of 
the  Holy  Spirit;  2.  It  was  never  so  used  or  cited  by  the 
apostles  themselves,  so  far  as  the  evidence  of  Holy  Writ 
goes,  although  Jerome  (.4  dr.  Pelag.  iii,  3)  and  Gregory 
(^Epji.  vii,  Ixiii)  affirm  that  it  was  used  by  apostolical 
example  in  the  consecration  of  the  Eucharist.  The  lit- 
erature of  the  subject  is  very  copious  (see  the  Christ.  Re- 
membrancer,  Jan.  1862).  Early  monographs  are  cited  by 
Volbeding,  Index  Progi-ammatum,  p.  33  sq.,  131.  Among 
special  recent  comments  on  it  we  may  mention  those  of 
Bocker  (Lond.  1835),  Anderson  (ibid.' 1840),  Manton  (ib. 
1841),  Rowsell  (ibid.  1841),  Duncan  (ibid.  1845),  Kenna- 
way  (ibid.  1845),  Prichard  (ibid.  1855),  Edwards  (ibid. 
1860),  and  Denton  (ib.  1864 ;  N.  Y,  1865).  See  Pkayer. 
Lord's  Supper,  the  common  English  name  of  an 
ordinance  instituted  by  our  Saviour  m  commemoration 
of  his  death  and  sufferings,  being  one  of  the  two  sacra- 
ments universally  observed  by  the  Christian  Church. 

I.  Name. — It  is  called  '•  the  Lord's  Supper"  (KvpiaKuv 
Sel-Tn'ov)  in  1  Cor.  xi,  20  because  it  was  instituted  at 
supper-time.  Synonymous  with  this  is  the  phrase  "  the 
Lord's  table"  (rpaini^a  Kvpiov,  1  Cor.  x,  21),  where  we 
also  find  the  name  "the  cup  of  the  Lord"  (TroTtjpiov  Kv- 
piov).  Many  new  terms  for  it  were  early  introduced  in 
the  Church,  among  which  the  principal  are  Communion 
{Koivojvia,  a  festival  in  common),  a  term  borrowed  from 
1  Cor.  X,  16,  and  Eucharist  {Evxaptcria  and  tvXoyia), 
"  a  giving  of  thanks,"  because  of  the  hymns  and  psalms 
which  accompanied  it.  Among  the  many  other  Greek 
and  Latin  names  applied  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  for 
which  we  have  no  exact  equivalent,  we  mention  SiVn^- 
(C,  "  a  collection"  (for  celebrating  the  Lord's  Supper), 
AftTovpyia  (Liturgy,  q.  v.),  Mvariipiov  (Sacrament,  q. 
v.),  3Iissa  (Mass,  q.  v.),  etc.     See  Eucharist. 

II.  Biblical  Notices. — 1.  Original  Accounts. — The  in- 
stitution of  this  sacrament  is  recorded  by  Matthew 
(xxvi,  26-29),  Mark  (xiv,  22-25),  Luke  (x'xii,  19  sq.), 
and  by  the  apostle  Paul  (1  Cor.  xi,  24-26),  whose  words 
differ  very  little  from  those  of  his  companion,  Luke ; 
and  the  only  difference  between  Matthew  and  JMark 
is,  that  the  latter  omits  the  words  "  for  the  remission 
of  sins."  There  is  so  general  an  agreement  among 
them  all  that  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  recite  the 
words  of  one  of  them  :  "  Now,  when  the  even  was  come, 
he  sat  down  with  the  twelve"  to  eat  the  Passover  which 
had  been  prepared  by  his  direction,  "  and  as  they  wer^ 
eating,  Jesus  took  bread,  and  blessed  it,  and  brake  it,  and 
gave  it  to  the  disciples,  and  said.  Take,  eat;  this  is  my 
body.  And  he  took  the  cup,  and  gave  thanks,  and  gave 
it  to  them,  saying,  Drink  ye  all  of  it,  for  this  is  my 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


510 


LORD'S  SLTPER 


blood  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  shed  for  many 
for  the  remission  of  sins"  (Matt,  xxvi,  20,  26-28).  Its 
institution  "in  remembrance''  of  Christ  is  recorded  only  by 
Luke  and  Paul.  John  does  not  mention  the  institution 
at  all,  bat  the  discourse  of  Jesus  in  chap,  vi,  51-59  is  re- 
ferred by  many  interpreters  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  Paul 
warns  the  Corinthians  (1  Cor.  x,  16-21)  that  they  can- 
not partake  of  the  Lord's  table  and  at  the  same  time  eat 
of  the  pagan  sacrilices,  because  (verse  19)  "  the  things 
which  the  Gentiles  sacrifice  they  sacrifice  to  devils,  and 
not  to  God;"  and  in  another  part  of  his  first  epistle  (xi, 
27-29),  that  "  whosoever  shall  eat  this  bread  and  drink 
this  cup  of  the  Lord  unworthily,  shall  be  guilty  of  the 
budy  and  blood  of  the  Lord;  but  let  a  man  examine 
himself,  and  so  let  him  eat  of  that  bread  and  drink  of 
that  cup ;  for  he  that  eateth  and  drinketh  unworthily 
eateth  and  drinketh  damnation  to  himself,  ,not  discern- 
ing the  Lord's  body."  Other  passages  of  the  New  Test, 
are  referred  by  many  exegetical  writers  to  the  Lord's 
Supper,  but  they  establish  no  new  point  concerning  the 
Biblical  doctrine.  They  will  be  examined,  however,  in 
detail  in  this  connection  (using  for  this  purpose  chiefly 
the  summary  given  in  Smith's  Did.  of  the  Bible,  s.  v.). 

2.  Paschal  Analogies. — This  is  an  important  inquiry 
in  the  discussion  of  the  history  of  that  night  when  Je- 
sus and  his  disciples  met  together  to  eat  the  Passover 
(Matt,  xxvi,  19;  Mark  xiv,''l6;  Luke  xxii,  13).  The 
manner  in  which  the  paschal  feast  was  kept  by  the  Jews 
of  that  period  differed  in  many  details  from  that  origin- 
ally prescribed  by  the  rules  of  Exod.  xii.  The  multi- 
tudes that  came  up  to  Jerusalem  met,  as  they  could  find 
accommodation,  family  by  family,  or  in  groups  of  friends, 
with  one  of  their  number  as  the  celebrant,  or  "  proclaim- 
er"  of  the  feast.  The  ceremonies  of  the  feast  took  place 
in  the  following  order  (Lightfoot,  Temple  Service,  xiii ; 
jVIeyer,  Comm.  in  Matt,  xxvi,  26).  (1.)  The  members 
of  the  company  that  were  joined  for  this  purpose  met  in 
the  evening  and  reclined  on  couches,  this  position  being 
then  as  much  a  matter  of  rule  as  standing  had  been  orig- 
inally (comp.  Matt,  xxvi,  20,  avsKtiTo;  Luke  xxii,  14; 
and  John  xiii,  23,  25).  The  head  of  the  household,  or 
celebrant,  began  by  a  form  of  blessing  "  for  the  day  and 
for  the  wine,"  pronounced  over  a  cup,  of  which  he  and 
the  others  then  drank.  The  wine  was,  according  to 
rabbinic  traditions,  to  be  mixed  with  water;  not  for  any 
mvsterious  reason,  but  because  that  was  regarded  as  the 
best  way  of  using  the  best  wine  (comp.  2  Slacc.  xv,  39). 
(2.)  All  who  were  present  then  washed  their  hands;  this 
also  having  a  special  benediction.  (3.)  The  table  was 
then  set  out  with  the  paschal  lamb,  unleavened  bread, 
bitter  herbs,  and  the  dish  known  as  Charoseth  (rOnri), 
a  sauce  made  of  dates,  figs,  raisins,  and  vinegar,  and  de- 
signed to  commemorate  the  mortar  of  their  bondage  in 
Egypt  (Buxtorf,  Lex.  Chald.  col.  831).  (4.)  The  cele- 
brant first,  and  then  the  others,  dipped  a  portion  of  the 
bitter  herbs  into  the  Charoseth  and  ate  them.  (5.)  The 
dishes  were  then  removed,  and  a  cup  of  wine  again 
brought.  Then  followed  an  interval  which  was  allowed 
theoretically  for  the  questions  that  might  be  asked  by 
children  or  proselytes,  who  were  astonished  at  such  a 
strange  beginning  of  a  feast,  and  the  cup  was  passed 
round  and  drunk  at  the  close  of  it.  (6.)  The  dishes  be- 
ing brought  on  again,  the  celebrant  repeated  the  com- 
imunorative  words  which  opened  what  was  strictly  the 
paschal  supper,  and  pronounced  a  solemn  thanksgiving, 
followed  liy  Psa.  cxiii  and  cxiv.  (7.)  Then  came  a  sec- 
ond washing  of  the  hands,  with  a  short  form  of  Itlessing 
as  before,  and  the  celebrant  Ijroke  one  of  the  two  loaves 
or  cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  and  gave  thanks  over  it. 
All  then  took  portions  of  the  bread  and  dipped  them, 
together  with  the  bitter  herbs,  into  the  Charoseth,  and 
m>  ate  them.  (8.)  After  this  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the 
paschal  lamb,  with  bread,  etc.,  as  thej'  liked;  and,  after 
another  blessing,  a  third  cup,  known  especially  as  the 
"cup  of  blessing."  was  handed  round.  (9.)  This  was 
succeeded  by  a  fourth  cup,  and  the  recital  of  Psa.  cxv- 


cxviii,  followed  by  a  prayer,  and  this  was  accordingly 
known  as  the  cup  of  the  HaUel,  or  of  the  Song.  (10.) 
There  might  be,  in  conclusion,  a  fifth  cup,  provided  that 
the  "great  Hallel"  (possibly  Psa.  cxx-cxxxvii)  was 
sung  over  it.     See  Passover. 

Comparing  the  ritual  thus  gathered  from  rabbinic 
writers  with  the  N.  T.,  and  assuming  («)  that  it  repre- 
sents substantially  the  common  practice  of  our  Lord's 
time,  and  (b)  that  the  meal  of  which  he  and  his  disci- 
ples partook  was  really  the  Passover  itself,  conducted 
according  to  the  same  rules,  we  are  able  to  point,  though 
not  with  absolute  certainty,  to  the  points  of  departure 
which  the  old  practice  presented  for  the  institution  of 
the  new.  To  (1.)  or  (3.),  or  even  to  (8.),  we  may  refer 
the  first  words  and  the  first  distribution  of  the  cup  (Luke 
xxii,  17, 18) ;  to  (2.)  or  (7.),  the  dippuig  of  the  sop  (»//a>- 
fiiov)  of  John  xiii,  26;  to  (7.),  or  to  an  interval  during 
or  after  (8.),  the  distribution  of  the  bread  (Matt,  xxvi, 
26 ;  Mark  xiv,  22  ;  Luke  xxii,  19;  1  Cor.  xi,  23,  24)  ;  to 
(9.)  or  (10.)  ("  after  supper,"  Luke  xxii,  20),  the  thanks- 
giving, and  distribution  of  the  cup,  and  the  hymn  with 
which  the  whole  was  ended.  It  will  be  noticed  that, 
according  to  this  order  of  succession,  the  question 
whether  Jadas  partook  of  what,  in  the  language  of  a 
later  age,  would  be  called  the  consecrated  elements,  is 
most  probably  to  be  answered  in  the  negative. 

The  narratives  of  the  Gospels  show  how  strongly  the 
disciples  were  impressed  with  the  words  which  had  giv- 
en a  new  meaning  to  the  old  familiar  acts.  They  leave 
unnoticed  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  Passover,  except 
those  which  had  thus  been  transferred  to  the  Christian 
Church  and  perpetuated  in  it.  Old  things  were  passing 
away,  and  all  things  becoming  new.  They  had  looked 
on  the  bread  and  the  wine  as  memorials  of  the  deliver- 
ance from  Egypt.  They  were  now  told  to  partake  of 
them  "  in  remembrance"  of  their  Master  and  Lord.  The 
festival  had  been  annual.  No  rule  was  given  as  to  the 
time  and  frequency  of  the  new  feast  that  thus  super- 
vened on  the  old,  but  the  command, "  Do  this  as  oft  as 
ye  drink  it"  (1  Cor.  xi,  25),  suggested  the  more  contin- 
ual recurrence  of  that  which  was  to  be  their  memorial 
of  one  whom  they  would  wish  never  to  forget.  The 
words, "  This  is  my  body,"  gave  to  the  unleavened  bread 
a  new  character.  They  had  been  prepared  for  language 
that  woidd  otherwise  have  been  so  startling  by  the  teach- 
ing of  John  (vi,  32-58),  and  they  were  thus  taught  to 
see  in  the  bread  that  was  broken  the  witness  of  the 
closest  possible  imion  and  incorporation  with  their  Lord. 
The  cup,  which  was  "  the  new  testament"  (ciaOi'iioi)  "  in 
his  blood,"  would  remind  them,  in  like  manner,  of  the 
wonderful  prophecy  in  which  that  new  covenant  had 
'been  foretold  (Jcr.  xxxi,  31-34),  of  which  the  crowning 
glory  was  in  the  promise,  '•  I  will  forgive  their  ini(iuity, 
and  I  will  remember  their  sin  no  more."  His  blood 
shed,  as  he  told  them,  "  for  them  and  for  many,"  for 
that  remission  of  sins  which  he  had  been  proclaiming 
throughout  his  whole  ministry,  was  to  be  to  the  new 
covenant  what  the  blood  of  sprinkling  had  been  to  that 
of  Moses  (Exod.  xxiv,  8).  It  is  possible  that  there  may 
have  been  yet  another  thought  connected  with  these 
symbolic  acts.  The  funeral  customs  of  the  Jews  in- 
volved, at  or  after  the  burial,  the  administration  to  the 
mourners  of  bread  (comp.  Jer.  xvi,  7,  "  neither  shall  they 
break  bread  for  them  in  mourning,"  in  marginal  reading 
of  A.  v.;  Ewald  and  Hitzig,  ad  loc;  Ezek.  xxiv,  17; 
Hos.  ix,  4 ;  Tob.  iv,  17),  and  of  wine,  known,  when  thus 
given,  as  "  the  cup  of  consolation."  IMay  not  the  bread 
and  the  wine  of  the  Last  Supper  have  had  something 
of  that  character,  preparing  the  minds  of  Christ's  disci- 
ples for  his  departure  by  treating  it  as  already  accom- 
plished ?  They  were  to  think  of  his  body  as  already 
anointed  for  the  biiri.il  (^Matt.  xxvi,  12;  Mark  xiv,  8; 
John  xii,  7),  of  his  body  as  already  given  up  to  death, 
of  his  blood  as  already  shed.  The  passover  meal  was 
also,  little  as  they  might  dream  of  it,  a  funeral  feast. 
The  bread  and  the  wine  were  to  be  pledges  of  consola- 
tion for  their  sorrow,  analogous  to  the  verbal  promises 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


511 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


of  John  xiv,  1,  27;  xvi,  20.  The  word  SiaOt'iKT]  might 
even  have  the  twofold  meaning  which  is  connected  with 
it  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

May  we  not  conjecture,  without  leaving  the  region 
of  history  for  that  of  controversy,  that  the  thoughts, 
desires,  emotions  of  that  hour  of  divine  sorrow  and  com- 
munion would  be  such  as  to  lead  the  disciples  to  crave 
earnestly  to  renew  them  ?  Would  it  not  be  natural  that 
they  should  seek  tliat  renewal  in  the  way  which  their 
Master  had  pointed  out  to  them  ?  From  this  time,  ac- 
cordingly, the  words  "  to  break  bread"  appear  to  have 
had  for  the  disciples  a  new  significance.  It  may  not 
have  assumed,  indeed,  as  yet,  the  character  of  a  distinct 
liturgical  act ;  but  when  they  met  to  break  bread,  it  was 
with  new  thoughts  and  hopes,  and  with  the  memories 
of  that  evening  fresh  on  them.  It  would  be  natural 
that  the  Twelve  should  transmit  the  command  to  oth- 
ers who  had  not  been  present,  jyjtl  seek  to  lead  them  to 
the  same  obedience  and  the  'Same  blessings.  The  nar- 
rative of  the  two  disciples  to  whom  their  Lord  made 
himself  known  "  in  breaking  of  bread"  at  Emmaus  (Luke 
xxiv,  30-35)  would  strengthen  the  belief  that  this  was 
the  way  to  an  abiding  fellowship  with  him. 

3.  Later  N.-T. Indications. — In  the  account  given  by 
the  writer  of  the  Acts  of  the  life  of  the  first  disciples  at 
Jerusalem,  a  prominent  place  is  given  to  this  act,  and  to 
the  phrase  which  indicated  it.  Writmg,  we  must  re- 
member, with  the  definite  associations  that  had  gather- 
ed round  the  words  during  the  thirty  3'ears  that  follow- 
ed the  events  he  records,  he  describes  the  baptized  mem- 
bers of  the  Church  as  continuing  steadfast  in  or  to  the 
teaching  of  the  apostles,  in  fellowship  with  them  and 
with  each  other,  and  in  breaking  of  bread,  and  in  pray- 
ers (Acts  ii,  42).  A  few  verses  further  on,  their  daily 
life  is  described  as  ranging  itself  under  two  heads  :  (1.) 
that  of  public  devotion,  which  still  belonged  to  them  as 
Jews  ("  continuing  daily  with  one  accord  in  the  Tem- 
ple") ;  (2.)  that  of  their  distinctive  acts  of  fellowship : 
"breaking  bread  from  house  to  house  (or  'privately,' 
Meyer),  they  did  eat  their  meat  in  gladness  and  single- 
ness of  heart,  praising  God,  and  having  favor  with  all 
the  people."  Taken  in  connection  w-ith  the  account 
given  in  the  preceding  verses  of  the  love  which  made 
them  live  as  having  all  things  common,  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  this  implies  that  the  chief  actual  meal  of 
each  day  was  one  in  which  they  met  as  brothers,  and 
which  was  cither  preceded  or  followed  by  the  more  sol- 
emn commemorative  acts  of  the  breaking  of  the  bread 
and  the  drinking  of  the  cup.  It  will  be  convenient  to 
anticipate  the  language  and  the  thoughts  of  a  somewhat 
later  date,  and  to  say  that  apparently  they  thus  united 
every  day  the  Agape,  or  feast  of  love,  with  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist.  So  far  as  the  former  was  con- 
cerned, they  v/cre  reproducing  in  the  streets  of  Jerusa- 
lem the  simple  and  brotherlj'  life  which  the  Essenes 
were  leading  in  their  seclusion  on  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
Sea.  It  would  be  natural  that,  in  a  society  consisting 
of  "many  thousand  members,  there  should  be  many  places 
of  meeting.  These  might  be  rooms  hired  for  the  pur- 
pose, or  freely  given  by  those  members  of  the  Church 
who  had  them  to  dispose  of.  The  congregation  assem- 
bling in  each  place  would  come  to  be  known  as  "  the 
Church"  in  this  or  that  man's  house  (Kom.  xvi,  5,  23 ;  1 
Cor.  xvi,  19  ;  Col.  iv,  lo ;  Philem.  ver.  2).  When  they 
met,  the  place  of  honor  would  naturally  be  taken  by  one 
of  the  apostles,  or  some  elder  representing  him.  It 
would  belong  to  him  to  pronounce  the  blessing  {iiiXoyia) 
and  thanksgiving  ((vxapuTTia),  with  which  the  meals 
of  devout  Jews  always  began  and  ended.  The  materi- 
als for  the  meal  would  be  provided  out  of  the  common 
funds  of  the  Church  or  the  liberality  of  individual  mem- 
bers. The  bread  (unless  the  converted  Jews  were  to 
think  of  themselves  as  keeping  a  perpetual  passover) 
would  be  such  as  they  habitually  used.  The  wine 
(probably  the  common  red  wine  of  Palestine,  Prov.  xxiii, 
31)  would,  according  to  their  usual  practice,  be  mixed 
with  water.     Special  stress  would  probably  be  laid  at 


first  on  the  office  of  breaking  and  distributing  the  bread, 
as  that  which  represented  the  fatherly  relation  of  the 
pastor  to  his  tlock,  and  his  work  as  ministering  to  men 
the  word  of  life.  But  if  this  was  to  be  more  than  a 
common  meal,  after  the  pattern  of  the  Essenes,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  introduce  words  that  would  show  that 
what  was  done  was  in  remembrance  of  their  Jlastcr. 
At  some  time  before  or  after  the  meal  of  which  they 
partook  as  such,  the  bread  and  the  wine  would  be  given 
with  some  special  form  of  words  or  acts,  to  indicate  its 
character.  New  converts  would  need  some  explanation 
of  the  meaning  and  origin  of  the  obser\-ance.  What 
would  be  so  fitting  and  so  much  in  harmony  with  the 
precedents  of  the  paschal  feast  as  the  narrative  of  what 
had  passed  on  the  night  of  its  institution  (1  Cor.  xi,  23- 
27)  ?  With  this  there  would  naturally  be  associated  (as 
in  Acts  ii,  42)  prayers  for  themselves  and  others.  Their 
gladness  would  show  itself  in  the  psalms  and  hymns 
with  which  they  praised  God  (Heb.  ii,  46,47;  James  v, 
13).  The  analogy  of  the  Passover,  the  general  feeling 
of  the  Jews,  and  the  practice  of  the  Essenes  may  pos- 
sibly have  suggested  ablutions,  partial  or  entire,  as  a 
preparation  for  the  feast  (Heb.  x,  22;  John  xiii,  1-15; 
comp.  Tertull.  cle  Orat.  c.  xi ;  and,  for  the  later  practice 
of  the  Church,  August.  Serm,  ccxliv).  At  some  ])oint 
in  the  feast,  those  who  were  present,  men  and  women 
sitting  apart,  would  rise  to  salute  each  other  with  the 
"  holy  kiss"  (1  Cor.  xvi,  20 ;  2  Cor.  xiii,  12 ;  Clem.  Alex. 
Ptedagog.  iii,  c.  11 ;  TertuU.  de  Orat.  c.  14 ;  Justin  ]Mart. 
A}}oL  ii).  Of  the  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  new  wor- 
ship we  have,  it  is  true,  no  direct  evidence,  but  these 
conjectures  from  antecedent  likelihood  are  confirmed  by 
the  fact  that  this  order  appears  as  the  common  element 
of  all  later  liturgies.    ,' 

The  next  traces  that  meet  us  are  in  1  Cor.,  and  the 
fact  that  we  find  them  is  in  itself  significant.  The  com- 
memorative ffvast  has  not  been  confined  to  the  personal 
disciples  of  Christ,  or  the  Jewish  converts  whom  they 
gathered  round  them  at  Jerusalem.  It  has  been  the 
law  of  the  Church's  expansion  that  this  should  form 
part  of  its  life  everywhere.  Wherever  the  apostles  or 
their  delegates  have  gone,  they  have  taken  this  with 
them.  The  language  of  St.  Paul,  we  must  remember,  is 
not  that  of  a  man  who  is  setting  forth  a  new  truth,  but 
of  one  who  appeals  to  thoughts,  words,  phrases  that  are 
familiar  to  his  readers,  and  we  find  accordingly  evidence 
of  a  received  liturgical  terminology.  The  title  of  the 
"cup  of  blessing"  (1  Cor.  x,  16),  Hebrew  in  its  origin 
and  form  (see  above),  has  been  imported  into  the  Greek 
Church.  The  sj'nonyme  of  "  the  cup  of  the  Lord"  (1 
Cor.  X,  21)  distinguishes  it  from  the  other  cups  that  be- 
longed to  the  Agape.  The  word  "  fellowship"  {koivu)- 
via)  is  passing  by  degrees  into  the  special  signification 
of  "communion."  The  apostle  refers  to  his  own  office 
as  breaking  the  bread  and  blessing  the  cup  (1  Cor.  x, 
16).  The  table  on  which  the  bread  was  placed  was  the 
Lord's  table,  and  that  title  was  to  the  Jew,  not,  as  later 
controversies  have  made  it,  the  antithesis  of  altar  (Bv- 
(TiacFTTjpiov),  but  as  nearly  as  possible  a  synonyme  (Mai. 
i,  7, 12 ;  Ezek.  xli,  22).  But  the  practice  of  the  Agapfe, 
as  well  as  the  observance  of  the  commemorative  feast, 
had  been  transferred  to  Corinth,  and  this  called  for  a 
special  notice.  Evils  liad  sprung  up  which  had  to  be 
checked  at  once.  The  meeting  of  friends  for  a  social 
meal,  to  which  all  contributed,  was  a  sufficiently  familiar 
practice  in  the  common  life  of  Greeks  of  this  period,  and 
these  club-feasts  were  associated  with  plans  of  mutual 
relief  or  charity  to  the  poor  (comp.  Smith's  Diet.  o/Gr. 
and  Rom.  A  ntiq.  s.  v.  Eranoi).  The  Agape  of  the  new 
society  would  seem  to  them  to  be  such  a  feast,  and 
hence  came  a  disorder  that  altogether  frustrated  the  ob- 
ject of  the  Church  in  instituting  it.  Richer  members 
came,  bringing  their  supper  with  them,  or  appropriating 
what  belonged  to  the  common  stock,  and  sat  down  to 
consume  it  without  waiting  till  others  were  assembled 
and  the  presiding  elder  had  taken  his  place.  The  poor 
were  put  to  shame,  and  defrauded  of  their  share  in  the 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


512 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


feast.  Each  was  tli  inking  of  his  own  supper,  not  of 
that  to  wliich  \'.e  now  tind  attached  the  distinguishing 
title  of  •■  the  Lords  Supper."  When  the  time  for  that 
came,  one  wa>i  hungry  enough  to  be  looking  to  it  with 
physioal,  not  spiritual  craving;  another  so  overpowered 
with  wine  as  to  be  incapable  of  receiving  it  with  any 
reverence.  It  is  quite  conceivable  that  a  life  of  excess 
and  excitement,  of  overwrought  emotion  and  unrestrain- 
ed indulgence,  such  as  this  epistle  brings  before  us,  may 
have  i)roved  destructive  to  the  physical  as  well  as  the 
moral  health  of  those  who  were  affected  by  it,  and  so 
the  sickness  and  the  deaths  of  which  Paul  speaks  (1 
Cor.  xi,  30),  as  the  consequences  of  this  disorder,  may 
have  been  so,  not  by  supernatural  intliction,  but  by  the 
working  of  those  general  laws  of  the  divine  government 
which  make  the  punishment  the  traceable  consequence 
of  the  sin.  In  any  case,  what  the  Corinthians  needed 
Avas  to  be  taught  to  come  to  the  Lord's  table  Avith  great- 
er reverence,  to  distinguish  (^StctKph'Hif)  the  Lord's  body 
from  their  common  food.  Unless  they  did  so,  they 
would  bring  upon  themselves  condemnation.  What  was 
to  be  the  remedy  for  this  terrible  and  growing  evil  he 
does  not  state  explicitly.  He  reserves  formal  regula- 
tions for  a  later  personal  visit.  In  the  mean  time,  he 
gives  a  rule  which  would  make  the  union  of  the  Agape 
and  the  Lord's  Supper  possible  witljout  the  risk  of  profa- 
nation. They  were  not  to  come  even  to  the  former 
with  the  keen  edge  of  appetite.  They  were  to  wait  tiU 
all  were  met,  instead  of  scrambling  tumultuously  to  help 
themselves  (1  Cor.  xi,  33,  34).  In  one  point,  however, 
the  custom  of  the  Church  of  Corinth  differed  apparently 
from  that  of  Jerusalem  :  the  meeting  for  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per was  no  longer  daily  (1  Cor.  xi,  20, 33).  The  direc- 
tions given  in  1  Cor.  xvi,  2  suggelt  the  constitution  of  a 
celebration  on  the  first  day  of  the  week  (compare  Just. 
IMart.  ApoL  i,  07 ;  Pliny,  JJp.  ad  T>-aj.).  The  meeting  at 
Troas  was  on  the  same  day  (Acts  xx,  7). 

The  tendency  of  this  language,  and  therefore,  proba- 
bly, of  the  order  subsequently  established,  was  to  sepa- 
rate what  had  hitherto  been  united.  We  stand,  as  it 
were,  at  the  dividing  point  of  the  history  of  the  two 
institutions,  and  henceforth  each  takes  its  own  course. 
The  Agape,  as  belonging  to  a  transient  phase  of  the 
Christian  life,  and  varying  in  its  effects  with  changes  in 
national  character  or  forms  of  civilization,  passes  through 
many  stages;  becomes  more  and  more  a  merely  local 
custom,  is  found  to  be  productive  of  evil  rather  than  of 
good,  is  discouraged  by  bishops  and  forbidden  by  coun- 
cils, and  finally  dies  out.  Traces  of  it  linger  in  some  of 
the  traditional  practices  of  the  Western  Church.  There 
have  been  attempts  to  revive  it  among  the  Moravians 
and  other  religious  communities,  but  in  no  considerable 
body  does  it  survive  in  its  original  form.  See  Loate- 
Feast.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Lord's  Supper  also  has 
its  changes.  The  morning  celebration  takes  the  place 
of  the  evening.  New  names — Eucharist,  Sacrifice,  Altar, 
Mass,  Holy  Mysteries — gather  round  it.  New  epithets 
and  new  ceremonies  express  the  growing  reverence  of 
the  people.  The  mode  of  celebration  at  the  high  altar 
of  a  basilica  in  the  4th  century  differs  so  widely  from 
the  circumstances  of  the  original  institution  that  a  care- 
less eye  would  have  found  it  hard  to  recognise  their 
identity.  Speculations,  controversies,  superstitions,  crys- 
tallize round  this  as  their  nucleus.  Great  disruptions 
and  changes  threaten  to  destroy  the  life  and  unity  of 
the  Church.  Still,  through  all  the  changes,  the  Sup- 
per of  the  Lord  vindicates  its  claim  to  universality,  and 
bears  a  [jermanent  tc'stimony  to  the  truths  with  which 
it  was  associateii. 

In  Acts  xx,  11  we  have  an  example  of  the  way  in 
which  the  transition  may  have  been  effected.  The  dis- 
ciples at  Troas  meet  together  to  break  bread.  The 
hour  is  not  dctinitcly  stated,  but  the  f:ict  that  Paul's 
discourse  was  protracted  till  past  midnight,  and  the 
mention  of  the  many  lamps,  indicate  a  later  time  than 
that  commonly  fixed  for  the  Greek  cnrn'ov.  If  we  are 
not  to  suppose  a  scene  at  variance  with  I'aul's  rule 


in  1  Cor.  xi,  34,  they  must  have  had  each  his  own  sup- 
per before  they  assembled.  Then  came  the  teaching 
and  the  prayers,  and  then,  towards  early  dawn,  the 
breaking  of  bread,  which  constituted  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  for  M'hich  they  were  gathered  together.  If  this 
midnight  meeting  may  be  taken  as  indicating  a  common 
practice,  originating  in  reverence  for  an  ordinance  which 
Christ  had  enjoined,  we  can  easily  understand  ho^v  the 
next  step  would  be  (as  circumstances  rendered  the  mid- 
night gatherings  unnecessary'  or  inexpedient)  to  trans- 
fer the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  permanently  to  the 
morning  hour,  to  which  it  had  graduallj'  been  approxi- 
mating. Here  also  in  later  times  there  were  traces  of 
the  original  custom.  Even  when  a  later  celebration 
was  looked  on  as  at  variance  with  the  general  custom 
of  the  Church  (Sozomen,  sitpra)  it  was  recognised  as 
legitimate  to  hold  an  evening  communion,  as  a  special 
commemoration  of  the  original  institution,  on  the  Thurs- 
day before  Easter  (Augustine,  Ep.  118;  ad  Jan.  c.  5-7); 
and  again  on  Easter  eve,  the  celebration  in  the  latter 
case  probably  taking  place  "  very  early  in  the  morning, 
while  it  was  yet  dark"  (Tertullian,  ad  Uxor,  ii,  c.  4). 

The  recurrence  of  the  same  liturgical  words  in  Acts 
xxvii,  35  makes  it  probable,  though  not  certabi,  that 
the  food  of  which  Paul  thus  partook  was  intended  to 
have,  for  himself  and  his  Christian  companions,  the 
character  at  once  of  the  Agape  and  the  Eucharist.  The 
heathen  soldiers  and  saUors,  it  may  be  noticed,  are  said 
to  have  followed  his  example,  not  to  have  partaken  of 
the  bread  which  he  had  broken.  If  we  adopt  this  ex- 
planation, we  have  in  this  narrative  another  example 
of  a  celebration  in  the  early  hours  between  michiight 
and  dawn  (comp.  v.  27,  39),  at  the  same  time,  i.  e.  as  we 
have  met  with  in  the  meeting  at  Troas. 

All  the  distinct  references  to  the  Lord's  Supper  which 
occur  within  the  limits  of  the  N.  T.  have,  it  is  believed, 
been  noticed.  To  find,  as  a  recent  writer  has  done 
(^Christian  Rememhrancci-,  April,  1860),  quotations  from 
the  Liturgy  of  the  Eastern  Church  in  the  PaiUine  Epis- 
tles involves  (ingeniously  as  the  hypothesis  is  support- 
ed) assumptions  too  many  and  bold  to  justify  our  ac- 
ceptance of  it.  Extending  the  inquiri-,  however,  to  the 
times  as  well  as  the  writings  of  the  N.  T.,  we  find  reason 
to  believe  that  we  can  trace  in  the  later  worship  of  the 
Clmrch  some  fragments  of  that  which  belonged  to  it 
from  the  beginning.  The  agTcement  of  the  four  great 
families  of  liturgies  implies  the  substratum  of  a  common 
order.  To  that  order  may  well  have  belonged  the  He- 
brew words  Hallelujah,  Amen,  Hosanna,  Lord  of  Saba- 
oth ;  the  salutations  "  Peace  to  all,"  "  Peace  to  thee ;" 
the  Siursum  Corda  (civio  axwi^uv  tciq  icapciac),  the  Tri- 
sagion,  the  Kyrie  Eleison.  'VVe  are  justified  in  looking 
at  these  as  having  been  portions  of  a  liturgy  that  was 
really  primitive ;  guarded  from  change  with  the  tenaci- 
ty with  which  the  Christians  of  the  2d  century  clung  to 
the  traditions  (the  TrapaSurrdc  of  2  Thess.  ii,  15 ;  iii,  6) 
of  the  first,  forming  part  of  the  great  deposit  (TrapaKo- 
ra^!]Kt])  of  faith  and  worship  which  they  had  received 
from  the  apostles  and  have  transmitted  to  later  ages 
(comp.  Bingham,  Eccles.  Antiq.  bk.  xv,  ch.  vii;  Augusti, 
Christ  I.  Archdol.  b.  viii;  Stanley  on  1  Cor.  x  and  xi). 

III.  Ecclesiastical  Representations.  —  The  Christian 
Church  attached  from  the  first  great  and  mysterious 
importance  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  accordance  with 
the  original  institution,  all  Christians  used  wine  and 
bread,  with  the  exception  of  the  Hydroparastates  (Aqua- 
rii),  who  used  water  instead  of  wine,  and  the  Artoty- 
rites,  who  are  said  to  have  used  cheese  along  with 
bread.  The  wine  was  generally  mixed  with  water 
(jcpapa'),  and  an  allegorical  signification  was  given  to 
the  mixture  of  these  two  elements.  In  the  writings  of 
the  fathers  of  the.  first  three  centuries  we  meet  with 
some  passages  which  speak  distinctly  of  symbols,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  with  others  which  indicate  belief  in 
a  real  particijiation  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Ignatius,  Justin,  and  Irentcus  laid  great  stress  on  the 
mysterious  connection  subsisting  between  the  Logos  and 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


513 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


the  elements.  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  are  representa- 
tives of  the  symbolical  aspect,  though  both  occasionally 
call  the  Lord's  Supper  simply  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  The  symbolical  interpretation  prevails  in  par- 
ticular among  the  Alexandrine  school.  Clement  called 
it  a  mystic  symbol  which  produces  an  effect  onlj'  upon 
the  mind,  and  Origen  decidedly  opposed  those  who  took 
the  external  sign  for  the  thing  itself.  The  idea  of  a 
sacrifice,  though  not  yet  of  a  daily  propitiatory  sacrifice, 
appears  in  the  writings  of  Justin  and  Irenaeus.  Cyprian 
says  that  the  sacrifice  is  made  by  the  priest,  who  acts 
instead  of  Christ,  and  imitates  v/hat  Christ  did.  It  is 
not  quite  certain,  but  probable,  that  the  Ebionites  cele- 
brated the  Lord's  Supi^er  as  a  commemorative  feast ;  the 
mystical  meals  of  some  Gnostics,  on  the  contrary,  bear 
but  little  resemblance  to  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  devel- 
opment of  liturgies  in  and  after  the  third  century,  and 
the  introduction  of  many  mystical  ceremonies,  showed 
that  the  fathers  generally  regarded  the  Lord's  Supper, 
with  Chrysostom,  as  a  "dreadful  sacrifice."  They  clear- 
ly speak  of  a  real  union  of  the  communicants  with 
Christ;  some,  also,  of  a  real  change  from  the  visible  el- 
ements into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  though  most 
of  their  expressions  can  be  imderstood  both  of  consub- 
stantiality  or  of  transubstantiation.  Theodoret  drew  a 
clear  distinction  between  the  sign  and  the  thing  signi- 
fied, while  Augustine  sought  to  unite  its  more  profound 
mystical  significance  with  the  symbolical.  Gelasius, 
bisliop  of  liome,  very  decidedly  denied  "  the  ceasing  of 
the  substance  and  natiu'e  of  bread  and  wine."  The  no- 
tion of  a  daily  repeated  sacrifice  is  distinctly  set  forth 
in  the  writings  of  Gregory  the  Great.  A  violent  con- 
troversy concerning  the  Lord's  Supper  arose  in  the  9th 
century.  Paschasius  Radbertus,  a  monk  of  Corvey, 
clearly  propounded  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in 
liis  Liher  de  corjjore  et  sanguine  Domini,  addressed  to 
the  emperor  Charles  the  Bald,  between  830  and  832. 
He  was  opposed  by  Ratramnus  in  his  treatise  I)e  cor- 
pore  et  sanguine  Domini,  which  was  written  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  emperor,  who  drew  a  distinction  between 
the  sign  and  the  thing  represented  by  it,  between  the 
internal  and  the  external.  The  most  eminent  theolo- 
gians of  the  age,  as  Rabanus  Maurus  and  Scotus  Erige- 
na,  took  an  active  part  in  the  controversy.  Gerbert  (af- 
terwards pope  Sylvester  II)  endeavored  to  illustrate  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  by  the  aid  of  geometrical 
diagrams.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  11th  century  the 
doctrine  of  transubstantiation  was  rejected  by  Berengar, 
canon  of  Tours  (q.  v.),  who  principally  condemned  the 
doctrine  of  an  entire  change  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
make  the  bread  to  cease  to  be  bread.  Several  synods 
in  succession,  between  1050  and  1079,  condemned  his 
views.  At  one  of  these  synods  cardinal  Humbert  im- 
posed upon  Berengar  an  oath  that  he  believed  "  corpus 
et  sanguinem  Domini  non  solum  Sacramento  sed  in 
veritate  manibus  sacerdotum  tractari,  frangi  et  fidelium 
dentibus  atteri."  Among  the  scholastics,  Lanfranc  de- 
veloped the  distinction  between  the  subject  and  the  ac- 
cidents. The  term  Iransubstantiatio  was  first  used  by 
Hildebert  of  Tours,  though  similar  phrases,  as  transitio, 
had  previously  been  employed  (by  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
and  others).  IMost  of  the  earlier  scholastics,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, the  followers  of  Lanfranc,  defended  both  the 
change  of  the  bread  into  the  b(xiy  of  Clirist  and  that  of 
the  "  accidentia  sine  subjecto,"  both  of  which  were  in- 
serted in  the  Decrefum  Gratiani  (about  1150),  and  de- 
clared an  article  of  faith  by  the  fourth  Council  of  Lateran. 
Later,  the  Scholastics  discussed  a  great  many  subtle 
questions,  such  as,  Do  animals  partake  of  the  body  of 
Christ  when  they  happen  to  swallow  a  consecrated  host  V 
By  the  institution  of  the  Corpus-Christi  day  by  pope 
Urban  IV  (1204),  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  re- 
ceived a  liturgical  expression.  However,  a  considerable 
time  before,  it  had  become  a  custom  in  the  Latin  Church 
that  the  laity  received  the  Lord's  Su]iper  only  in  the 
form  of  the  host.  Alexander  Hales,  Bonaventura,  and 
Thomas  Aquinas  expresslv  demanded  that  onlv  the 
v.— K  K 


priests  should  partake  of  the  cup.  The' Hussites  de- 
manded the  admission  of  the  laity  also  to  a  partaking 
of  the  cup,  and  the  refusal  of  this  demand  by  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constance  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Hussite 
War,  The  doctrine  that  Christ  existed  wholly  iii  either 
of  the  elements  (for  which  doctrine  the  theologians  used 
the  expression  concomitance)  was  expressly  confirmed  by 
the  Council  of  Basle.  The  number  of  those  who  during 
the  Middle  Ages  expressed  their  dissent  from  the  doc- 
trine of  transubstantiation  is  limited. 

The  doctrine  ofimpanation,  or  a  coexistence  of  Christ's 
body  with  the  bread,  was  first  advanced  by  John  of  Paris, 
who  was  followed  by  William  Ockham  and  Durandus  de 
Sancto  Porciano,  Both  transubstantiation  and  impana- 
tion  were  combated  by  Wickliffc,  who,  with  Berengar  of 
Tours,  believed  it  a  change  from  the  inferior  to  the  su- 
perior. His  views  were  probably  shared  by  Jerome  of 
Prague,  while  Huss  seems  to  have  believed  in  transub- 
stantiation. The  Reformers  of  the  16th  century  agreed 
in  rejecting  transubstantiation  as  unscriptural,  but  they 
differed  among  themselves  in  several  points.  Carlstadt 
believed  that  the  words  of  institution  were  to  be  under- 
stood csiKTiKoJg,  i.  e.  that  Christ,  while  speaking  to  them, 
had  pointed  at  his  own  body.  Zuingle  took  the  word 
"iV  (tcrri)  in  the  sense  of  signifies,  and  viewed  the 
Lord's  Supper  merely  as  an  act  of  commemoration,  and 
as  a  visible  sign  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  CEco- 
lampadius  differed  from  Ziungle  only  grammatically, 
retaining  the  literal  meaning  of  "is,"  but  taking  the 
predicate, "  my  body"  {to  aih^a  i-iov'),  in  a  figurative 
sense,  Luther  believed  it  impossible  to  put  any  of 
these  constructions  on  the  letter  of  the  Scripture,  and 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  7-eal  presence  of  Christ's 
body  and  blood  in,  rcilh,  and  xinder  the  bread  and  wine 
(consubstantiation).  Together  with  this  view  he  pro- 
fessed a  belief  in  the  ubiquity  of  the  body  of  Christ. 
Calvin  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence ;  but,  af- 
ter the  precedence  of  Bucer,  Mj-ronius,  and  others,  spoke 
of  a  real,  though  spiritual  participation  of  the  body  of 
Christ  which  exists  in  heaven.  This  participation, 
however,  he  restricted  to  the  believer,  while  Luther 
agreed  with  the  Roman  Church  in  maintaining  that 
also  infidels  partook  of  Christ's  body,  though  to  their 
own  hurt.  Attempts  at  mediating  between  the  views 
of  Luther  and  Calvin  were  early  made,  and  there  were 
crypto-Calvinists  in  the  Lutheran,  and  crj-pto-Luther- 
ans  in  the  Calvinistic  churches.  But  the  Lutlteran  view 
received  a  dogmatic  fixation  in  the  Formula  Concordice, 
which  shut  out  any  further  influence  of  Calvinism. 
The  decline  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  general  caused 
also  the  Lutheran  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to  grow 
into  disuse,  and  the  Protestant  theologians  generally 
adopted  the  views  either  of  Calvin  or  of  Zuingle,  The 
latter,  at  length,  prevailed,  (See  the  Brit,  and  For.  Ev. 
Rev.  Oct.  18G0;  Midler,  De  Ltitheri  et  Cahini  sententice 
de  Sacra  Ccena,  Hal.  1853.)  It  was,  in  particular,  adopt- 
ed by  the  Arminian  churches,  as  also  by  the  Socinians. 
In  the  Church  of  England  there  was  from  the  beginning 
a  real-presence  and  a  spiritual-presence  party,  and  the 
controversy  between  them  frequently  became  very  hot. 
The  real-presence  party  generally  agreed  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  some  of  its  writers 
advanced  views  more  resembling  those  ot  the  Roman 
Church.  In  the  19th  century  the  High-Church  parties 
of  tlie  German  Lutheran  Church,  and  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  England,  Scotland,  and  America,  revived  and 
emphasized  again  the  doctrine  of  the  real  presence. 
Under  the  influence  of  rationalistic  theology  and  specu- 
lative theology  a  number  of  new  interpretations  sprang 
up  like  mushrooms,  and  disappeared  again  just  as  fast. 
The  leading  theologians  of  the  United  Evangelical 
Church  of  Germany  in  the  19th  century  fell  back  on  the 
doctrine  of  Calvin,  and  emphasized  the  real  and  objective 
communication  of  the  whole  God-man  Christ  to  the  be- 
liever, and  the  same  views  have  become  predominant  in 
the  German  Reformed  Church  of  America.  A'ery  differ- 
ent from  the  doctrine  of  all  the  larger  Christian  denom- 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


514 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


inations  were  the  views  which  some  mystic  writers  of 
the  ancient  and  mecliicval  Church  intimated,  and  whicli 
Tvere  fully  developed  in  the  lOth  century  by  Paracelsus, 
and  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Society  of  Friends.  They 
reo-ard  communion  as  something  essentially  internal  and 
mvstical.  and  deny  the  Lord's  Supper  to  be  an  ordinance 
winch  Christ  desired  to  have  perpetuated.  —  Lavater, 
Uistoria  controversice  Sacramentarice  (Tig.  1672) ;  Hos- 
pinianus,  Hist,  Sacramentaria  (Tig.  1602)  ;  Planck,  Ge- 
schichte  d.  Entstehung,  etc.,  des  protest.  Lehrhegrijfs,  ii,  204 
sq.,  471  sq. ;  iii,  (1.)  376  sq. ;  iv,  6  sq. ;  v,  (1)  89  sq.,  211 
sq.,  (2)  7  sq. ;  vi,  732  sq.     See  Transubstantiation. 

lY.Fonn  of  Celebration.— \.  The  Elements.— (ii)  At 
the  institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  Christ  used  un- 
leavened bread.  The  primitive  Christians  carried  with 
them  the  bread  and  wine  for  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
took  the  bread  which  was  used  at  common  meals,  which 
was  leavened  bread.  When  this  custom  ceased,  togeth- 
er with  the  Agape,  the  Greeks  retained  the  leavened 
bread,  while  in  the  Latin  Church  the  unleavened  bread 
became  commou  since  the  8th  centurj'.  Out  of  this 
difference  a  dogmatic  controversy  in  the  11th  century 
arose,  the  Greek  Church  reproaching  the  Latin  for  the 
use  of  unleavened  bread,  and  making  it  heresy.  At  the 
Council  of  Florence,  in  1439,  which  attempted  to  unite 
both  churches,  it  was  agreed  that  either  might  be  used ; 
but  the  Greeks  soon  rejected,  with  the  council  also,  the 
toleration  of  the  imleavened  bread,  and  still  maintain 
the  opposite  ground  at  the  present  day. 

We  sec,  from  1  Cor.  xi,  24,  that  in  the  apostolic 
Church  the  bread  was  broken.  This  custom  was  dis- 
continued in  the  Roman  Church  when,  in  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries,  the  host  or  holy  wafer  was  cut  in  a  pe- 
culiar way,  so  as  to  represent  upon  it  a  crucified  Saviour. 
Luther  retained  the  wafer,  but  the  lieformed  churches 
reintroduced  the  use  of  common  bread  and  the  breaking 
of  it.  The  same  was  the  case  with  the  Socinians  and 
the  United  Evangelical  Church  of  Germany.  In  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  England,  and  the  churches  derived 
from  it,  cut  pieces  of  common  wheaten  bread  are  given 
into  the  hands  of  the  communicants.  See  J.  G.  Her- 
mann, Hist,  conveiiationuni  de  pane  asymo  (Lips.  1737) . 
Marheineke,  Das  Brod  in  A  bendmahle  (Berlin,  1817), 

(6)  The  second  element  used  by  Christ  was  icine.  It 
is  not  certain  of  what  color  the  wine  was,  nor  whether 
it  was  pure  or  mixed  with  water,  and  both  points  were 
always  regarded  as  indifferent  by  the  Christian  Church. 
The  use  of  mixed  wine  is  said  to  have  been  introduced 
by  pope  Alexander  I ;  it  was  expressly  enacted  in  the 
12th  century  by  Clement  III,  and  divers  allegorical 
significations  were  given  to  the  mingling  of  these  two 
elements.  Also  the  Greek  Church  mingles  the  wine 
with  water,  while  the  Armenian  and  the  Protestant 
churches  use  pure  wine. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  wine  originally  used 
in  the  Lord's  Supper  wa.?,  fermented  or  not,  would  seem 
to  be  a  futile  one  in  view  of  the  fact,  1.  that  the  unfer- 
mented  juice  ofthe  grape  can  hardly,  with  propriety,  be 
called  wine  at  all;  2.  that  fermented  wine  is  of  almost 
universal  use  in  the  East ;  and,  3.  that  it  has  invariably 
been  employed  for  this  purpose  in  the  Church  of  all 
ages  and  countries.  But  for  the  excessive  zeal  of  cer- 
tain modern  well-moaning  reformers,  the  idea  that  our 
Lord  used  any  other  would  hardly  have  gained  the  least 
currency.     See  Wink. 

In  accordance  with  the  original  institution,  both  ele- 
ments were  used  separately  during  the  first  centuries, 
but  it  became  early  a  custom  to  carry  to  sick  persons 
bread  merely  dipped  m  wine.  The  Manichasans,  who 
abstained  wholly  from  wine,  were  strongly  oiiposed  b}' 
teachers  of  all  other  parties,  and  pope  (iclasius  I,  ofthe 
5th,  called  their  practice  f/rande  sacrilegiitni.  In  the 
10th  century  it  became  freijuent  in  the  West  to  use 
only  consecrated  bread  dippeii  in  wine,  but  it  was  not 
before  the  end  of  the  13th  century  that,  in  accordance 
with  the  doctrine,  then  developed  by  the  Scholastics, 
that  Christ  was  wholly  present  in  both  bread  and  wine, 


and  that  the  partaking  of  the  bread  was  sufficient,  the 
Church  began  to  withhold  the  wine  from  the  laity  alto- 
gether. The  AValdenseSjWickliffe,  Huss,  and  Savonarola 
protested  against  this  withdrawal  of  the  cup,  and  aU 
the  Protestant  denominations  agreed  in  restoring  the 
use  of  both  elements.  The  Greek  Church  has  always 
used  the  wine  for  the  laity  also.  See  Spitler,  Geschichte 
des  Kelches  im  Abendmahl  (Lemgo,  1780) ;  Schmidt, De 
fatis  calicis  euckaristid  (Helmstadt,  1708). 

2.  Consecration  and  Distribution  ofthe  Elements. — To 
"  consecrate"  meant  in  the  ancient  Church  only  to  set 
apart  from  common  and  devote  to  a  sacred  use.  But, 
by  degrees,  a  magical  effect  was  attributed  to  conse- 
cration, as  was  aheady  done  by  Augustine,  and  when 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  became  prevalent  in 
the  Roman  Church,  it  was  supposed  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  the  words  "  This  is  my  body"  changed  the  ele- 
ments into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ.  The  formulae 
which  were  used  at  the  consecration  were  at  first  free, 
but  afterwards  fixed  by  written  liturgies.  All  liturgies 
contain  the  words  of  institution  and  a  prayer;  the  lit- 
urgy of  the  Greek  Church,  moreover,  a  ])rayer  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  change  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  In  the  ancient  Church  both  ele- 
ments were  distributed  by  the  deacons,  afterwards  only 
the  wine;  at  a  later  period  of  the  Church,  again, both 
elements.  According  to  the  Protestant  theologians,  the 
administration  belongs  properl}'  to  the  ministers  of  the 
Church ;  but  Luther,  and  many  theologians  with  him, 
maintained  that  where  no  regular  teachers  can  be  ob- 
tained, this  sacrament  may  be  administered  by  other 
Christians  to  whom  this  duty  is  committed  by  the 
Church. 

3.  Time  and  Place. — In  the  apostolic  Church,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  regularly  celebrated 
in  the  public  assemblies,  hence  in  private  dwellings,  at 
common  tables,  during  the  persecutions  in  hidden  places, 
at  the  sepulchres  ofthe  martvTS,  and,  later,  in  the  church- 
es at  special  tables  or  altars.  In  imitation  of  its  first 
celebration  by  Christ,  it  was  at  first  celebrated  at  night; 
later,  it  became  almost  universally  connected  with  the 
morning  service.  In  the  primitive  Church,  Christians 
partook  of  it  almost  daily:  and  when  this  was  made  im- 
possible by  the  persecutions,  at  least  several  times  a 
week, or  certainly  on  Sundays.  In  the  5th  century  many 
theological  writers  complain  of  the  laxity  of  Christiana 
in  the  participation  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  afterwards 
several  synods  had  to  prescribe  that  all  Christians  ought 
to  partake  of  it  at  least  a  certain  number  of  times.  The 
fourth  Synod  of  Lateran,  in  1415,  restricted  it  to  once 
a  j-ear.  The  Reformers  insisted  again  on  a  more  fre- 
quent participation,  without,  however,  making  any  defi- 
nite prescriptions  as  to  the  number  of  times.  Many 
of  the  Protestant  states  punished  those  who  withdrew 
altogether  from  it  with  exile,  excommunication,  and 
the  refusal  of  a  Christian  burial. 

4.  Persons  by  ichom,  and  the  Marnier  in  which  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  received. — In  the  primitive  Church  all 
baptized  persons  were  admitted  to  the  Lord's  Supper; 
afterwards  the  catechumens  and  the  lapsi  were  excluded 
from  it.  Communion  of  infants  is  found  in  an  early  pe- 
riod, and  is  still  used  in  the  (Jreek  Church.  See  Zorn, 
Hist,  eucharist.  infant.  (Berl.  1742).  To  those  who  were 
prevented  from  being  present  at  the  public  service  the 
consecrated  elements  were  carried  by  deacons.  Thus  it 
was  especially  carried  to  the  dying  as  a  Viaticwn,  and 
until  the  5th  or  6th  century  it  was  even  ))la(('d  in  the 
mouth  of  the  dead,  or  in  their  coffin  (see  Schmidt,  De 
eucharistia  mortuorum,  Jena,  1645). 

The  apostles  received  the  Lord's  Su(>pcr  reclining, 
according  to  Eastern  custom.  Since  the  4th  century 
the  communicants  used  to  stand,  afterwards  to  kneel, 
the  men  with  uncovered  head,  the  women  covered  with 
a  long  white  cloth. 

Since  the  4th  century  a  certain  order  was  introduced 
in  approaching  the  communion  table,  so  that  first  the 
higher  and  lower  clergy,  and  afterwards  the  laity  came. 


LORD'S  SUPPER 


515 


LORENZO 


Thfe  self-communion  of  the  laity  is  prohibited  by  all 
Christian  denominations.  The  self-communion  of  offi- 
ciating clergymen  is  the  general  usage  in  the  Koman 
Church,  but  also  permitted  and  customary  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  among  the  Moravians,  and  with  other 
denominations. 

5.  Ceremonies  in  Celebration. — In  the  Roman  Church 
the  communicants,  after  having  confessed  and  received 
absolution,  approach  the  communion  table,  which  stands 
at  some  distance  from  the  altar,  and  receive  kneeling  a 
host  from  the  priest,  who  passes  round,  taking  the  host 
out  of  a  chalice  which  he  holds  in  his  left  hand,  repeat- 
ing for  each  communicant  the  words  "  Corpus  Domini 
nostri  Jesu  Christi  custodial  animam  tuam  in  vitam 
ffiternam."  The  communion  service  of  the  Greek  Church 
is  nearly  the  same  as  tliat  of  the  ancient  Church. 

In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  communion  is  preceded 
by  a  preparatory  service,  confession  (q.  v.).  After  the 
sermon  the  clergyman  consecrates  the  host  and  the 
wine  at  the  altar.  Amid  the  singing  of  the  congrega- 
tion, the  communicants,  first  the  men,  then  the  women, 
step,  either  singly  or  two  at  a  time,  to  the  altar,  where 
the  clergyman  places  the  host  in  their  mouth,  and 
reaches  to  them  the  cup,  using  the  following  or  a  simi- 
lar formida :  "  Take,  eat,  this  is  the  body  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  it  may  strengthen  and  pre- 
serve you  in  the  true  faith  unto  life  everlasting.  Amen. 
Take,  drink,  this  is  the  blood,"  etc.  The  service  is  con- 
cluded with  a  prayer  of  thanks,  and  with  the  blessing. 
During  the  service  frequently  candles  burn  on  the  altar. 

In  the  Keformed,  Presbyterian,  Congregational,  Ar- 
minian,  etc.,  churches,  the  service  begins  commonly 
with  a  formula  containing  the  passage  1  Cor.  xi.  The 
communicants  step,  in  most  places  singly,  to  the  com- 
nnuiion  table,  and  the  broken  bread  and  the  cup  are 
given  into  their  own  hands.  In  some  places  they  re- 
main sitting  in  the  pews,  where  the  elders  carry  to  them 
bread  and  wine ;  in  others,  twelve  at  a  time  sit  around 
a  table.    Private  communion  of  the  sick  is  an  exception. 

In  the  Episcopal  Church  of  England  the  service  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  is  immediateh'  preceded  by  a  general 
confession  of  sins,  which  is  followed  by  a  prayer  of  con- 
secration and  the  words  of  institution.  The  clergymen 
first  commune  themselves,  then  the  communicants,  who 
approach  without  observing  any  distinction,  and  kneel 
down  at  the  communion  table,  receiving  the  bread 
(which  is  cut)  and  the  cup  into  their  hands.  The  same 
service  takes  place  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
and  substantially  in  the  Methodist  churches. 

The  Socinians  have,  on  the  day  before  they  celebrate 
the  Lord's  Supper,  a  preparation  (•'  discipline")  with 
closed  doors,  when  the  preacher  exhorts  the  Church 
members,  rebukes  their  faults,  reconciles  enemies,  and 
sometimes  excludes  those  guilty  of  grave  offences  from 
the  Church.  On  the  following  day,  at  public  service, 
the  altar  tables  are  spread  and  furnished  with  bread  and 
wine.  The  communicants  sit  down  round  the  table,  and 
take  with  their  hands  the  bread,  which  is  broken  by  the 
preacher,  and  the  cup. 

The  service  of  the  Moravians  approaches  that  of  the 
primitive  Church.  It  is  celebrated  every  fourth  Sun- 
day at  the  evening  service,  and  was  formerly  connected 
with  tlie  Agapoe  (love  feasts),  washing  of  feet,  and  the 
kiss  of  peace. 

On  the  ceremonies  in  the  Eastern  churches,  see  Ritns 
Orientalinm.  Coptorum,  Si/?-onim,  et  Armenorum,  in  ad- 
ministrandis  Sucrameniis.  Ex  Assemanis,  Kenandotio, 
Trombellio  aliisque  fontibus  authenticis  coUectos.  Edi- 
dit  Henricus  Denziger,  Ph.  et  S.  Th.  Doc.  et  in  Univ. 
Wirceburgensi  Theol.  Dogmat.  Prof,  (tom,  i,  London,  D. 
Xutt,  1863). 

V.  The  Literature  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per is  very  extensive.  A  history  of  the  doctrine  was 
given  by  Schulz  (Rationalistic),"/;/?  christliche  Lehre 
vom  heilir/en  Abendmuhle  (2d  ed.  Leipsic,  1831) ;  Ebrard 
(Evangelical),  Das  Dogma  vom  Ahendmahl  iind  seine 
Geschichte  (Frankfort,  l'«-15) ;  Kahnis  (High  Lutheran), 


Die  Lehre  vom  Ahendmahle  (Leipsic,  1851) ;  L.  J. Ruck- 
ert  (Rationalistic),  I)as  Ahendmahl,  sein  Wesen  und  seine 
Geschichte  in  der  alten  Kirche  (Leipsic,  1856,  2  vols.). 
For  many  other  foreign  monographs,  see  Danz,  Worter- 
buch,  s:  V.  Abcndmahl:  Yolbeding,  Index,  p.  50;  Hase, 
Leben  Jesu,  p.  194;  Malcom,  Theol.  Index,  p.  275.  The 
following  are  the  principal  luiglish  works  on  the  sub- 
ject: "Wilberforce  (Puseyite),  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist 
(Lond.  1853),  and  Sermons  on  the  Ilohj  Communion  (ib. 
1854) ;  J.  Taylor  (in  opposition  to  \Vilberforce),  True 
Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  (London,  1855) ;  Goode  (W.), 
Nature  of  Christ's  Person  in  the  Eucharist  (1856) ;  Pu- 
sey  (E.  Ii.),Eeal  Presence  (1853-7);  Freeman,  Princi- 
ples of  Divine  Service ;  Turton  (Pp.),  Eucharist,  and 
Wiseman's  Reply  (in  ten  Essays,  1854).  ]\Iore  general 
are  Dorner,  Doctrine  of  the  Person  of  Christ  (Edinburgh, 
1864,  5  vols.  8vo),  vol.  ii,  div.  ii,  p.  116  ;  and  his  Protest. 
Theol.  p.  298;  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  vo].  i,  § 
73;  Heppe, /Vo.ymM^j/i-,  p.  455 ;  Cunningham, ///i.-^  Theol. 
i,  205;  ii,  142  sq. ;  Auberlen,  Dis.  Revel,  p.  210  sq. ; 
Browne,  Exposition  of  the  XXXIX  Articles,  p.  683  sq. ; 
Forbes,  Explan.  of  the  XXXIX  A  rticles,  ii,  496 ;  Mar- 
tensen,  Christian  Dogmatics,  p.  482  sq. ;  J.  Pye  Smith, 
Christian  Theology,  p.  686  sq. ;  Baur,  Dogmengesch.  iii, 
10,  247;  Liddon,  Our  Lord's  Divinity  (see  Index  under 
Eucharist);  Miinscher,  Dogmengesch.  ii,  673  sq.  See 
also  Ch.  of  Engl.  Quart.  1855,  Jan.  art.  i ;  Evangel.  Rev. 
1866,  p.  369  sq.;  Method.  Quart.  Rev.  1860  (Oct.).  p.  648 
sq. ;  1870  (April),  p.  301  ;  Jahrb.  deutsche  Theol.  1867, 
ii,  21  sq. ;  1868,  vol.  i  and  ii ;  1870,  vol.  iii  and  iv  ;  Stud. 
u.Krit.  1841,  iii,  715  sq.;  1839,  i,  69,  123;  1840,  ii,  389; 
1844,  ii,  409;  1860,  ii,  362;  WWgmMA,  Zeitschr.  Wis- 
sensch.  Theol.  1867, p. 84 ;  Christian  Monthly,l»M: (Blay), 
p.  542;  Christian  Rememh.  I8h3  (Oet.),  p.  93,  203 ;  18(37, 
p.  84;  Khto,Joi(rn.  Sac.  Lit.  1854  (Oct.),  p.  102:  Bibl. 
Sacra,  1862,  art.  vi ;  1803,  p.  3 ;  Mercersb.  Rev.  1858,  p. 
103  .;  Ch.  Reviciv,  1866.  p.  11  sq. ;  Christian  Rev.  xl,  191  ; 
Lit.  and  Theol.  Rev.  1836  (Sept.) ;  Bapt.  Quart.  Review, 
1870  (Oct.).  p.  497 ;  Contemp.  Rev.  1868  (July  and  Nov.) ; 
Edinb.  Rev.  1867  (April),  p.  232;  Brit.  Quart.  Rev.  1868, 
p.  1 13  ;  Princeton  Rer.  1848 ;  Brit,  and  Ear.  Ev.  Revietr, 
1808,  p.  431 ;  Westm.  Rev.  1871,  p.  96  sq.  An  accoimt 
of  the  mode  of  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  by 
the  various  denominations  is  given  by  Scheibel,  Feier 
des  heiligen  Abendmahls  bei  den  verschiedenen  Religions- 
parteien  (Breslau,  1824).     See  Supper. 

Lorenz,  Johanx  IMichael,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Strasburg  June  16, 1692.  and  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  that  city.  In  1713  he  obtained  the 
degree  of  A.M. ;  in  1714  he  was  appointed  preacher  in 
his  native  place;  in  1722,  professor  ordinarj'  of  divinity 
at  his  alma  mater.  In  addition  to  this,  he  was  appoint- 
ed in  1724  visitor  of  Williams  College;  in  1728,  morn- 
ing preacher  and  prebendary  of  the  foundation  of  St. 
Thomas;  in  1734.  pastor  of  the  Thomas  Church;  in  1741, 
vice-president  of  the  ecclesiastical  conference.  The  doc- 
torate in  divinity  he  obtained  in  1722.  He  died  Aug. 
13, 1752.  By  more  than  fifty  Latin  dissertations  on  dog- 
matical and  excgctical  theology  Lorenz  gained  an  hon- 
orable name  in  theological  literature.  We  only  men- 
tion Dissertatio  de  unctione  Spiritual!,  ad  1  Joh.  ii,  27 
(Argentorati,  1723,  4to).  See  Doring,  Gekhie  Theol, 
Deutschlands,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lorenzo  or  Lorenzetto,  Ambrogto  and  Pietro 
Di,  two  celebrated  Italian  painters  of  the  14th  century, 
were  born  at  Siena  about  1300.  They  were  brothers, 
as  we  learn  from  an  inscription  which  was  attached  to 
their  pictures  of  the  "  Presentation"  and  of  the  '•  Marriage 
of  the  Virgin,"  destroyed  in  1720.  The  principal  of  their 
works,  which  was  painted  in  the  ]\Iinorite  convent  at 
Siena,  and  represented  the  fatal  adventures  of  some  mis- 
sionary monks,  has  been  destroyed.  In  the  first  com- 
partment a  youth  was  represented  putting  on  tl)e  mo- 
nastic costume;  in  another,  the  same  youth  was  repre- 
sented with  several  of  his  brother  monks  about  to  set 
out  for  Asia,  to  convert  the  Mohammedans;  in  a  third, 
these  missionaries  are  already  at  their  place  of  destina- 


LORETTO 


516 


LORIA 


fion,  and  arc  being  cliastised  in  the  sultan's  presence, 
and  are  surrounded  and  mocked  by  a  crowd  of  scoffing 
infidels;  tlie  sultan  judges  them  to  be  hanged;  in  a 
fourth  the  young  monk  is  already  hanged  to  a  tree,  yet 
lie  notwitlistanding  continues  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
tiie  astonished  multitude,  upon  which  the  sultan  orders 
their  heads  to  be  cut  ofT;  the  next  compartment  is 
ttieir  ceremonious  execution  by  the  sword,  and  the  scaf- 
fold is  surrounded  by  a  great  crowd  on  foot  and  on 
horseback;  after  the  execution  follows  a  great  storm, 
which  is  represented  in  all  the  detail  of  wind,  hail,  light- 
ning, and  earthquake,  from  all  of  which  the  crowd  are 
protecting  themselves  as  they  best  can,  and  this  mira- 
<le,  as  it  was  considered,  is  the  cause  of  many  conver- 
hiims  to  Christianity.  Of  the  several  pictures  by  Am- 
l>rogio  mentioned  b}''  Ghiberti  only  one  remains,  the 
Presentation  of  the  Virrjin  in  the  Temple,  in  the  Scuole 
Regie.  Of  works  by  Pietro  Lorenzo  there  is  only  one 
authenticated  work;  it  is  in  the  Stanza  del  Pilone,  a 
room  against  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral  of  Siena,  and 
represents,  according  to  Pumohr,  some  passages  from 
the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  liis  birth,  etc.  Vasari  men- 
t  ions  many  works  by  Pietro  in  various  cities  of  Tuscany, 
and  attributes  to  him  a  picture  of  the  early  fatliers  and 
hermits  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  In  1355  Pietro 
was  invited  to  Arezzo  to  paint  the  cathedral,  in  which 
he  painted  in  fresco  twelve  stories  from  the  life  of  the 
Virgin,  with  figures  as  large  as  life  and  larger,  but  they 
have  long  since  perished ;  they  were,  however,  in  good 
preservation  in  the  time  of  Vasari,  who  completely  re- 
stored them.  He  speaks  of  parts  of  them  as  superior  in 
style  and  vigor  to  anything  that  had  been  done  up  to 
that  time. — English  Ci/clop.  s.  v.  See  also  Vasari,  F«Ve 
de'  Pittori,  etc. ;  Delia  Valle,  Lettere  Sanesi ;  Lanzi,  Sto- 
ria  Pittorica,  etc. ;  and  especially  Ruraohr,  Italienische 
Forschunqen,  in  which  the  two  Lorenzetti  are  treated 
of  at  considerable  length. 

Loretto,  properly  Loreto  (Lauretuji),  an  Italian 
city  of  some  8OOIJ  inhabitants,  several  miles  south  of  An- 
cona,  is  renowned  simply  as  a  place  of  pilgrimage.  It 
is  the  site  of  the  celebrated  sanctuary  of  the  Virgin 
Blary  called  the  /Santa  Casa,  or  Holy  House.  The 
church  of  Santa  Casa  was  built  in  1461-1513.  The  first 
mention  of  this  santa  rasa  is  to  be  found  in  Flavins 
Blondus's  (f  14tJ3)  Italia  illii.^trata.  where  lie  says  of  it, 
'•  Celeberrimum  totius  Itali;e  sacellum  beatre  Virginis  in 
Laureto."  He  mentions  the  many  rich  presents  which 
were  made  to  the  shrine  as  a  proof  that  "  at  this  place 
the  prayers  for  the  intercession  of  the  mother  of  God 
are  granted,"  but  he  says  nothing  of  the  origin  of  the 
place.  Pope  Paul  II  (f  1471)  granted  indulgences  to 
those  who  visited  this  shrine,  and  this  example  was  fol- 
lowetl  by  his  successors.  liaptista  INIantuanus,  in  his 
Redemptoris  mundi  matris  ecckdce  Lauretance  historia 
(Antwerp,  1576),  relates,  quoting  a  history  found  at  the 
slirine  itself  (and  probably  written  about  1450-80),  that 
the  house  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  in  which  Christ  was 
brought  up.  and  which  was  said  to  have  been  discov- 
ered l)y  St.  Helena,  was,  after  the  total  downfall  of  the 
country,  and  the  destruction  of  its  Christian  churches 
by  the  Turks  in  IMay.  1291.  brought  by  the  angels  to 
Dalmatia,  and  four  and  a  half  years  later  to  Italy,  in 
ilie  neighborhood  of  liecanati,  and  was  thence  finally 
(ransferred  to  its  present  site.  This  story  is  contradict- 
ed by  the  Church  historians  of  the  14th  century  them- 
selves, who  say  that  in  tlieir  day  IMary's  house  at  Naz- 
areth was  still  visited  by  iiilgrinis.  The  houses  of  Re- 
canati  resembk'd  eacli  other  very  mncli,  and  the  selec- 
tion of  the  original  hal)itat  ion  of  the  Virgin  proved  verj- 
difficidt,  as  private  interests  became  mixed  up  with4t. 

But  now  as  to  the  church  of  the  Santa  Casa  itself.  It 
stands  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  in  a  piazza  which  pos- 
sesses other  architectural  attractions,  the  chief  pf  which 
are  the  governor's  palace,  built  from  the  designs  of  Bra- 
mante,  and  a  fine  bronze  statue  of  ]iope  Sixtus  V.  The 
grcfu  central  door  of  the  church  is  surmounted  by  a 
splendid  bronze  statue  of  the  Madonna;  and  in  the  in- 


terior are  three  magnificent  bronze  doors  filled  with  bas- 
reliefs,  representing  tlie  principal  events  of  scriptural 
and  ecclesiastical  history.  The  celebrated  Holy  House 
stands  within.  It  is  a  small  brick  house,  with  on.e  door 
and  one  window,  originally  of  rude  material  and  con- 
struction, but  now,  from  the  devotion  of  successive  gen- 
erations, a  marvel  of  art  and  of  costliness.  It  is  entirely 
cased  with  white  marble,  exquisitely  sciUptured,  after 
Bramante's  designs,  by  Sansovino,  Bandinelli,  Giovanni 
Bolognese,  and  other  eminent  artists.  The  subjects  of 
the  bas-reliefs  are  all  taken  from  the  history  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary  in  relation  to  the  mj'Stery  of  the  incarnation, 
as  the  Annunciation,  the  Visitation,  the  Nativity,  with 
the  exception  of  three  on  the  eastern  side,  which  are 
mainly  devoted  to  the  legend  of  the  Holy  House  itself 
and  of  its  translation.  The  rest  of  the  interior  of  the 
church  is  rich  with  bas-reliefs,  mosaics,  frescoes,  paint- 
ings, and  carvings  in  bronze.  Of  this  material,  the 
finest  work  is  the  font,  which  is  a  master-piece  of  art. 
The  Holy  House  having  been  at  all  times  an  object  of 
devout  veneration,  its  treasury  of  votive  offerings  is  one 
of  the  richest  in  the  Western  world.  It  suffered  severely 
in  the  French  occupation  of  1796,  but  it  has  since  re- 
ceived numerous  and  most  costly  accessions.  Each  of 
the  innumerable  gold  and  silver  lamps  kept  burning  at 
the  shrine  is  endowed  to  the  amount  of  several  tliou- 
sand  dollars  to  seciu-e  their  being  always  kept  burning. 
The  remainder  of  the  wax  candles  and  oil  (of  which 
some  14,000  jiounds  are  burned  annually)  is  sold  as  pos- 
sessing sanative  virtues,  which  are  also  supposed  to  ac- 
company the  use  or  even  the  handling  of  household 
vessels  belonging  to  the  shrine.  As  many  as  40,000 
masses  have  been  said  there  in  one  year,  which  also 
adds  greatly  to  the  income.  Popes  Julius  II,  Sixtus  V, 
and  Innocent  XII  attached  indulgences  to  the  pilgrim- 
ages and  pra3-ers  offered  here,  but  nevertheless  the  num- 
ber of  pilgrims,  which  was  said  in  IGOO  to  have  reached 
200,000  per  annum,  fell  in  the  last  century  to  40,000, 
and  in  our  own  day  remains  at  this  number.  The  fres- 
coes of  the  church  are  among  the  finest  to  be  found  in 
the  world.  The  name  it  took  from  Laureta,  a  lady  on 
whose  estate  the  Santa  Casa  remained  for  a  while. 

The  historj'  of  this  shrine  has  been  critically  examined 
by  P.  P.  Bergerius,  and  in  1619  by  Prof.Vernegger,  of 
Strasburg.  Its  principal  champions  were  Jesuits ;  among 
them  we  would  mention  Turrianus,  Canisius,  and  Baro- 
nius.  Imitations  of  the  Santa  Casa  have  been  erected 
in  some  places,  as  at  Prague,  near  Augsburg,  etc.,  and,  in 
turn,  became  shrines. — Herzog,  Real-Enajklop.  viii,  489. 

Loria  (orLuria)  Isaac  (by  the  Jews  i"iX  [Lion'], 
the  initials  of  pn:Ji  "^-l  ■'T32"rX),  a  noted  rabbi  and 
great  expounder  of  tlie  Cabala  (q.  v.),  was  born  at  Jeru- 
salem in  1534,  of  a  German-Jewish  family.  His  father 
having  died  when  he  was  a  child,  he  was  cared  for  by  a 
rich  uncle,  and  was  dedicated  to  the  study  of  the  Tal- 
mud at  Cairo,  ^^'hen  twenty-four  years  of  age  he  was 
considered  one  of  the  greatest  Talmudists  of  that  place. 
Unfortunately,  however,  Loria  became  an  ardent  ad- 
mirer of  the  mystical  writings  of  the  Jews,  and  espe- 
cially enraptured  with  the  Sohar  (q.  v.),  one  of  the 
Cabalistic  works.  The  hermit  of  Cairo  was  the  first  to 
bring  the  intricate  and  confused  system  of  the  Sohar 
into  order,  unity,  and  congruity ;  he  also  made  many 
vduable  additions.  A  most  remarkable  feature  of  his 
views  are  the  numerous  divisions  of  his  psychology, 
with  its  two  sexes.  Still,  all  these  theories  were,  with 
him,  only  premises  to  lead  on  to  a  more  important  and 
practical  branch  in  tlie  Cabala,  which  he  called  the 
"world  of  perfection"  (01am  ha-Tikkun).  He  also  held 
peculiar  views  on  the  fall  of  man.  By  reason  of  Adam's 
original  sin,  he  hejd,  the  higher  and  the  infernal  souls, 
the  good  and  the  evil,  came  into  confusion,  and  became 
intermixed  with  each  other,  a  transmigration  and  sepa- 
ration of  souls  was  thus  a  necessity.  In  addition  to  this 
lie  teaches  the  Siiperfitatio.  He  pretended  to  have  a 
full  knowledge  concerning  the  origin,  relation,  and  rami- 


LCRIA 


517 


LORT 


fication  of  souls;  further,  to  possess  the  power  and  faculty 
to  compel  the  spirits  of  the  upper  world  to  take  their 
abode  in  the  bodies  of  living  men,  in  order  to  reveal  to 
them  what  is  going  on  in  the  upper  world;  further,  to 
be  able  to  read  on  every  man's  brow  in  which  relation 
his  soul  stands  to  the  higher  worlds.  In  Cairo  nobody 
interested  himself  in  his  mysticism,  and  he  therefore 
emigrated  in  1569  to  Safet,  the  cabalistic  Jerusalem, 
where  the  Cabala  was  esteemed  as  high  as  the  Bible. 
His  superior  knowledge,  facidties,  and  gifts  gradually 
secured  him  the  favor  of  the  Cabalists,  and  Loria  was 
soon  surrounded  by  troops  of  young  and  old  Cabalists, 
who  came  to  listen  to  his  new  revelations.  He  subse- 
(juently  formed  a  cabalistic  commmiity,  who  lived  to- 
gether apart  from  the  non-Cabalists,  and  according  to 
his  prescriptions.  After  Loria's  death  (August,  1572), 
Vital  Calabrese  became  his  successor  and  gathered  his 
productions,  while  another  of  his  disciples,  the  Italian 
Israel  Saruk,  propagated  his  teachings  in  Europe.  In- 
deed, it  may  be  said  that  the  influence  of  this  Cabalist 
extended  more  or  less  over  all  the  Jews  of  the  globe, 
and  many  of  them  to  this  very  day  follow  this  great 
Jewish  mystic  in  assigning  to  the  Sohar  equal  value  as 
to  the  Bible.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  by 
his  influence  he  also  called  forth  a  revival  in  the  Jewish 
communities  everywhere,  and  a  reaction  in  the  phari- 
saic,  lifeless  prayers,  while  even  upon  the  Christian  the- 
osophy,  mysticism,  and  exegetical  studies  his  influence 
was  considerable.  See  Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Juclen,  ix,  437 
sq. ;  X,  125;  Jost,  Gesch.  d.Judenth.  iii,  138,145;  Flirst, 
Biblioth.  Jud.  ii,  257  sq. 

Loria,  Salomo,  a  noted  rabbi,  was  born  at  Posen 
in  1510.  Gifted  with  great  talents,  he  devoted  himself 
to  a  thorough  research  of  Jewish  literature.  On  ac- 
count of  his  onslaughts  on  Jewish  tradition  he  became 
involved  in  manifold  controversies  with  his  colleagues, 
and  was  persecuted ;  but,  though  personally  disliked  on 
account  of  his  inclination  to  polemics,  and  not  sparing 
even  the  private  characteristics  of  living  authorities,  his 
just  merits  concerning  the  Talmud  were  recognised  af- 
ter all,  and  his  commentaries  on  six  volumes  of  the  Tal- 
mud are  held  in  high  reputation  among  the  Talmudic 
Jews  to  this  very  day.  He  died  in  1573.  See  Griitz, 
Gesch.  d.  Juden,  ix,  4G7  sq. ;  Ft'irst,  Bibl.  Jud.  ii,  2G0  sq. 

Lorin(us),  Jean,  a  Jewish  commentator  on  the 
Scriptures,  distinguished  in  his  day  as  an  exegetical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Avignon  in  1559;  taught  theology 
at  Paris,  Rome,  and  Milan,  and  died  March  2G,  1G34,  at 
Dole.  For  a  list  of  his  works,  see  Hoefer,  Kouv.  liiog. 
Generule,  xxxi,  662. 

Lorraine,  Chakles  de  Guise,  Cardinal  of.  See 
Guise,  Chakles. 

Lorsbach,  Georg  Wiliielji,  a  German  theologian, 
M-as  born  at  Dillenburg,  in  the  duchy  of  Nassau,  Feb.  29, 
1752.  In  1768  he  entered  the  University  of  Herborn ; 
in  1771  he  removed  to  that  of  Giittingen,  and  became 
there  an  enthusiastic  student  of  the  Oriental  languages 
under  Michaclis.  After  having  flnished  the  academical 
course,  he  spent  four  years  in  private  study  in  his  fa- 
ther's house,  preparing  himself  for  the  ministry.  In 
1778  he  became  rector  at  Sicgen;  in  1786,  at  the  gram- 
mar-school of  his  native  place,  and  obtained,  at  the 
same  time,  the  dignity  of  professor;  in  1791,  rector  at 
the  grammar-school  of  Herborn,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  at  the  academy  there, 
and  in  the  following  year  was  appointed  to  lecture  at 
the  university  of  that  place  on  history  and  exegesis. 
In  1793  he  became  the  third  professor  ordinary  of  di- 
vinity ;  in  1794,  the  second  professor  and  a  counsellor 
of  the  Consistorj'.  Having  become  famous,  by  reason 
of  his  literan,'  contributions,  as  an  eminent  Orientalist, 
he  was,  in  1812,  called  to  the  University  of  Jena  as  pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  literature.  The  theological  faculty 
of  Marburg  bestowed  on  him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  di- 
vinity. He  died  March  30, 1816.  "Hc  belongs  to  the 
few  and  rare  scholars  of  the  ancient  languages  who 


combined  acnteness  with  extensive  learning.  De  Sacy 
places  him  among  the  first  German  Orientalists.  He 
published  an  A  rchiv  d.movf/enlandischen  Literatur  (Mar- 
burg, 1791-94,  2  bde.  8vo).  See  Doring,  Gelehrte  Thiol. 
Deutschkmds,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lorsch,  Convent  of  (otherwise  Lauresham,  Lau- 
resheim,  nionasterium  Laureucense,  Laurissense,  Laiiris- 
su),  situated  four  miles  from  Heidelberg,  was  established 
about  A.D.  764  by  countess  Williswinda  (widow  of  count 
Bupert,  who,  by  order  of  Pepin,  conducted  pope  Ste- 
phen back  to  Komc)  and  her  son  Cancor.  Its  first  ab- 
bot is  said  to  have  been  a  near  relative  of  the  founders, 
Chrodegang  of  Metz.  The  first  establishment  was  on  an 
island  of  the  Weschnitz,  dedicated  to  St. Peter;  a  sec- 
ond was  soon  erected  on  a  hill  in  the  neighborhood. 
Charlemagne  greatly  interested  himself  in  this  monas- 
tery, and  added  to  it  as  endowment  Ileppenheim  (in 
January,  773)  and  Oppenheim  (in  September.  774\  and 
personall}'  attended  the  consecration.  Louis  the  Picus, 
Lothaire,  Louis  the  German,  and  Louis  III  all  confirmed 
successively  the  donations  of  Charlemagne.  But  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  prosperity  for  the  convent  was 
its  having  received  from  Pome  the  relics  of  St.Nazarius, 
which  brought  it  numberless  presents  and  donations, 
and  soon  made  it  one  of  the  most  prosperous  convents 
at  the  time.  Lorsch  also  enjoys  great  litcrarj-  fame. 
Its  monks  especially  distinguiyied  themselves  by  their 
literary  pursuits,  to  which  the  A  nnales  Laureshamenscs 
bear  witness.  The  early  part  of  these  annals  (706-768) 
is  evidently  derived  from  those  of  the  convent  of  Mur- 
bach,  which  were  verj^  popular ;  but  after  that  time  they 
are  clearly  original,  and  continue  down  to  803.  Aside 
from  the  less  important  Annules  Laurissenses  minores, 
we  must  mention  the  Amiales  Lau7-isse}ises,  formerly 
called  2)lebeji  or  Loiseliani,  which  are  the  most  important 
annals  of  the  time.  Eanke  has  lately  discovered  in 
them  the  official  work  of  a  Carlovingian  court  historian, 
which  was  afterwards  used  by  Einhard  as  the  basis  of 
the  annals  bearing  his  name.  Until  the  11th  century 
the  convent  enjoved  great  prosperity.  Then  its  reverses 
commenced,  and,  after  various  struggles,  it  fell  in  the 
12th  century,  till  "a  planta  pedis  usque  ad  verticem  non 
fuit  in  CO  sanitas."  The  moral  condition  of  the  Lorsch 
monastery  had  greatly  deteriorated  ever  since  the  11th 
centurj',  and  it  became  necessary  to  inaugurate  a  re- 
form. This  task  was  intrusted  to  archbishop  Sifried  II 
of  Mentz,  A.D.  1229.  His  successor,  Sifried  III, however, 
\vas  really  the  man  who  completed  this  task  by  subject- 
ing the  monks  to  the  Cistercian  rule,  "  ut  ordo,"  says 
Gregory  IX  in  his  brief,  "de  nigro  conversus  in  album 
purgetur  vitiis  et  virtutibus  augeatur."  By  him  also 
were  subsequently  installed  into  Lorsch  some  Prremon- 
strant  canons  of  the  convent  of  All  Saints  (diocese  of 
Strasburg),  and  the  pope  approved  it  as  a  new  organiza- 
tion Jan.  8, 1248.  In  the  second  half  of  the  IGth  century 
Lorsch  was  subjected  to  the  rule  of  the  electoral  admin- 
istration. Vainly  did  the  Prwmonstrants  appeal  to  pope 
Alexander  VII :  the  convent  retained  only  the  original 
foundation  at  Mentz  and  its  dependencies.  Not  until 
after  the  completion  of  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1650) 
was  a  part  of  its  other  possessions  restored  to  it.  In 
1651  the  Palatinate  renewed  its  claims  to  the  lands  of 
the  convent,  and  questioned  the  propriety  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Lorsch  as  a  separate  duchy,  with  repre- 
sentation in  the  Diet.  The  quarrel  lasted  nearly  through 
the  whole  of  the  18th  century,  but  was  finally  settled  in 
1803,  when  the  convent  became  the  possession  of  the 
house  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  See  Rettberg,  A'.  Geschkhte 
Deutschlands,  i,  584  sq. ;  K.  Dahl,  Beschreih.  d.  Fiiisten- 
thtans  Lorsch  (Darmstadt,  1812,  4to);  Codex  principis 
oliin  Laureshamensis,  etc.,  edit.  Acadera.  elector,  sclent. 
Thoodoro-Palatina,  vol.  iii  (Mannh.  1768, 4to) ;  Heraog, 
Rtal-Encyklop,  viii,  490. 

Lort,  JMiCHAEL,  D.D.,  an  English  theologian,  was 
born  in  1725 ;  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  1745 ; 
became  professor  of  Greek  at  Cambridge  in  1759 ;  rec- 


LO-RUHAMAH 


518 


LOSS 


tor  of  St.  Matthew,  London,  in  1771 ;  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's  in  1780.  He  died  in  1790.  His  works  were.  Pa- 
pers in  Archceolofjy,  1777,  '79,  '87  : — Short  Comment  on 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  1790 : — Inquiry  Relative  to  the  A  u- 
thorship  of^'-  The  whole  Duty  of  Man ;"  and  a  small  vol- 
ume of  Se}-mons.  See  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  mer. 
A  iithois,  yci\.  ii,  s.y. 

Lo-ruha'mah  (Heb.  Lo-Rucha'mah,  iT3tT1  N?, 
not  pitied,  as  it  is  explained  in  both  contexts,  Hos.  i,  6, 
Sept.  Oi'ic  )/X£»;jU£j'//,  Vulg.  Absque  misericordia,  and  as 
it  is  rendered  in  the  Auth.Yers.,  Hos.  ii,  23,  "  not  obtain- 
ed mercy"),  the  name  divinely  appointed  for  the  first 
daughter  of  the  prophet  Hosea  by  the  formerly  disso- 
lute Gomer,  a  type  of  Jehovah's  temporary  rejection  of 
his  people  by  the  Babylonian  captivity  in  consecjuence 
of  their  idolatry  (Hos.  i,  6 ;  ii,  23 ;  comp.  ii,  1).  B.C.  cir. 
725.     See  Hosea. 

Losada,  Chuistopher,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  of 
Protestantism  in  Spain  in  the  IGth  century,  was,  at  the 
time  of  his  conversion  under  the  preaching  of  Dr.  Egid- 
ius  [see  Gil,  Juan],  an  eminent  physician  and  learned 
philosopher.  He  was  chosen  pastor  of  a  Protestant 
Church  in  Seville,  which  met  ordinarily  in  the  house 
of  Isabella  de  Baena,  "  a  lady  not  less  distinguished  for 
her  piety  than  for  her  rank  and  opulence."  Among 
the  members  of  note  in  his  congregation  were  Don 
Juan  Ponce  de  Leon,  and  Domingo  de  Guzman,  and  oth- 
ers equally  well  celebrated.  Arrested  by  the  Inquisition 
in  consequence  of  his  zeal  in  diffusing  Protestant  princi- 
ples among  his  countrymen,  neither  the  prison  nor  the 
rack  availed  to  make  him  renounce  his  convictions,  and 
he  was  consequently  condemned  to  the  stake.  He  suf- 
fered death  at  an  "  auto-da-fe,"  solemnized  at  Seville 
Sept.  24, 1559,  in  the  square  of  St.  Francis,  and  attended 
by  four  bishops,  the  members  of  the  royal  court  of  jus- 
tice, the  chapter  of  the  cathedral,  and  a  great  assem- 
blage of  nobility  and  gentry,  the  occasion  of  the  death- 
penalty  on  twenty-one  apostates  from  the  Pomish  be- 
lief. The  most  distinguished  individual  aside  from  Dr. 
Losada  was  one  of  his  members,  Don  Juan  Ponce  de 
Leon,  whom  we  have  mentioned  above.  They  both  bore 
their  trial  with  admirable  Christian  patience,  commit- 
ting their  souls  to  a  faithful  Creator.  See  Fox,  Booh  of 
JIurtyrs,  p.  136 ;  jNl'Crie,  Reformation  in  Spain,  p.  217, 
300, 307.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Loscher,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  ^^'erden  May  8,  ItJoO,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Wittenberg.  He  flourished  succes- 
sively as  superintendent  of  the  churches  of  Sondershau- 
sen  (1668),  pastor  at  Erfurt  (1676),  superintendent  at 
Zwickau  (1679),  and  then  as  senior  jjreacher  in  the 
■west  Prussian  city  of  Dantzic.  In  1687  he  was  made 
doctor  and  professor  of  theology  at  his  alma  mater,  and 
he  remained  there  until  his  death,  July  11,1718.  He 
wrote  many  theological  dissertations,  of  but  little  value 
in  our  day. 

Loscher,  Valentin  Ernst,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man theologian,  was  born  at  Sondershausen  in  1673.  He 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Wittenberg  (where  his 
father,  Caspar  Loscher,  was  a  professor)  and  Jena,  and 
then  went  on  a  perigrinatio  academica  through  the 
Netherlands  and  Denmark,  and  the  cities  Hamburg  and 
Kostock.  In  the  last-named  place  he  connected  himself 
with  tlie  anti-Pietist  party,  but  after  his  return  he  de- 
voted himself  to  historical  studies,  and  delivered  lec- 
tures on  genealogy  and  heraldry,  as  well  as  on  exegesis, 
morals,  etc.  In  1698  he  was  appointed  superintendent 
by  the  duke  of  Wcissenfels,  and,  some  time  after,  began, 
in- connection  with  some  friends,  the  publication  of  the 
first  theological  periodical  in  Germany,  the  Unschuldifje 
Nuchriehten  von  alien  v.  neuen  thiohij.  Sacheit  (20  vols, 
to  1720;  continued  by  Henry  Keinhard  until  1731). 
This  became  the  organ  of  the  orthodox  "jiarty  in  Sax- 
ony, as  opposed  to  the  pietism  and  indifterentism  pre- 
vailing at  the  time.  His  sphere  of  influence  was  after- 
wards enlarged,  lirstas  superintendent  of  Delitzsch,  and, 


later  (1702),  as  professor  in  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg. In  1704  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
Dresden  and  member  of  the  supreme  consistorial  court. 
In  this  position  his  activity  was  soon  manifested  in  the 
improved  facilities  for  reUgious  and  secular  instruction. 
Besides  establishing  several  parish  schools,  he  laid  the 
foundation  of  a  seminarium  ministerii;  at  the  same  time 
he  zealously  instructed  candidates  for  the  ministry, 
preached  both  on  Sundays  and  week-days,  besides  car- 
rying on  an  extensive  correspondence  with  the  princes, 
states,  and  pastors  who  held  fast  to  the  orthodox  faith, 
and  opposed,  with  him,  the  inroads  of  pietism  and  indif- 
ferentism.  He  died  Feb.  12, 1741.  Loscher  left  a  col- 
lection of  his  letters  forming  five  volumes  folio,  which 
are  preserved  in  the  Hamburg  Library.  His  principal 
works  are  Histoi-iu  mortuum  (part  i,  1707 ;  pt.  iii,  1722)  : 
— Die  Reformationsahta : — Timotheus  Verinus  (1718). 
See  Herzog,  Real-Encykl.  s.  v.  -,  Tholuck,  Der  Geist  d.  lu- 
therischen  Theologen  Wittenb.  (1852);  M.  v.  Engelhardt, 
Valentin  Ernst  Loscher  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken  (Dorpat, 
1853 ;  2d  edit.,  Stuttg.  1856) ;  Hurst's  Hagenbach,  Ch. 
Hist.  ISth  and  I'Jth  Cent,  i,  109  sq.,  116  sq.,  130. 

XiOSliiel,  George  Henry,  a  bishop  of  the  Moravian 
Church,  celebrated  as  a  preacher,  hymnologist,  and  au- 
thor, was  born  Nov.  7,  1740,  at  Angermiinde,  in  Cour- 
land,  where  his  father  had  charge  of  a  Lutheran  parish. 
In  early  life  he  joined  the  Moravians,  and  studied  both 
theology  and  medicine  at  their  college  at  Barby,  in 
Germany.  After  practicing  medicine  for  a  time,  he  de- 
voted himself  wholly  to  the  ministry,  in  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Livonia.  In  1802  he  was  consecrated  a 
bishop,  and  came  to  the  United  States  in  order  to  fill 
the  office  of  president  of  the  provincial  board  which 
governs  the  Moravian  churches  in  this  country.  Fail- 
ing health  and  other  circumstances  constrained  him  to 
retire  from  this  position  in  1810.  Two  years  later  he 
was  elected  into  the  general  board  of  the  Church  at 
Berthelsdorf,  in  Saxony;  but  the  war  with  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  state  of  his  health  prevented  him  from  leav- 
ing America.  He  died  Feb.  23,  1814,  at  Bethlehem, 
Pa.  His  two  principal  works  are  Geschichte  d.  Mission 
der  Eranq.  Briider  iinter  den  Indianern  in  N.  A.  (1789), 
translated  into  English  by  La  Trobe,  and  published  in 
London  (1794),  a  standard  on  the  Moravian  missions 
among  the  Indians,  with  a  fnll  account  of  their  manners 
and  customs,  based  upon  the  reports  of  the  missionaries, 
and  Etiras  firs  Ilerz  aif  dem.  Weye  zur  Ewiylxit  (Re- 
ligious Meditations  for  every  Day  in  the  Year),  a  book 
which  passed  through  eight  editions  (the  last  in  1848), 
and  is  still  read  with  great  profit  by  thousands  of  Chris- 
tians in  Germany.  See  De  Schweinitz,  Life  and  Times 
of  David  Zeisberyer  (Phila.  1871,  8vo),  p.  662  sq.  (E. 
deS.) 

Ldsner,  Christopher  Feiedricii,  a  German  the- 
ologian, noted  in  the  department  of  exegesis,  was  born 
at  Leipsic  in  1734,  and  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  that  place.  He  aftenvards  held  a  professorship  in 
his  alma  mater.  He  died  there  in  1803.  His  chief 
work  is  Observationes  ad  Xovnm  Testamentum,  e  Philone 
Alexandrino  (Leipsic,  1777,  8 vo\  In  this  work  '-the 
force  and  meaning  of  words  are  particularly  illustrated, 
together  with  points  of  antiquity,  and  the  readings  of 
Philo's  text.  The  light  thrown  upon  the  New  Test,  by 
the  writings  of  Philo  is  admirably  elucidated  by  LiJsner" 
(Home).  Another  valuable  production  of  his  is  Obser- 
vationes in  reliqiiias  versionis  Proverhiorum  Salomonis 
Grwan  A  quihe,  Symmachi  et  Theodotionis. 

Loss  (prop,  some  form  of  the  verb  T3X,  c'tTroWi'/ji, 
but  likewise  a  frctpient  rendering  of  several  other  Heb. 
and  Gr.  terms  wliicli  usually  imply  an  idea  of  damaye). 
According  to  the  Mosaic  law,  whoever  among  the  He- 
brews foimd  any  lost  article  (ri"3!S;)  was  required  to 
take  it  to  his  home,  and  then  endeavor  to  discover  the 
proper  owner  (Dcut.  xxii,  1-3).  This  woidd,  of  course, 
particularly  apply  to  stray  animals,  and  Josephus  gives 
some  special  details  \di\x  respect  to  money  so  foimd 


LOSS 


519 


LOT 


{Ant.  iv,.8,  29 ;  compare  the  IMishna,  Shel-al  vii,  2).  In 
case  of  the  abstraction  of  property  while  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  finder,  the  latter  had  not  only  to  make  it 
good,  but  also  to  add  one  fifth  of  its  value,  and  even  to 
make  a  sin-offering  lilvcwise  (Lev.  vi,  3  sq.).  The 
Mishna  makes  many  casuistical  distinctions  on  this  sub- 
ject {Baba  Mczia,  i,  2),  especially  with  regard  to  ad- 
vertising (T""^-!!,  i.  e.  KijpvTTitv)  the  discovered  prop- 
erty.— Winer,  ii,  651.     See  Damage. 

IiOSS,  Lewis  Homui,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Augusta,  N.  Y.,  July  1, 1803,  and  was  educated 
at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y.  (class  of  1828).  In 
1829  he  was  licensed  and  ordained  by  Oneida  Presby- 
terj',  and  installed  pastor  of  the  Church  in  Camden, 
Oneida  County,  N.  Y.  In  the  pastoral  office  he  after- 
wards served  in  Elyria,  Ohio ;  in  Kockford  and  Chicago, 
lU.;  and  in  Joliet  and  ]\Iarshalltown,  Iowa.  He  was 
synodical  missionary  three  years  to  the  synod  of  Peoria, 
III. ;  also  prominent  in  bringing  into  existence  institu- 
tions of  learning,  as  Beloit  College  and  Rockford  Female 
Seminar}',  111.  He  died  July  10,  1865.  Mr.  Loss  was 
an  eminently  successful  preacher,  erecting  many  church- 
es, and  especially  prominent  in  the  Sabbath  -school 
cause.  He  always  had  the  fullest  confidence  of  the  men 
of  the  world ;  they  recognised  his  worth  as  a  man  and 
a  citizen.  See  Wilson,  Presb,  Histor.  Aim,  1866,  p.  217. 
(J.  L.  S.) 

LossiilS,  Caspar  Friedrich,  a  German  theologian, 
was  born  at  Erfurt  Jan.  31, 1753,  and  was  educated  at 
the  university  of  that  place,  which  he  entered  in  1770. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  innovations  which  Bahrdt  under- 
took in  theology,  he  removed  in  1773  to  the  University 
of  Jena ;  and  again,  not  quite  satisfied  with  the  ration- 
alistic innovations  of  the  day,  he  was  obliged  to  ac- 
quire the  greater  part  of  his  learning  by  private  study. 
In  1774  he  became  school-teacher  at  his  native  place ; 
in  1781  dean  of  Andreas  Church,  and  in  1785  dean  to  the 
Prediger  Church  of  the  same  place.  He  died  March  20, 
1817.  Lossius  was  a  man  of  great  learning;  the  liter- 
ature of  the  Reformation  ^vas  almost  his  daily  study. 
Having  seen  the  danger  which  threatened  his  country, 
both  religiously  and  morally,  from  the  rationalistic  inno- 
vations, and  from  the  consequences  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, he  dedicated  most  of  his  time  and  talent  as  a  pop- 
ular author  to  the  cause  of  the  faith  and  principles  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Reformation.  Some  of  his  produc- 
tions passed  through  several  editions  in  a  short  time. 
Some  were  even  translated  into  French,  and  rescued 
thousands  from  moral  degradation  and  spiritual  destruc- 
tion. A  complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  by  Doring, 
Gekhrte.  TheoL  Deutschl.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lost  Tribes.     See  Captivity  ;  Israel. 

Lot  (properly  P^iS  or  P"lh,  goral',  KXrjpoc,  literally 
a  pebble,  used  ancientlj'  for  balloting;  other  terms  occa- 
sionally thus  rendered  are  53n  or  ?3Il,  che'bel,  a  po?-- 
Hon,  Dent,  xxxii,  9;  1  Chron.  xvi,  18;  Psa.  cv,  11,  re- 
ferring to  an  inheritance ;  and  \ayx(tt'(^j  to  obtain  by 
lot,  Luke  i,  9;  John  xix,  24),  strictly  a  small  stone,  as 
used  in  casting  lots  (Lev.  xvi,  8 ;  Numb,  xxxiii,  54 ; 
Josh,  xix,  1  •,  Ezek.  xxiv,  6 ;  Jonah  i,  7),  hence  also  a 
method  used  to  determine  chances  or  preferences,  or  to 
decide  a  debate.  The  decision  by  lot  was  often  resort- 
ed to  among  the  Hebrews,  but  always  with  the  strictest 
reference  to  the  interposition  of  (iod.  As  to  the  pre- 
cise manner  of  casting  lots,  we  have  no  certain  informa- 
tion ;  probably  several  modes  were  practiced.  In  Prov. 
xvi,  33  we  read  that  "  the  lot,"  i.  e.  pebble,  "  is  cast  into 
the  lap,"  properly  into  the  bosom  of  an  urn  or  vase.  It 
does  not  appear  that  the  lap  or  bosom  of  a  garment  worn 
by  a  person  was  ever  used  to  receive  lots. 

The  use  of  lots  among  the  ancients  was  very  general 
(see  Dale,  Orac.  etJin.  c.  14  ;  Potter,  Greek  Antiq.  i,  730 ; 
Adams,  Rom.  Ant.  i,  540  sq. ;  Smith,  Did.  of  Class.  Ant. 
6.  V.  Sors)  and  highly  esteemed  (Xenoph.  Cyrop.  i,  6, 40), 
as  is  natural  in  simple  stages  of  society  (Tacit.  Germ.  10), 


"  recommending  itself  as  a  sort  of  appeal  to  the  Almighty- 
secure  from  all  infiucnce  of  passion  or  bias,  and  a  sort 
of  divination  employed  even  by  the  gods  themselves 
(Homer,  Iliad,  xxii,  209 ;  Cicero,  De  Div.  i,  34 ;  ii,  41). 
The  w-ord  sors  is  thus  used  for  an  oracular  response  (Cic- 
ero, De  Divina,  ii,  50).  So  there  was  a  mode  of  divina- 
tion among  heathens  by  means  of  arrows,  two  inscribed 
and  one  without  mark,  l3tXofiavTiia  (Hos.  iv,  12 ;  Ezek. 
xxi,  21;  Mauritius,  De  Sortitione,  c.  14,  §  4;  see  also 
Esth.  iii,  7 ;  ix,  24-32 ;  Mishna,  Taaniih,  ii,  10).  See 
DiviNATiox.  Among  heathen  instances  the  following 
additional  may  be  cited :  1.  Choice  of  a  champion,  or  of 
priority  in  combat  (//.iii,  316;  vii,  171 ;  Ilerod. iii,  108) ; 
2.  Decision  of  fate  in  battle  (//.  xx,  209) ;  3.  Appoint- 
mentof  magistrates,  jurymen,  or  other  functionaries  (Ar- 
istot.  To/,  iv,  16;  SchoLOw  y1  m/o;;/;.  Plut.  277;  Herod, 
vi,  109 ;  Xenoph.  Q/ro/).  iv,  5,  55 ;  Demosth.  c.  A  ristog. 
i,  778, 1 ;  comp.  Smith,  Diet,  of  Class.  Antiq.  s.  v.  Dicas- 
tes)  ;  4.  Priests  (iEsch.  in  Tim.  p.  188,  Bekk.) ;  5.  A  Ger- 
man practice  of  deciding  by  marks  on  twigs,  mentioned 
by  Tacitus  {Germ.  10) ;  0.  Division  of  conquered  or  col- 
onized land  (Thucydidcs,  iii,  50  ;  Plutarch,  Pericles,  84 ; 
Bockh,  Public  Ecun.  of  Ath.  ii,  170)"  (Smith). 

The  Israelites  sometimes  had  recourse  to  lots  as  a 
method  of  ascertaining  the  divine  W'ill  (Prov.  xvi,  33), 
and  generally  in  cases  of  doubt  regarding  serious  enter- 
prises (Esth.  iii,  7  ;  compare  Rosenmiiller,  Morgenl.  iii, 
301),  especially  the  following:  (o.)  In  matters  of  par- 
tition or  distribution,  e.  g.  the  location  of  the  several 
tribes  in  Palestine  (Numb,  xxvi,  55  sq. ;  xxxiii,  54 ; 
xxxiv,  13  ;  xxxvi,  2 ;  Josh,  xiv,  2 ;  xviii,  6  sq.  •,  xix,  5), 
the  assignment  of  the  Levitical  cities  (Josh,  xxi,  4  sq.), 
and,  after  the  return  from  the  exile,  the  settlement  in 
the  homesteads  at  the  capital  (Neh.  xi,  1 ;  compare  1 
Mace,  iii,  36).  Prisoners  of  w-ar  were  also  disposed  of 
by  lot  (.Joel  iii,  3 ;  Nah.  iii,  10  ;  Obad.  11 ;  compare  Matt, 
xxvii,  35 ;  John  xix,  24 ;  compare  Xenoph.  Cyrop.  iv,  5, 
55).  (b.)  In  criminal  investigations  where  doubt  exist- 
ed as  to  the  real  culprit  (Josh,  vii,  14;  1  Sam.  xlv,  42). 
A  notion  prevailed  among  the  Jews  that  this  detection 
was  performed  by  observing  the  shining  of  the  stones  in 
the  high-priest's  breastiJate  (Mauritius,  c.  21,  §  4).  The 
instance  of  the  mariners  casting  lots  to  ascertain  by  the 
surrendering  of  what  offender  the  sea  could  be  appeased 
(Jonah  i,  7),  is  analogous;  but  it  is  not  clear,  from  Prov. 
xviii,  18,  that  lots  were  resorted  to  for  the  determination 
of  civil  disputes,  (e.)  In  the  election  to  an  important 
office  or  undertaking  for  which  several  persons  apjieared 
to  have  claims  (1  Sam.  x,  19;  Acts  i,  26;  comp.  Herod, 
iii,  128 ;  Justin,  xiii,  4 ;  Cicero,  Verr.  ii,  2,  51 ;  Aristot,  Po- 
lit.  iv,  16),  as  well  as  in  the  assignment  of  official  duties 
among  associates  having  a  common  right  (Neh.  x,  34), 
as  of  the  priestly  offices  in  the  Temple  service  among 
the  sixteen  of  the  family  of  Eleazar  and  the  eight  of 
that  of  Ithamar  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  3, 5, 19 ;  Luke  i,  9),  also 
of  the  Levites  for  similar  purposes  (1  Chron.  xxiii,  28; 
xxiv,  20-31 ;  xxv,  8 ;  xxvi,  13 ;  Mishna,  Tamid,  i,  2 ;  iii, 
1 ;  V,  2 ;  Jama,  ii,  2, 3, 4 ;  Shabb.  xxiii,  2 ;  Lightfoot,  IIoi; 
Hebr.  in  Luke  i,  8,  9,  vol.  ii,  p.  489).  (rf.)  In  military 
enterprises  (Judg.  xx,  10 ;  compare  Yal.  Max.  i,  5, 3). 

In  the  sacred  ritual  of  the  Hebrews  we  find  the  use  of 
lots  but  once  prescribed,  namely,  in  the  selection  of  the 
scape-goat  (Lev.  xvi,  8  sq.).  The  two  inscribed  tablets 
of  boxwood,  afterwards  of  gold,  were  put  into  an  urn, 
which  was  shaken,  and  the  lots  drawn  out  (Joma,  iii,  9; 
iv,  1).  See  Atonejiknt,  Day  of.  Eventually  lots  came 
into  frequent  usage  (comp.  the  IMishna,  Shaabb.  xxiii,  2). 
In  later  times  they  even  degenerated  into  a  game  of 
hazard,  of  which  human  life  was  the  stakes  (Josephus, 
War,  iii,  8,  7).  Dice  appear  to  have  been  usually  em- 
ployed for  the  lot  (b'nij  Ti'^biijri,  to  "tkroiv  the  die," 
Josh,  xviii,  8;  so  rt"iiri,  to  cast,  Josh,  xviii,  6 ;  Sidujfiij 
to  give.  Acts  i,  20 ;  753,  tti—tw,  to  fall,  .Jonah  i,  7 ;  E2ek. 
xxiv,  7 ;  Acts  i,  26),  and  were  sometimes  drawn  from  a 
vessel  (b"i15il  NU"',"  the  lot  came  forth,"  Numb,  xxxii. 


LOT 


520 


LOT 


5-1 ;  so  lis",  to  '•  come  ?//>,"  Lev.  vi,  9;  comp.  the  Mishna, 
Joma,  iv,  1).  A  different  kind  of  lot  is  elsewhere  indi- 
cated in  the  Mishna  {Joma,  ii,  1 ;  comp.  Lightfoot,  Hoi: 
Jlebr.  p.  714).  A  sacred  species  of  lot  was  by  means 
of  the  Ukiji  and  Thummim  (q.  v.)  of  the  high-priest 
(Numb,  xxvii,  21 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  G),  which  appears  to 
have  had  some  connection  with  the  divination  by  means 
of  the  sacerdotal  Epiiod  (1  Sam.  xxiii,  G,  9).  Stones 
were  occasionally  employed  in  prophetical  or  emblemat- 
ical lots  (Numb,  xvii,  G  sq. ;  Zech.  xi,  10, 14).  See  also 
PfRiM.  Election  by  lot  appears  to  have  prevailed  in 
the  Christian  Church  as  late  as  the  7th  century  (Bing- 
ham, Eccles.  A  ntiq.  iv,  1, 1,  vol.  i,  p.  42G ;  Bruns,  Cone,  ii, 
66).  Here  also  we  may  notice  the  use  of  words  heard, 
or  passages  chosen  at  random  from  Scripture.  Sortcs 
Bihlicce,  like  the  Soi-tes  Virgiliano',  prevailed  among 
Jews,  as  they  have  also  among  Christians,  though  de- 
nounced by  several  councils  (Johnson,  "Mfe  of  Cowley," 
Works,  ix,  8 ;  Bingham,  Eccl.  Antiq.  xvi,  5,  3  ;  id.,  vi,  53 
sq. ;  Bruns,  Cone,  ii,  145-154, 166 ;  Mauritius,  c.  15 ;  Hof- 
mann.  Lex.  s.  v.  Sortes). 

On  the  subject  generally,  see  Mauritius,  De  So7-titione 
ap.  vet.  Ilehrceos  (Basil,  1692) ;  Chrj'sander,  De  Sortibus 
(HaUe,  1740) ;  Benzel,  De  Sortibus  vet.  in  his  Syntagma 
dissertat.  i,  297-318 ;  Winckler,  Gedanken  iiber  d.  Spureii 
(/ottl,  Providenz  in  Loose  (Hildesheim,  1750) ;  Palaophili, 

Teeaji 

I 


Abhandl.  v.  Gehrauchs  d.  Looses  in  d.  heil.  Schr.  in  Sem- 
ler's  Ilall.  Samml.  i,  2,  79  sq. ;  Junius,  De  Sorte,  remedio 
ditbias  caussas  dirimendi  (Lips.  1746) ;  Eenberg,  De  Sor- 
tilegiis  (Upsal.  1705)  ;  Hanovius,  De  electione  j7er  sortem 
(Gedan.  1743;  m  German  by  Tramhold,  Hamb.  1751); 
Bauer,  Vormitze  Kunst,  etc.  (Hildesh.  1750). 

The  term  "fo<"  is  also  used  ibr  that  which  falls  to  one 
by  lot,  especially  a  portion  or  inheritance  (Josh,  xv,  1 ; 
J  udg.  i,  3 ;  Psa.  cxxv,  3  ;  Isa.  xvii,  14  ;  Ivii,  6 ;  Acts  viii, 
21).  Lot  is  also  used  metaphorically  for  jwiiion,  or  des- 
tiny,  as  assigned  to  men  from  God  (Psa.  xvi,  5)  :  "  And 
arise  to  thy  lot  in  the  end  of  days"  in  the  Messiah's 
kingdom  (Dan.  xii,  13 ;  comp.  Kev.  xx,  6).  See  Her- 
itage. 

Lot.     See  Myrrh. 

Lot  (Heb.  id.,  I31P,  a  covering,  as  in  Isa.  xxv,  7;  Sept. 
and  N.  T.  Aoir,  Josephus  Awtoq  ;  occurs  Gen.  xi,  27, 31 ; 
xii,  4,  5;  xiii,  1-14;  xiv.  12,  IG;  xix,  1-15,  18,  23,  29, 
30,  36;  Deut.  ii,  9,  19;  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  8;  Luke  xvii,  28, 
29,  32;  2  Pet.  ii,  7),  the  son  of  Haran  and  nephew  of 
Abraham  (Gen.  xi,  27).  His  sisters  w-ere  Milcah,  the 
wife  of  Nahor,  and  Iscah,  by  some  identified  with  Sarah. 
\\\\  our  treatment  of  the  history,  wc  freely  avail  our- 
selves of  the  articles  in  Kitto  and  Smith.]  The  follow- 
ing genealogy  exhibits  the  family  relations : 


Hagar  to  Abram  to  Sarai 


Ishmael.      Isaac 


I 
Nahor  to  Milcah 


Bethuel 


Hai-au 

I 


Lot  to  wife 


!Milcah  to  Nahor.       Iscah. 


Esau.       Jacob. 


Eebekah.       Laban. 


Daughter        Daughter 


Leah.        Eachel. 


Moab. 


Beu-Ammi. 


By  the  early  death  of  his  father  (Gen.  xi,  28),  he  was 
left  in  charge  of  his  grandfather  Terah,  with  ^vhom  he 
migrated  to  Haran,  B.C.  2089  (Gen.  xi,  31),  and  the  lat- 
ter dying  there,  he  had  already  come  into  possession  of 
his  property  when  he  accompanied  Abraham  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  B.C.  2088  (Gen.  xii,  5),  and  thence  into 
Eg}'pt,  B.C.  2087  (Gen.  xii,  10),  and  back  again,  by  the 
way  of  the  Philistines,  B.C.  2086  (Gen.  xx,  1),  to  the 
southern  part  of  Canaan  again,  B.C.  2085  (Gen.  xiii,  1). 
Their  united  substance,  consisting  chiefly  in  cattle,  was 
not  then  too  large  to  prevent  them  from  living  together 
in  one  encampment.  Eventually,  however,  their  pos- 
sessions were  so  greatly  increased  that  they  were  obliged 
to  separate,  and  Abraham,  with  rare  generosity,  conceded 
the  choice  of  pasture-grounds  to  his  nephew.  Lot  avail- 
ed himself  of  this  liberality  of  his  uncle,  as  he  deemed 
most  for  his  own  advantage,  by  fixing  his  abode  at  Sod- 
om, that  his  flocks  might  pasture  in  and  around  that 
fertile  and  well-watered  neighborhood  ((ien.  xiii,  5-13). 
He  had  soon  very  great  reason  to  regret  this  choice ;  for, 
although  his  flocks  fed  well,  his  soul  was  starved  in  that 
vile  place,  the  inhabitants  of  which  were  sinners  before 
the  Lord  exceeding!}'.  There  "  he  vexed  his  righteous 
soul  from  day  to  day  with  the  filthy  conversation  of  the 
wicked"  (2  I'et.  ii,  7). 

Not  many  years  after  his  separation  from  Abraham 
(B.C.  2080),  Lot  was  carried  away  jirisoner  by  Chedor- 
laomer,  along  with  the  other  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  and 
was  rescued  and  brought  back  by  Abraham  (Gen.  xiv), 
as  related  under  other  heads.  See  Aisraham  ;  Ciiedor- 
T.AOJIER.  Tliis  exploit  procured  for  Abraham  much  ce- 
lebrity in  Canaan  ;  and  it  ought  to  have  procured  for 
Lot  respect  and  gratitude  from  the  people  of  .Sodom, 
who  had  lieen  delivered  from  hard  slavery  and  restored 
to  their  homes  on  his  accouutT  But  this  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  the  result. 

At  length  (B.C.  2064)  the  guilt  of  "the  cities  of  the 
plain"  brought  down  the  signal  judgments  of  heaven 


(Gen.  xix,  1-29).  Lot  is  still  living  in  Sodom  (Gen. 
xix),  a  well-known  resident,  with  wife,  sons,  and  daugh- 
ters— married  and  marriageable.  The  rabbinical  tra- 
dition is  that  he  was  actually  "judge"  of  Sodom,  and 
sat  in  the  gate  in  that  capacity.  (See  quotations  in 
Otho,  I^ex.  Rabbin,  s.  v.  Lotli  and  Sodomah.)  But  in 
the  midst  of  the  licentious  corruption  of  Sodom  —  the 
eating  and  drinking,  the  buying  and  selling,  the  plant- 
ing and  building  (Luke  xvii,  28),  and  of  the  darker  evils 
exposed  in  the  ancient  narrative  —  he  still  preserves 
some  of  the  delightful  characteristics  of  his  wandering 
Ufe,  his  fervent  and  chivalrous  hospitality  (xix,  2, 8),  the 
unleavened  bread  of  the  tent  of  the  wilderness  (ver.  3), 
the  water  for  the  feet  of  the  wayfarers  (ver.  2),  afford- 
ing his  guests  a  reception  identical  with  that  which 
they  had  experienced  that  very  morning  in  Abraham's 
tent  on  the  heights  of  Hebron  (comp.  xviii,  3,  G).  It 
is  this  hospitality  which  receives  the  commendation  of 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  words  that 
have  passed  into  a  familiar  proverb,  '•  Be  not  forgetful  to 
entertain  strangers,  for  thereby  some  have  entertained 
angels  unawares"  (Heb.  xiii,  2).  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  his  deliverance  from  the  guilty  and  condemneil  city — 
the  one  just  man  in  that  mob  of  sensual,  lawless  wretch- 
es— which  points  the  allusion  of  St.  Peter,  to  "  the  godly 
delivered  out  of  tem])tations,  the  unjust  reserved  unto 
tlie  day  of  judgment  to  l)e  punished,  an  ensample  to 
those  that  after  should  live  ungodly"  (2  Pet.  ii,  G-9). 
The  avenging  angels,  after  having  been  entertained  by 
Abraliam,  repaired  to  Sodom,  where  they  were  received 
and  entertained  by  Lot,  who  was  sitting  in  the  gate  of 
the  town  when  they  arrived.  While  they  were  at  sup- 
per the  house  was  beset  by  a  number  of  men,  who  de- 
manded that  the  strangers  should  be  given  up  to  them, 
for  the  unnatural  jjurposes  which  have  given  a  name  of 
infamy  to  Sodom  in  all  generations.  Lot  resisted  this 
demand,  and  \vas  loaded  with  abuse  by  the  A-ile  fellows 
outside  on  that  account.     Thev  had  iiearlv  forced  the 


LOT 


521 


LOT 


door,  when  the  angels,  thus  awfully  by  their  own  expe- 
rience convinced  of  the  righteousness  of  the  doom  they 
came  to  execute,  smote  them  with  uistant  blindness,  by 
which  their  attempts  were  rendered  abortive,  and  they 
were  constrained  to  disperse.  Towards  morning  the  an- 
gels apprised  Lot  of  the  doom  -which  hung  over  the 
place,  and  urged  him  to  hasten  thence  with  his  famih'. 
He  was  allowed  to  extend  the  benefit  of  this  deliver- 
ance to  the  families  of  his  daughters  who  had  married 
in  Sodom ;  but  the  warning  was  received  by  those  fam- 
ilies with  incredulity  and  insult,  and  he  tlierefore  left 
Sodom  accompanied  only  by  his  wife  and  two  daugh- 
ters. As  they  went,  being  hastened  by  the  angels,  the 
wife,  anxious  for  those  who  had  been  left  behind,  or  re- 
luctant to  remove  from  the  place  which  had  long  been 
her  home,  and  where  much  valuable  property  Avas  iiec- 
cssarOy  left  behind,  lingered  behind  the  rest,  and  was 
suddenly  involved  in  the  destruction  by  which — smoth- 
ered and  stiffened  as  she  stood  by  saline  incrustations — 
she  became  "a  pillar  of  salt"  (Gen.  xix,  1-2G).  This 
narrative  has  often  been  regarded  as  one  of  the  "  difficul- 
ties" of  the  Bible.  But  it  surely  need  not  be  so.  Even 
under  tlie  above  extreme  view  of  the  suddenness  of  the 
event,  the  circumstances  appear  to  be  all  sufficient!}'  ac- 
counted for.  In  the  sacred  record  the  words  are  simply 
these  :  "  His  wife  looked  back  from  behind  him,  and  be- 
came a  pillar  of  salt;"  words  which  neither  in  them- 
selves nor  in  their  position  in  the  narrative  afford  any 
serious  difficulty,  even  without  the  supposition  of  a  mir- 
acle. It  is  true  that,  when  taken  with  what  has  gone 
before,  they  seem  to  imply  (vers.  22,  23)  that  the  work 
of  destruction  by  fire  did  not  commence  till  after  Lot  liad 
entered  Zoar.  The  storm,  however,  raaj'  have  overtaken 
her  in  consequence  of  her  delay.  Later  ages  have  not 
been  satisfied  to  leave  the  matter,  but  have  insisted  on 
identifying  the  "piUar"  with  some  one  of  the  fleeting 
forms  which  the  perishable  rock  of  the  south  end  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  constantly  assuming  in  its  process  of  de- 
composition and  liquefaction  (Anderson's  Off.  Nai-r.  p. 
180).  The  first  allusion  of  this  kind  is  perhaps  that  in 
"Wisd.  X,  7,  where  "  a  standing  pillar  of  salt,  the  monu- 
ment (/(j7/^tio)')  of  an  unbelieving  soul,"  is  mentioned 
with  the  "waste  land  that  smoketh,"  and  the  "plants 
bearing  fruit  that  never  come  to  ripeness,"  as  remaining 
to  that  A&y,  a  testimony  to  the  wickedness  of  Sodom. 
This  notion  was  regarded  by  the  Koman  Catholics  as 
scriptur.'.l  authority  that  might  not  be  disputed.  See 
the  quotations  from  the  fathers  and  others  in  Hofmann's 
Lexikon  (s.  v.  Lot),  and  in  IMislin,  Lieux  Saints  (iii,224). 
Josephus  also  (.1?;^  i,  11,  4)  says  that  he  had  seen  it, 
and  that  it  was  then  remaining.  So,  too,  do  Clemens 
Romanus  (Epist.  i,  11)  and  IreuKus  (iv,  51, 64).  So  does 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  whose  account  is  more  than  usu- 
ally circumstantial  (ed.  Asher,  i,  72).  Eabbi  Petachia, 
on  the  other  hand,  looked  for  it,  but  "did  not  see  it;  it 
no  longer  exists"  (ed.  Benisch,  p.  61),  The  same  state- 
ment is  to  be  found  in  travellers  of  every  age,  certainly 
of  our  own  times  (see  Maimdrell,  Slarch  30).  The  ori- 
gin of  these  traditions  relative  to  this  pillar  has  lately 
been  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  discovery  by  the 
American  party  under  Lieut.  Lynch  of  an  actual  column 
still  standing  on  the  south-western  shore  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  at  a  place  retaining  the  traces  of  the  name  of  Sod- 
om in  the  form  of  Usdum,  of  which  he  gives  a  pictorial 
sketch,  describing  it  as  a  round  pillar,  about  forty  feet 
high,  on  a  lofty  pedestal,  standing  detached  from  the 
general  mass  of  the  mountain,  of  solid  salt,  slightly  de- 
creasing in  size  upwards,  and  capped  with  carbonate  of 
lime;  but,  althougVi  himself  a  Catholic,  he  admits,  with 
scicntilic  candor,  that  it  is  merely  t^jie  result  of  the  ac- 
tion of  the  winter  rains  upon  the  rock-salt  hills,  which 
the  cap  of  limestone  has  here  protected,  leaving  the  sur- 
rounding parts  to  wash  away,  till  a  column  has  thus 
gradually  been  carved  out  (Xarraiice  of  Ea-pedition,  p. 
307,3(IS).  Prof. Palmer  also  visited  this  singular  object, 
called  by  the  Arabs  Bint  Shc-ik  Lot,  or  "  Lot's  [daughter] 
wife.''     He  describes  and  gives  a  view  of  it  as  "  a  tall 


'Lot's  Wife." 


isolated  needle  of  rock,  which  really  does  bear  a  curious 
resemblance  to  an  Arab  woman  with  a  child  upon  her 
shoulder.  The  Arab  legend  of  Lot's  wife  differs  from 
the  Bible  account  only  in  the  addition  of  a  few  frivolous 
details.  They  say  that  there  were  seven  cities  of  the 
plain,  and  that  they  were  all  miraculously  overwhelmed 
by  the  Dead  Sea  as  a  punishment  for  their  crimes.  The 
prophet  Lot  and  his  family  alone  escaped  the  general 
destruction.  He  was  divinely  warned  to  take  all  that 
he  had  and  flee  eastward,  a  strict  injunction  being  given 
that  they  should  not  look  behind  them.  Lot's  wife, 
who  had  on  previous  occasions  ridiculed  her  husband's 
prophetic  office,  disobeyed  the  command,  and,  turning 
to  gaze  upon  the  scene  of  the  disaster,  was  changed  into 
this  piillar  of  rock"  [Desert  of  the  Exodus  [Harper's],  p. 
396  sq.).  The  expression  of  our  Lord,  "Remember  Lot's 
wife"  (Luke  xvii,  32),  appears  from  the  context  to  be 
solely  intended  as  an  illustration  of  the  danger  of  going 
back  or  delaj'ing  in  the  day  of  God's  judgments.  From 
this  text,  indeed,  it  would  appear  as  if  Lot's  wife  had 
gone  back  or  had  tarried  so  long  behind  in  the  desire 
of  saving  some  of  their  property.  Then,  as  it  would 
seem,  she  was  struck  dead,  and  became  a  stiffened  corpse, 
fixed  for  the  time  to  the  soil  by  saline  or  bituminous  in- 
crustations. The  particle  of  similitude  must  here,  as  in 
many  other  passages  of  Scripture,  be  understood,  "  like 
a  pillar  of  salt."  See  Nagel,  De  cidjm  iixoiis  Loti  (Alt- 
dorf,  1755)  ;  Distel,  De  salute  uxoris  Loihi  (Altd.  1721) ; 
Waller,  Diss,  de  statua  sal.  uxoris  Loti  (Lipsire,  1764) ; 
j  Wolle,  De  facto  etfato  uxoris  Loti  (Lips.  1730) ;  Schwoll- 
mann,  Comm.  qua  de  uxore  Z,.  in  statuam  sal.  conversa 
dubitatur  (Hamburg,  1749);  MilomjSendschr.u.d.Salz- 
siiule  in  die  L.'s  Weib  vervandelt  vorden  (Hamb.  1767) ; 
Clerici  Diss,  de  statua  salina,  in  his  Comment,  in  Gen. ; 
Tieroff,Z>e  statua  salis  (Jen.  1657) ;  Midler,  idem  (Helm- 
stadt,  1764)  ;  Oedmann,  Samml.  iii,  145 ;  Bauer,  Ihhr. 
Geschichte,  i,  131 ;  Mali  Ohserrat.  sacr.  i,  168  sq. ;  H.  v.  d. 
Hardt,  Epkein.  philol.  p.  67  sq. ;  Jenisch,  Erorter.  ziceier 
wichtifi.Schriftstellen  (Hamb.  1761);  Michaelis  and  Ro- 
senmiiller  on  Gen.  xix,  26;  Gesenius,  Thesanr.  U eh.\^.12. 
Lot  and  his  daughters  meanwhile  had  hastened  on  to 
Zoar  (q.  v.),  the  smallest  of  the  five  cities  of  the  plain, 
which  had  been  spared  on  purpose  to  afford  him  a  ref- 
uge ;  but,  being  fearful,  after  what  had  passed,  to  re- 
main among  a  people  so  corrupted,  he  soon  retired  to  a 
cavern  in  the  neighboring  mountains,  and  there  abode 
(Gen.  xix,  30).  After  some  stay  in  this  place,  the 
daughters  of  Lot  became  apprehensive  lest  the  family 
of  their  father  should  be  lost  for  want  of  descendants, 
than  which  no  greater  calamity  was  kno^vn  or  appre- 


LOT 


522 


LOUIS 


heiided  iia  those  times;  and  in  the  beUef  that,  after 
•Nvhat  had  passed  in  Sodom,  there  was  no  hope  of  their 
obtaining  suitable  husbands,  they,  by  a  contrivance 
wliicli  lias  in  it  the  taint  of  Sodom,  in  which  they  were 
lirouglit  up,  made  their  father  drunk  with  wine,  and  in 
that  state  seduced  him  into  an  act  which,  as  they  well 
knew,  would  in  soberness  have  been  most  abhorrent  to 
liiin.  They  thus  became  the  mothers,  and  he  the  fa- 
ther, of  two  sons,  named  Moab  and  Ammon,  from  whom 
sprung  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  so  often  mention- 
ed in  the  Hebrew  history  (Gen.  xix,  31-38).  With  re- 
spect to  Lot's  daughters,  Whiston  and  others  are  unable 
to  see  any  wicked  intention  in  them.  He  admits  that 
the  incest  was  a  horrid  crime,  except  under  the  un- 
avoidable necessity  which  apparently  rendered  it  the 
only  means  of  preserving  the  human  race ;  and  this  jus- 
tifying necessity  he  holds  to  have  existed  in  their  minds, 
as  they  appear  to  have  believed  that  all  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land  had  been  destroyed  except  their  father  and 
themselves.  But  it  is  incredible  that  they  could  have 
entertained  any  such  belief.  The  city  of  Zoar  had  been 
spared,  and  thej'  had  been  there.  The  wine  also  with 
which  they  made  their  father  drunk  must  have  been 
procured  from  men,  as  we  cannot  suppose  they  had 
brought  it  with  them  from  Sodom.  The  fact  woidd 
therefore  seem  to  be  that,  after  the  fate  of  their  sisters, 
who  had  married  men  of  Sodom  and  perished  with  them, 
they  became  alive  to  the  danger  and  impropriety  of 
marrjdng  with  the  natives  of  the  land,  and  of  the  im- 
portance of  preserving  the  family  connection.  The  force 
of  this  consiileration  was  afterwards  seen  in  Abraham's 
sending  to  the  scat  of  his  familj-  in  Mesopotamia  for  a 
wife  to  Isaac.  But  Lot's  daughters  could  not  go  there 
to  seek  husbands;  and  the  only  branch  of  their  own 
family  within  many  hundred  miles  was  that  of  Abra- 
ham, whose  only  son,  Ishniael,  was  then  a  child.  This, 
therefore,  must  have  appeared  to  them  the  only  practi- 
cable mode  in  which  the  house  of  tlieir  father  could  be 
preserved.  Their  making  their  father  drunk,  and  their 
solicitous  concealment  of  what  they  did  from  him,  show 
that  they  despaired  of  persuading  him  to  an  act  which, 
under  any  circumstances,  and  with  every  possible  ex- 
tenuation, must  have  been  very  distressing  to  so  good  a 
man.  That  he  was  a  good  man  is  evinced  bj'  his  de- 
liverance from  among  the  guilty,  and  is  affirmed  by  an 
apostle  (2  Pet.  ii,  7);  his  preservation  is  alluded  to  hy 
our  Saviour  (Luke  xvii,  18,  etc.) ;  and  in  Dent,  ii,  9, 19, 
and  Psa.  Ixxxiii,  9,  his  name  is  honorablj'  used  to  des- 
ignate the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  his  descendants. 
This  account  of  the  origin  of  the  nations  of  Moab  and 
Ammon  has  often  been  treated  as  if  it  were  a  Hebrew 
legend  which  owed  its  origin  to  the  bitter  hatred  exist- 
ing from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  times  between  the 
"  children  of  Lot"  and  the  children  of  Israel.  The  hor- 
rible nature  of  the  transaction  —  not  the  result  of  im- 
pulse or  passion,  but  a  plan  calculated  and  carried  out, 
and  that  not  once,  but  twice,  would  prompt  the  wish 
that  the  legendary  theory  were  true.  But  even  the 
most  destructive  critics  (as,  for  instance,  Tuch)  allow 
that  tlic  narrative  is  a  continuation  without  a  break  of 
tliat  which  precedes  it,  while  they  fail  to  point  out  any 
marks  of  later  date  in  the  language  of  this  portion  ;  and 
it  cannot  be  questioned  that  tlie  writer  records  it  as  a 
historical  fact.  Even  if  the  legendary  theory  were  ad- 
missible, there  is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  Ammon  and 
IMoab  sprang  from  Lot.  It  is  affirmed  in  the  statements 
of  Dent,  ii,  9  and  19,  as  well  as  in  the  later  document  of 
I'sa.  xxxiii,  S,  which  ICwald  ascribes  to  the  time  when 
Nehemiah  and  his  newly-returned  colony  were  suffering 
from  the  attacks  and  obstructions  of  Tobiah  the  Am- 
monite and  Sanballat  the  Iloronite  (Ewald,  Diclite?;  Vsa. 
Ixxxiii). 

This  circumstance  is  the  Last  which  the  Scripture  re- 
cords of  the  history  of  Lot,  and  the  time  and  place  of 
his  death  are  unknown.  A  traditional  respect  has  been 
shown  to  his  memory  (also  that  of  his  wife,  who  is  call- 
ed Edith,  Vi'^l'^S  [one  of  his  daughters  being  called 


Plutith,  ni::lb5],  in  the  tract  Pirke  Elieser,  ch.  xxv) 
by  the  Talnnidists  (see  Otho's  Lex.  Rahh.  p.  389)  and 
Arabs  (see  llerbelot,  BihUoth.  Orient,  ii,  495) ;  and  the 
]\Iohammedans  still  point  out  his  grave  in  the  village 
of  Beni-Nain,  east  of  Hebron  (Robinson,  Researches,  ii, 
187).  For  the  pretty  legend  of  the  repentance  of  Lot, 
and  of  the  tree  that  he  planted,  which,  being  cut  down  for 
use  in  the  building  of  the  Temple,  was  aiterwards  em- 
ployed for  the  cross,  see  Fabricius,  Cod.  Pseiukp.  V.  T.  p. 
428-431.  The  IMohammedan  traditions  of  Lot  are  con- 
tained in  the  Koran,  chiefly  in  chap,  vii  and  xi ;  others 
are  given  by  D'llerbelot  (s.  v.  Loth).  According  to 
these  statements,  he  was  sent  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
live  cities  as  a  preacher,  to  warn  them  against  the  un- 
natural and  horrible  sins  which  they  practiced— sins 
which  Mohammed  is  continually  denouncing,  but  with 
less  success  than  that  of  drunkenness,  since  the  former 
is  perhaps  the  most  common,  the  latter  the  rarest  vice 
of  Eastern  cities.  From  Lot's  connection  M'ith  the  in- 
habitants of  Sodom,  his  name  is  now  given  not  only  to 
the  vice  in  question  (Freytag,  Lexicon,  iv,  136  a),  but 
also  to  the  people  of  the  five  cities  themselves — the  La- 
thi, or  Kuum  Loth.  The  local  name  of  the  Dead  Sea  is 
Bahr  J  At — Sea  of  Lot.  See  Niemeyer,  Charakt.  ii,  185 
sq. ;  Blaufurs,  Le  Loti  hospitcditate  (Jena,  1751);  Kcir- 
ner,  De  indole  genei-oi-um  Lothi  (Weissenf.  1755)  ;  Seiden- 
striicker,  in  the  Schleswig  Journal,  1792,  vol.  vi,  and  in 
Hencke's  Magaz.  iii,  07  sq. ;  Bauer,  Mgthol.  d.  llebr.  i, 
238  sq. ;  Kitto's  Daily  Bible  Illust.  ad  loc. 

Lo'tan  (Heb.  Lotan',  "piP,  coverer;  Sept.  Awrav), 
the  first-named  of  the  sons  of  Seir,  the  Horite,  and  a 
petty  prince  of  Idumasa  prior  to  the  supremacy  of  the 
Esauites  (Gen.  xxxvi,  20, 29 ;  1  Chron.  i,  38).  His  sons 
are  mentioned  as  being  Hori  and  Hemam  or  Homam, 
and  his  sister  as  being  named  Timna  (Gen.  xxxvi,  22 ;  1 
Chron.  i,  39),  by  which  latter  he  was  allied  to  Esau's 
oldest  son  (Gen.  xxxvi,  12).     B.C.  cir.  1927. 

Lothaire  of  Lorraine.  See  Hincmar;  Nicho- 
las I  {pope). 

Lothaire  I.  See  Loris  le  Di^bonnaire;  Pas- 
chal I  (pope). 

Lothaire  II,  sometimes  called  Lothaire  of  Sax- 
ony, succeeded  Henry  V  as  emperor  of  Germany  in  1 125. 
Lothaire  was  born  in  1075,  and  was  the  son  of  (iebhard, 
count  of  Arnsberg.  He  is  noted  in  Church  history  for 
the  part  he  took  in  the  struggle  against  Innocent  II, 
whom  he  installed  in  Kome  in  1136,  a  service  for  which 
he  was  rewarded  by  the  papal  incumbent  Avith  cnrona- 
tion  at  Rome  (comp.  the  comments  on  this  act  by  Lea, 
Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  p.  37,  note).  He  died  in  1 137. — Jaffe, 
Gesch.  des  deutschen  Reiches  iinter  Lothnr  von  Sachsen 
(1843).     See  Innocent  II. 

Lothasu'bus  (Aoj^aaoir/Soc,  Yulg.  .4  busthas  v.  r. 
Sabiis),  one  of  the  supporters  of  Esdras  as  he  read  the 
law  (1  Esd.  ix,44) ;  evidently  the  Hashuji  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Heb.  text  ( Neh.  vii.  22). 

Lots,  Feast  of.     See  Puriji. 

Lot's  Wife.     See  Lot. 

Lotto,  LoincNzo,  a  celebrated  Venetian  painter  of 
the  16th  century,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  l)een  a 
native  of  Bergamo,  but  by  others  a  native  of  Venice. 
Lotto  lived,  besides,  at  Bergamo,  also  some  time  at  Tre- 
vigi,  at  Recanati,  and  at  Loretto,  where  he  died.  His 
works  range  from  1513  to  1554.  Lanzi  ventures  an 
opinion  that  Lotto's  best  works  could  scarcely  be  sur- 
passed by  Raffaelle  or  by  Correggio,  if  treating  the  same 
subject.  His  masterpieces  are  the  IMadonnas  of  St.  Bar- 
tolomeo  and  Santo  Spirito,  at  Bergamo. — English  Cydo- 
jxedia.  s.  V. 

Lotus.     See  Lily. 

Loudun,  Convent  of.     See  Grandier. 

Louis  (<ir  Luis)  de  Granada,  a  Spanish  ascetic, 
theologian,  and  writer,  was  born  at  Granada  in  1504. 
In  1524  he  joined  the  Dominicans,  in  the  convent  of 


LOUIS  I 


523 


LOUIS  I 


Santa  Cniz  of  Granada.  In  15"29  he  was,  on  account 
of  his  great  reputation,  transferred  to  tlie  convent  of  St. 
Gregory  at  Valladolid,  where  he  attracted  much  atten- 
tion by  his  preaching.  He  was  afterwards  recalled  to 
Granada,  to  reform  the  convent  of  Scala  Coeli,  in  the 
Sierra  de  Cordova.  In  the  solitude  of  this  convent  he 
composed  a  number  of  religious  works.  He  next  went 
to  Cordova  as  preacher,  and  became  acquainted  with 
John  of  Avila  (q.  v."),  wlio  acquired  great  intluence  over 
liim.  After  spending  eiglit  years  in  Cordova,  Louis 
went  to  Badajoz,  where  he  founded  a  convent,  of  which 
he  was  the  tirst  abbot.  Cardinal  Henrj-,  infant  of  Spain 
and  archbishop  of  Ebora,  desiring  to  avail  himself  of 
Louis's  talents,  attached  him  to  liis  diocese.  The  queen 
of  Portugal  vainly  oifered  to  make  him  bishop  of  Viseu, 
and  afterwards  metropolitan  of  Braga;  he  accepted  no 
office  whatever,  except  that  of  provincial  of  his  order  in 
Portugal,  wliich  lie  held  for  some  years.  He  tinally  re- 
tired into  the  convent  of  Santa  Domingo  of  Lisbon,  and 
devoted  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  pastoral  duties  and 
to  writing  religious  works.  He  died  Dec.  31, 1588.  His 
works,  a  large  number  of  which  were  translated  into 
French,  Italian,  and  German,  are  very  numerous ;  among 
them  the  most  important  are,  Memorial  de  la  vida  Chris- 
tiana (Salamanca,  15CG,  2  vols.  8vo;  Barcelona,  1614, 
fol.) : — Sinibolo  de  la  Fe  (Salamanca,  l58"2,fol. ;  often  re- 
printed and  translated)  : —  Gvida  de  Pecadores  (Sala- 
manca, 1570,8vo)  : — Compendia  de  la  dottrina  Christiana 
(Lisbon,  15G4;  Madrid,  1595,  4to) : — Insiitucion  y  regla 
de  Men  vivirpai-a  los  que  empiecan  a  sei-vir  a  Dios  (Bar- 
celona, 1566,  8vo;  Madrid,  1616): — Libro  de  la  Oracion 
y  Meditacion  (Salamanca,  1567, 8 vo)  : — Collectanea  mo- 
ralis  Philosopki(e  (Lisbon,  1571,  3  vols.  8vo ;  Paris,  1582 ; 
and  under  the  XitXuLoci  cominitnes  Philosophice  moralis, 
Ct>logne,  1604)  : — Rhelorica  ecdesiastica  (Lisbon,  1576, 
4to),  etc. ;  and  a  number  of  sermons.  See  Louis  Munos, 
La  Vida  y  Virtudes  de  Luiz  de  Grenada  (IMadrid,  1639, 
4to) ;  N.  Antonio,  Bibliotheca  IJispana,  iv  ;  Quetil  and 
Echard,  Scri2)fores  ordines  Prcvdica/onim,  ii ;  Tournon, 
Hommes  illustres  de  Vordi-e  de  Saint-Dominique. — Her- 
zog,  Real-EncyMop.  viii.  516 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biorj.  Gem- 
rale,  xxxi,  1034  sq.      ( J.  N.  P.) 

Louis  I  (German  Ludwiij,  Latin  Ludovictis),  called 
"  Le  Debonnaire,"  and  also  ''  t/ie  Pious,^'  youngest  son  of 
Charlemagne,  was  born  at  Casseneuil  A.D.  778.  The 
great  empire  of  the  West  had  just  been  recreated  by 
the  heroic  efforts  of  Charles,  therefore  honored  with 
the  title  of  "the  Great;"  but  it  was  not  absolutely  the 
love  of  war  and  conquest,  and  the  honor  of  his  name, 
that  had  actuated  Charles;  he  rather  sought  to  accom- 
plish what  the  great  Ostrogoth  Theodoric  (q.  v.)  had 
contemplated,  but  failed  to  eiTect,  viz.,  the  union  of  the 
Christian  Germanic  nations  into  one  empire.  Charle- 
magne, it  must  be  remembered,  was  eminently  "a  cham- 
pion of  the  Church,"  and,  believing  that  the  conversion 
of  the  Saxons  and  other  Germanic  tribes  could  be  ac- 
complished only  by  their  subjection,  he  came  to  dream 
of  a  union  of  them  all  under  one  imperial  head,  and 
gratefully  he  accepted  the  result  in  his  own  coronation 
as  "Charles  Augustus"  by  pope  Leo  HI,  A.D.  800.  See 
Charlk.magnk.  But  Charlemagne  still  believed  in  the 
independence  of  the  imperial  crown  from  the  papal 
chair,  and  manifestly  evinced  this  by  one  of  his  latest 
acts.  As  early  as  806  he  had  made  provision  for  his 
successors  by  apportioning  to  his  three  sons  different 
parts  of  his  possessions.  To  Pepin  he  gave  Italy,  to 
Louis,  Aquitaine,  and  to  Charles  tlic  remainder,  consist- 
ing chietly  of  German  countries ;  but  when,  by  the  de- 
cease of  two  of  these,  he  saw  that  upon  Louis  only  would 
centre  all  the  responsibility  of  an  imjjerial  crown,  he 
called  him  to  his  side  in  813,  when  feeling  his  own  end 
approaching,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  on  a  Sunday,  when 
in  the  cathedral  together,  caused  Louis  to  place  the 
golden  crown  upon  his  head,  and.  thus  crowned,  present- 
ed his  son  as  the  future  king  of  all  the  Franks,  with- 
out tirst  awaiting  the  anointment  of  the  pope.  Not 
go  independent  was  our  Louis,  who,  in  the  year  follow- 


ing the  event  jnst  recorded,  by  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne, became  sole  emperor  of  the  West  and  king  of 
France.  Thus  far  the  race  of  the  Carlovingians  had 
produced  consecutively  four  great  men — a  rare  occur- 
rence in  histor)'.  With  Louis  I  opened  a  new  ara;  for, 
though  his  personal  appearance  was  by  no  means  insig- 
nificant, being  of  a  prepossessing  countenance  and  of  a 
strong  frame,  and  so  well  practiced  in  archerj^  and  the 
wielding  of  the  lance  that  none  about  liim  equalled  him, 
"  he  was  weak  in  mind  and  will,  and  his  surname  '  the 
Pious'  implies  not  only  that  he  was  religious,  but  prin- 
cipally that  he  was  so  easy  tempered  that  it  required 
much  to  displease  him."  Or,  as  Milman  puts  it:  "In 
his  gentler  and  less  resolute  character  religion  wrought 
with  an  abasing  and  enfeebling  rather  than  ennobling 
influence"  {Latin  Christianity,  ii,  514).  A  ruler  of  this 
description  was  not  likely  to  hold  in  union  the  vast  em- 
pire of  Charlemagne.  His  first  troubles  arose  with  Ber- 
nard, son  of  Pepin,  whom  Charlemagne,  on  the  decease 
of  his  eldest  son,  had  made  king  of  the  Italian  posses- 
sions. Bernard's  ambition  soared  higher.  He  was  not 
content  with  Italy;  lie  desired  the  mastery  over  the 
whole  of  the^mperial  lands,  and  ungratefully  conspired 
against  his  uncle.  He  was  unsuccessful,  liowever;  was 
seized  by  the  imperial  troops,  and  condemned  to  death. 
Louis  was  determined  to  mitigate  the  lot  of  Bernard, 
but  state  interests  compelled  him  to  inflict  the  severe 
punishment  of  depriving  his  nephew  of  eyesight,  which 
was  the  caus&shortly  after,  no  doubt,  of  his  death.  This 
conspiracy,  as  well  as  sundry  other  occurrences,  made 
Louis  feel  the  necessity  of  provisions  for  the  succession, 
and,  finally  deciding  in  favor  of  the  principle  of  primo- 
geniture, his  son  Lothaire  was  appointed  successor.  Be- 
sides Lothaire,  Louis  had  two  sons,  Pepin  and  Louis.  To 
the  former  of  these  two  he  gave  Aquitania;  to  the  lat- 
ter Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Carinthia.  L'nfortunately, 
however,  for  the  peace  of  the  family,  Louis  lost  his  faith- 
ful companion,  the  mother  of  these  children,  shortly 
after  this  partition  of  his  possessions,  and,  marrying  a 
second  wife,  became  the  father  of  a  fourth  son,  Charles, 
whose  mother,  Judith,  cor.spired  in  his  behalf  for  a  por- 
tion of  the  imperial  crown.  This  resulted  in  830  in 
a  revolt  of  Lothaire  against  his  father,  on  the  plea  of 
the  bad  conduct  of  the  step-mother.  At  a  diet,  how- 
ever, which  was  held  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  father  and 
son  were  reconciled.  Kot  so  happily  ended  a  second 
revolt  in  833,  when  Louis,  forsaken  by  liis  followers,  was 
obliged  to  give  himself  up  to  his  son  Lothaire,  who  took 
him  as  prisoner  to  Soissons,  sent  the  empress  Judith  to 
Tortona,  and  confined  her  infant  son  Charles,  afterwards 
Charles  the  Bald,  the  olyect  of  the  jealousy  of  his  half- 
brothers,  in  a  monastery.  A  meeting  of  bishops  was 
held  at  Compiegne,  at  which  the  archbishop  of  Bheims 
presided,  and  the  unfortunate  Louis,  being  arraigned  be- 
fore it,  was  found  guilty  of  the  murder  of  his  nephew 
Bernard,  and  of  sundry  other  offences.  He  was  deposed, 
condemned  to  do  public  ]ienance  in  sackcloth,  and  was 
kept  in  confinement.  This  misusage  of  the  emperor 
enraged  the  youngest  son,  Louis  of  Bavaria  (840-876), 
"  an  energetic  prince,  of  lofty  stature  and  noble  figure, 
with  a  fiery  eye  and  a  penetrating  mind,"  and.  after  se- 
curing the  assistance  of  his  other  brother,  Pepin,  in 
the  following  j'ear,  he  obliged  Lothaire  to  deliver  uji 
their  father,  who,  after  having  been  formally  absolved 
by  the  bishops,  was  reinstated  on  the  imperial  throne. 
Not  made  wiser  by  past  experience,  Louis,  listening  to 
the  selfish  coinisel  of  his  wife,  Judith,  now  assigned  to  his 
fourth  son,  Charles,  tlic  kingdom  of  Xeustria,  or  Eastern 
France,  including  Paris,  and,  after  Pepin's  death,  Aqui- 
tania also.  Lothaire  possessed  all  Italy,  with  Provence, . 
Lyons,  Suabia,  Austrasia,  and  Saxony.  But  Louis  of 
Bavaria,  who  had  done  most  for  his  father,  was  favored 
least,  and  therefore  set  up  his  claim  for  all  Germany  as 
far  as  the  lihine,  and,  being  refused,  determined  to 
make  war  agaiijst  liis  father,  and  invaded  Suabia.  The 
emperor  Louis  marched  against  him,  and  al«o  assembled 
a  diet  at  Worms  to  judge  his  rebellious  son.     Mean- 


LOUIS  I 


524 


LOUIS  I 


time,  however,  the  emperor  fell  ill,  and  died  on  an  island 
of  the  Khiiie  near  Mentz,  in  June,  840,  after  sending  to 
his  son  Lothaire  the  imperial  crown,  his  sword,  and  his 
sceptre.  Of  what  account  this  last  act  of  Louis  was  may 
be  inferred  from  the  partition  of  the  dominion.  Lo- 
thaire, as  emperor,  held  Italy,  Provence,  Burgundy,  and 
Lorraine.  Charles  the  Bald  succeeded  his  father  as  king 
of  France,  and  Lonis  of  Bavaria  retained  all  Germany. 
Thus  ends  the  history  of  this  man,  whose  life,  notwith- 
standing his  kind  disposition,  was  '•  one  continued  scene 
of  trouble  and  affliction,  because  he  knew  not  how  to 
govern  his  own  house,  much  less  his  empire." 

Of  a  prince  so  feeble  and  dependent  as  Louis  proved 
himself  in  the  affairs  of  state,  we  cannot,  of  course,  ex- 
pect the  same  vigor  and  determination  towards  the  pa- 
pacy that  characterized  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  and 
it  may  be  safely  said  that  with  the  death  of  the  latter 
a  new  sera,  opens  in  the  history  of  the  Latin  Church. 
Charlemagne  had  proved  an  earnest  supporter  of  the 
Church  and  the  papacy,  but  he  had  known  how  to  op- 
pose their  pretensions.  Not  so  Louis.  His  feebleness 
and  incapacity  to  govern  gave  rise  to  many  abuses,  or 
gave  new  life  to  such  as  had  before  beeii  successfully 
repressed.  The  whole  reign  of  Louis,  indeed,  abounded 
in  political  disorders.  '■  Distraction  and  weakness,"  says 
Neander  {C/i.  Hist,  iii,  351), "gave  many  opportunities 
for  the  Church  to  interfere  in  the  political  strifes,"  and 
for  it  the  Church  had  been  anxiously  but  patiently  in 
waiting.  With  the  coronation  of  Charlemagne  the  pope 
of  Rome  had  transferred  his  allegiance  from  the  East  to 
the  West,  and  thus,  by  his  action,  had  not  only  confer- 
red a  most  doubtful  title  on  Charlemagne,  but  secured 
at  the  same  time  a  political  ascendency  of  the  papacy. 
Under  Charlemagne,  however,  the  thiuiders  of  the 
Church  were  controlled  by  the  emperor;  but  in  Louis 
"  the  Pious"  was  found  a  willing  slave,  and  with  rapid 
strides  the  Romish  Church  marched  onward  to  establish 
its  superiority  over  the  empire.  See  Papacy.  What 
Louis  would  do  for  the  Church  was  clearly  seen  in  his 
submissive  acts — the  master  of  Europe  in  822  a  penitent 
before  the  prelates  assembled  at  the  Council  of  Attigny. 
Here  the  triumphs  of  the  spiritual  power,  under  the  au- 
spices of  a  rapid  progress  towards  domination,  were 
jilainly  foreshadowed.  The  hierarchy  failed  not  to  dis- 
cover the  hour  of  Louis's  weakness,  and  day  by  day  new 
laws  were  proposed  and  enacted,  the  ecclesiastical  fabric 
enlarged  and  strengthened,  the  power  of  the  secular  au- 
tliority  enfeebled  and  abrogated.  Prominent  among  the 
ecclesiastics  who  influenced  the  king  to  favor  the  Church 
and  her  institutions  was  Wala,  abbot  of  Corbie.  What 
Wala  (q.  v.)  advised  was  worthy  of  adoption,  and  he  had 
no  sooner  made  his  proposals  than  they  became  law. 
Thus  the  granting  of  monasteries  to  laymen,  and  grants 
of  Church  property  at  pleasure  to  the  vassals  of  the  crown 
without  consent  of  the  bishops,  were  abrogated,  virtu- 
ally making  the  bishops  co-legislators ;  and  by  829  the 
ecclesiastic  royal  counsellor  hesitated  not  to  declare  that 
"  everything  depended  on  keeping  the  line  of  demarca- 
tion  clearly  drawn  between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the 
civil  province,  the  king  and  the  bishops  concerning 
themselves  only  about  the  affairs  which  belonged  to 
their  respective  callings."  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
concessions  which  the  king  was  daily  making  to  the 
clergy  gave  to  the  bishops  much  of  the  business  strictly 
belonging  to  the  secular  authority,  and  "  the  scope  and 
the  danger  of  the  authority  thus  successively  conferred 
upon  the  Church  were  most  impressively  manifested 
when  Louis  was  deposed  by  his  sons  (in  833),  .  .  ,  and 
Lothaire  determined  to  render  impossible  the  restoration 
of  his  father  to  the  throne.  . .  .  The  people  had  been  in- 
vited by  Louis  himself,  eleven  years  before,  at  Attignj-, 
to  see  the  bishops  sit  in  judgment  on  their  monarch; 
and  the  decretals  (q.  v.)  of  Siricius  and  Leo  I,  forbidding 
secular  employment  and  the  bearing  of  arms  by  any  one 
wlio  had  undergone  i)ublic  |)enanco.  werp  not  so  entirely 
forgotten  but  that  they  might  be  revived.  Accordingh-, 
when  Lothaire  returned  to  France,  dragging  his  captive 


father  in  his  train,  he  halted  at  Compiegne,  and  sum- 
moned a  council  of  his  prelates  to  accomplish  the  work 
from  which  his  savage  nobles  shrunk.  With  unfalter- 
ing willingness  they  undertook  the  odious  task,  declar- 
ing their  competency  through  the  power  to  bind  and  to 
loose  conferred  upon  their  order  as  the  vicars  of  Christ 
and  the  turnkeys  of  heaven.  They  held  the  wretched 
prisoner  accountable  for  all  the  evils  which  the  empire 
had  suffered  since  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  and  sum- 
moned him  at  least  to  save  his  soul  by  prompt  confes- 
sion and  penitence,  now  that  his  earthly  dignity  was 
lost  beyond  redemption. .  .  .  With  that  overflowing  hyp- 
ocritical unction  which  is  the  most  disgusting  exhibition 
of  clerical  craft,  the  bishops  labored  with  him  for  his 
own  salvation,  until,  overcome  by  their  eloquent  exhor- 
tations, he  threw  himself  at  their  feet,  begged  the  par- 
don of  his  sons,  and  implored  their  prayers  in  his  be- 
half, and  eagerly  demanded  the  imposition  of  such  pen- 
ance as  would  merit  absolution.  The  request  was  not 
denied.  In  the  church  of  St.  Mary,  before  the  tombs  of 
the  holy  St.  Medard  and  St.  Sebastian,  the  discrowned 
monarch  was  brought  into  the  presence  of  his  son.  and 
surrounded  by  a  gaping  crowd.  Tliere  he  threw  him- 
self upon  a  sackcloth,  and  four  times  confessed  his  sins 
with  abundant  tears,  accusing  himself  of  offending  God, 
scandalizing  the  Church,  and  bringing  destruction  upon 
his  people,  for  the  expiation  of  which  he  demanded 
penance  and  absolution  by  the  imposition  of  those  holy 
hands  to  which  had  been  confided  the  power  to  bind  and 
to  loose.  Then,  handing  his  written  confession  to  the 
bishops,  he  took  off  sword  and  belt,  and  laid  them  at 
the  foot  of  the  altar,  where  his  confession  had  already 
been  placed.  Throwing  off  his  secidar  garments,  he 
put  on  the  white  robe  of  the  penitent,  and  accepted 
from  his  ghostly  advisers  a  penance  which  shoifld  in- 
hibit him  during  life  from  again  bearing  arms.  The 
world,  however,  was  not  as  yet  quite  prepared  for  this 
spectacle  of  priestly  arrogance  and  royal  degradation. 
The  disgust  which  it  excited  hastened  a  counter-revo- 
lution ;  and  when  Louis  was  restored  to  the  throne,  Ebbo 
of  Rheims  and  St.  Agobard  of  Lyons,  the  leaders  in  the 
solemn  pantomime,  were  promptly  punished  and  de- 
graded. Yet  the  piety  of  Louis  held  that  the  very 
sentence  for  the  imposition  of  which  they  incurred  the 
penalty  was  valid  until  abrogated  by  equal  authority, 
and  accordingly  he  caused  himself  to  be  formally  rec- 
onciled to  the  Church  before  the  altar  of  St.  Denis,  and 
abstained  from  resuming  his  sword  until  it  was  again 
belted  on  him  by  the  hand  of  a  bishop"  (Lea,  Studies  in 
Ch.  Hist.  p.  319-321).  "  These  melancholy  scenes,"  says 
MUman  {FAit.  Christianity,  bk.  v,  ch.  ii),  '"concern  Chris- 
tian history  no  further  than  as  displaying  the  growing 
power  of  the  clergj',  the  religion  of  Louis  graduaUy 
quailing  into  abject  superstition,  the  strange  fusion  and 
incorporation  of  civil  and  ecclesiastical  affairs."  For 
six  years  more  Louis  the  Pious  swaj-ed  the  sceptre  of 
the  Carlovingian  empire,  but  he  did  it  without  power 
— a  tool  in  the  hands  of  contending  factions,  which  at 
his  death  took  up  arms  in  open  warfare,  and  continued 
their  contest  until  Lothaire  had  been  defeated  on  the 
field  of  Fontcnay,  and  peace  restored  by  the  division 
of  the  empire  at  Verdun.  But  what  is  most  eventful 
about  these  transactions  in  the  life  and  reign  of  Louis 
the  Pious,  and  leads  us  to  assign  them  such  prominence 
here,  is  the  part  which  the  clergy  played  in  arranging, 
conducting,  and  accomplishing  them,  and  thus  bring- 
ing them  under  the  sanction  of  religion.  This  cir- 
cumstance alone  is  enough  to  show  how  the  power  of 
the  Church  was  growing.  But  there  was  another  and 
more  important  circumstance  that  still  more  clearly  in- 
dicates it.  Stephen  IV  had  died,  and  a  successor  had 
been  chosen  who  assumed  the  responsibility  of  the  papal 
chair  as  I'aschal  I.  Instead  of  waiting  for  his  confirma- 
tion by  Louis,  he  took  immediate  ])OSsession  of  the  high 
dignity  conferred  upon  him  by  the  Church,  and  thus 
inaugurated  the  principle  of  independence  of  the  pope 
from  the  emperor.     It  is  true  a  deprecatory  epistle  was 


LOUIS  VI 


525 


LOUIS  XIV 


prndently  dispatched  from  Rome,  but  the  same  liberty 
was  taken  by  his  successor  Eugeuius  II,  who  contented 
himself  with  sending  a  legate  to  apjirise  the  emperor 
of  his  accession,  instead  of  awaiting  the  imperial  sanc- 
tion to  the  election;  and  though  the  Romans  were  af- 
terwards obhged  to  bind  themselves  by  oath  never  to 
consent  to  the  installation  of  a  pope  elect  until  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  emperor  had  reached  Rome,  the  eftbrt  was 
unavailing.  Events  were  hurrying  on  destined  to  ren- 
der all  such  measures  futile,  and  to  accomplish  the  revo- 
lution of  European  institutions,  resulting  in  the  power 
of  tlie  priesthood  and  the  irresponsible  autocracy  of  the 
pope  (comp.  Lea,  Studies  in  Ch.  Hist.  p.  38-42). 

In  the  ipiestion  of  image-worship  alone,  perhaps,  it 
can  be  sai(l  that  Louis  played  an  independent  part.  It 
was  under  his  commission  that  Claudius  of  Turin  la- 
bored in  the  interests  of  iconoclasm,  and  it  was  by  his 
influence,  also,  that  Eugenius  II  was  forced  to  amity  to- 
wards the  Eastern  advocates  of  iconoclasm.  Compare 
Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  v,  chap,  ii,  A.D.  839,  and 
the  articles  Claudius  ;  Clemens  ;  Iconoclasm. 

The  most  celebrated  acts  in  the  life  of  Louis  worthy 
of  special  record  in  our  work  are  his  efforts  to  advance 
the  Christian  religion  by  the  foundation  of  two  relig- 
ious institutions,  viz.,  the  monasterj^  of  Corvey  and  the 
archbishopric  of  Hamburg.  The  former  he  built  for  la- 
borers among  the  Saxon  colony  he  had  caused  to  settle 
on  the  A\'eser,  and  it  speedily  became  not  only  a  relig- 
ious centre,  but  the  best  school  for  education  in  that 
country.  The  latter  furthered  the  missionary  cause 
among  the  northern  nations,  especially  among  the  Juts 
[see  Jutland],  by  the  zealous  labors  of  Anschar  [see 
Ansciiar],  generally  known  as  the  "Apostle  of  the 
JSTortli"  (compare  Maclear,  Hist,  of  Christian  Missions  in 
the  Middle  Ar/es,  chap.  xi).  The  kind  treatment  which 
Louis  aiforded  to  the  Jews  deserves  particular  mention. 
He  took  them  under  his  especial  protection,  and  suffered 
neither  nobles  nor  clergy  to  do  them  harm.  In  this  re- 
spect he  simply  carried  out  the  policy  of  his  father,  but 
he  certainly  improved  their  condition  during  his  reign 
(comp.  Griitz,  Gesch.  d.  Juden,  v,  chap,  viii ;  and  our  arti- 
cle Jews,  vol.  iv,  p.  908,  col.  2).  See  Funck,  Ludwig  der 
Fromme  (Frkf.-a.-jM.  1832) ;  Himly,  Wala  et  Louis  le  De- 
honnaire  (Par.  1849)  ;  Milman,  Hist,  of  Lat.  Christianity 
(N.  Y.  18G4, 8  vols.  12mo),  ii,  bk.  iv,  chap,  xii;  Neander, 
C/(. //?*V.  iii,  351  sq. ;  Y\&iQh^\,  Roman  See  in  the  3 fiddle 
Ar/es. ch. iv ;  Lea, Studies  in  Ch. Hist. (see  Index) ;  Kohl- 
rausch,  Hist,  of  Germany,  ch.  v  and  vi ;  Baxmann,  Pulitih 
der  Pdpste,  i  (see  Index).    (J.  H.  W.) 

Loui.s  VI,  OF  THE  Palatinate,  was  born  July  4, 
1539,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Frederick  HI,  in  1576. 
The  late  elector  had  been  a  strong  Calvinist,  but  Louis 
YI  had  imbibed  Lutheran  principles  at  the  court  of 
Philibert  of  Bavaria,  and  gradually  introduced  them 
into  the  country. 

Louis  VII,  OF  France,  called  "  Le  Jeune,''  son  of 
Louis  le  Gros,  was  born  in  1119,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther in  1137.  By  nature  of  a  cruel  disposition,  he  had 
been  especially  harsh  towards  disobedient  subjects,  and, 
luider  the  pretence  that  he  must  aid  the  Church  to 
atone  for  his  great  sins,  he  was  advised  by  St.  Bernard, 
abbot  of  Clairvaux,  to  go  on  a  crusade.  Accordingly, 
the  king  set  out,  at  the  head  of  a  large  army,  in  1147. 
Suger  and  Raoul,  count  of  Yermandois,  Louis's  brother- 
in-law,  were  left  regents  of  the  kingdom.  This  second 
crusade  proved  unsuccessful:  the  Christians  were  defeat- 
ed near  Damascus,  and  Louis,  after  several  narrow  es- 
capes, returned  to  France  in  1 149.  The  re]iudiation  of 
his  first  wife,  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  and  his  marriage 
with  Constance  of  Castile,  brought  on  a  war  ^yith  Hen- 
ry II  of  England,  who  had  taken  Eleanor  for  his  wife. 
The  war  was,  however,  unimportant  in  its  consequences. 
In  Henry's  controversy  with  Thomas  h  Becket,  Louis 
YII  greatly  furthered  the  cause  of  Becket  (comp.  Rob- 
ertson, Becket  [London,  1859,  sm.  8vo],  p.  211  sq.,  295). 
He  died  at  Paris  in  September,  1180.     See  Iieichel,  iio- 


mayi  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  327  sq. ;  Milman.  Historrj 
of  Latin  Christianity,  bk.  viii,  ch.  vi  and  ch.  viii.  (J. 
H.W.) 

Louis  IX  (or  St.  Louis)  of  France  (1226-1270), 
was  born  in  Poissy  April  25, 1215,  and  succeeded  his  fa- 
ther, Louis  YIII,  when  but  twelve  years  of  age.  his 
mother,  Blanche  de  Castile,  acting  "as  regent.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  the  king  tliere  was  a  constant 
struggle  between  the  crown  and  the  feudal  lords,  head- 
ed by  Thibaut,  count  of  Champagne,  and  the  count  of 
Brittany.  Amid  these  troubles  queen  Blanche  displayed 
great  firmness  and  ability,  and  Louis,  as  soon  as  he  was 
old  enough,  by  the  assistance  of  those  who  had  remained 
faithful  to  the  crown,  made  war  against  Henry  HI,  king 
of  England,  who  had  supported  the  French  refractory 
nobles,  and  beat  the  English  in  1242  at  Tailleburg,  at 
Saintes,  and  at  Blaye,  but  finally  made  a  truce  of  five 
years  with  the  English  sovereigns,  at  the  same  time  par- 
doning also  his  rebellious  nobles.  During  an  illness  Louis 
had  made  a  vow  to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  and  in  June, 
1248,  after  having  appointed  his  mother  regent,  he  set 
out  for  the  East  with  an  army  of  40,000  men,  to  conquer 
the  Holy  Sepulchre.  He  landed  first  in  Egypt  and  took 
Damietta,  but  was  made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Man- 
soura,  and  compelled  to  pay  a  heavy  ransom.  He  then 
sailed,  with  the  remainder  of  his  army,  now  only  GOOO 
strong,  to  Acre,  and  carried  on  the  war  in  Palestine,  but 
without  success.  After  the  death  of  his  mother  (Nov., 
1252),  he  made  preparations  for  his  return  to  France. 
At  home  in  1254,  he  now  applied  himself  with  great 
diligence  to  the  interests  of  his  realm.  It  was  Louis 
IX  of  France  that  first  gave  life  to  Gallicanism  by  his 
"  Pragmatic  Sanction,"  which  he  enacted  in  1208.  See 
Gallican  Church.  He  also  published  several  useful 
statutes,  known  as  the  EtaUissements  de  St. Louis;  es- 
tablished a  police  in  Paris,  under  the  orders  otaj^revot; 
organized  the  various  trades  into  companies  called  con- 
frairies;  founded  the  theological  college  of  La  Sor- 
bonne,  so  called  after  his  confessor;  created  a  French 
navy,  and  made  an  advantageous  treaty  with  the  king 
of  Aragon,  by  which  the  respective  limits  and  jurisdic- 
tions of  the  two  states  were  defined.  The  chief  and  al- 
most the  only  fault  of  Louis,  which  was,  however,  that 
of  his  age,  was  his  religious  intolerance ;  he  issued  op- 
pressive ordinances  against  the  Jews,  had  a  horror  of 
heretics,  and  used  to  say  "that  a  layman  ought  not  to 
dispute  with  the  unbelievers,  but  strike  them  with  a 
good  sword  across  the  body."  By  an  ordinance  he  re- 
mitted to  his  Christian  subjects  the  third  of  the  debts 
they  owed  to  Jews,  and  this  "  for  the  good  of  his  soul." 
This  same  spirit  of  fanaticism  led  him  (in  July,  1270)  to 
undertake,  against  the  wishes  of  his  best  friends,  anoth- 
er crusade  —  a  crusade  the  most  ignoble,  and  not  the 
least  calamitous  of  all  the  crusadis  (q.  v.).  He  sailed 
for  Africa,  laid  siege  to  Tunis,  and,  while  there,  died  in 
his  camp  of  the  plague,  Aug.  25, 1270.  Pope  Boniface 
YIII  canonized  him  in  1297.  See  Histoire  de  St.  Louis 
(edited  by  Ducange,  with  notes,  Paris,  1668,  folio,  Eng- 
lish trans.) ;  Petitot,  Collection  com})!,  des  memoires  rela- 
tifs  a  Vhistoire  de  France  (Paris,  1824) ;  Disscrtatiui/s  et 
reflexions  sur  Vhistoire  de  St. Louis;  Le  Nain  de  Tille- 
mont.  Vie  de  St.  Louis  (ed.  J.  de  Gaulle,  Paris,  184G,  5 
vols.) ;  H.  L.  Scholten,  Geschichte  Ludwigs  IX  (Minister, 
1850-1853,  2  vols.) ;  E.  Alex.  Schmidt,  Gesch.  v.  FranJc- 
reich,  i,  486  sq. ;  K.  Rosen,  Die  pragm.  Sanktion,  welche 
imter  d.  Namen  Ludwigs  IX  v.  Frankreich  auf  uns  ge- 
kommen  ist  (Munich,  1853) ;  Neander,  Church  Hist,  iv, 
203  sq. ;  Reichel,  Roman  See  in  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  618 
sq. ;  and  the  works  already  cited  in  the  article  Galli- 
can Church.     See  also  Papacy. 

Louis  XIV  OP  France,  grandson  of  Henry  IV, 
and  third  of  the  Bourbons,  was  born  in  1638.  The  re- 
gency of  his  mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  controlled  by  car- 
dinal Mazarin  (q.  v.),  continued  during  the  minority  of 
the  sovereign.  So  far,  indeed,  as  the  policy  of  Mazarin 
was  concerned,  it  prevailed  until  his  death  in  1661, 


LOUIS  XIV 


526 


LOUIS  XIV 


when  Louis  first  really  assumed  for  himself  the  reins  of 
government,  and  indicated  tlie  principles  of  his  admin- 
istration. During  the  minority  of  its  youthful  sovereign 
the  country  had  been  distracted  by  civil  wars,  those  of 
the  Fronde,  partly  through  Spanish  influences,  partly 
through  an  unsatisfied  and  factious  element  of  the  French 
nobility.  Perplexing  difficulties,  moreover,  and  even  ac- 
tual conflicts  of  the  regent  and  her  minister  with  the 
I'arliament  and  States  General,  had  more  than  once 
arisen,  usually  terminating,  however,  in  the  triumph  of 
the  former,  Louis  himself,  in  his  eighteenth  year,  dis- 
missing one  of  these  bodies,  and  forbidding  anj'  future 
exercise  of  some  of  its  most  important  functions.  The 
internal  difficulties,  so  far  as  due  to  the  hostile  policy 
of  the  Spanish  court,  were  disposed  of  by  the  marriage 
of  Louis  with  the  infanta  Maria  Theresa  in  1660,  through 
the  skilful  management  of  Mazarin.  The  effect  of  these 
troubles,  however,  was  to  shape,  to  some  degree,  the  pol- 
icy of  Louis,  and  to  enable  him  to  carry  it  out  success- 
fully. That  policy  was  to  avoid  all  conflict  of  authori- 
ty by  centring  all  power  in  the  person  of  the  sovereign. 

The  administration  of  Louis,  extending  over  a  peri- 
od of  great  significance  in  the  secular  condition  and 
history  of  Europe,  concerns  us  here  in  view  of  its  prin- 
ciples and  results  religiously  and  ecclesiastically;  for, 
while  it  may  be  said  that  one  of  the  grand  objects  of 
this  administration  was  to  supersede  Austria  as  the  par- 
amount Catholic  sovereignty  of  Europe,  it  sought  this 
end  in  connection  with  the  destruction  and  diminution 
of  Protestantism,  not  onlj'  in  France,  but  elsewhere. 
To  enable  us  to  consider  his  policy  as  it  affected  the  re- 
ligious condition  of  France  and  Europe,  the  course  of 
his  civil  and  military  administration  must,  however,  be 
first  examined. 

Louis's  clcil  policy  —  the  consolidation  of  all  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign,  detaching  the  crown  from 
its  alliance  with  all  the  legislative,  jucficial,  and  muni- 
cipal institutions — he  himself  has  best  interpreted  for 
us.  "  Tlie  worst  calamity  which  can  befall  any  one  of 
our  rank,"  is  his  language  to  the  dauphin,  "  is  to  be  re- 
duced to  that  subjection  in  which  the  monarch  is  obliged 
to  receive  the  law  from  his  people.  ...  It  is  the  will  of 
God  that  every  Subject  should  yield  to  his  sovereign  im- 
plicit obedience.  ...  I  am  the  state !"  These  assertions 
of  supreme  prerogative  are  put  forth,  indeed,  in  connec- 
tion with  a  recognition  of  accountability  to  the  divine 
Source  from  which  such  powers  are  derived ;  but  below 
him  there  was  no  accountability,  no  limitation  to  the 
action  of  his  royal  vicegerent.  Consistently  with  this 
theory  was  the  operation  of  his  internal  administration. 
The  first  and  most  effective  instrument  for  the  carrying 
out  of  such  policy  was  a  thorough  military  organization. 
This  was  perfected  to  a  degree  hitherto  unknown,  among 
its  new  features  the  most  effective  to  the  end  proposed 
being  the  emanation  of  all  commissions,  promotions,  and 
distinctions  from  the  king;  doing  away  altogether  with 
the  possibility  of  the  existence  of  such  a  balance  of  pow- 
er as  had  previously  been  maintained,  and  rendering 
impossible  all  limitation  of  prerogative.  The  States 
General— the  great  central  legislative  representation  of 
the  clergy,  nobles,  and  commons— ceased  to  exist.  The 
provincial  states,  having  a  more  limited  function  of  the 
same  nature,  shared  the  same  fate.  The  Parliaments, 
from  registering,  protecting,  and  partly  legislative  bod- 
ies, became  simply  judicial  tribunals  to  execute,  under 
the  forms  of  law,  the  decrees  of  a  royal  master.  That 
in  the  thorough  working  out  of  thissystem  Louis  ex- 
hibited rare  administrative  ability  cannot  be  denied. 
Tliat  he  possessed  the  peculiar  capacity  of  selecting  ef- 
ficient subordinates  is  no  less  manifest.  That,  more- 
over, under  his  rule  there  was  a  great  evolution  of  ad- 
ministrative, military,  and  literary  capacity  \s  C(iually 
undoubted.  Not  so  salutary  or  favoral)le  were  the  re- 
sults, however.  Louis's  policy  eventually  broke  down 
the  resources  of  the  country ;  and  it  set  in  operation  cer- 
tain tendencies,  which  only  worked  themselves  out  in 
the  crash  of  the  French  Kevolution. 


But  this  concentration  of  all  power  in  the  person  of 
the  sovereign  had  in  view  the  carrying  out  of  an  ex- 
ternal as  well  as  an  internal  policy.  "  Self-aggrandize- 
ment," to  use  his  own  words,  "  is  at  once  the  noblest 
and  most  agreeable  occupation  of  kings,"  and  this  he 
did  not  always  pursue  under  the  real  requirements  of 
truth  and  right.  "  In  dispensing  with  the  strict  ob- 
servance of  treaties,  we  do  not,"  said  he,  "  violate  them  j 
for  the  language  of  such  instruments  is  not  understood 
literally;  it  is  conventional  phraseolog}',  just  as  we  use 
complimentary  expressions  in  society."  These  two  sen- 
tences are  the  text,  of  which  the  internal  policy  of  Lou- 
is may  be  regarded  as  constituting  the  commentary. 
His  reign,  counting  from  the  death  of  Mazarin,  was 
characterized  by  four  great  wars,  occupying  altogether 
forty-two  years,  or  seven  ninths  of  its  continuance.  The 
first  of  these  was  his  attack  upon  Spanish  Flanders,  and 
this  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  made  at 
his  marriage,  by  which  all  claim  of  inheritance,  in  right 
of  his  wife,  to  Spanish  territory  was  solemnly  renounced. 
Out  of  this  contest,  at  first  opposed,  but  afterwards  (1670) 
assisted  by  England,  for  a  long  time  varj'ing  in  success- 
es, but,  on  the  whole,  to  the  advantage  qf  France,  Louis, 
by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen,  1678,  came  forth  with  the 
possession  of  a  large  addition  of  territory,  a  part  of 
which  was  the  duchy  of  Lorraine,  and  to  which  he  af- 
terwards added  Strasburg,  then  a  free  German  city — 
possessions  which  remained  a  part  of  France  until  re- 
stored to  Germany  by  the  war  of  1870.  Next,  to  pro- 
voke a  war  of  nine  or  ten  years'  duration  was  his  claim 
for  his  sister,  the  duchess  of  Orleans,  to  a  portion  of  the 
Palatinate,  enforced  by  an  invasion  of  the  territory  in 
question.  To  repel  this  movement  the  League  of  Augs- 
burg was  formed,  consisting  of  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
the  kings  of  Spain,  Denmark,  and  Sweden,  the  duke  of 
Savoy,  and  eventually  of  the  king  of  England.  Tliis  war, 
characterized  by  the  devastation  of  the  Palatinate  and 
the  sack  of  Heidelberg,  terminated  with  the  Peace  of 
Ryswick,  1697,  leaving  Louis  without  a  navy,  his  finances 
embarrassed,  his  people  impoverished,  and  manj-  of  them 
suffering  from  actual  starvation.  But  by  far  the  great- 
est contest  was  provoked  by  Louis's  claim  for  his  family 
to  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  Spain,  for  which  there 
were  three  competitors — Louis,  the  emperor  Leopold,  and 
the  elector  of  Bavaria.  Through  the  influence  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  Spanish  nobility,  Louis  had  succeeded 
in  procuring  the  succession  for  his  grandson,  the  duke  of 
Anjou.  To  this  Holland,  under  threat  of  invasion,  had 
been  forced  to  accede ;  and  William  of  England,  unable 
to  secure  the  co-operation  of  Parliament  in  the  way  of 
resistance,  was  obliged  to  pursue  the  same  course.  Le- 
opold, however,  began  hostilities,  and  in  a  short  time 
England,  Holland,  and  Denmark  united  with  him  in  the 
Second  Alliance,  and  the  conflict  only  ended  in  1713 
with  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  leaving  the  duke  of  Anjou 
upon  the  throne  of  Spain,  but  at  the  expense  to  France 
of  the  damage  and  humiliation  of  many  defeats,  and 
the  loss  of  many  colonies,  besides  a  distinct  provision 
against  the  union  of  France  and  Spain  imder  tlie  same 
monarch.  During  this  last  contest,  moreover,  with  ex- 
ternal enemies,  there  had  been  an  internal  war  destroy- 
ing the  national  resources,  that  of  the  Camisards  in  the 
Cevennes,  infuriated  and  maddened  by  religious  perse- 
cution into  rebellion.    See  Camisards. 

Louis's  relif/ions  and  ecclesiastical polic?/  is  exhibited 
in  connection  with  his  treatment  of  the  national  ('hurch, 
and  its  central  head,  the  papacy;  his  action  with  refer- 
ence to  a  division  of  sentiment  among  different  portions 
of  this  national  Church ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  his  treat- 
ment of  his  Protestant  subjects.  As  to  the  national 
Church,  it  may  be  said  that  he  found  the  machinery  of 
ecclesiastical  despotism  made  to  his  hands,  in  the  con- 
cordat of  Leo  X  and  Francis  I.  already  mentioned.  His 
peculiarity  consisted  in  the  skill  with  which  such  ma- 
chinery was  worked,  the  thoroughness  and  extent  of 
its  operation.  The  "  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church," 
which  usually  meant  the  libertv'  of  the  monarch  to  con- 


LOUIS  XIV 


527 


LOUIS  XIV 


trol  all  temporalities,  and  to  fleece  all  classes  of  the  ben- 
eticed  clergy  without  dividing  the  wool  with  the  pope, 
was  energetically  asserted  during  the  reign  of  Louis. 
His  effort  was  to  free  the  national  Church  from  the  con- 
trol of  the  papacy ;  through  his  appointments,  to  make 
it  subservient  to  his  general  jiolicy.  His  treatment  of 
the  pope,  especially  in  connection  with  the  question  of 
the  privilege  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome,  was 
harsh  and  overbearing;  and  although  compelled, in  1691, 
to  yield  in  certain  assertions  of  prerogative,  it  but  slight- 
ly affected  the  exercise  of  his  ecclesiastical  supremacy. 
His  bishops  were,  many  of  them,  learned,  able,  and  elo- 
quent. There  was  a  higher  standard,  both  of  literary 
taste  and  of  ecclesiastical  propriety,  than  in  reigns  pre- 
ceding. Their  Avritings  constitute  this  period,  in  some 
respects,  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  France.  But  these  writings  contain  no  vig- 
orous protest  against  the  vices  and  cruelties  of  their 
royal  master,  and  many  of  them  are  implicated  in  the 
support  of  his  most  flagrant  cruelties  and  acts  of  oppres- 
sion. It  was  perfectly  understood  that  no  other  course 
would  be  tolerated.  His  own  account  to  Massillon  of 
the  effect  produced  upon  him  by  his  court  preachers 
will  enable  us  to  mulerstand  the  character  of  their 
preaching.  "  I  have  heard  a  great  many  speakers  in 
my  chapel,  and  I  have  been  very  well  pleased  with 
tltem ;  when  I  hear  you,  I  am  displeased  with  mt/self." 
But  the  unfavorable  testimony  of  this  one  faithful  wit- 
ness, and  of  at  least  one  other  not  less  faithful,  Fene- 
lon,  could  not  counteract  the  flattery  of  so  many  others. 
The  ditficulty  with  the  Jansenists  constitutes,  perhaps, 
one  of  the  most  striking  illustrations  of  this  despotic 
polic}'  in  ecclesiastical  and  religious  matters.  In  this 
contest  between  Jesuitism  and  a  purer  form  of  Roman- 
ism, the  pope,  and,  through  the  pope  and  the  Jesuits, 
Louis,  became  a  party.     See  Jansenius. 

It  is,  however,  in  the  course  pursued  towards  his 
Protestant  subjects  that  the  policy  of  Louis  may  be  rec- 
ognised ;  that  the  ecclesiastical  and  religious  liistory  of 
his  reign  has  an  interest  altogether  unique  and  peculiar, 
namely,  the  position  of  the  Huguenots  and  Dissenters, 
holding,  under  the  law,  certain  legal  privileges — among 
others,  the  exercise  of  freedom,  not  only  of  religious 
opinion,  but  of  Avorship.  The  old-fashioned  orthodox 
practice  of  extermination  by  fire  and  sword  had  been 
already  tried,  more  than  once,  without  success.  At  the 
close  of  every  such  unsuccessful  effort,  terms  had  been 
made  insuring  them  conditions  of  existence.  Prior  to 
the  Edict  of  Nantes,  such  terms  constituted  rather,  a 
truce  than  a  peace;  and  when  the  contesting  parties 
had  rested  a  little,  the  truce  ended  and  the  conflict  was 
renewed.  This,  however,  was  not  the  case  with  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  really  constituted  a  peace,  and 
was  more  favorable  to  the  Huguenots  than  any  preced- 
ing arrangement;  and,  although  containing  in  it  some 
objectionable  features,  became  to  the  Protestants  the 
charter  of  their  existence.  They  and  the  Catholics, 
under  different  ecclesiastical  laws,  were  alike  imder  the 
law  of  I  he  land — enjoyed  its  sanctions,  lived  under  its 
protection.  Louis,  whose  great  doctrine  was  uniform- 
ity and  submission  in  all  things,  therefore  proposed  for 
himself  the  task,  not  of  violating  this  great  compact 
with  his  Protestant  subjects,  but  of  doing  away  with  the 
necessity  of  its  existence  by  bringing  them  all  within 
the  national  Church.  Urged  forward  in  this  attempt 
by  his  mistress,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  wholly  under 
the  control  of  the  Jesuits,  and  by  the  latter  themselves, 
on  the  plea  that  by  such  a  course  he  -would  merit  the 
forgiveness  of  heaven  for  the  many  sins  of  his  youth, 
especially  his  illicit  connection  with  Madame  de  Mon- 
tespan,  two  great  agencies  were  immediately  set  in 
operation  to  the  attainment  of  this  result  —  those  of 
bribery  and  intimidation.  Conversions  were  sought  by 
purchase,  or  by  appeals  to  the  interests  or  ambition  of 
the  parties  concerned.  Special  provision  was  made  for 
the  purchase  of  such  conversions  by  a  fund  collected  of 
one  third  of  the  profits  of  all  ecclesiastical  benefices,  and 


placed  in  the  hands  of  a  Huguenot  renegade,  to  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  The  matter  went  so  far  that  there 
was  a  regular  scale  of  prices  for  converts  of  different 
grades,  and  large  successes  were  published  as  the  result 
of  this  mode  of  operation.  To  cut  off  the  temptation 
of  relapse,  so  as  to  insure  the  price  of  a  second  conver- 
sion, an  edict  was  issued  condemning  all  relapsed  per- 
sons to  banishment  for  life  and  confiscation  of  their 
property.  With  these  efforts,  moreover,  which  only 
reached  the  weak  and  worthless,  was  combined  the 
other  element  of  harassment  and  intimidation.  Com- 
missions of  Komish  clergy  were  instituted,  sometimes 
upon  their  own  motion,  sometimes  upon  popular  com- 
plaint, and  with  the  well-understood  approval  of  court 
oflicials,  to  investigate  the  legal  titles  of  churches  of 
the  Huguenots,  which  for  the  purpose  had  been  called 
in  question.  One  infelicity  in  the  position  of  the  Prot- 
estants, even  under  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  was  that  which 
was  connected  with  what  may  be  called  the  Church  ter- 
ritorial system.  They  were  territorially  in  the  dioceses 
of  Romish  bishops,  in  the  parish  limits  of  Romish  priests, 
in  some  indefinite  manner  regarded  as  in  their  pastoral 
charge,  and  these  annoying  questions  of  Church  jirop- 
erty  could  thus  be  easily  started.  The  result,  in  many 
cases  where  these  titles  were  called  in  question,  was  a 
long,  vexatious  litigation,  ending  in  the  decision  that  it 
was  imperfect,  and  that  the  church  building  should  be 
shut  up  and  demolished.  The  decisions  of  the  sover- 
eign were  well  known,  and  loyalty,  ambition,  and  inter- 
est alike  found  their  expression  and  exercise  through 
these  agencies  in  the  rank  of  proselytism. 

As,  however,  these  proved  insufficient  to  the  attain- 
ment of  the  desired  end,  and  the  law  still  guaranteed 
the  legal  existence  of  the  as  j-et  unconverted  Protes- 
tants, more  vigorous  steps  were  taken  prior  to  the  final 
one  in  the  direction  of  annoyance  and  severitj'.  With- 
out, therefore,  revoking  the  existing  law,  it  was  sub- 
verted by  new  edicts  of  the  most  vexatious  and  harass- 
ing character.  Many  of  these  may  be  found  detailed 
under  the  article  Hugufcxots. 

There  was,  however,  another  form  of  operation  in  this 
effort  of  exterminating  Protestantism  by  conversion. 
Human  wickedness,  in  this  effort,  found  out  the  way  to 
commit  a  new  crime.  This  new  crime,  unique  and  pre- 
eminent in  the  achievements  of  malicious  ingenuity, 
had  to  be  described  by  a  new  name,  and  the  world  thus 
heard  for  the  first  time  of  the  Dragonnade — the  dra- 
gooning of  people  out  of  one  religion  into  another.  The 
process  was  that  of  quartering  soldiers — Romanists,  of 
course,  the  bigotrj'  of  the  Romanist  being  combined 
with  the  brutality  of  the  soldier — in  the  families  and 
houses  of  Protestants.  The  commanders  were  instruct- 
ed to  quarter  them  on  Protestant  families,  and  to  keep 
them  there  until  the  families  were  brought  over  to  the 
Catholic  faith,  and  then  to  transfer  them  to  others  of 
the  same  character  and  for  the  same  object.  As  the 
army  employed  for  this  purpose  was  a  large  one,  so 
whole  districts  at  once  were  subjected  to  this  intolerable 
annoyance  and  oppression.  Multitudes,  of  course,  yield- 
ed ;  and  where  they  subsequently  recanted  their  act  of 
weakness,  they  became  subject  to  banishment  and  con- 
fiscation. The  suffering  involved  may  be  more  easily 
imagined  than  described.  "  The  dragoons,"  says  one 
who  passed  through  it,  "fixed  their  crosses  to  their 
musquetoons,  so  as  the  more  readily  to  compel  their 
hosts  to  kiss  them ;  and  if  the  kiss  was  not  given,  they 
drove  the  crosses  against  their  stomachs  and  faces. 
They  had  as  little  mercy  for  the  children  as  for  the 
adults,  beating  them  with  these  crosses  or  with  the  flats 
of  their  swords,  so  violently  as  not  seldom  to  maim 
them.  The  wretches  also  subjected  the  women  to  their 
barbarities:  they  whipped  them,  they  disfigured  them, 
they  dragged  them  by  the  hair  through  the  mud  or 
along  the  stones.  Sometimes  they  would  seize  the  la- 
borers on  the  highway,  or  when  following  their  carts, 
and  drive  them  to  the  Romish  churches,  pricking  them 
like  oxen  with  their  own  goads  to  quicken  their  pace." 


LOUIS  XIV 


628 


LOUVARD 


If,  ill  any  case,  these  outrages  were  resisted,  and  there 
was  anything  like  a  Protestant  gathering,  the  result  was 
a  massacre.  The  mere  collection  of  such  population,  to 
indicate  that  they  were  not  all  carried  over  to  the  na- 
tional Church,  was  thus  treated.  "L'pon  the  assumption, 
therefore,  that  these  agencies,  after  having  operated  for 
four  or  live  j'ears,  had  accomplished  their  intended  pur- 
pose ;  that  Protestantism,  to  any  calculable  degree,  had 
ceased  to  exist,  in  1G85  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  as  no  longer 
of  any  use  or  necessity,  was  abrogated.  To  proclaim 
the  falsehood  and  cruelty  of  this  pretence,  and  the  pro- 
ceedings based  upon  it,  they  were  followed  b}'  enact- 
ments against  the  non-existent  Protestantism  (see  vol. 
iv,  p.  396,  col.  1).  The  only  privilege  left  to  the  Prot- 
estants was  the  permission  of  enjoj'ing  their  religion  in 
private.  The  non-intent  of  this  concession  was  best 
exhibited  bj^  the  declaration  of  an  ordinance  of  Louis 
himself  thirty  years  later  (1715),  "  that  every  man  who 
had  continued  to  reside  in  France  after  the  revocation 
of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  in  1G85  had  given  conclusive 
proof  that  he  was  a  Catholic,  because  only  as  a  Catholic 
he  would  have  been  allowed  to  dwell  there,  and,  there- 
fore, if  any  man  persisted  in  Protestantism,  he  must  be 
treated  as  a  relajjsed  heretic.  In  other  words,  if  such 
a  one  emigrated  in  1685  as  a  Protestant,  he  was  con- 
demned to  the  galleys.  If  he  did  not,  he  was  regarded 
as  a  Catholic,  and  at  any  subsequent  period  could  be 
proceeded  against  for  his  Protestantism  as  a  relapsed 
Catholic." 

Within  five  months  after  his  ordinance  against  Prot- 
estants just  mentioned  the  career  of  Louis  terminated. 
To  use  the  language  of  another,  "  He  was  an  intirm  and 
aged  man.  He  had  survived  his  children  and  his 
grandchildren.  He  had  been  overwhelmed  by  the  vic- 
tories of  Eugene  and  Marlborough.  He  was  oppressed 
with  debt.  He  was  hated  I)}'  the  people  who  had  idol- 
ized him,  and  was  compelled  to  listen  to  the  indig- 
nant invectives  which  the  whole  civilized  world  poured 
forth  against  his  blind  and  inhuman  persecutions.  He 
died  declaring  to  his  spiritual  advisers  that,  being  him- 
self ignorant  of  ecclesiastical  questions,  he  had  acted  un- 
der their  guidance  and  as  their  agent  in  all  that  he  had 
done  against  either  the  Jansenists  or  the  Protestant 
heretics,  and  on  those  his  spiritual  advisers  he  devolved 
the  responsibility  to  the  Supreme  Judge."  There  can 
be  no  question  that  in  many  cases  the  persecuting  policy 
of  Louis  was  quickened  by  the  influence  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon  and  her  ecclesiastical  advisers;  that  in  many 
cases  his  subordinate  agents  pursued  courses  of  outrage 
and  cruelty  exceeding  his  intentions;  that  such  men  as 
Bossuet,  Arnauld,  Flechier,  and  the  whole  Galilean 
Church,  in  approving  this  policy,  identified  themselves 
with  it  in  its  guilt  and  in  its  consequences;  but,  after 
all,  it  was  essentially  his  policy.  It  was  the  carrying 
out  in  ecclesiastical  the  autocratic  principle  enunciated 
with  reference  to  civil  matters.  The  concentration  of 
all  power  in  the  hands  of  the  sovereign  required  that 
he  should  lie  not  only  the  State,  but  the  Church. 

Louis  dying  Sept.  1, 1715,  was  succeeded  by  his  great- 
grandson,  Louis  XV.  His  son  the  dauphin  and  his  eldest 
grandson  died  at  an  earlier  period.  Some  of  his  children, 
the  fruit  of  an  adulterous  connection  with  Madame  de 
Montespan,  were  legitimized  during  his  lifetime,  but  the 
act  was  aimulled  after  his  death.  In  regard  to  other 
children  from  similar  connections  no  such  action  was 
taken.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  he  privately 
married  :Madame  de  iNIaintenon.  The  works  of  Louis 
are  contained  in  six  volumes.  They  are  occupied  with 
instructions  for  his  sons,  and  with  correspondence  bear- 
ing upon  the. history  of  his  times.  His  reign  may  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  annals  of 
French  literature.  In  the  department  of  theological 
and  controversial  literature  this  was  peculiarly  the  case, 
while  in  that  of  pulpit  eloquence  there  wa^  an  array  of 
talent  and  genius  beyond  parallel. 

Litei-ature. — Voltaire,  Si'ecle  de  Louis XIV;  Pellisson, 
Histoiie  de  Louis  XIV;  Dangeau,  Jo«?-ffl.  de  la  cour  de 


Louis  XIV;  Lettres  da  Madame  de  Maintenon ;  Larrey, 
Hist,  de  France  sorts  le  li'e(jne  de  Louis  XIV ;  Capefigue, 
Louis  XIV  son  Gouvernement,  etc.  (1837,  6  vols.  8vo), 
James,  Life  and  Times  of  Louis  XIV  (Bohn's  ed.,  Lond. 
1851,  2  vols.  l"2mo);  Smedley,  Hist.  Ref.  liel.  in  France 
(N.  Y.  1834,  3  vols.  18mo)  ;  Barnes's  Feiice,  Hist.  Protest. 
France  (Lond.  1853,  Timo) ;  Ilagenbach,  Kirchenf/esch. 
V,  86  sq. ;  Stoughton,  Fccles.  Hist.  Fnr/l.  (Ch.  of  liestora- 
tion,  see  Index  in  vol.  ii) ;  Hase,  Ch.  Hist,  (see  Index) ; 
Kanke,  Hist.  Papacy,  ii,  272  sq.,  293 ;  Students  France 
(Harper's),  p.  410  sq.;  Vehse,  Mem.  of  the  Court  of  A  us- 
?;•*■«,  ii,  14  sq.;  Quart.  Rev.  (Lond.),  1818  (July);  Brit, 
and  For.  Rev.  1844,  p.  470  sq.  See  also  the  references 
in  the  articles  France  and  Huguenots.     (C.W.) 

Louse.     See  Lice. 

Louvard,  Francois,  a  French  Jansenistic  theolo- 
gian of  the  Benedictine  order,  was  born  in  Chamgene- 
teux  in  1061,  entered  the  convent  of  Saint  Melaine,  in 
Brittany,  in  1679,  and  studied  sacred  and  profane  lit- 
erature. In  1700  he  was  transferred  to  the  convent  of 
St.  Denis,  near  Paris,  to  devote  himself  to  the  study 
of  the  text  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  In  1713  pope 
Clement  XI  published  the  memorable  bull  '•  L'nigeni- 
tus."  The  ecclesiastics  of  St.  Maur  all  silently  opposed 
it  except  Louvard,  who  openly  denounced  it,  and  was 
therefore  greatly  censured  by  P.  le  Tellier  as  one  dis- 
obeying the  apostolic  decrees.  He  was  exiled  to  Cor- 
bie, in  the  diocese  of  Amiens,  but  here  also  he  frankly 
pronounced  his  opposition  to  the  bidl,  and  he  ^vas  sent 
into  confinement  in  the  monastery  of  Landevence,  in 
Brittany,  In  1715,  on  the  death  of  Louis  XIV,  Louvard 
was  restored  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Denis.  In  1717, 
several  bishops  and  two  monks,  one  of  them  Louvard, 
called  a  meeting  of  the  opponents  of  the  bull,  and  be- 
came so  troublesome  even  to  the  government  that  Louis 
XV  exDed  some  of  them,  and  pidjlished  an  edict  that 
whosoever  recommenced  the  controversy  should  be 
treated  as  a  rebel  to  the  public  peace.  Louvard  pro- 
tested. He  had  been  the  first  of  his  order  to  oppose  the 
bull;  now,  almost  all  the  Benedictines  were  on  his  side; 
and,  receiving  no  reply,  he  renewed  his  appeal  with  the 
four  bishops  in  1720.  On  complaint  to  the  general  of 
the  order  Louvard  was  specially  interrogated,  and,  be- 
ing found  thoroughly  bent  on  both  present  and  future 
opposition,  he  was  exiled  to  Tuffe.  Here  he  wrote  new 
polemics,  preached,  and  taught  the  simple  inhabitants 
that  there  was  a  difference  between  the  holy  religion  of 
P.  Quesnel  and  the  manufactured  heresies  of  the  disci- 
ples of  Loyola.  In  1723  he  was  transferred  to  Cormori, 
diocese  of  Tours.  Here  he  continued  proselyting.  The 
general  of  his  order  offered  to  forgive  him  all  the  past 
if  he  would  cease.  He  refused,  and  had  to  be  placed  in 
the  monastery  of  St.  Laumer,  at  Blois;  but,  still  continu- 
ing his  opposition,  he  was  removed  to  the  monastery  of 
St.Gildas  de  Bois,  in  Brittany,  Louvard  persisting  in 
his  attacks  on  the  Jesuits,  the  latter  brought  charges 
against  him  as  plotting  against  the  state,  and  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Nantes  in  1728.  Here  he 
published  a  manifest  against  his  accusers,  and  was  there- 
fore transferred  to  the  Bastile  in  the  same  year.  In 
1734  a  kttre  de  cachet,  signed  by  the  king,  transferred 
him  to  the  monastery  of  Kabais,  diocese  of  Meaux.  But 
Louvard,  continuing  in  his  former  course,  was  to  be  re- 
arrested. Apprised  of  this,  he  made  his  escape  to  the 
Carthusian  monastery  of  Schonau,  in  Holland,  where  he 
diod  in  April,  1739.  Among  his  numerous  works  the 
following  are  of  special  importance:  Ltttre  contenant 
qiiflqnes  Remarques  sur  les  CEuvres  de  St.  Gregoire  de 
Xazianze,  in  the  Nouvelles  de  la  Repuhlique  des  Lettres, 
vol.  xxxiii  (1704)  : — Prospectus  novce  edilionis  operum  S. 
Gregorii  (1708)  -.—(Euvres  de  St.  Gregoire  (1778-1840) : 
— De  la  Necessite  de  I'Appel  des  eglises  de  France  aufu- 
tur  Concile  general  (1717) : — Lettre  cm  Cardinal  de  No- 
ailles,  jwur  j)rouver  a  celte  eminence  que  la  constitution 
Unigenitus  n'est  recerable  en  auciine  faqon  (1718)  : — Re- 
lation abregee  de  VImprisonnement  de  dom  Louvard 
(1728).     See  D.  Tassin,  Hist.  Litter,  de  la  Congregation 


LOVE 


529 


LOVE 


de  St.  3faur;  D.  Clemencet,  Preface  de  V Edition  des 
(Euv7-es  du  St.  GTegoire  de  Xazianze  ;  B.  Hareau,  Hist. 
Litter,  du  Maine,  ii,  175 ;  Hoefer,  Nouv.  Biog.  Generale, 
xxxii,  28  sq. 

Love  (prop.  n^rtS;,  ajuini)  is  an  attachment  of 
the  affections  to  any  oljjcct,  accompanied  with  an  ar- 
dent desire  to  promote  its  happiness:  1,  by  abstainuig 
from  all  tliat  could  prove  injurious  to  it;  2,  by  doing  all 
that  can  promote  its  welfare,  comfort,  or  interests, 
whether  it  is  indifferent  to  these  efforts,  or  whether  it 
appreciates  them.  This  is  what  Kant  calls  practical 
love,  in  contradistinction  from  2Kithological  love,  which 
is  a  sort  of  sensual  self-love,  anil  a  desire  for  community 
in  compliance  with  our  own  feelings.  In  reality,  love 
is  something  personal,  emanating  from  a  personal  being 
and  directed  towards  another,  and  thus  its  moral  or 
immoral  character  is  determined  by  the  fact  of  its  being 
called  I'orth  by  the  real  worth  of  the  personality  towards 
which  it  is  directed,  or  by  the  phj'sical  appearance  of 
the  latter,  or  by  the  advantages  it  may  offer. 

In  the  Christian  sense,  as  we  find  it  spoken  of  in  the 
Word  of  God,  love  is  not  merely  a  peculiar  disposition 
of  the  feelings,  or  a  direction  of  the  will  of  the  creature, 
though  this  also  must  have  its  root  in  the  creative  prin- 
ciple, in  God.  God  is  love,  the  original,  absolute  love 
(1  .John  iv,  9),  As  the  absolute  love,  lie  is  at  once  sub- 
ject and  object,  i.  e.  he  originally  loved  himself,  had  com- 
munion with  himself,  imparted  himself  to  himself,  as  also 
■\ve  see  mention  made  of  God's  love  before  the  creation  of 
the  world,  the  love  of  the  Father  towards  the  Son  (John 
xvii,  24).  Derived  from  this  love  is  the  love  which 
calls  into  being  and  preserves  his  creatures.  Creatures, 
that  IS,  existences  which  come  from  God,  are  through 
him  and  for  him ;  not  having  life  by  themselves,  but 
immediately  dependent  upon  God ;  existing  by  his  will, 
and  consequently  to  be  destroyed  at  his  will;  created 
in  time,  and  consequently  subject  to  time,  developing 
themselves  in  it  to  the  fidl  extent  of  their  nature  ac- 
cording to  God's  thoughts,  with  the  possibility  of  de- 
parting therefrom,  Avhich  it  were  impossible  to  suppose 
of  God,  the  eternally  real  and  active  idea  of  himself. 
In  regard  to  the  creature,  the  divine  love  is  the  wUI  of 
God  to  communicate  to  it  the  fulness  of  his  life,  and 
even  the  will  to  impart,  according  to  its  receptive  fac- 
ulty, this  fulness  into  something  which  is  not  himself, 
yet  which,  as  coming  from  God,  tends  also  towards  God, 
and  finds  its  rest  in  him,  and  its  happiness  in  doing  his 
will.  But,  as  emanating  from  an  active  God,  this  love, 
with  all  its  fulness,  can  only  be  directed  towards  a  sim- 
ilarly organized  and  consequently  personal  creature,  con- 
scious of  its  relation  to  God  and  of  himself  as  its  end, 
possessing  in  itself  the  fulness  of  created  life  (micro- 
cosm). 

It  must,  then,  be  man  towards  whom  this  divine  love 
is  directed  as  the  object  of  God's  delight,  created  after 
his  image.  This  love  is  manifested  in  the  earnestness 
of  the  discipline  (commands  and  threats.  Gen.  ii,  17) 
employed  to  strengthen  this  resemblance  to  God,  to 
educate  man  as  a  ruler  by  obedience,  as  also  by  the 
intercourse  of  God  with  man;  and,  after  the  fall,  by 
the  hope  and  confidence  awakening  promises,  as  well  as 
in  the  humiliating  condemnation  to  pain,  labor,  and 
death.  All  these  contain  evidences  of  love,  of  this  will 
of  (iod  to  hold  man  in  his  communion,  or  to  restore  him 
to  it.  At  tlie  bottom  of  it  lies  an  appreciation  of  his 
worth,  namely,  of  his  inalienable  resemblance  to  God, 
of  the  imparted  divine  breath.  This  appreciation  is  also 
the  foundation  of  compassionate  love,  for  it  is  only  on 
this  ground  that  man  is  worthy  of  the  divine  affection. 
But  it  is  also  the  ground  which  renders  him  deserving 
of  punishment.  For  punishment,  this  destiny  of  evil, 
which  is  felt  as  a  hinderance  of  life,  is  in  one  respect  an 
expiation,  i.  o.  a  retrieving  of  God's  honor,  being  incurred 
by  that  disregard  of  the  value  of  this  communion  with 
God,  and  consequently  of  the  real  life,  which  must  be 
considered  as  injurious  to  the  life  of  man,  and  leading 
him  to  ruin ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  inducement  to  cou- 
Y.~L  L 


version,  as  this  consequence  of  sin  leads  man  to  recog- 
nise the  restoration  of  this  disturbed  relation  to  God  as 
the  one  thing  needfid  and  desirable.  Punishment  con- 
sequently proceeds  in  both  cases  on  the  assumption  of 
the  worth  of  man  in  the  eye  of  God,  and  is  a  proof  of  it. 
Hence  the  anger  of  God,  as  manifested  by  these  punish- 
ments, is  but  another  form  of  his  love.  It  is  a  reaction 
of  rejected  love  which  manifests  itself  in  imparting  suf- 
fering and  pain  on  the  one  who  rejects  it,  proving  there- 
by that  its  rejection  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference  to  it. 
This  love  may  not  be  apparent  at  first  sight,  but  it  is 
clearly  revealed  in  God's  conduct  towards  all  mankind, 
as  well  towards  the  heathen  as  towards  the  chosen  peo- 
ple. God  allowed  the  heathen  to  walk  in  their  own 
ways  (Acts  xiv,  17) ;  he  allows  them  to  fall  into  all  man- 
ner of  evil  (Rom.  i,  21  sq.)  in  order  to  bring  them  to  a 
sense  of  their  misery  and  helplessness  as  well  as  of  their 
guilt.  But  at  the  bottom  of  this  anger  there  is  still 
love,  and  tliis  is  clearly  shown  in  the  fact  that  he  mani- 
fested himself  to  them  in  their  conscience,  and  also  took 
care  of  them  (Acts  xiv,  17;  xvii,  25  sq.).  But,  if  this 
love  is  thus  evinced  towards  the  heathen,  it  is  stUl  more 
clearly  manifested  towards  the  chosen  people,  the  fact 
of  their  choice  being  itself  a  manifestation  of  that  love 
(Deut.  vii,  G  sq.),  wiiich  is  further  shown  both  in  the 
blessings  and  punishments,  the  anger  and  the  mercy,  of 
which  they  were  the  objects.  Holiness  and  mercy  are 
the  chief  characteristics  of  the  divine  love  as  manifested 
towards  Israel;  the  one  raising  them  above  their  weak- 
nesses, their  evils,  and  their  sins ;  the  other  understand- 
ing these  failings,  and  seeking  to  deliver  and  restore 
them.  But  in  both  also  is  manifested  the  constancy  of 
that  love,  its  faithfulness ;  and  the  exactitude  with  which 
it  adheres  to  the  covenant  it  had  itself  made  evinces  its 
righteousness  by  saving  those  who  fear  God  and  obey 
his  commandments.  Both  holiness  and  mercy  are,  for 
the  moral,  religious  consciousness,  harmonized  in  the 
expiatory  sacrifice,  in  a  figurative,  typical  manner  in 
the  O.  T.,  and  in  a  real,  absolute  manner  in  the  N.  T. 
The  divine  right  in  regard  to  fallen  humanitj-  is  main- 
tained ,  the  death  penalty  is  paid,  but  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  chief  of  all,  the  divine  Son  of  man,  who  is  also 
Son  of  God,  suffers  it  for  all,  of  his  own  free  will,  and 
out  of  love  to  man,  ui  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  his 
Father.  Thus  the  curse  of  sin  and  death  is  removed 
from  humanity,  and  the  possibility  of  a  new  existence 
of  righteousness  and  felicity  restored. 

The  New  Covenant  is  therefore  the  full  revelation  of 
the  spirit  and  object  of  the  divine  love.  The  incarna- 
tion of  the  Son  of  God  is  the  revelation  of  God  himself, 
and  leads  to  his  self-impartation  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Hence  the  eternal  love  discloses  itself  as  being,  in  its 
inner  nature,  the  love  of  the  Father  for  the  Son,  and  of 
the  Son  for  the  Father  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  pro- 
ceeds from  both,  and  is  the  fulness  of  the  love  that 
unites  them,  whence  we  can  say  that  God  is  love ;  as 
also,  in  its  manifestation,  it  is  the  divine  love  towards 
fallen  creatures,  which  is  the  will  to  restore  their  perfect 
communion  with  God  by  means  of  the  all-sufficient  ex- 
piatory sacrifice  of  th.e  God-man,  and  the  commimica- 
tion  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  which  both  the  Father  and 
the  Son  come  to  dwell  in  the  hearts  of  men,  thus  form- 
ing a  people  of  God's  own,  as  was  postulated,  but  not  yet 
realized  in  the  O.  T.  The  love  of  God  in  man,  there- 
fore, is  the  consciousness  of  being  loved  by  God  (I!om. 
V,  5),  residting  in  a  powerful  impulse  of  love  towards 
the  (iod  who  has  loved  us  first  in  Christ  (1  John  iv,  19), 
and  an  inward  and  strong  affection  towards  all  who  are 
loved  by  God  in  Christ  (1  John  iv,  11);  for  the  divine 
love,  even  when  dwelling  in  man,  remains  aU-embra- 
cing.  This  love  takes  the  form  of  a  duty  (1  John  iv,  11), 
but  at  the  same  time  becomes  a  graduall}'  strengthening 
inclination.  And  this  is  the  completion  or  the  ripening 
of  the  divine  love  in  man  {}v  tovt())  TfTeXeiairai),  that 
it  manifests  itself  in  positive  results  for  the  advantage 
of  others. 

We  find  the  beginning  and  examples  of  this  love  un- 


LOVE 


530 


LOVE  FA^HLY 


der  the  old  dispensation  where  mention  is  made  of  desire 
after  God,  joy  in  him,  eagerness  to  serve  him,  zeal  in  do- 
ing everything  to  please  and  honor  him.  The  inclination 
towardsthose  who  belong  to  God,  the  holy  communion 
of  love  in  God,  that  characteristic  feature  of  the  N.  T., 
is  also  foreshadowed  in  tlie  O.  T.  by  the  people  of  God, 
who  are  regarded  as  one  in  respect  to  him,  and  whose 
close,  absolute  communion  with  God  is  represented  by 
the  image  of  marriage.  This  image  is  still  repeated  in 
the  N.  T.,  nevertheless  in  such  a  manner  that  the  union 
is  represented  as  not  j-et  accomplished;  for,  though 
Christ  is  designated  as  the  bridegroom  and  the  Church 
as  the  bride,  the  wedding  is  made  to  coincide  with  the 
establishment  of  his  kingdom.  Thus  considered,  the 
love  of  God  and  tho^furtherance  of  the  love  of  God  are 
still  a  figurative  expression.  God  wants  the  whole 
heart  of  his  people :  one  love,  one  sacrifice,  exclusively 
directed  towards  him,  so  that  none  other  should  exist 
beside  it ;  and  that  all  inclinations  of  love  towards  any 
creature  should  be  comprised  in  it,  derived  from  it,  and 
return  to  it.  On  this  account  his  love  is  called  jealous, 
and  he  is  said  to  be  a  jealous  God.  This  jealousy  of 
God,  however,  this  decided  requiring  of  an  exclusive 
submission  on  the  part  of  his  people,  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  tenderest  carefidness  for  their  welfare,  their 
honor,  and  their  restoration.  The  close  connection,  in- 
deed the  unity  of  both,  is  evident.  The  effect  of  this 
jealousy  of  God  is  to  kindle  zeal  in  those  who  serve 
him,  and  consequently  opposition  against  all  that  op- 
poses, or  even  does  not  conduce  to  his  service.  This  is 
a  manifestation  of  love  towards  God,  which  love  is  essen- 
tially a  return  of  his  own  love,  and  consequently  grati- 
tude, accompanied  by  the  highest  appreciation,  and  an 
earnest  desire  for  communion  with  him.  It  includes 
joy  in  all  that  serves  God,  absolute  submission  to  him, 
and  a  desire  to  do  everything  for  his  glory.  The  love 
in  God,  i.  e.  the  love  of  those  who  feel  themselves  bound 
together  by  that  common  bond,  is  essentially  of  the 
same  character ;  but,  from  the  lact  of  its  being  direct- 
ed towards  creatures  who  are  afflicted  with  many  fad- 
ings and  infirmities,  must  also  include — as  distinguish- 
ed from  the  love  towards  God — a  willingness  to  forgive, 
which  makes  away  with  all  hinderances  to  fuU  commu- 
nion, a  continual  friendliness  under  all  circumstances, 
consequently  patience  and  gentleness,  zeal  for  their  im- 
provement, and  sympathy  for  their  failings  and  misfor- 
tunes. But  as  the  love  of  the  creative,  redemptive,  and 
sanctifying  God,  extending  further  than  merely  those 
who  have  attained  to  that  communion  with  him,  em- 
braces all,  so  should  also  the  love  of  those  who  love 
God.  Yet  in  the  divine  love  itself  there  is  a  distinction 
made,  inasmuch  as  God's  love  towards  those  who  love 
him  and  keep  his  commandments  is  a  strengthening, 
sustaining  pleasure  in  them  (John  xiv,  21,  23),  while 
his  love  towards  the  others  is  benevolence  and  pity, 
which,  according  to  their  conduct,  the  liisposition  of 
their  hearts,  and  their  receptivity,  is  either  not  felt  at 
all  by  them,  or  only  produces  pain,  fear,  or,  again,  hope, 
desire,  etc.,  but  not  a  feeling  of  complete,  abiding  joy. 
So  in  the  love  of  the  chiklren  of  God  towards  the  human 
race  we  find  the  distinction  between  brotherly  and  uni- 
versal love  (Rom.  xii,  10;  Ileb.  xiii,  1 ;  1  Pet.  i,  22;  2 
Pet.  i,  7).  In  both  we  find  the  characteristics  of  kind- 
ness and  benevolence,  sympathy,  willingness  to  help, 
gentleness,  and  patience ;  but  in  the  universal  love  there 
is  wanting  the  feeling  of  delight,  of  an  equal  aim,  a  com- 
plete reciprocity,  of  conscious  unity  in  the  one  highest 
good. 

Love  also  derives  a  special  determination  from  the 
personality,  the  spiritual  and  essential  organization  of 
the  one  who  loves,  and  also  his  particular  position.  It 
manifests  itself  in  friendship  as  a  powerful  attraction,  a 
hearty  sympathy  of  feelings,  a  strong  desire  for  being 
together  and  enjoying  a  communion  of  thoughts  and 
feelings.  In  sexual  love  it  is  a  tender  reciprocal  attrac- 
tion, a  satisfaction  in  each  oihtr  as  the  mutual  com- 
plement of  life,  and  a  desii'c  for  absolute  and  lasting 


community  of  existence.  Parental,  filial,  and  brotherly 
love  can  be  considered  as  a  branch  of  this  aifection. 
Both  friendship  and  love  have  the  full  sanction  of  Chris- 
tian morals  when  based  on  the  love  of  God.  As  wed- 
ded love  is  an  image  of  the  relation  between  the  Lord 
and  his  people,  or  the  Cliurch  (Eph.  v,  23  sq.),  so  pater- 
nal, filial,  and  brotherly  love  are  respectively  images  of 
the  love  of  God  towards  his  children,  of  their  love  to- 
wards him,  and  of  their  love  towards  each  other.  AH 
these  relations  may  want  this  higher  consecration,  and 
yet  be  well  regulated ;  they  have  then  a  moral  charac- 
ter. But  they  may  also  be  disorderly :  friendship  can 
be  sensual,  selfish,  and  even  degenerate  into  unnatural 
sexual  connection ;  sexual  love  may  become  selfish,  hav- 
ing no  other  object  but  the  gratification  of  lust ;  paren- 
tal love  may  change  to  self-love,  producing  over-indul- 
gence, and  fostering  the  vices  of  the  children ;  brotherly 
love  can  degenerate  into  fiattery  and  spoiling.  Thus 
this  feeling,  which  in  its  principle  and  aim  should  be 
the  highest  and  noblest,  can  become  the  most  common, 
the  worst,  and  the  most  unworthy.  Both  kinds  of  love 
are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  highest  and  purest 
tendency  of  the  heart  is  in  the  Bible  designated  by  the 
same  name  as  the  more  natural,  immoral,  or  disorderly 
tendency.  The  same  was  the  case  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans:  "Eptor,  Amor,  and  'A(ppocir>i,  Venus,  had 
both  significations,  the  noble  and  the  common;  but 
Christianity  has  in  Christ  and  in  his  Church  the  perfect 
illustration  and  example  of  true  love,  whose  absolute 
type  is  in  the  triune  life  of  God  himself.  This  divine 
love,  as  it  exists  in  God,  and  through  the  divine  Spirit 
m  the  heart  of  man,  together  with  the  connection  of 
both,  is  represented  to  us  in  Scripture  as  infinitely  deep 
and  pure.  We  find  it  thus  represented  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (see  Deut,  xxxiii,  3 ;  Isa.  xlix,  13  sq. ;  Ivii,  17 
sq. ;  Iv,  7  sq. ;  Jer.  xxxi,  20 ;  xxxii,  37  sq. ;  Ezek.  xxxiv, 
11  sq. ;  Hos.  iii,  2  sq. ;  Mic.  vii,  18  sq.).  Then  in  the 
whole  mission  of  Christ,  and  in  what  he  stated  of  his 
own  love  and  of  the  Father's,  see  Matt,  xi,  28 ;  Luke  xv ; 
John  iv,  10, 14 ;  vi,  37  sq. ;  vii,  37  sq. ;  ix,  4 ;  x,  12  sq. ; 
xii,  35 ;  xiii,  1 ;  xv,  12, 13 ;  xvii ;  and,  for  the  testimony 
of  the  apostles,  Rom.  v,  5  sq. ;  viii,  28  sq. ;  xi,  29  sq. ;  1 
Cor.  xiii;  Eph.  i,  3, 17  sq. ;  v,  1  sq. ;  1  John  iii,  4,  etc. 
These  statements  are  corroborated  by  the  testimony  of 
Christians  in  all  ages,  who  have  all  been  witness  to  this 
love,  however  much  their  views  may  have  differed  on 
other  points.  In  later  times,  ethical  essays  on  the  sub- 
ject have  thrown  great  light  on  the  nature  and  modes 
of  manifestation  of  this  love ;  see  among  them,  Daub, 
Syst.  d.  christl.  Moral,  ii,  1,  p.  310;  Marheineke,  Syst.  d. 
theol.  Moral,  p.  470 ;  Rothe,  Theol.  Ethik,  ii,  350. — Her- 
zog,  Real-Enctjklop.  viii,  388  sq.     See  Wesleyana,  p.  54. 

Love,  Christopher,  a  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  at  Cardiff,  ^^^'lles.  in  1<>18  ;  entered  the  active  work 
of  the  ministry  in  1644,  in  London,  after  which  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  After  the 
death  of  Charles  I,  to  whom  he  had  previous!}'  been  op- 
posed, he  entered  into  a  plot  against  Cromwell,  for  which 
cause  he  was  executed  in  August,  1651.  Mr.  Love  was 
the  author  of  a  number  of  sermons  and  theological  trea- 
tises published  in  1645-54.  As  a  writer,  he  was  plain, 
impressive,  evangelical.  See  "Wild,  Tragedy  of  Chrisr- 
topher  Love  ;  Neal,  Purita7is,  i,  528 ;  ii,  123  sq. ;  AVood, 
Allien.  Oxoii.;  jVllibone,  Bict.  of  Brit,  and  Am.  Aulhois, 
vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Love,  John  M.,  D.D.,  an  eminent  Scotch  divine, 
was  born  at  I'aislcy,  Scotland,  in  1757.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  London  Missionary  Society.  He 
died  in  1825.  Dr.  Love  published  in  1796  Addresses  to 
the  People  of  Otaheite,  republished  after  his  death  ;  also 
2  vols,  of  Sermons  and  Lectures  in  1829;  a  voL  o(  Let- 
tei's  in  1838 ;  34  Sermons,  preached  1784-5,  in  1853.  See 
Chambers  and  Thomson,  jSj'o/;?-.  Diet,  of  Eminent  Scots- 
men, 1855,  vol.  v;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  Am.  Au- 
thors, vol.  ii,  s.  V. 

Love  Family.     See  Familists. 


LOVE-FEAST 


531 


LOWE 


Love  -  feast.  In  the  article  Agape  (q.  v.)  the 
subject  has  been  treated  so  far  as  it  relates  to  an  in- 
stitution in  the  early  Church.  It  remains  for  us  here 
only  to  speak  of  the  love-feast  as  observed  in  some  Prot- 
estant churches,  especially  the  Methodist  connection. 
In  a  strictly  primitive  form,  the  love-feast  is  observed 
by  the  Moravian  Brethren.  Tliey  celebrate  it  on  va- 
rious occasions, "  generally  in  connection  with  a  solemn 
festival  or  preparatory  to  the  holy  communion.  Printed 
odes  are  often  used,  prepared  expressly  for  the  occasion. 
In  the  course  of  the  service  a  simple  meal  of  biscuit  and 
coffee  or  tea  is  served,  of  which  the  congregation  par- 
take together.  In  some  churches  the  love-feast  con- 
cludes with  an  address  by  the  minister"  (E.  de  Schwei- 
nitz,  Moravian  Manual  [Philad.  1859,  Timo],  p.  IGl). 
From  the  jNIoravians  Wesley  borrowed  the  practice  for 
his  own  followers,  assigning  for  its  introduction  into 
the  jMethodist  economy  the  following  reasons :  "  In  or- 
der to  increase  in  them  [persons  in  bands  (q.  v.)]  a 
grateful  sense  of  all  his  [God's]  mercies,  I  desired  that 
one  evening  in  a  quarter  all  the  men  in  band,  on  a  sec- 
ond all  the  women,  would  meet,  and  on  a  third  both 
men  and  women  together,  that  we  might  together  '  eat 
bread,'  as  the  ancient  Christians  did, '  with  gladness  and 
singleness  of  heart.'  At  these  love-feasts  (so  we  termed 
them,  retaining  the  name  as  well  as  the  thing,  which 
was  in  use  from  the  beginning)  our  food  is  only  a  little 
plain  cake  and  water ;  but  we  seldom  return  from  them 
without  being  fed  not  only  with  the  '  meat  which  per- 
isheth,'  but  with  '  that  which  endureth  to  everlasting 
life'  "  (Wesley,  W'oi-ks,  v,  183).  In  the  Wesleyan  Church 
only  members  are  attendants  at  love-feasts,  and  they  are 
appointed  by  or  ^vith  tlie  consent  of  the  superintendent 
{M billies,  1806).  Admission  itself  is  gained  only  bj'  a 
ticket ;  and  as  it  frequently  happened  that  members 
would  lend  their  tickets  to  strangers,  it  was  enacted  in 
18(J8  that  "no  person  who  is  unwilling  to  join  our  soci- 
ety is  allowed  to  attend  a  love-feast  more  than  once, 
nor  then  without  a  note  from  the  travelling  preacher;" 
....  and  "  that  any  person  who  is  proved  to  have  lent 
a  society  ticket  to  another  who  is  not  in  society,  for  the 
purpose  of  deceiving  the  door-keepers,  shall  be  suspend- 
ed for  three  months"  (comp.  Grindrod.  Lau-s  and  Regula- 
tions of  Wesl.  Methodism  [Lond.  1842],  p.  180).  In  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  the  rule  also  exists  that  ad- 
mission to  love-feasts  is  to  be  had  by  tickets  only  (comp. 
Discipline,  pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  17  [2]),  but  the  rule  is  rarely, 
if  ever  observed,  and  they  are  frequently  attended  by 
members  of  the  congregation  as  well  as  by  the  members 
of  the  Church.  By  established  usage,  the  presiding  el- 
der (and  in  his  absence  only  the  minister  in  charge)  is 
entitled  to  preside  over  the  love-feasts,  and  they  are 
therefore  held  at  the  time  of  the  Quarterly  Conference. 
See  CoNFKKENCE,  JlKTHoniST.  The  manner  in  which 
they  are  now  generally  observed  among  Jlethodists  is 
as  follows :  They  are  opened  by  the  reading  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, followed  by  the  singing  of  a  hymn,  and  then  by 
prayer.  During  and  after  the  dealing  out  of  the  bread 
and  water,  the  different  members  of  the  congregation  so 
disposed  relate  their  Christian  experience  since  the  last 
meeting,  etc.  This  is  also  the  occasion  for  a  report  of 
the  prosperity  of  the  Church  on  the  part  of  the  pastor 
and  by  rule  of  Discipline  (pt.  ii,  ch.  ii,  §  17) ;  for  the 
report  of  the  names  of  those  Avho  have  been  received 
into  the  Church  or  excluded  therefrom  during  the  quar- 
ter ;  also  the  names  of  those  ^vho  have  been  received  or 
dismissed  by  certificate,  and  of  those  T,ho  have  died  or 
have  withdrawn  from  the  Church. 

Among  the  Baptists,  in  their  missionary  churches 
abroad,  they  seem  to  celebrate  the  real  Arjap'e.  At  Ber- 
lin, Prussia,  they  are  held  quarterly,  and  are  made  the 
occasion  of  a  general  social  gathering,  substituting  cof- 
fee and  cake  for  the  bread  and  water;  but  this  practice 
is  by  no  means  general  among  the  communicants  of  that 
Church.     (J.II.W.) 

Love.  Virgins  of,  a  female  order  in  the  Romish 
•Church,  called  also  Laughters  of  Charity  (q.v.),  whose 


office  it  is  to  administer  assistance  and  relief  to  indigent 
persons  confined  to  their  beds  by  sickness  and  infirmity. 
The  order  was  founded  by  Louisa  le  Gras,  and  received, 
in  the  year  1660,  the  approbation  of  the  pope. — Farrar, 
Eccles.  l)ict. 

Lovejoy,  Elijah  P.,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
noted  for  his  anti-slaverj'  acti\'ity,  was  the  son  of  the 
Kev.  Daniel  Lovejoy,  and  was  born  at  Albion,  INIaine, 
Nov.  9,  1802 ;  graduated  at  Waterville  College,  Maine, 
September,  1826;  and  taught  for  a  time  in  St.  Louis, 
]Mo.  In  1832  he  was  converted,  and  united  with  the 
Presb3'terian  Church,  and  entered  the  Theological  Sem- 
inary at  Princeton,  N.  J.  The  following  spring  he  ob- 
tained license  to  preach  from  the  Second  Presbytery  of 
Philadelphia,  and  began  preaching  in  Newport,  E.  I., 
and  in  New  York  City.  In  1833  he  established  the  *SY. 
Louis  Observer,  a  weekly  religious  newspaper,  in  St, 
Louis,  Mo.  In  1836,  on  account  of  a  bitter  dislike  for 
the  Observer's  opposition  to  slaverj'  and  the  prevailing 
principles  on  divorce,  a  mob  destroyed  Mr.  Lovejoy's 
printing-office.  The  same  year  he  removed  to  Alton, 
111.,  where  he  established  and  maintained  by  solicited 
contributions  "  The  Alton  Observer."  Continuing  in  his 
anti-slavery  movements,  resolutions  were  passed  against 
him,  and  his  press  was  twice  destroyed  by  a  pro-slavery 
mob.  While  defending  a  third  press  near  his  premises 
at  Alton,  he  was  mortally  wounded  in  November,  1837. 

Lovejoy,  O'wen,  a  Congregational  minister,  broth- 
er of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Albion,  Maine,  in  1811. 
From  1836  to  185-1:  he  was  minister  in  charge  of  a  Con- 
gregational Church  at  Princeton,  111.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  Congress  by  the  Repubhcans  of  the  third 
district  of  lUinois  in  1856  ;  was  re-elected  in  1858,  1860, 
and  1862,  and  is  included  among  the  eminent  opponents 
of  the  slave  power.  He  died  at  Brooklyn,  New  York,  in 
March,  1864. 

Lovejoy,  Theodore  A.,  a  Methodist  preacher, 
was  born  at  Stratford,  Conn.,  Feb.  18, 1821 ;  was  convert- 
ed in  Brooklj'n,  N.  Y.,  in  1842,  and  soon  after  joined  the 
jNIethodlst  Episcopal  Church.  In  1847  he  joined  the 
New  York  East  Conference,  remaining  a  faithful  and 
valued  member  of  the  same  till  his  death,  at  Watertown, 
Conn.,  June  7,  1867.  See  W.  C.  Smith,  Sacred  Memo- 
ries (New  York,  1870),  p.  301. 

Loveys,  John,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  minister,  was 
born  in  Devon  County,  England,  May  7, 1804 ;  was  con- 
firmed in  the  Church  of  England  in  his  youth  ;  in  1825 
was  converted,  and  united  with  the  Wesleyan  IMetho- 
dists;  emigrated  to  America  in  1829;  spent  one  year  at 
Cazenovia  Seminary,  N.  Y.,  and  in  1830  entered  the 
Black  River  Conference.  In  1834  he  was  stationed  at 
Ogdensburg;  in  1836  was  made  presiding  elder  on  Pots- 
dam District ;  then  preached  at  Oswego  (1839),  and  va- 
rious other  appointments,  until  his  death,  Aug.  30, 1849. 
He  was  a  valuable  preacher,  clear,  original,  vigorous, 
and  devout ;  an  "  excellent  economist,"  a  "  diligent  stu- 
dent," and  a  man  of  large  spirit  and  liberal  influence. — 
3finutes  of  Conferences,  iv,  474;  Black  River  Conference 
Memorial,  p.  249. 

Lo^w  Churchmen,  a  name  for  persons  who,  though 
attached  to  the  system  of  government  maintained  in 
the  Church  of  England,  or  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States,  as  "  the  Church,"  yet  con- 
sider that  the  ministrations  of  other  churches  are  not 
to  be  disregarded.  See  Latitudinarians.  The  term 
was  primarily  applied  to  those  who  disapproved  of  the 
schism  made  by  the  Non-jurors,  and  who  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  moderation  towards  Dissenters. — 
Farrar,  Eccles.  Diet.  s.  v.     See  Ritualisji. 

LoTve,  ben-Bezalel,  a  rabbi  and  Jewish  teacher 
of  note,  was  born  probably  in  Posen  about  1525.  Of  his 
early  history  but  httle  is  authenticated.  We  find  him 
first  occupying  a  position  of  influence  and  prominence 
at  Prague,  where  he  was  best  known  as  "  the  learned 
Rabbi  Lowe,"  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  centiury 
(1573),    Previous  to  his  coming  to  Prague  he  had  been 


LOWE 


532 


LOWISOHN 


rabbi  over  a  congregation  in  INIoravia  for  some  twenty 
years.  In  1583  he  was  elected  chief  rabbi  of  the  Jews 
in  the  Bohemian  capital.  In  1592  he  became  chief 
rabbi  of  Posen  and  Poland ;  he  returned,  however,  in 
15'.1o  to  Prague,  and  there  died  in  1G09.  He  left  nineteen 
different  works,  of  which  several  are  yet  in  manuscript  in 
the  library  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  England.  Be- 
sides his  great  Talmudical  knowledge,  which  made  him 
(ine  of  the  first  authorities  of  his  time,  he  also  enjoyed 
a  great  reputation  as  mathematician  and  philosopher. 
He  seems  to  have  also  possessed  great  knowledge  of  as- 
tronomy and  astrology,  the  favorite  studies  of  the  age. 
He  was  befriended  by  the  renowned  Tycho  Brahe,  as- 
tronomer at  the  court  of  tlie  emperor  Kiidolph  II;  and 
the  latter  also,  it  is  said,  honored  the  rabbi,  and  at  one 
time  admitted  him  to  a  prolonged  audience ;  indeed,  it 
is  a  well-established  fact  that  his  extended  knowledge 
and  unblemished  character  secured  for  himself  and  the 
Jews  of  his  time  happier  days,  and,  like  a  sunbeam  in 
tlie  midst  of  dark  clouds,  appears  the  short  period  in 
which  he  officiated  as  rabbi  in  the  sad  history  of  the 
Jewish  congregation  of  Prague.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
miscientific  manner  in  which  the  Talmud  was  studied, 
by  hunting  after  imaginary  contradictions  and  difficul- 
ties (Pilpul),  and  he  called  into  existence  new  societies 
lor  a  more  scientific  study  of  the  same.  In  connection 
with  his  son-in-law,  rabbi  Chayim  Wahle,  he  founded  a 
seminary  for  Talmudical  studies.  The  rabbi's  knowl- 
edge of  natural  philosophy  caused  him  frequently  to 
make  experiments,  which  gave  birth  to  many  legends, 
as  the  ignorant  saw  in  them  tlie  supernatural  power  of 
the  Cabahst.  A  Christian  Bohemian  historian  claims 
for  the  rabbi  the  honor  of  inventing  the  camera-obscu- 
ra.  ^ee.Gr».iz,Gesch.d.Juden,ix,A'iQ  s(\.\  Sekles, /Some 
Jewish  Rubhis  (v),  in  the  Jewish  Messenger  (N.  Y.  1871)  ; 
FUrst,  Biblioth.  Judaicu,  ii,  266  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lowe,  Joel,  bex-Jehi'daii  Loeb  (also  called  Bril, 
b"-n3,  from  the  initials  n^b  T\'-i^'^\•^  in"!  '11,  ben-Ji. 
Jehiidiih  Loeb),  a  Jewish  writer  of  note,  born  about 
17-10,  was  a  distinguished  disciple  of  Moses  Jlendels- 
sohn,  and  afterwards,  although  a  Jew,  held  a  profess- 
orship in  the  William's  school  at  Breslau.  He  died 
in  that  city,  February  11, 1802.  Besides  many  valua- 
ble contributions  to  Biblical  exegesis  and  literature  in 
the  Berlin  Magazine  for  the  Advancement  of  Jewish 
Scholarship,  entitled  Meassef  or  Summler  (Collector), 
of  which  he  was  at  one  time  also  editor,  he  published 
(1)  Conimentcwy  on  the  Song  of  Songs,  viiih.  an  elabo- 
rate Introduction,  written  conjointly  with  Wolfssohn,  to 
Mendelssohn's  German  translation  of  this  book  (Ber- 
lin, 1788;  republished  in  Prague,  1803 ;  Lemberg,  1817) : 
— (2)  Annotations  on  Ecclesiastes,  also  conjointly  with 
"Wolfssohn,  published  with  Mendelssohn's  commentary 
on  this  book,  and  Friedliinders'  German  translation  (Ber- 
lin, 1788): — (3)  Commentary  on  Jonah,  with,  a  (jerman 
translation  (Berl.  1788)  : — (4)  Commentary  on  the  Psalms, 
with  an  extensive  introduction  (bxT^'^  nili^T  11N2 
D"),  containing  an  elaborate  treatise  on  the  musical 
instruments  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  as  weU  as  on  He- 
brew Poetry;  publislied  with  Mendelssohn's  German 
translation  of  this  book  (Berlin,  1785-91)  :— (5)  German 
Translation  and  Jfcb.  Commentary  on  the  Sabbatic  and 
Festival  Lessons  J'rom  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Prophets 
[see  IlAi-nTAKAii]  (Berl.  1790-91):— (6)  German  Truns- 
liliaa  of  the  Pentateuch  for  beginners,  preparatorj'  to 
jNIendelssohn's  version  (Breslau.  1818)  :— (7)  Elementary 
Ifebrew  Grammar,  entitled  ')Vwbn  ^II^S",  according  to 
logical  principles,  for  the  use  of  teachers  (Berlin,  1794; 
republished  in  Prague,  1803).  Of  his  articles  published 
in  ([uarterlies,  the  following  are  the  most  important:  1. 
Notes  on  Joshua  and  the  Song  of  Songs,  in  Eichhorn's 
Allgemeine  Bibliothek  (Leips.  1789), ii,  183  sq. : — 2.  Trea- 
tise (Oi  Personification  of  the  Jkity  and  the  Sephiroth.  ibid. 
(Leiiis.  1793),  v,  378  sq.  See  Fiirst,  Biblioth.  I/ibniica, 
ii,  268;  Hteinschne'idtiT,  Cat(d(igus  Libr.  Hebr.  in  Bihli- 
otheca  Bodleiana,  col.  1627  S(i. ;  Kitto,  Cyclopioedia  of 


Biblical  LiteratU)-e,  s.  v. ;   Griitz,  Gesch.  der  Jnden,  xi, 
131  sq. 

Lowell,  Charles,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  Congregation- 
al minister  of  note,  son  of  judge  John  Lowell,  to  whom 
Massachusetts  is  indebted  for  the  clause  in  her  Consti- 
tution which  abolished  slavery,  was  born  in  Boston  Aug. 
15,  1782,  and  was  educated  first  at  Andover  Academy, 
and  later  at  Harvard  College,  class  of  1800.  After  grad- 
uation he  went  abroad,  and  travelled  extensively  in  the 
Old  World.  At  Edinburgh  he  entered  the  divinity 
school  of  the  university,  and  spent  there  three  semes- 
ters. On  his  return  home  he  studied  theology  with 
Rev.  Dr.  Zedekiah  Sanger,  of  South  Bridgewater,  and 
Rev.  David  Tappan,  professor  of  divinitj'  at  Cambridge, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  over  the  West  Church,  in  Bos- 
ton, Jan.  1, 1806.  In  1837  his  feeble  health  demanded 
relief,  and  the  Rev.  Cyrus  A.  Bartol  was  ordained  as 
his  colleague.  Dr.  Lowell  continued  his  pastoral  con- 
nection until  his  death  (at  Cambridge,  January  20, 
1861),  although  he  officiated  but  occasionally.  He  was 
remarkable  for  kindness,  integrity,  directness  and  sim- 
plicity of  character,  and  was  a  most  zealous  and  con- 
sistent opponent  of  slavery.  As  a  preacher  his  popu- 
larity was  eminent,  and  he  was  almost  adored  by  his 
parishioners.  Graceful  as  an  orator,  with  a  voice  of  un- 
common sweetness,  he  preached  with  such  an  ardor  and 
sincerity  that  he  seemed  to  his  hearers  to  be  almost  di- 
vinely inspired.  He  published  some  twenty  different 
discourses,  a  volume  of  Occasional  Sermons  (Bost.  1856, 
12mo),  and  a  volume  of  Practiced  Sermons  (1856) : — 
Meditations  for  the  Afflicted,  Side,  and  Dying;  and  De- 
votional Exercises  for  Communicants.  He  also  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  periodical  literature  of  his  day. 
Among  his  surviving  children  are  Prof.  Lowell,  the  poet ; 
the  Rev.  Robert  Lowell,  author  of  "  The  New  Priest  in 
Conception  Bay,"  a  novel  of  Newfoundland  life ;  and 
Mrs.  Putnam,  the  well-known  writer  on  Hungarian  his- 
tory. See  Christian  Examiner,  1870,  p.  389 ;  Thomas, 
Diet,  of  Biog.  and  Mythol.  s.  v. ;  Drake,  Diet.  Am.  Biog. 
s.  V. ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  Brit,  and  A  m.  A  uthois,  s.  v. 

Lowell,  John,  an  American  philanthropist,  de- 
serves our  notice  as  the  founder  (in  1839)  of  "the  Low- 
ell Institute,"  at  an  expense  of  §250.000,  to  maintain 
forever  in  Boston,  his  native  place,  annual  courses  of 
free  lectures  on  natural  and  revealed  religion,  the  natu- 
ral sciences,  pliilology,  belles-lettres,  and  art.  INIr.  Low- 
ell was  born  iMay  11, 1799,  and  was  entered  student  at 
Harvard  in  1813;  but  was  compelled  already,  in  1815, 
by  poor  health,  to  seek  relief  by  residence  in  tlic  East. 
He  died  at  Bombay  March  4, 1836.  He  was  a  suiierior 
scholar,  and  possessed  one  of  the  best  private  liljraries 
in  America.     See  Kew  A  merican  Cyclop,  s.  v. 

Lovrer  Parts  of  the  Earth  ("/"iX  nTinpi), 
properly  ralhys  (Isa.  xhv,  23);  hence,  by  extension, 
Sheol,  or  the  under-world,  as  the  place  of  departed  spir- 
its (Psa.  Ixiii,  9 ;  Eph.  iv,  9),  and  by  meton.  any  hidden 
place,  as  the  womb  (Psa.  cxxxix,  15).  In  the  original 
of  Ezek.  xxvi,  20;  xxxii,  18,  24,  the  words  are  trans- 
posed, and  used  in  the  second  sense. 

Low^isohii,  Sai-omox,  a  Jewish  writer  of  note,  and 
reall}'  the  first  Jew  who  chronicled  the  liistory  of  his 
people  in  the  German  tongue,  was  born  at  iSioor,  Hun- 
gary, in  1789,  and  was  truly  a  self-made  man.  Amid 
the  greatest  difficulties  he  acquired  an  education,  and 
particularly  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew. 
Possessed  of  great  poetical  talent,  he  wrote  rj:"^B:a 
"I'nVir'',  a  sort  of  .4  rs  Poeticn  (Vienna,  1816).  The  first 
work  in  which  a  Jew  applied  Clio's  pencil  to  the  historj' 
of  the  chosen  people  of  God,  in  a  German  version,  was 
Lowisohn's  Voiiesungen  iiber  die  neuere  Geschichte  der 
.Fuden  (Vienna,  1820.  8vo).  which  starts  with  their  dis- 
persion, and  dwells  at  length  on  the  Talmud  and  its  au- 
thors. Unt'ortunatoly,  however,  the  young  man  so  well 
endowed  to  do  this  work,  so  auspiciously  began,  was 
brought  to  an  early  grave  by  disappointment  in  love. 


LOWMAK 


533 


LOWTH 


He  died  of  broken  heart,  in  his  native  place,  in  1822. 
See  Griitz,  Gesck.  d.  Jiiden,  xi,  453  sq. ;  Oriental.  Lihi-a- 
tuM.  1840,  col.  10 ;  Bdh  El.  185G,  p.  72  sq.     (J.  H.  W.) 

Lowman,  Abraham,  a  Presbyterian  minister, 
was  born  in  Indiana  County,  Pa.,  in  1835;  made  an 
early  profession  of  faith,  and  joined  the  Associate  Re- 
formed Congregation  at  Jacksonville,  Pa. ;  entered  the 
Theological  Seminary  of  the  First  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  (class  of  1857) ;  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery 
of  Westmoreland,  and  in  1858  received  and  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Associate  Reformed  congregation  at  Brook- 
ville,  Pa.,  but  while  preparing  to  enter  upon  the  active 
duties  of  this  charge  he  suddenly  died,  Nov.  27,  1858. 
See  \\'ilson,  Pnsb.  Hist.  A  Im.  1800,  p.  159.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lowman,  Moses,  a  learned  English  dissenting 
divine,  was  born  in  London  in  1G80,  and  was  educated 
at  INIiddle  Temple,  and  subsequently  at  Leyden  and 
Utrecht.  In  1710  he  became  minister  of  a  Presbyte- 
rian congregation  at  Claphara,  Surrey,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death  in  1752.  He  was  eminently  skilled  in 
Jewish  antiquities,  and  is  the  author  of  a  learned  work 
on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Ilebretvs  (London,  1740, 
1745, 1816,  8vo) ;  of  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes  of  Revela- 
tion (1737,1745,  4to;  1791,  1807,  8vo),  of  which  work 
Doddridge  remarked  that  he  had  "received  more  satis- 
faction from  it,  in  regard  to  many  difficulties  in  that 
book,  than  he  ever  found  elsewhere,  or  expected  to 
have  found  at  all:" — Arcjument  from  Prophecy  in  proof 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah  (London,  1733,  8vo),  which  Dr. 
Leland  calls  "a  valuable  book;"  and  Rationale  of  the 
Ritual  of  Hebrew  Worship  (1748, 181G,  8vo).  See  Prof. 
Diss.  Mag.  vol.  i  and  ii ;  Allibone,  Diet,  of  British  and 
American  Authors,  s.  v. 

Lowrie,  John  Marshall,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
divine,  was  born  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  July  16,  1817,  and  | 
was  educated  for  two  years  in  Jefferson  College,  Can- 
onsburg.  Pa.,  and  afterwards  at  Lafaj'ette  College,  Eas- 
ton,  Pa.  (class  of  1840);  and  then  at  the  Theological 
Seminary  at  Princeton,  N.  J.  (class  of  1842).  In  AprO, 
1842,  he  was  licensed  by  Newton  Presbyterj-,  and  soon 
after,  accepting  a  call  to  the  churches  of  Blairstown  and 
Knowlton,  in  Warren  County,  N.  J.,  he  was  ordained 
and  installed  by  Newton  Presbytery  Oct.  18, 1843.  In 
1846  he  accepted  a  call  to  WellsviUe,  Ohio;  subsequent- 
ly he  removed  to  Lancaster,  Ohio,  and  thence  to  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.,  where  he  labored  faithfully  until  his  death, 
Sept.  26,  18G7.  Dr.  Lowrie  contributed  largely  to  the 
press,  and  wrote  many  precious  gems  in  poetry  and 
prose ;  he  was  a  man  of  more  than  ordinarj'  gifts,  a  clear, 
vigorous  intellect,  and  sound  judgment;  he  excelled  in 
systematic  arrangement,  clear  statement,  and  forcible 
argument.  See  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim.  1868,  p.  115 
sq.     (J.  L.  S.) 

Lo^wrie,  Reuben,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  was 
born  in  Butler,  Pa.,  Nov.  24, 1827,  and  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  New  York  City,  where  for  one  year 
he  served  as  tutor;  studied  theology  at  Princeton, N.  J.; 
aftenvards  became  principal  of  a  presbyterial  academy 
in  Luzenie  County,  Pa. ;  was  licensed  by  the  Luzerne 
Presbytery  in  1851,  at  which  time  he  engaged  in  the 
work  of  foreign  missions  among  the  Choctaw  Indians; 
in  1853  he  was  ordained,  and  April  22  sailed  as  mission- 
ary to  Shanghai,  China.  Here  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  Chinese  language,  translated  the  Short- 
er Catechism,  and  a  Catechism  on  the  Old-Testament  His- 
tory, into  this  dialect;  devoted  much  time  to  the  com- 
pletion of  a  Dictionary  of  the  Four  Books,  commenced 
b}'  his  deceased  brother;  he  had  also  nearly  finished  a 
Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  Matthew  in  Chinese  when 
he  died,  April  26,  1860,  Sec  Wilson,  Presb.  Hist.  Aim. 
1861,  p.  96.     (J.L.  S.) 

Lowrie,  Walter  Macon,  a  Presbyterian  mis- 
sionary to  China,  was  born  in  Butler,  Pa.",  in  1819  (V), 
graduated  from  Jefferson  College  in  1837,  passed  a  the- 
ological course  at  Princeton,  was  ordained  by  tlie  Sec- 
ond Presbytery  of  New  York,  and  entered  on  "his  minis- 


terial labors.  While  passing  from  Shanghai  to  Ningpo, 
Aug.  19, 1847,  he  was  thrown  overboard  by  pirates,  and 
drowned  at  sea,  about  twelve  miles  from  Chapoo,  Cliina. 
The  date  of  his  embarkation  from  America  is  not  known, 
but  he  was  in  China  some  time  prior  to  1842.  He  was 
a  young  man  of  fine  powers  and  large  cidture,  and  prom- 
ised much  lor  the  Church  and  the  world.  His  piety  was 
of  a  lofty,  self-denying  stamp,  which  made  him  equal  to 
all  obstacles,  and  his  career  was  opening  grandly  when 
thus  suddenly  called  to  his  reward.  He  wrote  Letters 
to  Sabbath-school  Children: — Lcmd  of  Sinai,  or  Exposi- 
tion of  Isaiah  xlix  (Phila.  1846, 18mo),  A  volume  of  his 
Serinons  preached  in  China  was  also  published  (1851, 
8vo).  See  Fierson,  Missiona7-y  Memorial,  p.  396;  New 
York  Observer,  Jan.  8, 1848  ;  Memoirs  of  W.  M.  Lowrie 
(New  York,  Carter  and  Brothers,  1849) ;  Princeton  Re- 
view, xxii,  280. 

Low  Sunday,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter,  so 
called  because  it  was  customary  to  repeat  on  this  c'.iy 
some  part  of  the  solemnity  which  was  used  on  Easter 
day,  whence  it  took  the  name  of  Low  Sunday,  being  cel- 
ebrated as  a  feast,  but  of  a  lower  degree  than  Easter  day 
itself. — Eden,  Theoloejical  Dictionary. 

Lowth,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
prelate,  ami  son  of  William  Lowtli  (q.  v.),  was  born  at 
Buriton  Nov.  27,  1710.  In  1737  he  graduated  master 
of  arts  at  Oxford  University,  and  in  1741  was  elected 
professor  of  poetry  in  his  alma  mater.  Entering  the 
ecclesiastical  order,  he  was  presented  with  the  rectory 
of  Ovington,  in  Hampshire,  in  1744.  After  a  four  year's 
residence  on  the  Continent,  he  was,  on  his  return  in  1750, 
appointed  by  bishop  Hoadley  archdeacon  of  Winchester, 
and  three  j'ears  after  to  the  rectorj'  of  East  Woodhay  in 
Hampshire.  It  was  in  this  very  year  that  Lowth  pub- 
lished his  valuable  work  De  Sacm  Poesi  HebrcEorinn, 
P ralectiones  Academicm  (Oxon.  1753,  4to  ;  2d  edit,  with 
annot.  by  Michaelis,  Gotting.  1758  ;  Oxf.  1763 ;  Getting. 
1768;  Oxford,  1775,  1810;  with  notes  by  Rosenmtiller, 
Leips.  1815;  and  last  and  best,  Oxford,  1821,  8vo).  An 
English  translation  of  the  first  18  lectures  was  prepared 
by  Dr.  Dodd  for  the  Christian  Magazine  (1766-67),  and 
of  all  by  Dr.  Gregory  (Lond.  1787, 1816, 1835, 1839, 1847) ; 
a  still  more  desirable  English  translation  was  prepared 
by  Prof.  Stowe  (Andover,  1829,  8vo).  "In  these  mas- 
terly and  classical  dissertations,"  says  Ginsburg  (in  Kitto, 
Cycl.  ofBibl.  Lit.  ii,  s.  v.), "  Lowth  not  only  evinces  a  deep 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language,  but  philosophically 
exhibits  the  true  spirit  and  characteristics  of  that  poet- 
ry in  which  the  prophets  of  the  O.  T.  clothed  the  lively 
oracles  of  God.  It  does  not  at  all  detract  from  Lowth's 
merits  that  both  Abrabanel  and  Azariah,  de  Rossi  had 
pointed  out  two  centuries  before  him  the  same  features 
of  Hebrew  poetry  [see  Rossi]  upon  which  he  expatiates, 
inasmuch  as  the  enlarged  views  and  the  invuicible  ar- 
guments displayed  in  his  handling  of  the  subject  are 
peculiarly  his  own;  and  his  work  is  therefore  justly  re- 
garded as  marking  a  new  epoch  in  the  treatment  of  the 
Hebrew  poetry.  The  greatest  testimony  to  the  ex- 
traordinarj^  merits  of  these  lectures  is  the  thorough  an- 
alysis which  the  celebrated  [Jewish]  philosopher  IMen- 
delssohn,  to  whom  the  Hebrew  was  almost  vernacular, 
gives  of  them  in  the  Bibiiothek  der  schunen  Wissenschaf- 
ten  iind  der  freien  Kiinste,  vol.  i,  1756."  In  1751  Lowth 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  in  divinity  from  the  L^ni- 
versity  of  Oxford  by  diploma.  In  1755  he  went  to  Ire- 
land as  chaplain  to  the  marquis  of  Hartington,  then  ap- 
pointed lortl  lieutenant,  who  nominated  him  bishop  of 
Limerick,  a  preferment  which  he  exchanged  for  a  pre- 
bend of  Durham  and  the  rectory  of  Sedgefield.  In 
1766  Dr.  Lowth  was  appointed  bishop  of  St.  Da%'id's, 
whence  a  few  months  later  he  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Oxford,  and  thence,  in  1777,  he  succeeded  Dr. 
Terrick  in  the  diocese  of  London.  In  1778,  only  one 
year  after  his  appointment  at  London,  he  gave  to  the 
public  his  last  and  greatest  work,  Isaiah  :  a  new  Trans- 
lation, with  a  preliminary  Dissertation,  and  Notes  (13th 


LOWTH 


534 


LOYOLA 


edit,  1842, 8vo).  This  elegant  and  beautifid  version  of 
the  evangelical  ])rophet,  of  which  learned  men  in  ever\' 
part  of  Europe  have  been  unanimous  in  their  eidogiums, 
and'  which  is  alone  sufficient  to  transmit  his  name  to 
posterity,  aimed  "  not  only  to  give  an  exact  and  faithful 
representation  of  the  words  and  sense  of  the  prophet  by 
adhering  closely  to  the  letter  of  the  text,  and  treading 
as  nearly  as  may  be  in  his  footsteps,  but,  moreover,  to 
imitate  the  air  and  manner  of  the  author,  to  express  the 
form  and  fashion  of  the  composition,  and  to  give  the 
English  reader  some  notion  of  the  peculiar  tiu-n  and  cast 
of  the  original."  In  the  elaborate  and  valuable  Prelim- 
inary Dissertation  where  bishop  Lowtli  states  this,  he 
enters  more  minutely  than  in  his  former  production  into 
the  form  and  construction  of  the  poetical  compositions 
of  the  O.  T.,  lavs  down  principles  of  criticism  for  the 
improvement  of  all  subsequent  translations,  and  frankly 
alludes  to  De  Rossi's  view  of  Hebrew  poetry,  which  is 
similar  to  his  own.  See  Rossi.  This  masterly  work 
soon  obtained  a  European  fame,  and  was  not  only  rap- 
idly reprinted  in  England,  but  was  translated  into  Ger- 
man by  professor  Koppe,  who  added  some  valuable  notes 
to  it  (Gtitting.  1779-81, 4  vols.  8vo).  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  presumed  that  the  work  did  not  meet  also  with 
opposition,  so  far  as  the  views  of  the  author  coidd  lead 
to  diflerence  in  opinion ;  and  we  incline  with  Dr.  G.  B. 
Cheever  to  the  belief  that  Lowth's  "  only  fault  as  a  sa- 
cred critic  was  a  degree  of  what  archbishop  Seeker  de- 
nominated the  •  rabies  emendandi,'  or  rage  for  textual 
and  conjectural  emendations.  The  prevalence  of  this 
spirit  in  his  -(vork  on  Isaiah  was  the  only  obstacle  that 
prevented  its  attaining  the  name  and  rank,  as  classic 
in  sacred  literature,  which  has  been  accorded  to  the 
Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews"  (North 
A  mer.  Rev.  xxxi,  376 ;  comp.  here  Home,  Bibl.  Bib.  1839, 
287).  On  the  death  of  archbishop  Cornwallis,  the  pri- 
macy was  offered  to  Dr.  Lowth,  a  dignity  which  he  de- 
clined on  account  of  his  advanced  age  and  family  afflic- 
tions. In  1768  he  lost  his  eldest  daughter,  and  in  1783 
his  second  daughter  suddenly  expired  whOe  presiding 
at  the  tea-table;  his  eldest  son  was  also  suddenly  cut 
off  in  the  prime  of  life.  Bishop  Lowth  himself  died 
Nov.  3,  1787.  The  other  and  minor  writings  of  bishop 
Lowth,  consisting  of  (1)  Tracts,  belonging  to  his  contro- 
versy with  bishop  Warburton  (q.  v.),  to  which  a  trifling 
difference  of  opinion  on  the  book  of  Job  gave  rise: — (2) 
Life  of  William  of  Wi/ckluun  (1758)  : — (3)  Short  Litro- 
duction  to  English  Grammar  (1762).  The  Set-mons  and 
other  Remains  of  Bishop  Lowth  were  published  with  an 
Introducto7-y  Memoir  by  the  Rev.  Peter  HaH,  A.Til.  (Lon- 
don, 1834,  8vo).  See  Alemoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings 
of  the  late  Bp.  Lowth  (Lond.  and  Getting.  1787,  8vo) ; 
Blachcood's  Magazine,  xxix,  765,  902 ;  Gentl.  Magazine, 
Ivii,  Iviii,  etc. ;  Kitto,  Journal  of  Sac.  Lit.  i,  94,  295 ;  v, 
373 ;  xvii,  138  ;  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Darling,  Eccles.  Biog. 
ii,  1873;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  s.  v.;  and  especially  Alli- 
bonc,  iJict.  of  Brit,  and  A  m.  A  uth.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lowth,  Simon,  D.D.,  an  English  non-juring  di- 
vine, was  born  in  Northamptonshire  about  1630.  In 
1679  we  find  him  vicar  of  St.  Cosmus,  a  position  of 
which  he  was  deprived  in  1688.  He  died  in  1720.  Dr. 
Simon  Lowth  published  HiMorical  Collections  concerning 
Ch.  Affairs  (Lond.  1(;96,  4to),  besides  several  theological 
treatises  (1072-1704).  See  AlYihonc,  Diet,  of  By-it.  and 
Amer.  A  uthojs,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Lowth,  "William,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  English 
divine,  father  of  hishop  Robert  Lowth,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don Scjit.  11,  1661.  lie  was  educated  at  Merchant  Tay- 
lors' Scliool,  whence  he  was  elected  to  a  scholarship  at 
St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1075,  when  not  j'et  14 
years  old;  became  M.A.  in  1683,  and  B.I).  ii\  1688.  His 
Vindication  of  the  J>ivine  Authority  of  the  Old  and  New 
Test.  (Lond.  1692 ;  3d  edit,  wuth  two  sermons,  1821 ,  12mo), 
in  answer  to  Lc  Clerc's  attacks  on  the  inspiration  of 
Scripture,  brought  him  jiromincntly  into  notice ;  and  the 
first  to  favor  him  was  bishop  Mew,  of  Winchester,  who 


had  been  president  of  St.  John's  College,  and  well  knew 
Lowth's  great  attainments.  He  made  him  his  chap- 
lain, and  presented  him  with  a  prebendal  stall  in  his 
cathedral  at  Winchester  in  1696,  and  with  the  living  of 
Buriton  and  Petersfield  in  1699.  Dr.  Lowth  died  May  17, 
1732.  Though  less  celebrated  as  a  writer  than  his  son 
Robert,  he  is  generally  acknowledged  to  have  been  the 
profounder  scholar,  and  might,  and  no  doubt  would,  have 
attained  to  as  great  distinction  in  the  Church  as  his  son 
had  he  lived  as  much  in  the  public  eye,  and,  instead  of 
serving  others  in  the  preparation  of  their  works,  gone 
directly  before  the  people  himself.  So  great,  indeed, 
was  his  modesty,  that,  in  an  estimate  of  his  scholar- 
ship, we  can  be  just  only  after  a  careful  inquiry  of  the 
amount  and  extent  of  the  assistance  he  furnished  to 
the  works  of  his  contemporaries,  upon  whom  Dr.  Lowth, 
having  carefully  read  and  annotated  almost  every  Greek 
and  Latin  author,  whether  profane  or  ecclesiastical,  es- 
pecially the  latter,  dispensed  his  stores  -with  a  most 
liberal  hand.  The  edition  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  by 
Dr.  (afterwards  archbishop)  Potter;  that  of  Josephus, 
by  Hudson;  the  Ecclesiastical  Historians,  by  Reading 
(Cambridge) ;  the  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  were  all  enriched 
with  ^-aluable  notes  from  his  pen.  Bishop  Chandler, 
of  Durham,  during  the  preparation  of  his  L)efence  of 
Christianity  from  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
against  the  discourse  of  the  ''  Grounds  and  Reasons  of 
the  Christian  Religion,"  and  in  his  vindication  of  the 
"Defence"  in  answer  to  The  Scheme  of  literal  Prophecy 
considered,  held  a  constant  correspondence  with  him, 
and  consulted  him  upon  many  difficulties  that  occur- 
red in  the  course  of  that  work.  Many  other  English 
scholars  were  also  indebted  to  Dr.  William  Lowth's  la- 
bors for  important  aid.  But  the  most  valuable  part  of 
his  character  was  that  whicli  least  appeared  in  the 
eyes  of  the  world.  His  piety,  diligence,  hospitality, 
and  beneficence  rendered  his  life  highlj^  exemplary, 
and  greatly  enforced  his  public  exhortations.  Besides 
the  Vindication  already  mentioned  above.  Dr.  Lowth 
wrote  Directions  for  the  profitable  Reading  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  etc.  (1708, 12mo ;  7th  edit.  Lond.  1799,12mo), 
an  excellent  little  work,  -which  has  gone  through  many 
editions;  and  last,  but  chiefl3%^4  Cominentary  on  the  pro- 
phetical Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  originally  published 
in  separate  portions  (1714-1725),  and  afterwards  collect- 
ed in  a  folio  volume  as  a  continuation  of  bishop  Patrick's 
commentaPi-,  and  generally  accompanying  the  comment- 
ary collected  severally  from  Patrick,  Wliitljy.  Arnald, 
and  Lowman  (best  editions  of  the  whole  commentary, 
Lond.  1822,  6  vols,  royal  4to ;  Philad.  1860,  4  vols.  imp. 
8vo).  "  Lowth,"  says  Orme  (Bibl.  Bib.),  '■  is  one  of  the 
most  judicious  commentators  on  the  prophets.  He  nev- 
er prophesies  himself,  adheres  strictly  to  the  meaning 
of  the  inspired  writer,  and  is  yet  generally  evangelical 
in  his  inteqiretations.  Tliere  is  not  much  appearance 
of  criticism  ;  but  the  original  text  and  other  critical  aids 
were  doubtless  closely  studied  by  the  respectable  author. 
It  is  often  quoted  by  Scott,  and  ....  is  pronounced  by 
bishop  Coutson  the  best  commentary  in  the  English 
language."  See  Life  of  Dr. William  Lowth,  by  his  son, 
Biog.  Brit. ;  Churchman's  Magazine,  1809  (]\Iarch  and 
April),  781  sq. ;  Jones,  Ch7-istian  Biog.  s.  v.;  Darling, 
Cyclop.  Bibl.  ii,  1875 ;  Hook,  Eccles.  Biog.  vii,  75 ;  AUi- 
bone.  Diet.  nfBrit.  and  A  mer.  A  uthors,  vol.  ii,  s.  v. ;  Kit- 
to,  Cyclop,  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  ii,  s.  v. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  of,  St.,  or,  with  his  full  Spanish 
name,  Don  Inigo  Lopez  de  Recalde,  the  founder  of  the 
Jesuits,  was  born  in  1491,  in  the  Castle  of  Loyola,  which 
was  situateil  not  far  from  Azpeytia,  in  the  Spanish  prov- 
ince of  (Juipuscoa.  lie  was  the  youngest  of  the  eleven 
children  of  Don  Bertand,  Sefior  d'Aguez  y  de  Loyola, 
and  Martina  Saez  de  Balde.  His  family  prided  itself 
on  belonging  to  the  ancient,  pure  nobility  of  the  coun- 
try, and  was  distinguished  for  chivalric  sentiment.  Af- 
ter receiving  his  first  instruction  in  religion  from  his 
aunt,  Dona  IMaria  de  Guevara,  a  fervid  Catholic,  he  be- 
came a  page  at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic. 


LOYOLA 


535 


LOYOLA 


But  Ignatius  had  too  great  a  desire  for  glory  to  be  sat- 
isfied with  court  hfe,  and,  foHowing  the  example  of  his 
brotliers,  who  served  in  the  army,  he  resolved  to  become 
a  soldier.  During  tlie  first  campaign  in  which  he  took 
part  he  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Najara,  a 
small  town  situated  on  the  frontier  of  Biscaya,  the  cap- 
ture of  which  was  partly  attributed  to  his  braverj\  The 
town  was  given  up  to  pillage,  in  which  he  took,  howev- 
er, no  part.  His  life  at  this  time,  as  one  of  his  biogra- 
phers says,  was  by  no  means  rcgidar ;  "  being  more  oc- 
cupied with  gallantry  and  vanity  than  anything  else,  he 
generally  followed  in  his  actions  the  false  principles  of 
tlie  world,  and  in  this  way  he  continued  to  live  until  his 
twenty-ninth  year,  when  God  opened  his  eyes."  During 
tlie  siege  of  Pampeluna,  the  capital  of  Novara,  by  the 
French,  he  was,  on  May  20, 1521,  severely  wounded  by  a 
cannon  ball  in  both  legs.  The  French,  after  taking  the 
place,  honored  his  courage,  and  had  liim  transported  on 
a  litter  to  his  native  castle  of  Loyola,  which  is  not  far 
from  Fampeluna.  As  the  first  operation  had  not  been 
successful,  the  leg  had  to  be  broken  again  and  to  be  re- 
set anew.  The  extreme  painfulness  of  this  operation 
brought  on  a  fever  on  the  eve  of  the  festival  of  the  apos- 
tles Feter  and  Faul,  which  it  was  thought  would  prove 
fatal ;  but  this  fever  suddenly  ceased,  and  Ignatius  as- 
cribed his  unexpected  recovery  to  the  miraculous  aid  of 
the  prince  of  the  apostles,  who,  as  he  states,  appeared  to 
him  in  a  dream,  touched  him  with  his  hand,  and  cured 
liim  from  his  fever.  But,  notwithstanding  this  belief  in 
his  miraculous  recovery,  Ignatius  remained  imbued  with 
a  worldly  spirit.  The  recovery  proved,  however,  not 
to  be  complete,  and  Ignatius,  in  order  to  get  fully  re- 
stored, had  to  submit  to  several  other  painful  opera- 
tions, in  spite  of  all  of  which  his  right  leg  remained  con- 
sideral)ly  shorter  than  the  other.  While  his  recovery 
was  slowly  proceeding,  he  demanded  novels  for  pastime ; 
but  as  no  books  of  this  class  were  to  be  found  in  the  cas- 
tle, he  received  in  their  stead  a  Life  of  Jesus  Christ  and 
of  the  Saints.  He  read  this  at  first  without  the  least 
interest  in  the  subject,  and  only  because  no  other  book 
could  be  found;  but  gradually  his  fiery  imagination 
learned  how  to  derive  food  from  this  reading,  and  a  de- 
termination sprang  up  to  imitate  the  spiritual  combats 
which  he  found  described  in  this  book,  and  to  excel  the 
saints  in  heroic  deeds.  For  a  time  the  reviving  thirst 
of  glory,  and  a  strong  attachment  to  a  lady  of  the  royal 
court,  continued  to  prove  formidable  obstacles, but  finally 
he  fidly  overcame  them,  and  began  the  new  career  upon 
which  he  had  resolved  to  enter  with  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
convent  of  Montserrat,  famous  for  the  immense  con- 
course of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  a  mirac- 
ulous picture  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  To  conceal  his  de- 
sign, he  pretended  to  make  a  visit  to  his  old  friend  the 
duke  of  Najara,  and  immediately  after  making  the  visit 
dismissed  his  two  servants,  and  took  alone  the  road  to 
Montserrat,  There,  during  three  successive  days,  he 
made  a  general  confession  of  all  the  sins  of  his  life,  and 
took  the  vow  of  chastity.  Bef(ire  the  picture  of  the 
Virgin  jNIary  he  held  a  vigil,  hung  up  his  sword  and 
dagger  ou  the  altar,  and  then  repaired  to  INIanresa,  a 
small  town  situated  about  three  leagues  from  Jlontserrat, 
and  containing  a  convent  of  the  Dominican  order  and  a 
hospital  chiefly  for  pilgrims.  Here  he  desired  to  live 
unknown  until  the  pestilence  should  cease  at  Barcelona, 
and  the  opening  of  the  port  should  allow  him  to  carry 
out  his  wish  of  visiting  the  Holy  Lan<l.  He  first  en- 
tered the  hospital,  and  there  practiced  the  austerest  as- 
ceticism, imtil  it  became  known  that  he  was  a  nobleman, 
when  the  number  of  persons  who  came  to  see  him  from 
curiosity  induced  him  to  hide  himself  in  a  neighboring 
cave  which  was  known  to  few,  and  which  no  one  had 
yet  dared  to  enter.  The  horrors  of  this  place,  and  the 
cruel,  unnatural  asceticism  to  wliich  he  gave  himself  up, 
produced  a  state  of  mind  in  which  he  believed  himself 
alternately  to  be  attended  by  temptations  of  the  devil 
and  to  be  gladdened  by  visions  of  the  Saviour  and  the 
holy  Virgin.     Gradually  he  began  to  be  settled  in  his 


mind,  and  resolved  to  labor  for  the  conversion  and 
sanctification  of  souls.  He  began  to  speak  in  public  on 
religion,  and  made  the  first  draft  of  his  famous  book  of 
the  Spiritual  Exercises  (Exerciiia  Sjnritualia) ,  in  the 
composition  of  which  he  claims  to  have  had  divine  aid. 
This  book  has  contributed  more  than  any  other  to  the 
erection  of  the  new  papal  theocracy  which  has  recently 
been  completed  by  the  promulgation  of  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility.  It  consists  of  meditations,  which  are 
grouped  in  four  divisions  or  weeks.  The  first  week,  af- 
ter an  introductory  meditation  on  the  destiny  of  man 
and  of  all  created  things,  occupies  itself  with  sin,  its 
hideousness,  and  its  terrible  consequences.  The  second 
week  has  for  its  basis  the  meditation  on  the  kingdom  of 
Christ,  who  is  represented  as  being  in  the  highest  sense 
of  the  word  the  king  by  the  grace  of  God,  whose  call  to 
the  spiritual  campaign  all  men  have  to  obey,  and  in 
whose  service  every  noble  heart  will  feel  itself  inspired 
to  noble  deeds.  In  a  life-picture  of  Christ  it  is  shown 
how  man  must  prove  himself  in  the  war  for  and  with 
Christ.  The  meditation  then  turns  to  the  mysteries 
of  incarnation,  to  the  childhood  of  Jesus,  and  his  retired 
life  in  Nazareth.  Here  the  contemplation  of  the  life  of 
Christ  is  interrupted  by  the  meditation  on  the  two  ban- 
ners :  the  horrid  banner  of  the  prince  of  darkness  is  un- 
folded by  the  side  of  the  lovely  banner  of  Christ  before 
the  eyes  of  the  soul,  which  is  eagerly  courted  on  both 
sides.  Returning  to  the  public  life  of  Christ,  which  is 
now  followed  step  by  step,  the  Exercises  prepare  the 
mind  for  fuially  determining  the  future  course  of  life. 
During  the  third  week  the  sufferings  and  the  death  of 
the  Lord  are  meditated  upon,  in  order  to  strengthen  the 
soul  for  all  the  combats  which  a  resolution  to  lead  a  re- 
ligious life  must  entail.  The  subjects  of  the  fourth  week 
are  taken  from  the  mysteries  of  the  resurrection  and  as- 
cension of  Christ.  Tlie  whole  is  concluded  with  a  med- 
itation on  the  love  of  God.  The  book  was  for  the  first 
time  printed  in  Kome  in  1548,  and  on  July  31  of  the  same 
year  approved  by  pope  Paul  III,  and  urgently  recom- 
mended to  the  faithfid.  In  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits 
this  book  subsequently  became  one  of  the  chief  instru- 
ments which  secured  the  thoroughly  military  discipline 
of  their  order,  as  well  as  of  their  devoted  adherents. 

After  passing  ten  months  in  JManresa,  Ignatius,  in  Jan- 
uary, 1523,  embarked  at  Barcelona  for  the  Holy  Land. 
He  spent  a  few  days  in  Eome,  then  went  to  Venice, 
where  he  embarked  for  Jerusalem  on  July  14,  and 
arrived  there  on  September  4.  It  was  his  wish  to  re- 
main here,  in  order  to  labor  for  the  conversion  of  the 
people  of  the  East;  but  the  provincial  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan monks,  who  had  been  authorized  by  the  popes 
either  to  retain  the  pilgrims  or  to  send  them  home  again, 
did  not  allow  him  to  stay.  Accordingly,  he  had  to  re- 
turn to  Europe,  and  arrived  in  Venice  in  January,  1524. 
In  March  he  was  again  on  Spanish  soil,  and  having  be- 
come convinced  during  his  voyage  of  the  importance  of 
a  literary  education  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  plans, 
he  entered,  although  33  years  old,  a  grammar-school  at 
Barcelona,  where  he  studied,  in  particular,  the  elements 
of  Latin.  Two  years  later  he  went,  with  three  disciples 
whom  he  had  gained  at  Barcelona,  to  the  University  of 
Alcala,  which  a  short  time  before  had  been  founded  by 
cardinal  Ximcncs.  Here  he  was,  with  his  companions, 
imprisoned  for  six  weeks,  by  order  of  the  Inquisition,  for 
giving  religious  instruction  without  special  authoriza- 
tion. After  being  released,  he  went,  at  the  advice  of  the 
archbishop  of  Toledo,  to  the  University  of  Salamanca  to 
continue  his  studies.  But,  when  there,  he  had  new  diffi- 
culties with  the  Inquisition  ;  he  resolved  to  leave  Spain, 
and,  not  accomjianied  by  any  of  his  disciples,  went  to  the 
Universit}'  of  Paris,  where  he  studied  from  February, 
1528,  to  the  end  of  I\ Larch,  1535,  and  on  March  14, 1533, 
obtained  the  title  of  master  of  arts.  Here  his  plan  was 
fully  matured  to  establish  a  society  of  men  wlio  might 
aid  him  in  carrj-ing  out  his  religious  ideas.  The  first 
who  was  gained  for  the  plan  was  Pierre  Lefevre  (Petrus 
Faber),  who  for  some  time  had  been  his  tutor  in  his  phil- 


LOYOLA 


536 


LUBIENIETSKI 


osophical  stucUes.  The  second  was  Francis  Xavier,  a  1 
young  nobleman  of  Novara.  Soon  after  they  were  joined 
bv  tlie  Sijaniards  Jacob  Laincz.  Alphonse  Salmeron.  and 
Nicholas  Alphonse  Bobadilla,  and  the  Portuguese  Simon 
Itodriguez  d'Azcndo.  For  the  tirst  time  they  were  called 
together  by  Ignatius  in  July,  1534.  On  August  15,  on 
the  festival  of  the  assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  he 
took  them  to  the  church  of  the  Abbey  of  Montmartre, 
near  Paris,  where,  having  received  the  communion  from 
the  hands  of  Lefcvre,  the  only  priest  in  their  midst,  they 
all,  with  a  loud  voice,  took  the  solemn  vow  to  make  a 
voyage  to  Jerusalem,  in  order  to  labor  for  the  conversion 
of  the  infidels  of  the  Holy  Land ;  to  quit  all  they  had  in 
the  world  besides  what  they  indispensably  needed,  for 
the  voyage ;  and  in  case  they  should  find  it  impossible 
either  to  reach  Palestine  or  remain  there,  to  throw  them- 
selves at  the  feet  of  the  pope,  offer  him  their  services, 
and  go  wherever  he  might  send  them.  As  several  mem- 
bers of  the  company  had  not  yet  finished  their  theolog- 
ical studies,  it  was  agreed  that  they  should  remain  at 
the  university  until  January  "25, 1537.  Ignatius  in  the 
meanwhile  undertook  to  labor  against  the  further  prog- 
ress of  the  Reformation  in  France ;  his  ascetic  practices 
soon  undermined  again  his  health,  and,  at  the  advice  of 
his  physician,  he  had  to  return  to  his  native  land,  where 
he  soon  recovered.  On  Jan.  6, 1537,  he  was  met  at  Ven- 
ice by  all  his  companions,  who,  after  his  departure  from 
Paris,  had  been  joined  by  Claude  le  Jay,  Jean  Codure, 
and  Pasquier  Brouet.  Two  months  later  aU  the  mem- 
bers of  the  society  were  sent  by  Ignatius  to  Rome,  he 
himself  remaining  at  Venice,  as  he  believed  the  influen- 
tial cardinal  Caraflfa  (subsequently  pope  Paul  IV)  to  be 
unfriendly  to  him.  The  pope,  Paid  III,  received  the 
companions  of  Ignatius  favorably,  and  gave  them  per- 
mission to  be  ordained  priests  by  any  bishop  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  As  the  war  between  Venice  and  the 
sultan  made  it  impossible  for  Ignatius  to  go  with  his 
companions  to  Palestine,  Ignatius,  who  had  again  united 
all  the  members  of  the  society  at  Vicenza,  resolved  to 
go  with  Lefevre  and  Lainez  to  Rome,  in  order  to  place 
the  services  of  his  society  at  the  disposal  of  the  pope. 
Before  separating,  Ignatius  instructed  all  his  compan- 
ions, in  case  they  were  asked  who  they  were,  and  to 
what  society  they  belonged,  to  reply  that  they  belonged 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  as  they  had  united  for  a  com- 
,  bat  against  heresy  and  vice  under  the  banner  of  Jesus 
Christ.  On  his  journey  to  Rome,  Ignatius  claimed  to 
have  had  another  vision  in  the  lonely,  decayed  sanctu- 
arj'  of  Storia,  about  six  miles  from  Rome,  and  to  have  re- 
ceived a  direct  promise  of  divine  aid  and  protection.  At 
Rome  Ignatius  succeeded  in  gaining  the  entire  confi- 
dence of  the  pope.  A  charge  of  heresy  and  sorcery-, 
which  a  personal  enemy  brought  against  him,  was  easilj' 
refuted,  but  it  was  found  more  dithcult  to  overcome  the 
opposition  to  his  projected  order  from  three  cardinals,  by 
whose  advice  the  pope  was  chiefiy  guided.  But,  un- 
daunted by  this  great  obstacle,  as  Helyot  {Higtoire  des 
Ordres  Monastique,  ed.  Migne,  ii,  G43)  says,  "  he  contin- 
ued his  urgent  representations  with  the  pope,  and  re- 
doubled his  prayers  to  God  with  all  the  greater  confi- 
dence, as,  not  doubting  the  success  of  his  enterprise,  he 
promised  to  God  three  thousand  masses  in  recognition, 
and  thaidisgiving  for  the  favor  which  he  hoped  to  ob- 
tain from  his  divine  Majesty."  The  steady  progress  of 
the  Reformation  overcame,  however,  at  last  the  reluc- 
tance of  the  cardinals,  and,  by  the  bull  of  Sept.  27,  1540, 
Regimiid  militantis  ecclesue,  the  pope  gave  to  the  new 
order  tlic  jiapal  sanction  and  the  name  Society  of  Jesus. 
At  the  election  of  a  general  of  the  new  order  Ignatius 
received  a  unanimous  vote.  He  at  first  declined  to  ac- 
cept; but  when,  at  a  second  election,  he  was  again  found 
to  be  the  luianimous  choice  of  his  brethren,  aud  when 
his  confessor,  the  Franciscan  monk  father  Theodore, 
urged  him  not  to  resist  the  callof  Ciod,  he  was  prevailed 
upon  to  accept.  He  soon  drew  up  the  constitution  of 
his  order,  which,  however,  did  not  receive  the  final  sanc- 
tion until  after  his  death.    In  Nov.  1554,  in  consequence 


of  his  failing  health,  he  appointed  father  Nadal  his  as- 
sistant. During  the  following  spring  he  believed  him- 
self to  have  sulticiently  recovered  to  do  without  this 
support,  but  during  the  summer  of  155G  his  health  broke 
entirely  down,  and  he  died  on  July  31, 1556.  The  only 
three  wishes  which  he  professed  to  have,  the  approba- 
tion of  his  order  by  the  Church,  the  sanction  of  his  book 
of  spiritual  exercises  by  the  pope,  and  the  promidgatiou 
of  the  constitution  of  his  order,  were  fultilled.  During 
the  sixteen  years  from  the  foundation  of  the  order  until 
the  death  of  Ignatius,  the  order  spread  with  a  rapidity 
rarely  equalled  in  the  history  of  monastic  orders.  See 
Jesuits.  In  1609  Ignatius  was  beatified  by  pope  Paul 
V;  in  1G22  he  was  canonized  by  Gregorj'  XV.  The 
Acta  Sanctorum  for  July  31  gives, besides  the  Comment 
tarius  j)rosvius,  two  biographies  of  Ignatius  —  one  by 
Gonzales,  based  on  communications  received  from  Igna- 
tius liimself.  and  another  by  Ribadcneira.  Larger  works 
on  the  life  of  Ignatius  have  been  written  by  Ribadcnei- 
ra, Maifei,  and  Orlandini.  There  is  hardly  a  language 
spoken  which  has  not  furnished  us  a  biography  of  Igna- 
tius; in  English  we  have  his  life  by  Isaac  Taylor  and 
by  Walpole.  See  also  Herzog,  Real- Enci/Jdop.xi,  524; 
Ranke,  Rom.-Pdpste,  iii,  383 ;  Reti'osjieclive  Rev.  (1824), 
vol.  ix ;  and  the  literature  in  the  art.  Jesuits.    (A.  J.  S.) 

Lo'zon  {XwL,Mv,\u\g.  Dedon),  one  of  the  sons  of 
"  Solomon's  servants"  who  returned  with  Zorobabel  (1 
Esd.  V,  33) ;  the  Dakkon  {^\.  v.)  of  the  Heb.  lists  (Ezra 
ii,  56;  Neh.vii,  58). 

Ijubbert(us),  LiBnAND(us),  a  Reformed  clergy- 
man and  professor  of  divinity  at  Franecker,  was  born  at 
Longoworde,  Friesland,  in  1556,  and  was  educated  at 
"Wittenberg  University,  where  he  gained  great  perfec- 
tion in  Hebrew.  Afterwards  he  diligently  attended  the 
lectures  at  Geneva,  and  still  later  Ment  to  Neustadt,  to 
hear  the  Calvinistical  professors.  Lubbert  then  entered 
the  ministry,  and  accepted  a  call  to  the  Reformed  Church 
of  Brussels;  later  he  removed  to  Embdcn.  In  1584  he 
went  to  Friesland  as  preacher  to  the  governor  and  depu- 
ties of  the  provincial  states,  and  also  read  lectures  on  di- 
vinity at  Franecker  LTniversity,  then  just  opened.  He 
received  the  title  of  D.D.  from  Heidelberg  L'niversity. 
In  the  controversies  concerning  the  Scriptures,  the  pope, 
the  Church,  and  councils,  he  A\Tote  against  the  cele- 
brated divines  BeUarmine,  Gretserus,  Socinus,  Arminius, 
Peter  Berlins,  Vorstius,  and  Grotius's  Pietas  Ordinum 
HoUandi(v.  He  preached  zealously,  pointedly,  and  elo- 
quently against  all  the  evils  of  his  times,  both  in  the 
Church  and  out  of  it.  He  observed  the  statutes  severe- 
ly, and  sometimes  refused  rectorships  because  of  the  de- 
bauchery of  unreformable  scholars.  He  died  at  Fran- 
ecker January  21, 1625. 

Lubec,  Reformation  in.  See  Hanse  Towns  (in 
Siipphmeni). 

Lubienietski  (Latinized  LuBIE^^ECIUs),  Stanis- 
las, of  a  family  greatly  distinguished  in  the  Polish  So- 
cinian  controversy,  being  the  most  promment  of  five 
who  have  become  particularly  identified  with  the  So- 
cinian  movement  in  Poland,  was  bom  at  Cracow  August 
23,  1623.  He  was  minister  of  a  Church  at  Lublin  xmtil 
driven  out  by  the  arm  of  power  for  his  opinions  in  1657, 
when  all  anti-Trinitarians  were  expelled  from  Poland. 
He  went  first  to  Sweden,  and  sought  the  influence  of 
the  Swedish  monarch  for  the  LTnitarians,  but  was  sig- 
nally disappointed  at  the  conclusion  of  peace  between 
Sweden  and  I'oland  at  Oliva.  Lubienietski  found  more 
favor  at  the  court  of  the  Danes;  he  was  obliged,  how- 
ever, to  quit  the  capital  because  of  his  able  advocacy 
of  heretical  o])inions.  and  the  danger  to  Lutheranism, 
and  he  finally  settled  at  Hamburg,  where  he  died  May 
18,  1675.  His  death  is  stated  to  have  been  caused  by 
poison — a  fact  borne  outbj-  the  death  of  his  two  daugh- 
ters, and  the  serious  illness  of  his  wife,  after  eating  of 
the  same  dish  ;  but  the  Hamburg  magistracy  neglected 
to  institute  the  investigation  usual  in  cases  of  sudden 
death.     His  theological  works  are  numerous,  and  may 


LUBIM 


537 


LUCA 


be  found  in  S&ndhis,  BiM.  A  niitriii.  (Freist.  1684),  with 
the  exception  of  the  Ilistoi-ia  Refoi-mationis  Polonicce. 
published  in  1685  at  Freistadt,  with  a  life  pretixed.  Of 
his  secular  works,  his  Theatrwn  Comeiictim  has  a  world- 
•vvide  celebrity.  See  Engl.  Cyclop,  s.  v. ;  Krasinski,  Hist.. 
Ref.  ill  Poland,  ii,  chap,  xiv ;  Fock,  Der  Socinianismus 
(Kiel,  1817). 

Lu'bim  (Yich.LuUm',  Ci^P,  from  the  Arab.,  sig- 
nifying inhabitants  of  a  tMrsty  land,  Nah.  iii,  9 ;  "  Lu- 
bims,"  2  Chron.  xii,  3;  xvi,  8;  also  LuhUm',  CSS, 
"Libyans,"  Dan.  xi, 43;  Sept.  everj-where  Ai'/Si'fc).  tlie 
Libyans,  always  joined  with  the  Egyptians  and  Ethio- 
pians ;  being  "  mentioned  as  contributing,  together  with 
Cushitcs  and  Sukkiira,  to  Shishak's  army  (2  Chron.  xii, 
3) ;  and  apparently  as  forming  with  Cushites  the  bidk 
of  Zerah's  army  (xvi,  8);  spoken  of  by  Nah  um  (iii,  9) 
with  Put  or  Phut,  as  helping  No-Amon  (Thebes),  of 
which  Cush  and  Egypt  were  the  strength  ;  and  by  Dan- 
iel (xi,  43)  as  paying  court  Avith  the  Cushites  to  a  con- 
queror of  Egypt  or  the  Egyptians.  These  particulars 
indicate  an  African  nation  under  tribute  to  Egypt,  if  not 
under  Egyptian  rule,  contributing,  in  the  10th  centurj' 
B.C.,  valuable  aid  in  mercenaries  or  auxiliaries  to  the 
Egyptian  armies,  and  down  to  Nahum's  time,  and  a  pe- 
riod prophesied  of  by  Daniel,  probably  the  reign  of  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes  [see  Antiociius  IY  J,  assisting,  either 
politically  or  commercially,  to  sustain  the  Egyptian 
power,  or,  in  the  last  case,  dependent  on  it.  Tliese  in- 
dications do  not  fix  the  geograpliical  position  of  the  Lu- 
bim,  but  they  favor  the  supposition  that  their  territory 
was  near  Egypt,  either  to  the  ivest  or  south.  For  more 
precise  information  we  look  to  the  Egyptian  monuments, 
upon  Avhich  we  find  representations  of  a  people  called 
ReBU  or  Lcbu  (R  and  L  having  no  distinction  in  hicro- 
glypliics),  who  cannot  be  doubted  to  correspond  to  the 
Lubim.  These  Rebu  were  a  warlike  people,  with  whom 
Menptah  (the  son  and  successor  of  Rameses  II)  and 
Ramcscs  III,  who  both  ruled  in  the  13th  century  B.C., 
waged  successful  wars.  The  latter  king  routed  them 
with  much  slaughter.  The  sculptures  of  the  great  tem- 
ple he  raised  at  Thebes,  now  called  that  of  Jledinet 
Abii,  give  us  representations  of  the  Rebu,  showing  that 
they  were  fair,  and  of  what  is  called  a  Shemitic  type, 
like  the  Berbers  and  Kabyles.  They  are  distingiushed 
as  northern,  that  is,  as  parallel  to,  or  north  of,  Lower 
Egypt.  Of  their  being  African  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt,  and  we  may  assign  them  to  the  coast  of  the 
INIediterranean,  commencing  not  far  to  the  westward  of 
Egypt.  We  do  not  find  them  to  have  been  mercenaries 
of  Egypt  from  the  monuments,  but  we  know  that  the 
kindred  Mashawasha-u  were  so  employed  by  the  Bu- 
bastite  family,  to  which  Shishak  and  probably  Zerah 
also  belonged ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  latter  are 
intended  by  the  Lubim,  used  in  a  more  generic  sense 
than  Rebu,  in  the  Biblical  mention  of  the  armies  of 
these  kings  (Brugsch,  Geofjr.  Inschr.  ii,  79  sq.).  We 
have  already  shown  that  the  Lubim  are  probably  the 
Mizralte  Leiiabim  :  if  so,  their  so-called  Shemitic  phys- 
ical cliaracteristics,  as  represented  on  the  Eg_A-ptian  mon- 
uments,-afford  evidence  of  great  importance  for  the  in- 
quirer into  pri